Microwave Devices and Circuits

Chapter 0
Introduction to
Microwave Circuits & Systems
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❖
Microwave frequencies
Microwave : Frequencies used for those whose wave length is measured
in centimeters ~ 30cm to 1mm
❖ Microwave really indicates that the wavelength in Micron region.
Microwave refer to those from 1GHz to 300GHz.
❖ Frequencies above 40 GHz are referred to as millimeter (mm) waves and
those above 300 GHz are in the submillimeter ban.
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Cont.…
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❖ Microwave Engineering : a field of engineering which involves
the design of microwave circuits, components, and devices.
❖ Microwave Engineering : includes the solutions of
electromagnetic wave theory(such as the wave solutions)
in the field of :
✓ Transmission lines and wave guide ckt analysis
✓ Microwave resonators
✓ Microwave amplifiers , filters , Oscillators & Mixers.
✓ Antennas & Microwave Propagations etc
8
➢ The frequency classification of radio signals are as follows
Frequency Band Description
300Hz-3KHz Voice frequency
3KHz-30KHz VLF(Very Low frequency), Navigation(SONAR)
30KHz -300KHz LF(Low Frequency), Radio beacons, Navigation aids

300KHz-3MHz MF( AM for radio txn)
3MHz-30 MHZ HF(For short wave radio
communication)
30MHz-300MHz VHF (For mobile radio , FM broadcast, TV channel)
300MHz-3GHz UHF(Lower Microwave frequency for TV, Mobile ,
Radar etc)
3GHZ-30GHz SHF (Microwave frequency for satellite and radar
communications )
> 100GHz Millimeter Wave Frequency
9
➢Microwave frequency bands.
Origin of Names:
➢ L – Long Wave
➢ S – Short Wave
➢ C – Compromise
➢ X - Cross
➢ Ku – Kurz-under
➢ K – Kurz
➢ Ka – Kurz-above
➢ V - Very
10
ISU – International Systems of Units proposed MKS units for
Microwaves as below
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THE MICROWAVE SYSTEM
❖ Mainly consists of two subsystems.
➢ Transmitter Subsystem : Oscillator, wave guide, Transmitting
antenna
➢ Receiver Subsystem : Receiving antenna, wave guide, microwave
amplifier & receiver.
Figure 1 microwave system 14

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Properties of Microwave
❖ waves that radiate electromagnetic energy with
shorter wavelength.
❖ Are not reflected by ionosphere.
❖ Travel in straight line and reflected by the
conducting surfaces.
❖ Easily attenuated within shorter distances.
❖ Microwave currents can flow through a thin layer
of cable.
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Advantages of Microwave
❖ Supports larger bandwidth and hence more information is
transmitted.
❖ More antenna gain is possible.
❖ Higher data rates are transmitted as the bandwidth is
more.
❖ Antenna size gets reduced, as the frequencies are higher.
❖ Low power consumption as the signals are of higher
frequencies.
❖ Effect of fading gets reduced by using line of sight
propagation.
❖ Provides effective reflection area in the radar systems.
❖ Satellite and terrestrial communications with high
capacities are possible.
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Disadvantages of Microwaves
❖ Cost of equipment or installation cost is high.
❖ They are hefty and occupy more space.
❖ Electromagnetic interference may occur.
❖ Variations in dielectric properties with temperatures may
occur.
❖ Inherent inefficiency of electric power.
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Applications of Microwaves
❖ Telecommunication
➢ Space communication (earth to space and space to earth)
➢ Intercontinental telephone and TV
➢ Telemetry communication link for railways.
❖ Industrial Application
➢ Food processing industries
➢ Microwave oven
➢ Plastic industries, chemical industries, rubber industries
❖ Medical Application
➢ Deep EM heating for treating cancer
➢ Monitoring heart beat & detecting lung water
26
Cont.…
❖ Defence
➢ Radars: to track and guide missiles, detect aircrafts & other
flying objects, calculate distance of objects & to know the
speed of
• moving objects……
❖ Miscellaneous
➢ In air traffic control (ATC)
➢ Police speed detectors
➢ Garage door openers
➢ Burglar alarm
➢ In mining works, Tunneling, breaking & boring works of rocks,
concrete etc
➢ Observing and analyzing weather patterns
➢ In creating microwave devices 27
Chapter 1: Review of principle and Analysis of
Wave Guide
Outline
❖ Introduction
❖ Wave Guide Principles and Analysis
❖ Types and Mode Classification
2
Principles and Analysis of Waveguides
❖ waveguide is used to transfer electromagnetic energy from one end
to the other end.
❖ A Hollow metallic tube of uniform cross section for transmitting
electromagnetic waves by successive reflections from the inner
walls of the tube is called waveguide
❖ Waveguides may be used to carry energy between pieces of
equipment or over longer distances to carry transmitter power to an
antenna or microwave signals from an antenna to a receiver.
❖ Waveguides are practical only for signals of extremely high frequency,
where the wavelength approaches the cross-sectional dimensions of the
waveguide.
❖ Below such frequencies, waveguides are useless as electrical
transmission lines.
3
Cont.…
❖Waveguides can propagate signals above a certain frequency,
known as the cut-off frequency
❖ Below this the waveguide is not able to carry the signals
❖This is obviously an important parameter, and one of the
most basic specifications for its operation.
❖Why waveguides are plated with silver
❖Answer to reduce resistance and transmission losses
4
Cont.…
❖The angles of incidence and reflection depend on the
operating frequency.
❖At high frequencies, the angle is large and the path between the
opposite walls is relatively long.
❖As the operating frequency decreases, the angle also decreases
and the path between the sides shortens.
❖When the operating frequency reaches the cutoff frequency of
the waveguide, the signal bounces back and forth between the
sidewalls of the waveguide which means no energy is
propagated.
5
Cont.…
Figure 1:Wave paths in a waveguide at various frequencies
(a) High frequency

(b) Medium frequency
(c) Low frequency
(d) Cut off frequency
6
Uses of waveguide
❖ To reduce attenuation loss
✓ High frequencies
✓High power
❖ Can operate only above certain frequencies
✓Acts as a High-pass filter
❖ Waveguide supports EM mode propagation with lower losses.
7
Disadvantages of Waveguide
❖ Physical size becomes a limitation.
❖ The width of a waveguide must be approximately a half wavelength at
the frequency of the wave to be transported.

❖ waveguides at frequencies below 300 Mega hertz increasingly impractical.
❖ It is not suitable for operations at lower frequencies due to

increased dimensions.
❖ It is very bulky in size and weight.
8
Cont..
❖ Waveguides are difficult to install because of their rigid, hollow-pipe shape.
❖ Increasing the costs and decrease the practicality of waveguide systems at
any other than microwave frequencies.
❖ TEM mode of propagation is not possible in the waveguide.
❖ It supports narrow band of operation.
❖ Polarization of EM wave is fixed in rectangular waveguide while it
can be altered in circular waveguide due to minor irregularities of

surface walls
Mode Of Propagation
❖ Waveguide mode stands for a unique distribution of transverse
and longitudinal components of the electric and magnetic fields.
❖ An electromagnetic energy to be carried by a waveguide is injected
into one end of the waveguide.
❖The electric and magnetic fields associated with the signal bounce
off the inside walls back and forth as it progresses down the
waveguide
❖ In order to determine the EM field configuration within the
waveguide,
✓Maxwell's equations should be solved subject to appropriate
boundary conditions at the walls of the guide
❖ Such solutions give rise to a number of field configurations.
❖ Each configuration is known as a mode.
1
0
Cont.….
The following are the d/t modes possible in a waveguide system
1. Transverse Electro Magnetic (TEM) wave:
❖The electric field, E and the magnetic field, H are oriented

transverse to the direction of propagation of wave
Ez= 0 and Hz= 0

❖ No cut-off frequency
❖ TEM wave cannot propagate within a hollow pipe
❖ lacks an axial conductor to carry current
10
Cont.…
Transverse Electric (TE) wave:
❖Here only the electric field is purely transverse to the direction of
propagation and the magnetic field is not purely transverse. (i.e.)
Ez= 0, Hz ≠ 0.
Transverse Magnetic (TM) wave:
❖Here only magnetic field is transverse to the direction of propagation
and the electric field is not purely transverse. (i.e.)
Ez ≠ 0, Hz= 0
Hybrid wave:
❖Here neither electric nor magnetic fields are purely transverse to the
direction of propagation. (i.e.) Ez ≠ 0, Hz ≠ 0
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Applications of waveguide
❖ Used for microwave communications

❖ Used for Broadcasting
❖ Used for radar installations.
❖ Waveguides are used in Optical fiber communication.
❖ They are used Photonic integrated circuits.
❖ They are used in space crafts.
Types of wave guide
1. Rectangular Waveguides
❖ A waveguide having rectangular cross section is known as
Rectangular waveguide
❖ Propagation modes are TM and TE but not TEM since only one
conductor is present
❖ It is a standard convention to have the longest side of the waveguide along
x-axis [a (width) > b (length)]
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Cont.…
❖ The order of the mode refers to the field configuration in the guide,
and is given by m and n integer subscripts,TEmn andTMmn.
✓ The m subscript corresponds to the number of half-wave
variations of the field in the x direction, and
✓ The n subscript is the number of half-wave variations in the y
direction
Applications
❖ High-power systems
❖ Millimeter wave applications
❖ Satellite systems
❖ Precision test applications
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2. .
❖ It consists of ahollow, round (circular cross section) metal

pipe that supports TEand TM waveguide modes.
❖The structure of such a circular waveguide with inner radius a, is

shown below:
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Applications
❖ Used in transmission of circularly polarized waves, to connect

components having circular cross-section to rectangular
waveguide
❖ Why do we use circular waveguide?

Ans : to transmit EM waves from one point to another.
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❖ It is formed with a rectangular ridged projecting inward from
one or both of the wide walls in a rectangular waveguide.
❖ Ridged is used to concentrate the electric field across the
ridge and lower the cutoff frequency ofTE mode.
Applications
❖ Attractive for UHF and low microwave ranges
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Cont.…
Ridged Waveguide Using Singled Ridged Waveguide

Metal Bar
Double Ridged Waveguide
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❖It is used for bends, twists or in applications where certain
criteria may not be fulfilled by normal waveguides.
❖ Some of the flexible waveguides are shown below :
❖ The H bend of Figure (a) is used to turn a 90° corner.

❖ The E bend Figure (b) also completes a 90° turn in either an upward or
downward direction.
❖ The twist of Figure (c) is used to effect a shift in the
polarization of the wave.
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Critical (cut-off) frequency, fc (Hz)
❖the lowest frequency for which a mode will propagate in a
waveguide.
Critical (cut-off) wavelength, λc (m /cycle)
❖the largest wavelength that can propagate in the waveguide
without any minimum attenuation
Group velocity (vg, m/s)
❖ The velocity at which a wave propagates.
❖ Refers to the velocity of a group of waves.
❖ It is also the velocity at which information signals or energy
is propagated
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Cont.…..
Phase velocity (vp, m/s)
❖ The velocity at which the wave changes phase.

❖ It is the apparent velocity of the wave (i.e.: max electric
intensity point).
❖ vp always equal to or greater than vg (vp≥ vg).
❖ It may exceed the velocity of light (velocity in free space)
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❖Dominant mode (mode with lowest cutoff frequency) for rectangular
waveguide isTE.
❖Awaveguide acts as a high-pass filter in that it passes only those
frequencies above the cutoff frequency
❖ The cutoff frequency is given by
 m n  m n
2 2 2 2
1 c
fcmn =   +  =   + 
2   a   b  2 rr  a   b 
1 1 1 1 c
u= = = =
 o ror oo rr rr
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Cont.….
c
vg v p = c 2
g = vp
f 2 − f c2 g = o
c
o
g =
1−(fc f )
2
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Cont.…
c c
fc = = ( forTE)
2a c
o
Z o = 377 (TM mode)
g
377 g
Zo = =377 (TEmode)
1− (fc f ) o
2
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Example 1 : An air- filled waveguide of inside dimension 7 x
3.5cm operate in the dominant TE10 mod e as shown in
figure below.
a) Find the cut-off frequency

b) Determine the phase velocity of the wave in the guide at a
frequency of 3.5GHz.
c) Determine the guided wavelength at the same frequency.
Solution:
𝑐 3×108 𝑚/𝑠
a). 𝑓𝑐 = = = 2.14GHz
2𝑎 2×7−2
𝑐 3×108 𝑚/𝑠
b).𝑣𝑝 = 𝑓
= = 3.78 × 108
2.14 2
1−( 𝑓𝑐 )2 1−( )
3.5
λ0 3×108 /(3.5×109 )
C). λ𝑔 = = = 10.8cm
𝑓 2.14
1−( 𝑐 )2 1−( 3.5 )2
𝑓
Exercise
1 For a rectangular waveguide with a width of 3cm and a desired
frequency of operation of 6GHz (for dominant mode),
determine:
a) Cut-off frequency
b) Cut-off wavelength
c) Group velocity
d) Phase velocity
e) Propagation wavelength in the waveguide
f) Characteristic impedance
28
Cont.…
2. A rectangular waveguide has a width of 1.2 in and a height of
0.7 in. The waveguide will pass all signals above what
frequency?
Answer: 4.92 GHz
3 . Find the cutoff frequency for the TE10 mode in an air-
dielectric waveguide with an inside cross section of 2 cm by 4
cm. Over what frequency range is the dominant mode the only
one that will propagate?
Answer: fc = 3.75 GHz; range = 3.75-7.5 GHz
4 . The dimensions of the waveguide are 2.5 cm  1 cm. The
frequency is 8.6 GHz. Find (a) possible modes and (b) cut – off
frequency for TE waves.
Answer: (a) The possible mode is TE10 mode.
(b) The cut – off frequency = 6 GHz
Cont.….
5. Find the group velocity for the waveguide with an inside cross
section of 2 cm by 4 cm, at a frequency of 5 GHz.
Answer: 198 x 106 m/s
6 . A waveguide has a cutoff frequency for the dominant mode of 10
GHz. Two signals with frequencies of 12 and 17 GHz propagate
down a 50m length of the guide. Calculate the group velocity for
each and the difference in arrival time for the two.
Answer: Vg(12) = 165.8 x 106 m/s; Vg(17) = 242.6 x 106 m/s;
Tdiff = 95.5 ns
Cont.…
7. Determine the group and phase velocities within a rectangular
waveguide with an internal dimension of 1.52 x 0.9 in and is fed
by a 12 GHz carrier using a coaxial probe.
Answer: vG = 283.84x106 m/s
vP = 335.15x106 m/s
8 . Find the characteristic impedance of the waveguide for the TE10

mode with an inside cross section of 2 cm by 4 cm operating at a
frequency of 5 GHz.
Answer: Zo = 570 Ω
Chapter 2
Review of Network Parameters and
Transmission Line Theory
❖ Review of Network Parameters

❖ Transmission LineTheory
Microwave Devices and Systems 1

Review of Network Parameters
❖ A “black box” or network may have any number of ports.
❖ This diagram shows a simple network with just 2 ports.
❖ A port is a terminal pair of lines
❖ This black box could contain anything :

✓ A resistor,
✓ A transmission line
✓ An integrated circuit
Reviewof Network Parameters
❖Linear networks can be completely characterized byparameters measured at
the network ports without knowing the content of the networks.
❖ Networks can have any number of ports.
❖ Analysis of a 2-port network is sufficient to explain the theory of network
parameters.
I1 I2
+ +
Port 2
2 Port
Port 1
V1 V2
-
Network -
Fig. 2.1 Two port network

❖The ports can be characterized with many parameters (Z,Y,ABCD, S)
Z- Parameters
❖ Consider the two-port network shown in Fig 2.1.

❖ Since the network is linear, the superposition principle can be applied
❖ Assuming that it contains no independent sources, voltage V1and V2 can
be expressed in terms of I1 and I2 as follows
V1 = Z 11 I 1 + Z 1 2 I 2
V2 = Z21I1 + Z 2 2 I 2
❖ Using the matrix representation, we can write
V1   Z11 Z12  I1  or [V]=[Z][I]
V  = Z  
 2   21 Z 22 I 2 

Cont.……
❖Generally , for N port network , wecan express the network parameters
using the matrix representation
V1   Z11 Z12 … Z1N  I1 

V  Z ⁝  I 
 2  =  21  2 
 ⁝  ⁝  ⁝ 
    
 N   N1 N2
V Z Z … ZNN IN 
Vi
Z ij = (Open circuit impedance)
where Ij
I k  j =0

Admittance Parameters
❖ Consider again the two-port network shown in Figure 2.1
❖ Assuming that it contains no independent sources, current I1 and I2 can
be expressed in terms of two voltages:
I1 =Y11V1 +Y12V2
I2 =Y21V1 +Y22V2
❖ Using the matrix representation, we can write
 I 1  Y11 Y12  V 1 
 I  = Y
 2   21
 
Y22  V 2 
or I = Y V 

Con….
❖ Generally , for N port network , wecan express the network
parameters using the matrix representation
 I1  Y11 Y12 … Y1N V1 

 I  Y
 2  =  21
 ⁝  ⁝
⁝V 2
 ⁝ 
I = Y V 
    
I
 N   N1 N2
Y Y … YNN VN 
Where Ii (Short circuit admittance)

Y ij =
V j
V k j =0

Cont.…..
❖ Reciprocal networks usually contain nonreciprocal media
such as ferrites or plasma, or active devices. We can show
that the impedance and admittance matrices are
symmetrical, so that
Zij = Z ji or Yij = Yji
❖ Lossless networks can be shown that Zij or Yij are

imaginary
❖ The network is lossless if (1) diagonal elements are purely real, and
(2) off diagonal elements are purely imaginary
Example
Find the Z parameters of the two-port T –network as shown below
Example
Obtain the admittance parameters of the network shown
below
Solution
Cont.…..
Cont.……..
Transmission (ABCD) Matrix
❖The transmission matrix describes the network given in Fig 2.1

above in terms of both voltage and current waves
V1 = AV2 −BI2 V1   A B V2 
or
  = − I2
I1 =CV2 −DI2 I
 1  C D
 
❖ The coefficients can be calculated as follows :
V1 V1
A= B=
V2 − I2 V2 =0
I 2 =0
I1 I1
C= D=
V2 − I2 V2 =0
I 2 =0

3
Cont.….
❖Since the ABCD matrix represents the ports in terms of currents

and voltages, it is well suited for cascading elements
I1 I2 I3
+ A B A B +
V1 V2 V3
C D1 C D2
- -
I1
❖ The matrices can be mathematically cascaded by multiplication

V1 A B V2
= 
I1 C D I2 V1 A B A B V3
=  
1
V2 A B V3 I1 C D 1 C D 2 I3
= 
I2 C D 2
I3

4
Cont.….
Example. Determine the transmission parameters of the network shown in fig
below

Cont.…..
❖Similarly,with a source connected at port 1 while port 2 is open (so that I2 is zero),V2=V1

Hybrid Parameters
❖ Reconsider the two-port network of Figure 2.1

❖ Assuming that it contains no independent sources, voltageV1 at port1 can
be expressed in terms of current I1 at port 1 and voltageV2 at port 2.
❖ Similarly, we can write I2 in terms of I1 and V2
V1 h11 h12I1 
V1 =h11I1 +h12V2   =  
I  h21 h22V2
I2 =h21I1 +h22V2
2

Cont.…….
V1
h1 1 = h1 2 =
V1
I1 V2 =0 V2 I1=0
I2 I2
h21 = h22 =
I1 V 2 =0
V2 I1 = 0
❖ h11 = input impedance

❖ h21 = forward current gain
❖ h12 = reverse voltage gain
❖ h22 = reverse output admittance circuit
❖ In transistor circuit analysis, these are generally denoted by
hi ,hf ,hr ,and h0, respectively

Scattering Matrices
❖ At “low” frequencies, we can completely characterize a linear
device or network using an impedance matrix, which relates the
currents and voltages at each device terminal to the currents and
voltages at all other terminals.
❖ But, at microwave frequencies, it is difficult to measure total
currents and voltages due to the following reasons.
Cont.……
❖ Instead, we can measure the magnitude and phase of
each of the two transmission line waves 𝑣𝑧+ and 𝑣𝑧−
❖ In other words, we can determine the relationship
between the incident and reflected wave at each device
terminal to the incident and reflected waves at all other
terminals
❖ These relationships are completely represented by the
scattering matrix. It completely describes the behavior
of a linear, multi-port device at a given frequency ω ,
and a given line impedance Z0.
Cont.…….
❖ S-parameters are measured by sending a single frequency signal into
the network or “black box” and detecting what waves exit from each
port.
Cont.……
The figure below shows the S parameters of two port network.

Cont.…….
❖ Consider a circuit or device inserted into a T-Line as shown in the Figure. We can
refer to this circuit or device as a two-port network.
❖ The behavior of the network can be completely characterized by its scattering
❖ Scattering matrices are frequently used to

characterize multiport networks, especially at
high frequencies.
❖ They are used to represent microwave
devices, such as amplifiers and circulators,
and are easily related to concepts of gain,
loss and reflection.
Scattering Parameters (S-Parameters
❖ The scattering parameters represent ratios of voltage waves
entering and leaving the ports (If the same characteristic
impedance, Zo, at all ports in the network are the same).
V − = S V + + S V +.
1 11 1 12 2
V − = S V + + S V +.
2 21 1 22 2
❖ In matrix form this is written
𝑆𝑖𝑗 is found by driving port 𝑗 with incident wave of voltage 𝑣𝑖+ and
measuring the reflected wave amplitude 𝑣𝑖− coming out of port 𝑖. All
other ports should be terminated with matched loads to avoid
reflections.
Cont.……..
What do S-parameters depend on?
❖ S-parameters depend upon the network and the characteristic
impedances of the source and load used to measure it, and the
frequency measured at.
❖ i.e.
❖ if the network is changed, the S-parameters change.
❖ if the frequency is changed, the S-parameters change.
❖ if the load impedance is changed, the S-parameters change.
❖ if the source impedance is changed, the S-parameters change
Properties of S parameters
1) Reciprocity
❖ The two-port network is reciprocal if the transmission characteristics are the same
in both directions (i.e. S21 = S12).
❖ It is a property of passive circuits (circuits with no active devices or ferrites) that
they form reciprocal networks.
❖ A network is reciprocal if it is equal to its transpose. Stated mathematically,
for a reciprocal network.
t
S  = S 
Condition for Reciprocity: S12= S21

Cont.…..
Cont.…..
Cont.…..
3. Matched
❖ A matched device is another way of saying that the input impedance
at each port is equal to Z0 when all other ports are terminated in
matched loads.
✓ As a result, the reflection coefficient of each port is zero which means
no signal will be come out of a port if a signal is incident on that port
✓ 𝑆𝑖𝑖 = 0 for all i if matched
❖ A matched device will exhibit a scattering matrix where all diagonal
elements are zero
Example
Given the characteristic impedance of the transmission line is 50 Ω,
find the scattering matrix [𝑆].
Solution
Cont.….
To determine 𝑍𝑖𝑛, we write our circuit as
Cont.……
Cont.…..
Cont.……
Cont.……
Cont.…..
Cont.……..
Example
A certain two-port network is measured and the following scattering matrix is
obtained:
 0.10o 0.890o 
S  =  o 
 0.890o
0.20 
From the data , determine whether the network is reciprocal or lossless. If a short
circuit is placed on port 2, what will be the resulting return loss at port 1?
Solution
Since [S] is symmetry, the network is reciprocal. To be lossless, the S
parameters must satisfy
For i=j
n 1 for i = j 
 S k iS k*j =
0

for i  j  |S11|2 + |S12|2 = (0.1)2 + (0.8)2 = 0.65
k =1
Since the summation is not equal to 1, thus

it is not a lossless network.
Cont.……
TransmissionLine Theory
❖Transmission line is a distributed-parameter network,

where voltages and currents can vary in magnitude and
phase over the length of the line.
Lumped Element Model for aTransmission Line
❖ Transmission lines usually consist of 2 parallel conductors
❖Ashort segment Δz of transmission line can be modeled as a
lumped-element circuit.

Cont.……
Figure 2.4 Voltage and current definitions and equivalent circuit for an
incremental length of transmission line. (a) Voltage and current definitions.
(b) Lumped-element equivalent circuit.

Transmission line parameters
❖ R = Series resistance per unit length for both conductors

❖ L= Series inductance per unit length for both conductors
❖ G= Shunt conductance per unit length
❖ C= Shunt capacitance per unit length
❖ Applying KVLand KCL,
i(z, t)
v(z, t) − Rzi(z, t) − Lz − v(z + z, t) = 0 (2.1a)
t
v(z + z,t)
i(z, t) − Gzv(z + z,t) − Cz − i(z + z,t) = 0 (2.1b)
t

Cont.……
❖ Dividing (2.1) by Δz and limit Δz → 0,
v(z,t) i(z,t)
= −Ri(z,t) − L (2.2a)
z t
i(z,t) v(z,t)
= −Gv(z,t) −C (2.2b)
z t
→ this equation for time-domain form of the transmission line, or
telegrapher, equation
❖ For the sinusoidal steady-state condition with cosine-based
phasors d I ( z )
= − (G + j  C )V ( z ) ( 2 .3b )
dz

WavePropagation on a TransmissionLine
 =+ j= (R+ jL)(G+jC)
Propagation Constant in per meter

Attenuation Constant in nepers per meter Phase
Constant in radians per meter

Cont.……
Traveling wave solution
V(z) =V +e− z +V −e+ z , I(z) = I +e− z +I −e+ z (2.6)
0 0 0 0
Wave Wave
propagation in propagation in
+z directon -z directon
Applying (2.3a) to the voltage of (2.6),


I (z) = V0+ e − z - V0− e +  z 
R + jL

Cont.……
R + j L
V0+ V0−
R + j L = Z0 = − −
Z0 = = ,(2.7) +
 G + j C I0 I0
(2.6) can be rewritten

V0+ − z V0− +  z
I (z) = e − e (2.8)
Z0 Z0
Converting the phasor voltage of (2.6) to the time domain:

v(z,t) = V + cos(t −  z + + )e− z + V − cos(t +  z + − )e z (2.9)
0 0

Cont.……
The wavelength of the traveling waves:

 = 2  (2.10)

The phase velocity of the wave is defined as the speed at which

a constant phase point travels down the line,
dz 
vp = = = f (2.11)
dt 

Lossless Transmission Lines
❖ R =  =G = 0  =  + j = jor
 LC or
gives
 =  LC ,  = 0 (2.12)
L
Z0 = (2.13)
C
❖ The general solutions for voltage and current on a lossless
transmission line: V ( z) = V 0+ e − j  z +V0− e j  z ,
+
I (z) = I 0
e − j  z − I 0− e j  z (2.14)
Z0

Cont.…..
❖ The wavelength on the line:
2 2
= = (2.15)
  LC
❖ The phase velocity on the line:


vp = =
1
(2.16)
 LC

The Terminated Lossless Transmission Lines
Fig 2.5 Terminated LosslessTransmission Lines

❖ The total voltage and current on the line:
V (z) = V0+ e − j  z +V0− e j  z ,

V0+ V0−
I (z) = e − j z − e + j  z (2.34)
Z0 Z0

Cont.……..
❖ The total voltage and current at the load are related by the load
impedance, so at z= 0
V (0) V0+ +V0− Z L − Z0 +

ZL = = + Z0 V =−
V0
Z L + Z0
0
I (0) V0 −V0 −
V0− Z L − Z 0
The voltage reflection coefficient: = + = (2.35)
V0 Z L + Z0
The total voltage and current on the line:
V ( z ) = V 0+  e − j  z +  e j  z  ,
V 0+
I (z) =  e − j  z −  e j  z  (2.36)
Z0
Cont.……..
❖It is seen that the voltage and current on the line consist of a
superposition of an incident and reflected wave. → Standing waves
❖When Γ= 0 → matched.
❖ For the time-average power flow along the line at the point z:
+ 2
1

Pavg = Re V(z)I (z) =
2
 1V

2 Z0

Re 1− e−2 j z + e2 j z − 
0 2

+ 2
=
1V 0
2 Z0
1−  (
2
)

Cont.…….
❖When the load is mismatched, not all of the available power
from the generator is delivered to the load.
❖ This loss is return loss (RL):
RL= -20 log|Γ| dB
❖ If the load is matched to the line, Γ= 0 and |V(z)| = |V 0+ |
(constant) → flat when the load is mismatched,
V (z) = V0+ 1+ e2 j z = V0+ 1+ e−2 jl = V0+ 1+  e j ( −2 l ) (2.39)
Vmax = V0+ (1+  ), Vmin =V0+ (1− ) (2.40)

Cont.……
❖Ameasure of the mismatch of a line, called the voltage standing
wave ratio (VSWR)
1+  (1<VSWR<∞)
SWR =
1− 
❖From (2.39), the distance between 2 successive voltage maxima
(or minima) is l = 2π/2β = λ/2 (2βl = 2π), while the distance
between a maximum and a minimum is l = π/2β = λ/4.
❖ From (2.34) with z = -l,
V0−e− jl
(l) = + jl =(0) e−2 jl (2. 42)
V0 e

Cont.…….
At a distance l = -z,
V (−l ) V0+  e j  l + e − j  l  1 + e −2 j  l
Z in = = Z 0 +  j l − j l 
= Z0 (2.43)
I (−l ) V 0  e − e  1 − e −2 j  l
(Z L + Z 0 )e j  l + (Z L −Z )e − jl
= Z0
(Z L + Z 0 )e j  l − (Z L −Z 0
0
)e − jl
Z L cos  l + jZ 0 sin  l
= Z0
Z 0 cos  l + jZ L sin  l
Z L + jZ 0 tan  l
= Z0 (2.44)
Z 0 + jZ L tan  l
→ Transmission line impedance equation

Special Cases of Terminated Transmission Lines
❖ Short-circuited line V (z) = V0+ e − j z − e j z  = −2 jV0+ sin  z,

❖ ZL = 0 → Γ= -1 V0+ − j z V +
I (z) = e + e j z  = 2 0 cos  z
Z0 Z0
Zin = jZ0 tan l (2.45)

Cont.……
❖ Open-circuited line
ZL = ∞ → Γ= 1 V ( z) = V 0+  e − j  z + e j  z  = 2V0+ cos  z,
V 0+ − j  z −2 jV 0+
I ( z) = e j z
−e  = sin  z (2.46)
Z0 Z0
Zin = − jZ0 cot l

Generatorand LoadMismatches
❖ Because both the generator and load are mismatched, multiple reflections
can occur on the line.
❖ In the steady state, the net result is asingle wavetraveling toward the load, and a
single reflected wave traveling toward the generator.
where z= -l,
1+  l e −2 j  l Z l + jZ 0 tan  l
Zin = Z0 = Z0 (2.67)
1−  l e −2 j  l
Z 0 + jZ l tan  l
Zl − Z0
l = (2.68)
Zl + Z0

Cont.…….
Figure 2.8 Transmission line circuit for mismatched load and generator

Cont.……..
❖ The voltage on the line:

Zin = V + (e j  l +  e − j  l )
V (−l) = Vg By (2.67)
Z in + Z g
0 l
& Z g − Z0
Zin 1 g =
V+ =V (2.70) Z g + Z0
0 g
Z in + Z g e j  l +  l e− j  l
1+ l
SWR =
Z0 e− j  l 1− l
V = Vg
+
(2.71)
0
(
Z 0 + Z g 1−  l  g e −2 jl )

Cont.…….
❖ Power delivered to the load:
 1 
2
1  2 1  1  2 Zin
Pl = ReVinIin = Re|Vin |   = Re|Vg |
1 

2 2  Zin  2  Zin +Zg Zin 
 
1 2 Rin
= |Vg | (2.39)
2 (Rin +Rg ) +(Xin +Xg )
2 2
Case 1: the load is matched to the line, Zl = Z0, Γl = 0, SWR = 1,

Zin = Z0,
1 Z0
Pl = |Vg |2
(2.40)
2 (Z0 + Rg )2 + X g2

Cont.……..
❖ Case 2: the generator is matched to the input impedance of a

transmission line, Zin = Zg
1 Rg
Pl = |Vg |2
(2.41)
2 (
4 Rg2 + X g2 )
❖ Case3 conjugate matching , if Zg is fixed, to maximize Pl,
Pl 1 2Rin (Rin + Rg )
=0→ − =0
Rin (Rin + Rg ) +(X in + X g ) (R + R ) +(X + X )
2 2 2 2
 in g in g 2


Cont.……
or R 2 − R 2 + ( X + X )2 = 0
g in in g
Pl −2 X in ( X in + X g )
=0→ =0
X i n (Rin + R g ) + ( X in + X g ) 
2 2 2
or X in ( X in + X g ) = 0
❖ Therefore, Rin = Rg and Xin = -Xg, or Zin = Zg*
❖ Under these conditions
1 1
Pl = |Vg |2 (2.44)
2 4Rg

Example 1

Cont.…..
Example 2

Example 2

Cont.…….

Example 3

Example 4

Chapter 3
Microwave Circuit and Systems
❖ Introduction
❖Microwave circuit and systems
❖Microwave transmitters and receivers

Microwave circuit and systems
❖ Microwaves are a form of electromagnetic radiation with

wavelengths ranging from about one meter to one millimeter; with
frequencies between 300 MHz (1 m) and 300 GHz (1 mm).
❖ prefix micro-in microwave is not meant to suggest a wavelength in
the micrometer range.
❖ Rather, it indicates that microwaves are "small" (having shorter
wavelengths), compared to the radio waves used prior to microwave
technology.
❖ RF(radio frequency) is the signals above human hearing (20Hz-
20KHz) capacity and extends to microwave regions.
❖ The electromagnetic signal is acoustic signal .
Microwave circuit
❖ Microwave circuit is the circuit which operate at microwave region.
Why do we need microwave circuit?
❖ “microwave circuits” is used to identify the electrical circuits used at microwave
frequencies for performing signal processing functions like
✓ amplification,
✓ frequency conversion,
✓ mixing,
✓ detection,
✓ phase shifting
✓ filtering
✓ power dividing
❖ Microwave circuit consists of :
✓ Substrate
✓ Strapline
✓ Connector
✓ Cable
Microwave circuit are used to design
❖ Microwave amplifier
❖ Oscillators
❖ Filters and power divider
Microwave system
❖ Microwave system is a complex module that contains a

combinations of passive and active devices .
what is Microwave communication system
❖ A microwave link is a communications system that uses a beam of
radio waves in the microwave frequency range to transmit video,
audio, or data between two locations.
❖ Microwave devices can be classified in to passive and active device
Passive component Active component
✓ Ferrite
✓ Magic tee ✓ OP-am
✓ Circulator ✓ Transistor
✓ Attenuator ✓ Diode
✓ TL sections
Circuits
❖ Circuits can be defined as interconnection of devices satisfying KVL

and KCL .
❖ Circuit can be classified in to lumped and distributed element
❖ When compared to the operating wavelength, the main difference
between lumped and distributed elements is their size
❑ lumped circuit which operates at low frequency .
❑ In lumped circuit the physical devices are low when compared to
wave length (i.e. P <<<<< λ)
Lumped Elements
❑ If the size of an element is smaller than the wavelength of the

applied signals, then it is a lumped element.
❑ In lumped elements, the effect of wave propagation can be
neglected.
❑ The physical dimensions of lumped elements make it so that signals
do not vary over the interconnects interfacing them.
❑ There are only minimal phase differences between the input and
output signals in lumped elements.
❑ Examples of lumped elements include:
✓ Capacitors
✓ Inductors
✓ Resistor
Distributed Elements
❖ Distributed circuits are the physical dimension of the devices

compared to wave length is large ( p >>>>>> λ).
✓ it has maximum dimension of the device is comparable with the
wavelength .
❖ They are distributed over lengths in an RF or microwave circuit.
❖ When conventional lumped elements are difficult to implement at
microwave frequencies, distributed-elements are used instead.
❖ They perform the same functions as lumped elements, but the signals
vary along the lines and between the elements.
❖ These signals undergo considerable phase change across various
points within the distributed elements. Signal transit time cannot be
neglected in distributed elements.
Cont. ….
Examples of distributed elements used in microwave circuits such as
filters, power dividers, and circulators include:
✓ Stubs
✓ Coupled lines
✓ Cascaded lines
Describing Lumped and Distributed Elements Mathematically
❖ In lumped elements :
✓ such as resistors, capacitors, and inductors, physical quantities, such
as voltage or current, are functions of time.
✓ The quantities are considered to be concentrated at singular points
in the space.
✓ There is no variation in the quantities over the length of the lumped
element
✓ The mathematical equations governing lumped elements are
ordinary differential equations.
Cont.…..
❖In distributed elements:

✓ the physical quantities associated with the component are distributed
in space.
✓ Quantities such as voltage and current are dependent on time and
space in distributed elements.
✓ Therefore, it is essential to describe the physical quantities
associated with a distributed element as the partial derivatives of
time and length.
✓ Partial differential equations are used for describing distributed
element quantities.
RF/Microwave Systems
A few reasons for using RF/Microwaves

❖ Wider bandwidth due to higher frequency
❖ Smaller component size leading to smaller systems
❖ More available frequency spectrum with low interference.
❖ Better resolution for radars due to smaller wavelengths
❖ High antenna gain possible in a smaller space
RF/Microwave Systems
❖We expect you have already mastered the fundamentals

(component definitions for amplifiers, oscillators, and mixers;
two-port network theory, power gains, Smith chart matching,
direct current (dc) biasing, etc.)
❖The integration of analog and digital functions on the same
silicon chip is expected to significantly reduce costs for all
consumer products.

can’t…….
❖ The capacitor of 1000 pF in parallel with the headphones is an RF ground
for the carrier frequency.
❖ The headphones detect the envelope of the received signal, which is the
desired information. This type of receiver is the simplest of all.
❖ Asimilar invention which also uses no battery in the telephone.
❖ The detector is a diaphragm which transmits sound to the human ear
drum, which has a threshold sensitivity of one hydrogen atom
displacement, where the frequency is roughly 5 kHz.

cont.…..
❖ The frequency spectrum of a receiver is shown in Figure 3.2, where the
image signal may also produce an unwanted IF output, so the image should
be filtered.
❖ The image signal is the mirror image of the desired RFsignal.
❖ The basic heterodyne receiver invented by Armstrong in 1917 is given in
Figure 3.3.
❖ The radio is a tuned resonant tank circuit at the carrier frequency, which
maximizes the input voltage to the heterodyne receiver shown in Figure 3.3
❖ The incoming signal is converted to a lower intermediate frequency
(IF) by the local oscillator (LO), where the pertinent mathematics is

cont.……..
Figure 3.1 Crystal radio receiver or Foxhole Radio

cont.…..
Figure 3.2 Frequency spectrum of radio receiver.

Figure 3.3 Heterodyne receiver, single-conversion super heterodyne receiver, double
conversion super heterodyne receiver

cont.…….
❖ Where α and β are the RF and LOfrequencies.
❖ In heterodyne receiver , the modulated carrier is amplified, converted to
an IF, demodulated, and amplified at baseband (audio). This gives a single
tuning control (the LO) and allows high gain and selectivity at the IF.
❖ A super heterodyne receiver has two (or more) mixers, so the
frequency is converted once or twice to a lower frequency. Most of the
gain is done at the first or second IF, where the cost is generally lower.
❖ Most electrical engineers have worked in various aspects of RF or
microwave design. The circuits are organized into three frequency
ranges:

cont.…….
❖ The word wireless was used by Marconi in 1901, and it reoccurred as a

replacement for the word radio in about 1991. The design techniques tend
to be different for these three groups, but there are many similarities.
Such as an soft Design Suite, ADS (Advanced Design System), or
Advanced Wave Research (AWR) Microwave Office (MWO) may be used
for all three groups.
❖ Another summary of wireless applications is given in Table 3.1. These
applications include all three frequency groups as well as
communications, radar, navigation, remote sensing, RF identification,
broadcasting, automobiles and highways, sensors, surveillance, medical,
and astronomy and space exploration.

Table 3.1 ,Wireless Applications
1.Wireless communications: space, long-distance, cordless phones, cellular
telephones, mobile, PCS, local-area networks (LANs), aircraft, marine, citizen’s
band (CB) radio, vehicle, satellite, global, etc.
2. Radar (standing for radio detection and ranging): airborne, marine,
vehicle, collision avoidance, weather, imaging, air defense, traffic control, police,
intrusion detection, weapon guidance, surveillance, etc.
3. Navigation: microwave landing system (MLS), global positioning system (GPS),
beacon, terrain avoidance, imaging radar, collision avoidance, auto-pilot, aircraft,
marine, vehicle, etc.
4. Remote sensing: Earth monitoring, meteorology, pollution monitoring, forest,
soil moisture, vegetation, agriculture, fisheries, mining, desert, ocean, land surface,
clouds, precipitation, wind, flood, snow, iceberg, urban growth, aviation and marine
traffic, surveillance, etc.

5. RF identification: security, antitheft, access control, product tracking, inventory
control, keyless entry, animal tracking, toll collection, automatic checkout, asset
management, etc.
6.Broadcasting: amplitude and frequency-modulated (AM, FM) radio, TV, direct
broadcast satellite (DBS), universal radio system, etc.
7.Automobiles and highways: collision warning and avoidance, GPS, blind-spot radar,
adaptive cruise control, auto navigation, road-to-vehicle communications, automobile
communications, near-obstacle detection, radar speed sensors, vehicle RF identification,
intelligent vehicle and highway system (IVHS), automated highway, automatic toll collection,
traffic control, ground penetration radar, structure inspection, road guidance, range and
speed detection, vehicle detection, etc.
7. Sensors: moisture sensors, temperature sensors, robotics, buried-object
detection, traffic monitoring, antitheft, intruder detection, industrial sensors, etc.
8.Surveillance and electronic warfare: spy satellites, signal or radiation
monitoring, troop movement, jamming, anti jamming, police radar detectors,
intruder detection, etc.
9. Medical: magnetic resonance imaging, microwave imaging, patient monitoring,
etc. 11.Radio astronomy and space exploration: radio telescopes, deep-
space probes, space monitoring, etc.
12.Wirelesspower transmission: space-to-space, space-to-ground, ground-to-
space, ground-to ground power transmission.
Figure 3.4 Geometry for microwave transmission.
cont.……
Figure 3.5 Lumped-element equivalent circuit of transmission line.
❖ Transmission lines may be modeled as in Figure 3.5, which leads to the

telegrapher equations, which are a time-domain description of the line:

cont.…….

cont.……

cont.………
For aTEM wave, these two velocities are the same.

RFWireless/Microwave/Millimeter-wave Applications
RFWireless/Microwave/Millimeter-wave Applications
❖ The primary applications of the three frequency groups are essentially the
same communications receivers and transmitters (or transceivers).
❖ The simplest example to envision is your cellular telephone at 850 MHz or
1.85GHz.The essential components are the amplifiers, oscillators, and
mixers.
❖ Amplifier, oscillator, and mixer functions will use the lowest cost transistors
which satisfy the specifications. The oscillators use the same low-cost transistors
with the additional requirement of low phase noise.
❖ The material properties and manufacturing methods presently favor silicon-
based devices due to lower 1/f flicker noise, but this could change quickly.
❖ Designers of amplifiers and oscillators are usually the same engineers using the
same software, transistors, and circuit technology; however, oscillator designers
also need a high-Q resonator.

Cont.……
❖ The basic cellular RF wireless transceiver is shown in Figure 3.5. The circuits are
basically the same for both analog and digital modulation, with most customers
moving to digital modulation [time division multiple access (TDMA), frequency
division multiple access (FDMA), and CDMA. The transceiver is also the same in
all frequency bands, even at 100 GHz.
❖ The cellular telephone is a full duplex transceiver, meaning the send and
receive functions are both on all of the time. Starting at the antenna, there is a
duplex filter which feeds the receiver, which consists of a preamplifier, an
additional filter, and a mixer.
❖ The duplexer is optimized more for separating transmit and receive signals,
which are typically 50 MHz apart, rather than extreme selectivity.
❖ The front end is followed by a surface acoustic wave (SAW) filter which reduces
the image frequency.
❖ These are high-impedance filters (about 150 to 1k), not 50.
cont.……
❖ The transmit portion consists of an independent synthesizer that is

modulated. There are dual-synthesizer chips available to accommodate this.
Both receive and transmit frequencies are controlled by a miniature
temperature-compensated crystal oscillator.
❖ One of its outputs is the system master clock for all digital activities. The
output of the voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) is then amplified and fed to
the antenna through the same duplex filter as the receive portion.
❖ A useful way to categorize the applications is to list some everyday products
which the consumer uses (Table 3.2). Today there are very few applications in
the millimeter wave range, but the potential is obvious.
❖ All of these applications use transistors, passive components,
duplexers, switches, attenuators, amplifiers, oscillators, mixers, and so on.

cont.…..
Figure 3.5 Cellular telephone

Table 3.2 Applications

Frequency Bands, Modes, and Waveforms of Operation
❖ A useful list of the frequency bands is given in Table 3.3. As the frequency
moves up, the wavelength of sinusoidal signals reduces and the bandwidth in
hertz of the communications systems continues to increase, including
optical circuits.
Analog and Digital Requirements
❖ Analog signals travel continuously in real time, so it is very difficult to
multiplex signals to increase the number of customers on the frequency
band.
❖ For digital signals, there are many ways of multiplexing the signals, so several
customers receive communications simultaneously over the same frequency
band.

cont.……
❖ This is one of the foremost advantages of digital communication

systems. The process of converting analog signals to digital format uses
high-speed sampling analog-to-digital converter (ADC) circuits.
❖ Once the signals are in the digital domain, it becomes very easy to
multiplex the information.
❖ In addition, signal processing can be done using digital signal
processing (DSP) circuits to perform filtering, interpolation, and so on.
❖ Once the above techniques are performed, high-speed digital-to-analog
converter (DAC) circuits may be used to reconstitute the original analog
signal.

cont.……
❖ Another feature of digital communications is error correction, which is
not possible in analog communications.
❖ Analog signals may fade or become lost in the noise intermittently; with
digital computer data, the digital format allows the information to be
corrected for transmission errors, the accuracy is essentially 100%.
❖ Analog signals are basically AM or FM (wider bandwidth). Digital
signals are usually phase modulated (PM, which is also wide bandwidth).
❖ The phase of each digital carrier pulse contains the baseband information.
PM and FM are both forms of angle modulation, where one is the derivative
of the other,

The three most important forms of digital multiplexed signals
❖ TDMA means each user is sharing the same frequency with his or her own
time slot, typically eight users on the same frequency (for GSM).
❖ FDMA means the carrier frequency is hopping in a pattern known by
the transmitter and receiver.
❖ CDMA means the entire bandwidth is shared by all users, who have
orthogonal signals which do not interfere with each other. The bandwidth for
CDMAis 1.25 MHz, and it has increased to 5.0 MHz forWCDMA.
❖ Presently the cellular telephone systems in the United States at 850 MHz and
1.85 GHz are roughly equally divided betweenTDMAand CDMA.
❖ Since both forms of multiplexing are constantly improving, the dominant
choice has not been clearly found (if there is one).

cont.…..
❖ The process of converting an analog signal to a digital bit stream is
shown in Figure 3.6 .The analog signal is sampled by an ADC,
modulated to convert the digital bit stream into a transmittable form,
typically pulses of current, and finally transmission or signal
processing, which usually includes multiplexing, as shown in Figure
3.7.
❖ The sampling rate must be twice the period of the highest
frequency due to the Nyquist sampling theorem.
❖ For voice with an upper frequency of 4kHz for telephones,
So the sampling rate must be faster than 0.125 ms.

Figure 3.6 Block diagram of the digital communication process
Figure 3.7 MultiplexingTDMA

Table 3.3 IEEE802.11 Standards for Unlicensed Communications
❖ Another very important concept is the Friis transmission equation,

which discusses the range of the communication system.
❖ Consider the simplest communications system shown in Figure 3.8.
❖ The transmitter with a power of Pt is fed into a transmitting antenna with a
gain of Gt. The received power is Pr at a distance of R. The received power
density can be calculated assuming no atmospheric losses, mismatch
losses, and so on, as

cont.…
❖ The received power is the power density multiplied by the effective

area of the receiving antenna (which is related to the antenna gain)
Figure 3.8 Simplified wireless communication system

cont.…..

cont.…..

❖ The range increases as the square root of the transmitted power increases.
❖ The frequency dependence indicates lower λ0 or higher frequency will
increase the maximum range.
❖ It is this property, more than any other, that makes microwaves and millimeter
waves so important for communication and radar systems.
❖ Another important observation is the difference between coaxial transmission and
antenna-to-antenna transmission, shown in Figure 3.9
Figure 3.9Attenuation for coaxial and antenna system communications

Basic RFTransmittersand Receivers
❖ This could be an AM radio receiver for the commercial AM broadcast
band. The signal is twice down-converted to the low-cost 10.7MHz IF
band, amplified, detected, and amplified again in the audio band (0 to 8
kHz).
❖ The characteristics of interest include power output and operating
frequency, efficiency, power output variation, frequency tuning range,
stability, oscillator quality factor (Qu), noise (AM, FM, and phase noise),
spurious signals, frequency variations due to frequency jumping,
frequency pulling (load variations), frequency pushing (DC supply
variations), and posttuning drift (frequency and power variations due to
heating of a solid-state device).

cont.….
Oscillator noise is defined by

Figure 3.10 Typical radio receiver

cont.…..
Figure 3.11Transmitter system

cont.….
Figure 3.12 (a) Simplified transceiver block diagram for wireless communications

Figure 3.13(b)Typical mobile phone systems.

Some Disadvantages in using RF/Microwaves:
❖ More expensive components
❖ Existence of higher signal losses
❖ Use of high-speed semiconductor devices
RF/Microwave Applications
❖ Medical: Imaging, selective heating, sterilization etc.
❖ Domestic/industrial: Cooking, traffic & toll management, sensor
❖ Surveillance: Electronic warfare, security system etc.
❖ Radar: Air defense, guided weapon, collision avoidance, weather
❖ Astronomy & Space exploration: Monitor and collect data.
❖ Communication: Satellite, Space, Long distance telephone, etc
Chapter 4
Passive Microwave Components
1. E Plane Tee
2. H Plane Tee
3. Magic Tee
4. Hybrid Ring
5. Directional Coupler
6. Circulator
7. Isolator
2
Passive Microwave Components
➢The interconnection of two or more microwave devices may be regarded as
microwave junction.
➢ In microwave circuits a waveguide or a coaxial line with three independent ports
as commonly referred to as Tee Junction. Or
➢ Tee Junction is an interconnection of three wave guide in the form of English
alphabet T
➢ From S parameter theory it is evident that the device is characterized by a third
order matrix consisting of nine elements, six of which should be independent.
❖ The characteristics of Tee junction are
3
❖ The following are the three important statements of any three port microwave
device
4.1 E Plane Tee or series Tee
4
• An E Plane Tee is a waveguide Tee in which the axis of
its side arm are parallel to electric field of the main guide.
• If the collinear arms are symmetric about the side arm ,
there are two different transmission characteristics.
• If E plane Tee is perfectly matched the diagonal
components of the S matrix S11, S22, S33 are Zero
because there will be no reflection.
• When the waves are fed in to side arm(port3), the
waves appearing at port1 & 2 of collinear arm will be in
opposite phase & in same magnitude, so
• The –ve sign indicates

that they are opposite to each
other.
For matched junction is given as
Due to the symmetric property of S matrix, we have
(1)
From zero property, the sum of the products of each term of any column / row mul5tiplied by
complex conjugate of the corresponding term of any other column/ row is zero.
so
This means that either S13 or S23, or both should be zero.
From unity property of S matrix , the sum of products of each term of any one row / column
multiplied by its complex conjugate is unity.
-(2) Substituting 1 in 2 we have

( (3)
(5);
-----(4) Eq (4) & (5) are contradictory, so if S13=0 implies s23=0, &
if s23=0 then s13 becomes zero.
In general, when an E plane Tee is constructed of an empty waveguide, it is poorly matched
at the T junction. Hence Sij not equal to zero if i=j.
Since collinear arm is usually symmetric about the side arm, | S13|= , | S23 | & S11=S22.
The final S matrix is given below.
(6)
4.2 H Plane Tee or shunt Tee
6
➢ An H plane tee is a waveguide tee in which the axis of its
arm is shunting the E field or parallel the H field to main
guide as shown .
➢ It can be seen that if two input waves are fed in to port 1
& 2 of the collinear arm the output wave at port 3 will be
in phase & additive.
➢ If the input is fed to port 3 the wave will split equally in
to ports 1 & 2 in phase & same magnitude.
➢ The S matrix of H Plane tee is similar to that of E plane
tee as shown
but S13=S23.
4.3 Magic Tee
7
•Also known as E H Plane Tee or Hybrid Tee
•It is a combination of E Plane Tee & H Plane Tee
•Its characteristics are given below
The S matrix of Magic Tee is given as

• The Magic Tee is mainly used for mixing, duplexing & impedance
measurements. 8
• A magic Tee may be used to couple the two transmitters to antenna in such a way
that the transmitters do not load each other. The two transmitters should be connected to
ports 3 & 4 as shown in the figure
• Transmitter 1 connected to port 3 causes a wave from port 1 & another through port
2. These are equal in magnitude & opposite in phase.
• Similarly Transmitter 2 connected to port 4 causes a wave from port 1 & another through
port 2. These are equal in magnitude & in the same phase.
• At port 1 the two opposite waves will cancel each other
• At port 2 the two in phase are added. So double out put power at port 2 is obtained.
This is shown in the following figure.
Magic Tee coupled Transmitters to Antennas.

4.5. Waveguides Bends & Twists 9
Waveguides Bends 10
Rectangular to Circular 11
Directional Coupler
12
Cont.…….
Directional Couplers 13
14
Directional Coupler 15
Hybrid Rings (Rat Race Ckts)
16
Annular line of proper electrical length to sustain
standing waves, to which four arms are connected at
proper intervals by means of series or parallel junctions.
Hybrid ring with series

junctions.
17
Characteristics similar to hybrid tee.
➢ When a wave is fed into port 1, it will not appear at port 3

because the difference of phase shifts for the waves travelling in
the clockwise and anticlockwise directions is 180
➢ Thus the waves are cancelled at port 3
➢ Similarly the waves fed into port 2 will not emerge at port 4 and so
on.
18
S matrix for an ideal hybrid ring
➢ Phase cancellation occurs only at designated frequency

for an ideal hybrid ring.
➢ In actual hybrid rings there are small leakage couplings,
and hence the zero elements in the matrix above are not
quite equal to zero.
4.6. Circulators 19
Circulators 20
4.7 Isolator 21
➢ An isolator is a non reciprocal transmission device that is used to isolate
one component from reflections of the other in a transmission line.
➢ An ideal isolator completely absorbs the power from propagation in one
direction and provide loss less transmission in opposite direction.
➢ It is also known as UNILINE
➢ It is used to improve the frequency stability.
➢ One type of isolator is Faraday rotation Isolator, the input resistive card is in y-
z plane, the output resistive card is displaced 45o with respect to the input card.
➢ The magnetic field which is applied longitudinally to the ferrite rotates the
rod wave plane by 45o.
➢ This is normal to the output resistive card
➢ As the result of rotation the wave arrives at the out
put end without attenuation at all.
➢ On the other end a reflected wave from the output
end is similarly rotated clockwise 45o by the ferrite
rod, since the reflected wave is parallel to the input
resistive card the wave is absorbed by the input card.
22
23
Isolators & Circulators 25
Chapter 5
Active Microwave Devices
Microwave Solid state devices can be classified in to four groups as shown
below.
Active Devices
❖ The majority of microwave circuits use active devices one way or
another.
❖ While some applications operate the devices in a linear range, many
applications need to understand the behavior under large-signal
conditions.
❖ Typical examples for large signal operations are mixer and
oscillator circuits as well as power amplifiers.
❖ The basic nonlinearities are frequency independent and yet because
the nonlinear capacitance of the device starts playing a major role
at higher frequencies, their effect has to be considered.
❖ The basic nonlinearities are the capacitance and the forward bias
current.
2
❖ Now depending upon that the transistors, microwave circuits can
be divided into 2 categories
✓ Bipolar Junction Transistor and
✓ Field Effect Transistor
❖ BJT A current controlled transistor which is a minority carrier

device in the base region; this a bipolar device because there are
two junctions, the emitter–base junction, which is forward
biased to inject the minority carriers into the base, and the
collector–base junction, which is reverse biased to collect all of
the base minority carriers into the collector.
5
There are two types of BJTs-PNP, NPN
❖ In practical applications transistor can be connected in three
configurations CB, CE, CC
❖ CB is shown below and used in Amplifier applications. The equations
which govern CB is given below
❖ The function of the emitter is to inject charge carriers into the
collector. So, as the emitter has to inject careers, they should be
highly doped.
❖ The function of the base region is to pass these charge carriers
into the collector. So, this should be lightly doped and they are
relative very thin and the function of the Collector region is to
collect the charge carriers.
❖ So, they should have relatively more space, they are situated on
other side of the transistor as shown in this geometry.
Principle & Operation of BJT
A BJT can operate in four different modes depending on the polarities across the two
junctions.
1. Normal(Active)
2. Saturation
3. Cutoff
4. Inverse
These are shown in the figure
NORMAL:
If the Emitter is forward biased &
Collector is reverse biased, the
transistor is operated in normal mode.
Most transistor Amplifiers in
normal mode.
SATURATION:
If both the junctions are forward
biased, it is in saturation state with
very low resistance & it acts as
short ckt. CUTOFF:
If the two junctions are reverse biased , then it works in
cutoff & it acts like open circuit.
INVERSE MODE:
If Emitter is reverse biased & Collector is forward biased it works in inverse mode.
Figure shows the VI characteristics of an NPN transistor for common base
configuration.
There are three regions in the characteristics namely Active, Saturation & Cutoff.
ACTIVE:
In this region Emitter is forward biased &
collector is reverse biased. The collector
current Ic is independent of collector
voltage and depends only on emitter
current IE.
When Emitter current is zero, collector
current is reverse saturation current Ico.
SATURATION:
In this region both the emitter & collector
junctions are forward biased
The electron current flows from N side to P type base so the collector
current increases sharply.
CUTOFF:
Here both emitter & collector are reverse biased , so the collector current is
cutoff to zero.
Amplification Phenomena:
BJTs are used for signal amplification & the phenomena can be described from
common base & common collector configurations.
Common Base N P N Transistor
The ratio of the output current to the input current for a small signal in a BJT is known as
current gain α of hfb , which is given by
Common Emitter N P N Transistor

In active region of common emitter npn transistor, the emitter junction is forward biased
& collector junction is reverse biased. The base current is given by
substituting the equation of Ic from above , we have
In cutoff region, if IB=0 & IE= -Ic & the collector current is given by
FETs vs. BJTs
Similarities in Applications:
✓ Amplifiers
✓ Oscillators
✓ Switching devices
✓ Impedance matching circuits
Differences :
✓ FETs are unipolar devices where as BJTs are bipolar
✓ FETs are voltage controlled devices. BJTs are current controlled
devices.
✓ FETs have a higher input impedance. BJTs have higher gains.
✓ FETs are less sensitive to temperature variations and are more easily
integrated on ICs.
✓ FETs are generally more static sensitive than BJTs
✓ FETs are less noisy than bipolar devices as they have only one type of charge
carriers
❖ Field Effect Transistor is a unipolar device;
it means that the current conduction in these transistors is due to only one type of charge
carriers, it could be either electron or hole.
❖ The output current in this transistors is controlled by the input voltage of the transistor.
MOSFET-Modern metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors
(MOSFETs) have become important at frequencies below 2.5GHz.
The nonlinear models come from SPICE developments, including bipolar
CMOS nonlinear (Bi-CMOS) models among others.
There are two types of MOSFETs:
• Depletion-Type
• Enhancement-Type
Depletion-Type MOSFET Construction
The Drain (D) and Source (S) connect to
the to n-doped regions. These n-doped
regions are connected via an n-channel.
This n-channel is connected to the Gate
(G) via a thin insulating layer of SiO2.
The n-doped material lies on a p-doped

substrate that may have an additional
terminal connection called Substrate (SS).
E-Type MOSFET Construction
❖ The Drain (D) and Source (S) connect
to the to n-doped regions. These n-
doped regions are connected via an n-
channel
❖ The Gate (G) connects to the p-doped
substrate via a thin insulating layer of
SiO2
❖ There is no channel
❖ The n-doped material lies on a p-doped
substrate that may have an additional
terminal connection called the
Substrate (SS).
MESFET
❖ MESFET: This transistor came about in 1965 with the
development of Schottky diodes and ohmic contacts simultaneously
on GaAs.
❖ It is a majority-carrier device which is voltage controlled at the
gate. The name means metal–semiconductor field-effect transistor.
High-electron-mobility transistor (HEMT)
❖ HEMT : This is replacing MESFETs in many applications due to superior performance.
❖ HBT: The hetero junction bipolar transistor (HBT) was originally developed to
improve emitter injection efficiency in GaAs BJTs.
13
Cont.….
❖ In designing a microwave circuit, which will be built on a material such as

GaAs, one needs to go to a GaAs alternative silicon or silicon germanium
foundry.
14
Tunnel Diode
❖ It is used as high speed switch, of order nano-seconds. Due to
tunneling effect it has very fast operation in microwave frequency
region.
❖ It is a two terminal device in which concentration of dopants is too
high.
❖ The transient response is being limited by junction capacitance plus
stray wiring capacitance.
❖ It acts as most negative conductance device. Tunnel diodes can be
tuned in both mechanically and electrically. The symbol of tunnel
diode is as shown below.
Applications of Tunnel Diode
❖ Oscillatory circuits.
❖ Microwave circuits.
❖ Resistant to nuclear radiation.
Varactor Diode
❖ These are also known as Varicap diodes.
❖ It acts like the variable capacitor. Operations are performed mainly at reverse
bias state only.
❖ These diodes are very famous due to its capability of changing the capacitance
ranges within the circuit in the presence of constant voltage flow.
❖ They can able to vary capacitance up to high values.
❖ In varactor diode by changing the reverse bias voltage we can decrease or
increase the depletion layer. The symbol of varactor diode is given below.
Varactor Diode Applications

❖ Voltage-controlled capacitors.
❖ Voltage-controlled oscillators.
❖ Frequency multipliers.
❖ FM transmitters and Phase locked loops in radio, television sets and cellular
telephone.
Oscillator Diodes
Three types of diodes other than the tunnel diode that can oscillate due to
negative resistance characteristics are:
❖ Gunn diode
❖ IMPATT diode
❖ RAPATT diode
Gunn diodes
❖ Gunn diodes, also called transferred-electron devices (TEDs), are
not diodes in the usual sense because they do not have junctions.
❖ A Gunn diode is a thin piece of N-type gallium arsenide (GaAs) or
indium phosphide (InP) semiconductor which forms a special resistor
when voltage is applied to it.
❖ The Gunn diode exhibits a negative-resistance characteristic.
❖ Gunn diodes oscillate at frequencies up to 150 GHz.
❖ When it is so biased, the time it takes for the electrons to flow across the material is
such that the current is 180 degrees out of phase with the applied voltage.
❖ If the Gunn diode so biased is connected to a cavity near the frequency determined
by the electron transit time, the resulting combination will oscillate.

❖ It is primarily used then as a microwave oscillator.
IMPATT Diode
❖ The full form IMPATT is IMPact ionization Avalanche Transit Time diode.
❖ This is a high-power semiconductor diode, used in high frequency microwave
applications.
❖ A voltage gradient when applied to the IMPATT diode, results in a high current.
❖ A high potential gradient is applied to back bias the diode and hence minority
carriers flow across the junction.
❖ The time taken for the pulse to reach cathode depends upon the thickness of n+
layer, which is adjusted to make it 90° phase shift.
❖ Now, a dynamic RF negative resistance is proved to exist. Hence, IMPATT diode
acts both as an oscillator and an amplifier.
TRAPATT Diode
❖ The full form of TRAPATT diode is TRApped Plasma Avalanche

Triggered Transit diode.
❖ These are high peak power diodes usually n+- p-p+ or p+-n-n+ structures
with n-type depletion region, width varying from 2.5 to 1.25 Âµm.
❖ The electrons and holes trapped in low field region behind the zone, are made to fill
the depletion region in the diode. This is done by a high field avalanche region which
propagates through the diode.
❖ The following figure shows a graph in which AB shows charging, BC shows
plasma formation, DE shows plasma extraction, EF shows residual extraction,
and FG shows charging. Let us see what happens at each of the points.
❖ A: The voltage at point A is not sufficient for the avalanche breakdown to occur. At A,
charge carriers due to thermal generation results in charging of the diode like a linear
capacitance.
❖ A-B: At this point, the magnitude of the electric field increases. When a sufficient
number of carriers are generated, the electric field is depressed throughout the depletion
region causing the voltage to decrease from B to C.
❖ C: This charge helps the avalanche to continue and a dense plasma of electrons and
holes is created.
Cont.…..
❖ D: The voltage decreases at point D.
❖ E: At point E, the plasma is removed. Residual charges of holes and
electrons remain each at one end of the deflection layer.
❖ E to F: The voltage increases as the residual charge is removed.
❖ F: At point F, all the charge generated internally is removed.
❖ F to G: The diode charges like a capacitor.
❖ G: At point G, the diode current comes to zero for half a period.
Microwave Integrated Circuits
Current microwave fabrication technology are ;
1.Connectorized – Easy to construct microwave systems, but big and bulky.
2.Printed Circuit Board (PCB) – Can implement microstrip or even stripline
microwave systems using standard manufacturing techniques.
3. Hybrid Microcircuits -
❖ Microstrip circuits are constructed on ceramic or crystalline substrates, typically

with low loss and high dielectric constant.
❖ Components such as chip resistors and conductors can be attached, as well as
individual integrated circuits.
❖ Interconnections are often made with thin wires (i.e., wire- bonded). The goal is
to pack as much “stuff” into as small a space as possible
4. Monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuit (MMICs) –
❖ The same monolithic technology and fabrication techniques applied to
integrated circuits can likewise be applied to construct microwave devices and
systems.
❖ Inherent in MMICs is a technology known as Micro Electro- Mechanical
Systems (MEMS).
❖ In MEMS, integrated circuit techniques are used to make what are essentially
tiny structures on the integrated circuit. Among these structures are spiral
inductors, transmission lines, and switches.
❖ Microwave ICs are the best alternative to conventional waveguide or coaxial
circuits, as they are low in weight, small in size, highly reliable.
❖ The basic materials used for monolithic microwave integrated circuits are
✓ Substrate material
✓ Conductor material
✓ Dielectric films
✓ Resistive films
Transistor application
Microwave ‘O’ Type Tubes
Formulae:
1. Transit Angle,
TWO-CAVITY KLYSTRON
1. The beam coupling coefficient of the input cavity gap, βi is expressed as,
2. Depth of the velocity modulation is expressed as,
= (βi * V1) / Vo
Where, βi = Beam coupling coefficient of input cavity gap
V1 = Amplitude of input signal, Vo = DC voltage Applied
3. The equation for velocity modulation is ,
Where,
4. The optimum distance ‘L’ at which the maximum fundamental component of the current
occurs is,
5. Considering the output equivalent circuit of the klystron, the output power delivered to the catcher cavity and the
load can be expressed as,
Where Rsh is total equivalent shunt resistance of the catcher circuit, RL is the load; Rsho is the wall resistance of the catcher cavity, RB the
beam loading resistance, βo = beam coupling coefficient of catcher gap and generally it is equal to βi and if the coupling is perfect βo =1,
6. The Efficiency of Two-cavity klystron is calculated as,
7. The power given by the buncher cavity to produce beam bunching is ,
Where, GB is the equivalent bunching conductance or beam loading conductance and is expressed as,
and Go is the Equivalent electron beam conductance expressed as,
8. The voltage gain of a klystron amplifier is defined as,
Where, Ro= Vo / Io is the dc beam resistance and ‘X’ is bunching parameter

of a klystron defined as,
Where, θo is the dc transit angle between the cavities and expressed as,
Note:
EXERCISE
Problem 1:
Helix Traveling Wave Tubes
Formulae:
1. The phase velocity in the axial direction of the helical coil is expressed as,
Where, p=Helix pitch

d=diameter of the helix
2. The convention current in the electron beam is an imaginary quantity and is expressed as follows and called
as Electronic equation,
Where, Io =dc Current, Vo=dc voltage βe=ω/ νo =Phase constant of the
velocity modulated electron beam
γ=Propagation constant of axial waves, E1=Magnitude of electric filed in the z-direction, νo=dc
electron velocity =0.593*106*(Vo)1/2
3.The alternating voltage in transmission line which is imaginary can
be calculated as,
Where, γ=Propagation constant of axial waves , γO=Propagation constant when
current is zero
γO =
And Zo= = Characteristic impedance
4. The axial electric field is expressed as,
E1= -(γ*V)= ,called as circuit equation
5. The wave modes of helix type traveling wave tube can be determined by solving circuit and
electronic equations simultaneously for propagation constants and the value of four propagation
constants are,
Where
C =Traveling wave tube gain parameter and is expressed as,

6. The output power gain in decibels of traveling wave tube is expressed as,
Problem 2:
CROSSED-FIELD TUBES (M-TYPE TUBES)
MAGNETRON OSCILLATOR
FORMULAE:
1. The equations of motion of electrons in cylindrical magnetron can

be written
2. The cyclotron angular frequency is
3. The hull cutoff magnetic equation for cutoff magnetic flux density can be expressed as,
4. The hull cutoff voltage equation for calculating cutoff voltage is

given by,
5. If there are ‘N’ reentrant cavities in the anode structure ,the

phase shift between two adjacent cavities can be expressed as,
6. Magnetron oscillators are normally operated in the π mode i.e.

φn= π (π mode)
7. π mode is called fundamental mode and the phase constant of the fundamental-mode
field when ‘L’ is the mean separation between cavities is,
8.The efficiency and the power output of a magnetron depend on the resonant structure and
the dc power supply and the equivalent circuit for a resonator of magnetron is ,
• The unloaded quality factor of the resonator is given by,
• The external quality factor of the load circuit is
• The loaded quality factor of the resonant circuit is,
• The circuit efficiency is defined as,

❖ The electronic efficiency is defines as,
❖ The RF power generated by the electrons can be written as,

9. The Hartree cutoff condition determines the anode voltage or magnetic field
necessary to obtain nonzero anode current as a function of the magnetic field
or anode voltage in the absence of electromagnetic field. this condition can be
expressed as,
Problem 3:
Problem 4
Problem 5
Impedance Matching
❖ Impedance matching is a vitally important part of amplifier design.
There are four main reasons for impedance matching:
✓ Tomatch an impedance of load for maximum power transfer;
✓ Tomatch an amplifier to a certain load value to provide a required
transistor gain ;
✓ To match an amplifier to a load that does not cause transistor
instability;
✓ To provide a load for an oscillator that will cause instability and
hence oscillations.
Matching methods
There are many means of impedance matching. These include:

❖ Quarter wave transmission line matching
❖ Capacitive matching
❖ Single stub matching
❖ L network matching
❖ Double stub matching
❖ Pi network matching
❖ Transformer matching
❖ T network matching
❖ Auto-transformer matching
44
Smith Chart
❖ The Smith Chart is a clever tool for analyzing transmission lines
❖ The outside of the chart shows location on the line in wave lengths.
❖ The combination of intersecting circles inside the chart allow us to locate
the normalized impedance and then to find the impedance anywhere on the
line.
❖ Thus, the first step in analyzing a transmission line is to locate the

normalized load impedance on the chart.
❖ Next, a circle is drawn that represents the reflection coefficient or Standing
wave ratio (SWR).
45
❖The center of the circle is the center of the chart.
❖The circle passes through the normalized load impedance
❖Any point on the line is found on this circle.
❖ Rotate clockwise to move toward the generator (away from
the load)
❖The distance moved on the line is indicated on the outside of
the chart in wavelengths
46
To ward Constant
Generator Reflection
Coefficient Circle
Away From Scale in

Generator Wavelengths
Full Circle is One Half

Wavelength Since
Everything Repeats
13
❖ Impedance divided by line
impedance (50 Ohms)
Z1 = 100 + j50
Z2 = 75 -j100
Z3 = j200
Z4 = 150
Z5 = infinity (an open circuit)
Z6 = 0 (a short circuit)
Z7 = 50
Z8 = 184 -j900
Then, normalize and plot. The

points are plotted as follows:
Z1 = 2 + j
Z2 = 1.5 -j2
Z3 = j4
Z4 = 3
Z5 = infinity
Z6 = 0
Z7 = 1
Z8 = 3.68 -j18
14
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
Why matching is important?
❖ To maximize power delivery and minimize power loss
❖ To improve signal to noise ratio as in sensitive
receiver components
❖ To reduce amplitude and phase error
Matching
Zo Load ZL
Network
57
Factors in selecting matching network
❖ Complexity: simpler, cheaper, more reliable and low loss
circuit is preferred.
❖ Bandwidth: match over a desirable bandwidth.
❖ Implementation: depend on types of transmission line either
cable, stripline, microstripline, waveguide, lump circuit etc.
❖ Adjustability: some network may need adjustment to match
a variable load.
❖ The Smith Chart can be used to design a lumped (L-C)
matching network to match one impedance to another
58
59
Series Inductors
Moves clockwise along circles of constant resistance
60
Series Capacitors
❖ Moves counter-clockwise along circles of constant resistance
61
Shunt Inductors
❖ Moves counter-clockwise along circles of constant
conductance
62
Shunt Capacitors
❖ Moves clockwise along circles of constant conductance
63
The End
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Microwave Devices and Circuits

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Chapter 0

Microwave Circuits & Systems

30KHz -300KHz LF(Low Frequency), Radio beacons, Navigation aids

Figure 1 microwave system 14

(a) High frequency

❖ The width of a waveguide must be approximately a half wavelength at

the frequency of the wave to be transported.

❖ It is not suitable for operations at lower frequencies due to

❖ Increasing the costs and decrease the practicality of waveguide systems at

any other than microwave frequencies.

❖ TEM mode of propagation is not possible in the waveguide.

❖ It supports narrow band of operation.

❖ Polarization of EM wave is fixed in rectangular waveguide while it

can be altered in circular waveguide due to minor irregularities of

1. Transverse Electro Magnetic (TEM) wave:

❖The electric field, E and the magnetic field, H are oriented

Ez= 0 and Hz= 0

❖ Used for microwave communications

❖ It consists of ahollow, round (circular cross section) metal

❖The structure of such a circular waveguide with inner radius a, is

❖ Used in transmission of circularly polarized waves, to connect

❖ Why do we use circular waveguide?

Ridged Waveguide Using Singled Ridged Waveguide

Double Ridged Waveguide

❖ The H bend of Figure (a) is used to turn a 90° corner.

❖ The velocity at which the wave changes phase.

a) Find the cut-off frequency

8 . Find the characteristic impedance of the waveguide for the TE10

❖ Review of Network Parameters

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❖ This black box could contain anything :

Fig. 2.1 Two port network

❖ Consider the two-port network shown in Fig 2.1.

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V1   Z11 Z12 … Z1N  I1 

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 I1  Y11 Y12 … Y1N V1 

Where Ii (Short circuit admittance)

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❖ Lossless networks can be shown that Zij or Yij are

❖The transmission matrix describes the network given in Fig 2.1

Microwave Devices and Systems 1

❖Since the ABCD matrix represents the ports in terms of currents

❖ The matrices can be mathematically cascaded by multiplication

Microwave Devices and Systems 1

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❖ Reconsider the two-port network of Figure 2.1

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❖ h11 = input impedance

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The figure below shows the S parameters of two port network.

❖ Scattering matrices are frequently used to

❖ In matrix form this is written

Condition for Reciprocity: S12= S21

Since the summation is not equal to 1, thus

❖Transmission line is a distributed-parameter network,

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❖ R = Series resistance per unit length for both conductors

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❖ Dividing (2.1) by Δz and limit Δz → 0,

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