Data Communication and Computer Networks

Woldia University
Institute of Technology School of Electrical

and Computer Engineering
Data Communicationand Computer Networks
Chapter One
Introduction
1 /38
Introduction
Protocols and Architecture
Outline
1 Introduction
2 Protocols and Architecture
2 /38
Introduction
Introduction
3 /38
Introduction
Introduction
Communication across a data networks plays a vital role in
our daily life.
This course covers how data networks support the human

network.
4 /38
Introduction
Introduction
Networks: Live, Work, Play

Networks are no longer only used to connect computers.
Networks are a vital part of our every day lives.
Networks are involved in the way we live, work and play.
5 /38
Introduction
Data communication
Data communication
It deals with the transmission of signals in a reliable and
efficient manner.
It includes signal transmission, transmission media, signal
encoding interfacing, data link control and multiplexing
6 /38
Introduction
Networking
Networking
It deals with the technology and architecture of the
communications networks used to interconnect
communicating devices.
It includes two topics Local area networks and wide area
networks.
There are four elements of network
Rules
Medium
Message
Devices
7 /38
Introduction
Networking
8 /38
Introduction
Communications model
Communications model
The fundamental purpose of a communications system is the
exchange of data between two parties
9 /38
Introduction
Data communication model
Data communication model

Deals with the most fundamental aspects of the
communications function, focusing on the transmission of
signals in a reliable and efficient manner.
10 /38
Introduction
Transmission lines
Transmission lines
The basic building block of any communications facility is the
transmission line.
The business manager is concerned with a facility providing
the required capacity, with acceptable reliability, at minimum
cost.
However, the use of compression, multiplexing, load sharing,
and other line features can significantly affect the end choice.
11 /38
Introduction
Transmission Media
Transmission Media
Convert electronic signal to transmit over some medium.
Twisted-pair, coaxial cable, optical fiber cable, terrestrial and
satellite microwave (wireless)
12 /38
Introduction
Networking
Networking is the interconnection of workstations, peripherals,

terminals and other devices.
13 /38
Introduction
Protocols
Used for communications between entities in a system
Protocol
A set of rules conventions.
Governs how computers exchange information over a
shared/network medium.
Used for communications between entities in a system
Defines :
What is communicated
How it is communicated
When it is communicated
14 /38
Introduction
Protocol Architecture
Communications Architecture: a structured set of modules
that implements the communication function.
Task of communication broken up into modules.
Example:- File Transfer could use three modules.
File transfer application
Communication service module
Network access module
15 /38
Introduction
Rules that govern communication
16 /38
Introduction
Successful communication between hosts on a network
requires the interaction of many different protocols.
A group of inter-related protocols that are necessary to
perform a communication function is called a protocol suite.
These protocols are implemented in software and hardware
that is loaded on each host and network devices
17 /38
Introduction
The role of protocols
Networking protocols provide

The format or structure of the message.
The process by which networking devices share information
about pathways with other networks.
How and when error and system messages are passed between
devices
The setup and termination of data transfer sessions
18 /38
Introduction
Benefits of using layered model
Benefits of using layered model

Assists in protocol design, because protocols that operate at a
specific layer have defined information that they act upon and
a defined interface to the layers above and below.
Promotes competition because products from different
vendors can work together.
Prevents technology or capability changes in one layer from
affecting other layers above and below.
Provides a common language to describe networking functions
and capabilities.
19 /38
Introduction
The OSI Model
The OSI Model

The International Standards Organization /ISO is a
multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement on
international standards.
An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
model .
ISO is the organization.OSI is the model.
20 /38
Introduction
Layers In The OSI Model
Layers In The OSI Model
Figure 1: Seven layers of the OSI model
21 /38
Introduction
The OSI model
22 /38
Introduction
The OSI model
The interaction between layers in the OSI model
23 /38
Introduction
The OSI model
An exchange using the OSI model
24 /38
Introduction
The OSI model
The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits

from one hop (node) to the next.
25 /38
Introduction
The OSI model
The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop
(node) to the next.
26 /38
Introduction
The OSI model
Hop-to-hop delivery
27 /38
Introduction
The OSI model
The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual

packets from the source host to the destination host.
28 /38
Introduction
The OSI model
Source-to-destination delivery
29 /38
Introduction
The OSI model
Source-to-destination delivery
30 /38
Introduction
The OSI model
The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message

from one process to another.
31 /38
Introduction
The OSI model
Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message
32 /38
Introduction
The OSI model
The session layer is responsible for dialog control and

synchronization.
33 /38
Introduction
The OSI model
The presentation layer is responsible for translation, compression,

and encryption.
34 /38
Introduction
The OSI model
The application layer is responsible for providing services to the

user.
35 /38
Introduction
TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match
those in the OSI model.
The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as having four
layers: host-to-network, internet, transport, and application.
However, when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that
the TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers: physical,
data link, network, transport, and application.
TCP/IP Layers
Physical and Data Link Layers
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Application Layer
36 /38
Introduction
TCP/IP and OSI model
37 /38
Introduction
Reading Assignment
Operation of TCP/IP
TCP and UDP header
38 /38
Chapter Two
Data Encoding Transmission
1 /29
Introduction
Encoding Techniques
Outline
1 Introduction
2 Encoding Techniques
2 /29
Introduction
Encoding Techniques
Digital and Analog Signals
To be transmitted, data must be transformed to

electromagnetic signals.
Analog and Digital Data

Data can be analog or digital.
Analog data are continuous and take continuous values.
Digital data have discrete states and take discrete values.
Analog and Digital signal

Signal can be analog or digital.
Analog signals can have an infinite number of values in a
range.
digital signals can have only a limited number of values.
3 /29
Introduction
Encoding Techniques
Transmission Media
There are a number of transmission media types used for

DataCommunication.
The choice of medium depends on:
Distance to be covered
Desired Bite Rate (in bits per second, bps)
Cost Considerations
Transmission medium and physical layer
4 /29
Introduction
Encoding Techniques
Classes of transmission media
Classes of transmission media
5 /29
Introduction
Encoding Techniques
GUIDED
MEDIA
Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one
device to another, include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and
fiber-optic cable.
Twisted-Pair Cable
Coaxial Cable
Fiber-Optic Cable
Twisted-pair cable
6 /29
Introduction
Encoding Techniques
UTP and STP cables

UTP and STP cables
.
Coaxial cable
7 /29
Introduction
Encoding Techniques
coaxial cabe
Categories of coaxial cables
Optical fiber
8 /29
Introduction
Encoding Techniques
Propagation modes
9 /29
Introduction
Encoding Techniques
Modes
UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS

Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without
using a physical conductor.
This type of communication is often referred to as wireless
communication.
10 /29
Introduction
Encoding Techniques
Encoding Techniques
DIGITAL-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION
We can represent digital data by using digital signals.
The conversion involves three techniques: line coding, block
coding, and scrambling. Line coding is always needed; block
coding and scrambling may or may not be needed.
Line coding and decoding
11 /29
Introduction
Encoding Techniques
Encoding Techniques
Line coding schemes

Unipolar
NRZ
Polar
NRZ, RZ, Polar biphase: Manchester and differential Manchester
schemes
Bipolar
AMI and pseudoternary
12 /29
Introduction
Encoding Techniques
Encoding Techniques
Definition of Digital Signal Encoding Formats
13 /29
Introduction
Encoding Techniques
Encoding Techniques
Unipolar NRZ scheme
14 /29
Introduction
Encoding Techniques
Encoding Techniques
Polar NRZ-L and NRZ-I schemes
Polar RZ scheme
15 /29
Introduction
Encoding Techniques
Encoding Techniques
Polar biphase: Manchester and differential Manchester schemes
16 /29
Introduction
Encoding Techniques
Encoding Techniques
Bipolar schemes: AMI and pseudoternary
17 /29
Introduction
Encoding Techniques
TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT
Signals travel through transmission media, which are not
perfect.
The imperfection causes signal impairment.
This means that the signal at the beginning of the medium is
not the same as the signal at the end of the medium.
What is sent is not what is received.
Three causes of impairment are attenuation, distortion, and
noise.
18 /29
Introduction
Encoding Techniques
Signal Attenuation is the phenomenon whereby the amplitude

of a signaldecreases as it propagates along a transmission line.
Attenuation is a function of distance and frequency of signal
Repeaters are used to increase the power of the signal at
appropriate intervals.
Signal Distortion involves the Shape of the signal becoming
altered as itpropagates along the line.
One cause of distortion is the different attenuation rates for
different frequencycomponents of the signal.
If the frequency components of one bit are delayed sufficiently
they willover lap with the component of the next bit resulting
in Inter Symbol Interference (ISI).
19 /29
Introduction
Encoding Techniques
Errors
Errors
An error occurs when a bit is altered between transmission
and reception. binary 1 is transmitted and binary 0 is received
or binary 0 is transmitted and binary 1 is received
Single bit error: isolated error that alters one bit but not
nearby bits. Caused by white noise.
Burst error: contiguous sequence of B bits where first and last
bits and any number of intermediate bits are received in error.
caused by impulse noise or by fading in wireless and effects
greater at higher data rates
20 /29
Introduction
Encoding Techniques
Error Detection
Error Detection
Regardless of design you will have errors
Can detect errors by using an error-detecting code added by
the transmitter
Code is also referred to as “check bits”
Recalculated and checked by receiver
Still chance of undetected error
21 /29
Introduction
Encoding Techniques
Parity Check
Parity
parity bit set so character has even or odd of ones
even parity – used in synchronous transmission
odd parity – used in asynchronous transmission even number
of bit errors goes undetected.
problem : noise impulses often long enough to destroy more
than one bit, especially at high data rates
22 /29
Introduction
Encoding Techniques
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

One of the most common, and one of the most powerful,
error-detecting codes.
for a block of k bits, transmitter generates an n-bit frame by
adding an (n-k)-bit frame check sequence (FCS)
Transmits n bits which is exactly divisible by some
predetermined number
receiver divides frame by that number, if no remainder,
assume no error
23 /29
Introduction
Encoding Techniques
Modulo-2 Arithmetic
Modulo-2 Arithmetic
24 /29
Introduction
Encoding Techniques
CRC Using Mod-2 Arithmetic
25 /29
Introduction
Encoding Techniques
CRC Mod-2 Example
26 /29
Introduction
Encoding Techniques
CRC Mod-2 Example
27 /29
Introduction
Encoding Techniques
CRC Mod-2 Example
Example: do the above example in CRC Polynomials
28 /29
Introduction
Encoding Techniques
FLOW AND ERROR CONTROL
The most important responsibilities of the data link layer are flow
control and error control. Collectively, these functions are known
as data link control.
Flow control refers to a set of procedures used to restrict the
amount of data that the sender can send before waiting for
acknowledgment.
Error control in the data link layer is based on automatic
repeat request, which is the retransmission of data.
29 /29
MULTIPLEXING
Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two
devices is greater than the bandwidth needs of the
devices, the link can be shared. Multiplexing is the set
of techniques that allows the simultaneous
transmission of multiple signals across a single data
link. As data and telecommunications use increases, so
does traffic.
Topics discussed in this section:
Frequency-Division Multiplexing
Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
Synchronous Time-Division Multiplexing
Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing
1
Dividing a link into channels
2
Categories of multiplexing
3
Frequency-division multiplexing
4
Note
FDM is an analog multiplexing

technique that combines analog
signals.
5
FDM process
6
FDM demultiplexing example
7
Example 1
Assume that a voice channel occupies a bandwidth of 4

kHz. We need to combine three voice channels into a link
with a bandwidth of 12 kHz, from 20 to 32 kHz. Show the
configuration, using the frequency domain. Assume there
are no guard bands.
Solution
We shift (modulate) each of the three voice channels to a
different bandwidth, as shown in below. We use the 20- to
24-kHz bandwidth for the first channel, the 24- to 28-kHz
bandwidth for the second channel, and the 28- to 32-kHz
bandwidth for the third one. Then we combine them as
shown in Figure below .
8
Example 1
9
Example 2
Five channels, each with a 100-kHz bandwidth, are to be

multiplexed together. What is the minimum bandwidth of
the link if there is a need for a guard band of 10 kHz
between the channels to prevent interference?
Solution
For five channels, we need at least four guard bands.
This means that the required bandwidth is at least
5 × 100 + 4 × 10 = 540 kHz,
as shown in Figure below .
10
Example 2
11
Wavelength-division multiplexing
12
Note
WDM is an analog multiplexing

technique to combine optical signals.
13
Prisms in wavelength-division multiplexing and demultiplexing
14
TDM
15
Note
TDM is a digital multiplexing

technique for combining several low-
rate channels into one high-rate one.
16
Synchronous time-division multiplexing
17
Note
In synchronous TDM, the data rate

of the link is n times faster, and the
unit duration is n times shorter.
18
Example 3
In Figure above , the data rate for each input connection

is 3 kbps. If 1 bit at a time is multiplexed (a unit is 1 bit),
what is the duration of (a) each input slot, (b) each output
slot, and (c) each frame?
Solution
We can answer the questions as follows:
a. The data rate of each input connection is 1 kbps. This
means that the bit duration is 1/1000 s or 1 ms. The
duration of the input time slot is 1 ms (same as bit
duration).
19
Example 3 (conti..)
b. The duration of each output time slot is one-third of

the input time slot. This means that the duration of the
output time slot is 1/3 ms.
c. Each frame carries three output time slots. So the

duration of a frame is 3 × 1/3 ms, or 1 ms. The
duration of a frame is the same as the duration of an
input unit.
20
Synchronous time division multiplexing
Can be used with digital signals or analog signals

carrying digital data.
 In this form of multiplexing, data from various
sources are carried in repetitive frames.
Each frame consists of a set of time slots, and each
source is assigned one or more time slots per
frame.
The effect is to interleave bits of data from the
various sources
21
Statistical time division multiplexing
Provides a generally more efficient service than

synchronous TDM for the support of terminals.
With statistical TDM, time slots are not
preassigned to particular data sources.
Rather, user data are buffered and transmitted as
rapidly as possible using available time slots.
22
Figure Interleaving
23
Example 4
Four channels are multiplexed using TDM. If each

channel sends 100 bytes /s and we multiplex 1 byte per
channel, show the frame traveling on the link, the size of
the frame, the duration of a frame, the frame rate, and
the bit rate for the link.
Solution
The multiplexer is shown in Figure below . Each frame
carries 1 byte from each channel; the size of each frame,
therefore, is 4 bytes, or 32 bits. Because each channel is
sending 100 bytes/s and a frame carries 1 byte from each
channel, the frame rate must be 100 frames per second.
The bit rate is 100 × 32, or 3200 bps.
24
Example 4
25
Chapter 3
Local Area network
Local Area Network (LAN) basics
• Local Area Network (LAN)
Consists of a shared transmission medium and a set of hardware and software for
interfacing devices to the medium and regulating the orderly access to the medium
• Local Area Network (LAN)
• Cover single building or cluster of buildings
• Privately owned
• Network assets and network management typically controlled by user
organization
2
LAN Key Elements
• Topology
• Way in which end points (stations) interconnect
• Transmission medium
• Wiring Layout
• Protocol
• Medium Access Control
3
LAN Topologies
CSCI 465
4
Data Communications & Networks
LAN Topology: Bus and Tree
Bus: Tree:
• Multipoint medium • Generalization of bus
• Stations attach to linear • Branching cable with no closed loops
• Cable(s) begin at headend, travel to
medium (bus) via tap branches which may have branches of
• Full-duplex between station their own
and tap • Each transmission propagates through
network, heard by all stations
• Transmission from any
stations travels entire
medium (both directions)
• Terminators required at
each end of bus
5
Bus and Tree Issues
• One station could dominate medium
• Frames - Transmit small block at a time
• Two stations transmitting at same time will lead to
garbled messages
• Have medium access control protocols
• Stations monitor control information in frames
• All stations hear all transmissions
• Frames include headers with address
• Frames removed by terminators at ends
6
Frame transmission on a bus LAN
LAN Topology: Ring
• Set of repeaters joined by point-to-point links in a
closed loop
• Receive data on one link & retransmit on another
• links unidirectional
• stations attach to repeaters
• Data transmitted in frames
• circulate past all stations
• destination recognizes address and copies frame
• frame circulates back to source where it is removed
• Medium access control
• determines when a station can insert frame
8
Frame transmission on a Ring LAN
LAN Topology: Star
• Stations connect to common central node
• Usually via two point-to-point links
• One for transmission and one for reception
• Central Node (Hub)
• Operates in broadcast fashion
• Physical star – logically a bus
• Only one station can transmit at a time
• Hub could act as a frame switch
• send only to recipient
10
Choosing a LAN Topology
• Factors to consider include reliability, flexibility/expandability, and
performance
• Bus/tree is most flexible
• Tree topology easy to lay out
• Ring provides high throughput, but reliability problems – single failure
cripples network
• Star can be high speed for short distances, but has limited
expandability – natural layout
11
LAN Transmission Media
• Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

• Early LANs used voice-grade cable
• Scaling up for higher data rates not practical
• Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

• Much higher performance
• Baseband coaxial cable
• Digital signaling – used in original Ethernet
• Broadband coaxial cable
• Used in cable TV systems
• Expensive, difficult to install and maintain
• Optical fiber – used in high-speed backbones
12
Selecting Transmission Media
• Capacity
• Can it support expected traffic?
• Reliability
• Can it meet requirements for availability?
• Types of data supported
• Is it well-suited to the applications involved?
• Environmental scope
• Can it provide service in required environments?
13
LAN cabling areas
• Work Area
 a minimum of two jacks for each work area
 the EIA/TIA standard specifies maximum of 10m UTP to connect end device
to the wall jack
 Straight through cable is most common patch cable
• telecommunication room
 transition between back bone cabling and horizontal cabling
 EIA/TIA specifies maximum of 5m patch cord to connect patch panel to the
equipment
 Also contains servers used by the network
 Horizontal cabling
 maximum length 90m
 Runs from patch panel in telecommunication room to wall jack
 backbone cabling
 connect telecommunication room to equipment room
 connect to ISP or WAN
Cables length and bandwidth
Types of UTP cables
• Identify the pin out of the straight-through and
cross-over cables
…
• use straight through cable for connecting different layer devices
 switch to router
 computer to switch
 computer to hub
• Use cross over cable for connecting same layer devices
 switch to switch
 switch to hub
 hub to hub
Router to router
 computer to computer
 Computer to router
Types of Connections in a LAN
• Identify the correct cable to use in connecting

intermediate and end devices in a LAN.
Types of Connections in a LAN
• device management connections when using Cisco
equipment.
LAN Protocol Architecture
CSCI 465
Data Communications & Networks
21
IEEE 802 Layers
Physical Layer
• Encoding / decoding of signals
• Preamble generation / removal - synchronization
• Bit transmission / reception
• Transmission medium and topology
• Considered below physical layer of OSI model
• Critical in LAN design
22
IEEE 802 LLC and MAC
• Logical Link Control Layer (LLC)
• Provides interface to higher levels
• Performs flow and error control
• Medium Access Control (MAC)
• Assemble data into frame – address, error control
• Disassemble frame
• address recognition and error detection
• Govern access to transmission medium
• For same LLC, several MAC options provided
23
Ethernet
• IEEE publishes a standard for LAN. these standards are numbered 802
• Ethernet is the common LAN standard numbered 802.3
• Ethernet operates in the lower two layers of the OSI standard
Physical and Data Link Features of Ethernet
• how the Ethernet operates across two layers of the
OSI model
• Logic Link Control – Connecting the Upper Layers
• Media Access Control (MAC)
Historic Ethernet
• Ethernet in its early years Emergence of LAN switches
Media access control method on Ethernet
• CSMA/CD : carrier sense multiple access with collision detection

CSMA/CD (Ethernet)
Rules
• If medium is idle, transmit
• If medium is busy
• Continue to listen until idle (1-persistent)
• Transmit once idle but keep listening
• If collision detected while transmitting, stop
• After collision, wait a random amount of time, referred to as the “backoff ”,
then start again
30
Ethernet frame
Ethernet Address(MAC address)
• 48 bit integer (281 trillion possibilities) or 6 bytes, each byte
represented in hexadecimal e.g 00-07-E9-63-CE-53
• Assigned to interface card by manufacturer who purchases set of
addresses from IEEE
• No two interfaces have same address, thus changing interface
changes address
• Higher levels of software must accommodate address change
• Used within networks across local media
• The ARP protocol is used to resolve ip address to mac address
32
Explain the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) process.
• Mapping IP to MAC Addresses

Explain the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) process.
• ARP – Destinations Outside the Local Network

ALOHA Protocol
 ALOHA is a multiple access protocol for transmission of data via a shared

network channel.
 It operates in the medium access control sublayer (MAC sublayer) of the
open systems interconnection (OSI) model.
 By using this protocol, several data streams originating from multiple
nodes are transferred through a multi-point transmission channel.
 Each node or station transmits a frame without trying to detect whether the
transmission channel is idle or busy .
 If the channel is idle, then the frames will be successfully transmitted.
 If two frames attempt to occupy the channel simultaneously, collision of
frames will occur and the frames will be discarded.
 These stations may choose to retransmit the corrupted frames repeatedly until
successful transmission occurs.
LAN Design
Design goals of LAN
• Functionality - the network must work with reasonable speed and

reliability.
• Scalability - the network must be able to grow without any major
changes to the overall design.
•
Adaptability - the network must be designed with an eye toward
future technologies, and should include no element that would limit
• implementation of new technologies as they become available.
Manageability - the network would be designed to facilitate network
monitoring and management.
Network design outlines
 Gathering the users requirements and expectations.
 Determining data traffic patterns now and in the future based on
growth and Server placements.
 Defining all of the layer 1, 2 &3 devices and along with LAN and
WAN topology.
 Document the physical and logical network implementation.
 Methodology
• Analyze customer’s requirements .
• Choose and Develop LAN structure (topology.
• Set up addressing and routing.
Step 1- Analyze Requirements
• Business issues
• Corporate Structure – small firm with 560 employees
• Business information flow - ?
• Technology issues
• Applications in use - ?
• Current topology – NONE
• Performance characteristics of current network
• Administrative issues
• Determine if documented policies are in place - ?
• Mission-critical data - ? Mission-critical
• operations - ? Approved protocols and
• platforms - ? Central versus distributed
• authority - ?
Step 2 – Choose and develop LAN topology
• Keeping in mind the first step requirements choose a suitable

topology.
• Another issue that comes into play is how
Tall is the building and how are the departments physically located in it.
Step 3 – Addressing and routing
 In this step the LAN engineer must carefully to consider where to

 place routers in order to minimize collision domains and to provide
back up routes routs in case of router failures.
 Creating subnets and networks.
 Mapping physical and logical addressing.
 Develop and document the IP addressing scheme.
Implementing virtual LAN’s
• A VLAN allows a network administrator to create groups of logically
networked devices that act as if they are on their own independent
network, even if they share a common infrastructure with other
VLANs.
• A VLAN is a logically separate IP subnetwork.
• For computers to communicate on the same VLAN, each must have
an IP address and a subnet mask that consistent for that VLAN.
Selecting the physical medium
• Considering the requirement for fast access and the possibility for a future
expansion the best fitting LAN would be fast Ethernet.
• With the same consideration in mind the specific choice would be
100Base-TX using CAT5(UTP or STP).
 Choice of backbone (vertical) cabling .
 Choice of horizontal cabling
Layer 1 Logical Documentation
 Layer 1 logical documentation is
concerned with...
• exact location of
MDF/IDF.
• type & quantity of
cabling .
• room locations &
# of drops
• port numbers
• cable labels
• Notice Layer 1’s

logical documentation
shows nothing about
logical addressing.
• The Logical Diagram and
Cut Sheet are primary
tools for design, but are
crucial to the tech who is
troubleshooting.
MDF & IDF
• MDF main distribution frame

• IDF intermediate distribution frame
• When distances to the MDF are
more than 100m, an IDF is normally
added.
• The cable run from the IDF to the
MDF is called the backbone and is
usually fiber.
• By adding more wiring closets
(more IDFs), you create multiple
catchment areas
Hierarchical network design model
• Hierarchical network design involves dividing the network into

discrete layers.
• Each layer provides specific functions that define its role within the
overall network
• The typical hierarchical design model is broken up in to three layers:
access, distribution, and core.
46
Access Layer
The access layer interfaces with end devices, such as PCs, printers, and IP
phones, to provide access to the rest of the network.
47
Distribution Layer
• The distribution layer aggregates the data received from the access layer switches before
it is transmitted to the core layer for routing to its final destination.
48
Core layer
The core layer of the hierarchical design is the high-speed backbone of the internet
work
49
Collapsed core
• Small network: merged core and distribution

LOGICAL AND PHYSICAL LAYOUT
• Logical – how they

connect.
• Physical – where
they are.
• Logical connections
not obvious from
looking.
.
52
Design principles
• Network diameter – how many devices must packet pass through?

Keep it low.
• Bandwidth aggregation – combine ports where high bandwidth is
needed.
• Redundant links/devices – make it in core and distribution layers.
But its Too expensive for access.
• Start design at the access layer. How many devices, how much
bandwidth needed?
Hierarchical Network Design Principles
• Network Diameter
• Network diameter is the number of devices that a packet has to cross before
it reaches its destination.
• Keeping the network diameter low ensures low and predictable latency
between devices.
54
.
55
• Bandwidth Aggregation
• Bandwidth aggregation is the practice of considering the
specific bandwidth requirements of each part of the
hierarchy.
• After bandwidth requirements of the network are known,
links between specific switches can be aggregated,
• Link aggregation allows multiple switch port links to be
combined so as to achieve higher throughput between
switches
• Cisco has a proprietary link aggregation technology called
EtherChannel, which allows multiple Ethernet links to be
consolidated.
56
.
57
• Redundancy
• Redundancy is one part of creating a highly available
network.
• Implementing redundant links can be expensive.
• It is unlikely that you will be able to implement redundancy
at the access layer because of the cost and limited features
in the end devices, but you can build redundancy into the
distribution and core layers of the network.
58
Redundant Links
59
Converged networks
• Convergence is the process of combining voice and video
communications on a data network.
• Converged networks also required extensive management in
relation to Quality of Service (QoS), because voice and video
data traffic needed to be classified and prioritized on the
network.
• Few individuals had the expertise in voice, video, and data networks
to make convergence feasible and functional.
• Converging voice, video, and data networks has become more
popular recently in the small to medium-sized business market
because of advancements in technology.
60
Example of real world hierarchical topology
.
Choosing switches
• Carry out Traffic Flow Analysis using software to monitor amount and
source of traffic. Allow for growth.
• Carry out User Communities Analysis. Group by job function. How
many ports? How much bandwidth? Allow for growth.
• Carry out Data Stores and Data Servers analysis. Traffic to, from,
between.
• topology
Topology Diagram
Switch Features
• Identify the key features of switches that are used in
hierarchical networks
• Switch form factors
• Fixed Configuration Switches
• Modular Switches
• Stackable Switches
• Identify the switch features found in each level in a hierarchical
network
• Performance:
• Port Density number of ports available on a single switch
• Forwarding Rates
• Link Aggregation
64
65
Choosing switches (contd)
• Port density – how many ports? (Allow for links between switches.)
• Forwarding rate – How many Gbps can it process? Can all ports work
simultaneously at maximum speed?
• Link aggregation (EtherChannel) – up to 8 ports bound together,
acting as one, with combined bandwidth – can it do this?
Choosing switches (contd)
• Power over Ethernet (PoE) for IP phones, network access points. Do
you need it? It adds to the cost.
• Multilayer switch needed? Typical switch works at Data Link layer (2),
uses MAC addresses. Multilayer also works at Network layer (3),
routes between subnets.
PoE and Layer 3 Functionality
• Two other characteristics you want to consider when selecting

a switch are Power over Ethernet (PoE) and Layer 3
functionality.
• Layer 3 switches offer advanced functionality.
• Layer 3 switches are also known as multilayer switches.
68
.
69
.
70
.
71
WAN Technologies
WAN Technology
 WAN generally carry a variety of traffic types , such as voice
video and data .
 Telephone and data service are the most commonly data
service
Physical Layer: WANs
WAN Line Types and Bandwidth
WAN Devices
CSU/DSU
• For digital lines , a channel service unit (CSU) and data service unit
(DSU) are required.
• The two are often combined in to a single place of equipment called
CSU/DSU
CSU : Digital interface device

unit used that connects end user
equipment's to the local digital
telephone loop .
DSU: a device used in digital
transmission that adapts the
physical interface on DTE device
to a transmission facility such as
a T1 an E1.
Modem Transmission
WAN Standards
WAN Encapsulation
WAN Data-Link Protocols
Analog Dialup
ISDN
ISDN
Leased Line
• Leased lines are not only used to provide direct point-to-point

connections between Enterprise LANS, they can also be used
to connect individual branches to a packet switched network.
WAN with X.25
 X.25 provides a low bit rate, shared-

variable capacity that may either be
switched or permanent.
 X.25 networks are usually low
capacity with maximum of 48kbps
Frame Relay
• Most Frame Relay connections are based on permanent
virtual circuit (PVCs) rather than Switched virtual circuit
(SVCs). It implements no error or flow control. Frame
Relay provides permanent shared medium bandwidth
connectivity that carries both voice and data traffic .
fic.
ATM
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a technology capable
of transferring voice, video, and data through private and
public networks. It is built on a cell based architecture rather
than on a frame-based architecture.
DSL
Cable Modem
• Enhanced Cable Modems enable two-

way. High speed data transmissions using the
same coaxial lines that transmit cable
television.
Cable Data Network Architecture
Modern WAN
Steps In WAN Design
Star Topology
Full-Mesh Topology
Partial-Mesh Topology
Three-Layer Design Model
• The links connecting the various sites in an area that provide

access to the enterprise network are called the access links or
access layer of the WAN.
• Traffic between areas is distributed by the distribution
links, and is moved onto the core links for transfer to other
regions, when necessary.
Internet for WAN Connectivity
One-Layer Hierarchy
Chapter 4
Internetworking concepts
IP Addressing and Sub netting
4/5/2021
Internetworking concepts
• Define the Internetwork
 The internet network is defined as a global mesh of
interconnected networks
 the most well-known and widely used publicly-accessible
internetwork is the Internet.
 The Internet is created by the interconnection of networks
belonging to Internet Service Providers (ISPs).
4/5/2021 2
The Internet Intranet and Extranet
4/5/2021 3
ADDRESSING
• Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing the
TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical, port, and specific.
TCP/IP Addresses:
48 bit address 32 bit address 16 bit address ( 0-65535)
4/5/2021
Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP
4/5/2021 5
Addressing the Network
Assigning Addresses: Static or Dynamic
 IP addresses assigned either statically through an administrator or
dynamically through DHCP
 Static: includes entering the host IP address, subnet mask, and
default gateway
 Advantages over dynamic addresses, useful for printers, servers,
and other networking devices that need to be accessible to clients
on the network
 However, it can be time-consuming to enter the information on each
host
 When using static IP addressing, it is necessary to maintain an accurate list of the
IP address assigned to each device, These are permanent addresses and are not
normally reused.
 Dynamic: DHCP enables the automatic assignment of addressing
information
 It reduces the burden on network support staff and virtually
eliminates entry errors.
4/5/2021 6
 Dynamic address is not permanently assigned to a host but is only "leased" for a
period of time.
 If the host is powered down or taken off the network, the address is returned to the
pool for reuse. This feature is especially helpful for mobile users that come and go
on a network.
4/5/2021 7
 Addresses for Servers and Peripherals: are a concentration point for network
traffic.
 Should have a static/predictable addresses
 Addresses for Hosts that are Accessible from Internet
 These devices are usually servers of some type
 the addresses should be static & public space addresses
 Addresses for Intermediary Devices: concentration point for network traffic
 Devices such as hubs, switches, and wireless access points do not require IPv4
addresses to operate as intermediary devices. However, if we need to access
these devices as hosts to configure, monitor, or troubleshoot network
operation, they need to have addresses.
 they should have predictable addresses & should be in a different range within
the network block than user device addresses
4/5/2021 8
 Who assigns the different addresses:( http://www.iana.net )
 Internet Assigned Numbers Authority(IANA): is the master holder of the IP
addresses.
 The IP multicast addresses and the IPv6 addresses are obtained directly from
IANA.
 Until the mid-1990s, all IPv4 address space was managed directly by the IANA.
At that time, the remaining IPv4 address space was allocated to various other
registries to manage for particular purposes or for regional areas.
 These registration companies are called Regional Internet Registries (RIRs):
4/5/2021 9
Internet Service Provider/ISP’s:
 An ISP will generally supply a small number of usable IPv4 addresses to their
customers as a part of their services, loans or rents.
 To get access to the services of the Internet, we have to connect our data network
to the Internet using an Internet Service Provider (ISP).
 Other services that an ISP generally provides to its customers are DNS services, e-
mail services, and a website.
 Depending on the level of service required and available, customers use different tiers of an
ISP.
 ISPs are designated by a hierarchy based on their level of connectivity to the
Internet backbone. Each lower tier obtains connectivity to the backbone via a
connection to a higher tier ISP
At the top of the ISP hierarchy are

Tier 1 ISPs. These ISPs are large
national or international ISPs that
are directly connected to the
Internet backbone. Their advantages
Are speed & Reliability
4/5/2021 10
IPV4 Addresses
• An IPV4 address is a 32 bit address that uniquely and universally
defines the connection of a device to the internet.
• IPv4 addresses are unique. They are unique in a sense that each
address defines one and only one, connection to the internet.
• Two device on the internet can never have the same address at the
same time.
• A protocol such as IPv4 that defines address has an address space.
• An address space is the total number of addresses used by the
protocol.
• If a protocol uses N bits to define an address space is 2N Because
each bit can have two different values (0 or 1) and N bits can have
2N values
• IPv4 uses a 32 bit address, which means the address space is 232 or
4,294,967,296.
4/5/2021 11
IPv4 Addresses
• To make the IPv4 address more compact and easier to read ,
internet addresses are usually written in decimal form with decimal
point (dot) separating the bytes.
• The following an example of the dotted decimal notation
123.234.111.76
Classful Addressing
• In classful addressing, the address space is divided into five classes:
A, B, C, D, and E.
• Each class occupies some part of the address space
• We can find the class of an address
• When given the address in binary notation the first few bits can be
immediately tell us the class of the address
• If the address is given in dotted decimal notation , the first byte
describes the class
4/5/2021 12
Finding the classes in binary and dotted-
decimal notation
4/5/2021 13
Example
Find the class of each address.
a. 00000001 00001011 00001011 11101111
b. 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111
c. 14.23.120.8
d. 252.5.15.111
• Solution
a. The first bit is 0. This is a class A address.
b. The first 2 bits are 1; the third bit is 0. This is a class C
address.
c. The first byte is 14; the class is A.
d. The first byte is 252; the class is E.
4/5/2021 14
IPV4 Addresses
Classes and Blocks
• One problem with classful addressing is that each class is divided
into a fixed number of blocks with each block having a fixed size as
shown in the following table
Class Number of Blocks Block Size Application
A 128 (0-127) 16,777,216 Unicast
B 16,384 (128-191) 65,536 Unicast
C 2,097,152(192-223) 256 Unicast
D 1 (223-239) 268,435,456 Multicast
E 1 (240 +) 268,435,456 Reserved
• When an organization requested a block of addresses, it was

granted one in class A, B, or C.
• Class A addresses were designed for large organization with a large
number of attached hosts or routers
4/5/2021 15
Default masks for classful addressing
4/5/2021 16
Classless Addressing
• In classful addressing , a large part of the available addresses were
wasted.
• Classful addressing, which is almost obsolete, is replaced with
classless addressing
• To overcome the address depletion and give more organizations
access to the internet, classless addressing was designed and
implemented.
Address Blocks
• In classless addressing, when an entity, small or large, needs to be
connected to the internet, it is granted a block (range) of addresses.
• The size of block (the number of addresses) varies based on the
nature and size of the entity.
4/5/2021 17
• To simplify the handling of addresses, the internet authorities
impose three restriction on classless address blocks
• The address in a block must be contiguous, one after another
• The number of addresses in a block must be a power of
2(1,2,4,8,16…)
• The first address must be evenly divisible
• Example: A classless IP address assigned to a small organization
with only 16 IP Addresses
205.16.37.32
205.16.37.33
.
.
.
205.16.37.47
4/5/2021 18
• A better way to define a block of address in classless addressing is
to select any address in the block and mask it.
• A mask is a 32bit number in which the n left most bits are 1s and
the 32-n rightmost bits are 0s.
• The mask can take a value from 0 to 32
• IN IPV4 classless addressing a block of addresses can be defined as
x.y.z.t/n in which x.y.z.t defines one of the addresses and the /n
defines the mask
• The address and /n notation completely define the whole block (
the first address, the last address , and the number of addresses.
• The first address in the block can be found by setting the 32-n right
most bits in the binary notation of the address 0.
• The last address in the block can be found by setting the rightmost
32-n bits to 1s.
4/5/2021 19
• The number of address in the block can be found by using the
formula 232-n
• Example: Find the first address, the last address and the number of
addresses in the following classless block 205.16.37.39/28
Solution
Step 1: Convert the dotted decimal representation into binary
representation 11001101 00010000 00100101 00100111
Step 2: To find the first address in the block convert the 32-28 right
most bits to 0. 11001101 00010000 00100101
00100000=205.16.37.32.
Step 3: To find the first address in the block convert the 32-28 right
most bits to 1. 11001101 00010000 00100101
00101111=205.16.37.47.
Step 4: The number of address is 232-28 is 16.
4/5/2021 20
n=28, 2 32−28 or No of Add.= 16.
Home work:
An ISP is granted a block of addresses starting with 190.100.0.0/16 (65,536
addresses). The ISP needs to distribute these addresses to three groups of
customers as follows:
a. The first group has 64 customers; each needs 256
addresses.
b. The second group has 128 customers; each needs 128
addresses.
c. The third group has 128 customers; each needs 64
addresses.
find out how many addresses are still available after these allocations.
4/5/2021 21
The subnet mask: Is it on my network?
 IPv4 address has a network portion and a host portion
 Subnet mask is used to create and specify the network and host portions
 We referred to the prefix length as the number of bits in the address giving us the
network portion
 The prefix and the subnet mask are different ways of representing the network
portion of an address
4/5/2021 22
 The subnet mask: The Network Address
 When an IPv4 packet is created or forwarded, the destination network address
must be extracted from the destination address.
 This is done by a logic called AND
 The IPv4 host address is logically ANDed with its subnet mask to determine the
network address to which the host is associated
 When this ANDing between the address and the subnet mask is performed,
the result yields the network address
Anding operation:
 1 AND 1 = 1
 1 AND 0 = 0
 0 AND 1 = 0
 0 AND 0 = 0
4/5/2021 23
The subnet mask: The Network Address
Example: ANDing of an IPv4 host address and subnet mask
4/5/2021 24
Addressing the network
Subnetting Basics
• Subnetting allows for creating multiple logical networks from a single

address block, But what are the implications of dividing networks for the
network planners?
Dividing the Network into right size:
 Every network within the internetwork of a corporation or organization is
designed to accommodate a finite number of hosts.
 Some networks, such as point-to-point WAN links, only require a
maximum of two hosts.
 Other networks, such as a user LAN in a large building or department, may
need to accommodate hundreds of hosts.
 Network administrators need to devise the internetwork addressing scheme
to accommodate the maximum number of hosts for each network.
4/5/2021 25
Network Administrators must Consider the following points:
 Determine the Total Number of Hosts
 This includes end user devices, servers, intermediate devices, and
router interfaces
 Determine the Number and Size of the Nets based on common groupings
of hosts
 We subnet our network to overcome issues with location, size, and
control.
 Grouping based on common geographic location
 Grouping hosts used for specific purposes
 Grouping based on ownership
4/5/2021 26
Subnetting Basics
How to create subnets:
 By using one or more of the host bits as network bits.
 This is done by extending the mask to borrow some of the bits from the host
portion of the address to create additional network bits
 For each bit borrowed, we double the number of sub networks available.
 For example, if we borrow 1 bit, we can define 2 subnets, If we borrow 2
bits, we can have 4 subnets.
Example: if we borrow one bit
11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000 – Subnet 1
11111111.11111111.11111111.10000000 -- Subnet 2
If we borrow two bit
11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000 – Subnet 1
11111111.11111111.11111111.01000000 -- Subnet 2
11111111.11111111.11111111.10000000 – Subnet 3
11111111.11111111.11111111.11000000 -- Subnet4
 However, with each bit we borrow, fewer host addresses are available per subnet.
4/5/2021 27
Subnetting Basics
Example:
 RouterA in the figure has two interfaces to interconnect two networks.
Given an address block of 192.168.1.0 /24, we need to create two
subnets.
4/5/2021 28
Calculating Addresses: Subnetting Basics
Example:
 RouterA in the figure has two interfaces to interconnect two networks.
Given an address block of 192.168.1.0 /24, we need to create two subnets.
 We borrow one bit from the host portion by using a subnet mask of
255.255.255.128, instead of the original 255.255.255.0 mask.
 The most significant bit in the last octet is used to distinguish between
the two subnets.
 For one of the subnets, this bit is a "0" and for the other subnet this bit
is a "1".
 Formula for calculating subnets we can create by borrowing bits of host
address
 2^n where n = the number of bits borrowed
 In this example, the calculation looks like this:
 2^1 = 2 subnets
4/5/2021 29
Example:
 Formula for calculating the number of hosts in the subnet
 2^n - 2 where n = the number of bits left for hosts
 Applying this formula, (2^7 - 2 = 126) shows that each of these subnets
can have 126 hosts.
 For each subnet, examine the last octet in binary. The values in these
octets for the two networks are:
 Subnet 1: 00000000 = 0
 Subnet 2: 10000000 = 128
 See the figure for the addressing scheme for these networks
4/5/2021 30
Example 2: consider an internetwork that requires three subnets.
 Again we start with the same 192.168.1.0 /24 address block.
 Borrowing a single bit would only provide two subnets.
 To provide more networks, we change the subnet mask to
255.255.255.192 and borrow two bits. This will provide four subnets.
Calculate the subnet :
2^2 = 4 subnets
calculate the number of hosts, begin by examining the last octet:
Subnet 0: 0 = 00000000
Subnet 1: 64 = 01000000
Subnet 2: 128 = 10000000
Subnet 3: 192 = 11000000
Apply the host calculation formula:
2^6 - 2 = 62 hosts per subnet
4/5/2021 31
Example: 2
4/5/2021 32
Example: 2
 Addressing scheme for the subnetted networks.
4/5/2021 33
Calculating Addresses: Subnetting a subnet/VLSM
 Variable Length Subnet Mask (VLSM) was designed to maximize
addressing efficiency.
 When identifying the total number of hosts using traditional subnetting,
we allocate the same number of addresses for each subnet.
 If all the subnets have the same requirements for the number hosts,
these fixed size address blocks would be efficient. However, most
often that is not the case.
 For example: the topology in the next slide shows a subnet
requirement of seven subnets, one for each of the four LANs and one
for each of the three WANs.
 With the given address of 192.168.20.0, we need to borrow 3 bits from
the 4/5/2021
host bits in the last octet to meet our subnet requirement. 34
 These bits are borrowed bits by changing the corresponding subnet
mask bits to "1s" to indicate that these bits are now being used as
network bits.
 The last octet of the mask is then represented in binary by 11100000,
which is 224. The new mask of 255.255.255.224 is represented with
the /27 notation to represent a total of 27 bits for the mask.
 In binary this subnet mask is represented as:
11111111.11111111.11111111.11100000
 After borrowing three of the host bits to use as network bits, this
leaves five host bits. These five bits will allow up to 30 hosts per
subnet.
 It seems the task of dividing the network into an adequate number of
networks is done but, with a significant waste of unused addresses.
4/5/2021 35
 For example, only two addresses are needed in each subnet for the WAN
links. There are 28 unused addresses in each of the three WAN subnets
that have been locked into address these address blocks.
 Further, this limits future growth by reducing the total number of subnets
available. This inefficient use of addresses is characteristic of Classful
addressing.
 So How can subnetting a subnet can be used to maximize address

4/5/2021 36
utilization?
 To create these smaller subnets for the WAN links, begin with 192.168.20.192/27.
 We can divide this subnet in to many smaller subnets.
 To provide address blocks for the WANS with two addresses each, we will borrow
three additional host bits to be used as network bits.
 Address: 192.168.20.192 In Binary: 11000000.10101000.00010100.11000000
 Mask: 255.255.255.252 30 Bits in binary: 11111111.11111111.11111111.11111100
 With this addressing, we have subnets 4, 5, and 7 available for future networks, as
well4/5/2021
as several other subnets available for WANs. 37
Chapter -5
Switching and Routing
Fundamental Concepts and Technologies:
Taxonomy of Networks
2
 Communication networks can be classified based on

the way in which the nodes exchange information:
Communication
Network
Circuit-Switched Packet-Switched
Network Network
Datagram Virtual Circuit

Frequency Time Division Network Network
Division Multiplexing
Multiplexing
Wavelength
Division
Multiplexing
Circuit Switching [1]
3
 In a circuit-switched network, a dedicated

communication path (“circuit”) is established
between two stations through the nodes of the
network
 The dedicated path is called a circuit-switched
connection or circuit
 A circuit occupies a fixed capacity of each link for

the entire lifetime of the connection. Capacity unused
by the circuit cannot be used by other circuits
 Data is not delayed at the switches

4
 Circuit-switched communication involves three phases:

1. Circuit Establishment
2. Data Transfer
3. Circuit Release
 “Busy Signal” if capacity for a circuit not available
 Most important circuit-switching networks:

 Telephone networks
 ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Networks)
5
C
B D
1 circuit 2 2
3
A 7 6 E
circuit 1
Packet Switching [1]
6
 Data are sent as formatted bit-sequences, so-called packets

Packets have the following structure:
Header and Trailer carry control information

 Each packet is passed through the network from node to node
along some path (Forwarding/Routing)
 At each node the entire packet is received, stored briefly, and
then forwarded to the next node (Store-and-Forward
Networks)
 Packet transmission is never interrupted
A Packet Switch
7
input output
queues queues
switch
fabric
memory
Statistical Multiplexing
8
 Packet transmission on a link is referred to as

statistical multiplexing
 There is no fixed allocation of packet transmissions
 Packets are multiplexed as they arrive
Packets from different

streams
Transmission
1
line
2 1 N 2 1
output buffer
N
Datagram Packet Switching
9
 The network nodes process each packet independently

If Host A sends two packets back-to-back to Host B over a
datagram packet network, the network cannot tell that the
packets belong together. In fact, the two packets can take
different routes.
 Implications of datagram packet switching:
A sequence of packets can be received in a different order
than it was sent
Each packet header must contain the full address of the
destination.
Virtual-Circuit Packet Switching [1]
10
 Virtual-circuit packet switching is a hybrid of circuit

switching and packet switching
 All data is transmitted as packets
 Emulates a circuit-switched network
 All packets from one packet stream are sent along

a pre-established path (=virtual circuit)
 Guarantees in-sequence delivery of packets
 Note: Packets from different virtual circuits may be
interleaved
Virtual-Circuit Packet Switching [2]
11
 Communication with virtual circuits (VC) takes place in

three phases:
1. VC Establishment
2. Data Transfer
3. VC Disconnect
 Note: Packet headers don’t need to contain the full

destination address of the packet
 Circuit-switched and virtual-circuit packet-switched

networks are said to provide a connection-oriented
service.
Packet Forwarding and Routing
12
 There are two parts to the routing problem:

1. How to pass a packet from an input interface to the
output interface of a router (packet forwarding).
2. How to calculate routes (routing algorithm).
 Packet forwarding is done differently in datagram

and virtual-circuit packet networks
 Route calculation is similar in datagram and

virtual-circuit packet networks
Datagram Packet Switching
13
C
A.1
C.2
B C.1
C.1 A.2 D
C.2 A.3
1 2
C.1
C.2 3
C.2 A.1
A.3
A.1 5
A.3 A.2
A.2
4 A.2
A A.1 7 A.2 6 E
A.2
A.3
Virtual-Circuit Packet Switching
14
C.2
C
C.1 A.1
B VC 2 C.1 A.2
A.2
C.2 A.3
D
1 2
C.2
C.1 3
C.1
C.2 A.1
A.2
5 A.3
A.2 A.1
A.3
4
A A.1 VC 1 7 6 E
A.2
A.3
Comparison
15
Circuit Switching Datagram Packet VC Packet

Switching Switching
 Dedicated transmission  No dedicated  No dedicated
path transmission path transmission path
 Continuous transmission  Transmission of  Transmission of
packets packets
 Path stays fixed for
entire connection  Route of each packet  Path stays fixed for
is independent entire connection
 Call setup delay
 No setup delay  Call setup delay
 Negligible transmission
delay  Transmission delay  Transmission delay
for each packet for each packet
 No queuing delay
 Queuing delays at  Queueing delays at
 Busy signal switches switches
overloaded network
 Delays increase in  Delays increase in
 Fixed bandwidth for overloaded networks overloaded networks
each circuit
 Bandwidth is shared  Bandwidth is shared
 No overhead after call by all packets by all packets
setup  Overhead in each  Overhead in each
packet packet

Data Communication and Computer Networks

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Data Communication and Computer Networks

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Woldia University

Institute of Technology School of Electrical

2 Protocols and Architecture

This course covers how data networks support the human

Networks: Live, Work, Play

Data communication model

Data communication model

Networking is the interconnection of workstations, peripherals,

Protocols and Architecture

Rules that govern communication

The role of protocols

Networking protocols provide

Benefits of using layered model

Benefits of using layered model

The OSI Model

The OSI Model

Layers In The OSI Model

Layers In The OSI Model

Figure 1: Seven layers of the OSI model

The OSI model

The OSI model

The interaction between layers in the OSI model

The OSI model

An exchange using the OSI model

The OSI model

The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits

The OSI model

The OSI model

The OSI model

The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual

The OSI model

The OSI model

The OSI model

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message

The OSI model

Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message

The OSI model

The session layer is responsible for dialog control and

The OSI model

The presentation layer is responsible for translation, compression,

The OSI model

The application layer is responsible for providing services to the

TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

TCP/IP and OSI model

TCP/IP and OSI model

TCP/IP and OSI model

Digital and Analog Signals

To be transmitted, data must be transformed to

Analog and Digital Data

Analog and Digital signal

There are a number of transmission media types used for

Classes of transmission media

Classes of transmission media

UTP and STP cables

Categories of coaxial cables

UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS

Line coding schemes

Unipolar NRZ scheme

Polar biphase: Manchester and differential Manchester schemes

Bipolar schemes: AMI and pseudoternary

Signal Attenuation is the phenomenon whereby the amplitude

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)