MODULE III

NETWORK STANDARDS

Lesson 1 Layered Network

Architecture

Lesson 2 Open Systems

Interconnection (OSI)

Lesson 3 The TCP/IP Model

Lesson 4 Comparison of OSI and

TCP/IP Models

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MODULE III

NETWORK STANDARDS

 INTRODUCTION

Networks wouldn't work today unless all the networking vendors

followed the same set of plans, or standards. Networking standards define a
set of rules that must be followed by anyone who creates networking
products, including cables, hardware, and software. When you follow these
standards, the products should work together. This module describes several
of the most popular standards and explains some of the benefits of using
standards for networking.

Designing a network to meet its requirements is no small task. To

help deal with the complexity of networks, a general blueprints-usually
called a network architecture-that guides the design and implementation of
networks has developed. This chapter defines more carefully what we mean
by network architecture by introducing the central ideas that are common
to all network Layering and architectures.

This module also introduces two of the most widely referenced

architectures-the OSI architecture and the Internet TCP/IP architecture.
ATM is often used as a link-layer technology in the backbone of the Internet.
This chapter includes a brief description of ATM architecture.

OBJECTIVES

After studying the module, you should be able to:

1. Explain the benefits of using standards

2. Explain the Layered structure of networking
3. Summarize the purpose of protocols and interfaces in networking
4. Explain the encapsulation process
5. Summarize the purpose of a networking model
6. Understand the most well-known networking models
7. List and correlate the layers of the TCP/IP Internet and OSI
networking models.
8. Describe the 802 enhancements to the OSI reference model and
the sublayers to the data-link layer of the OSI reference model.
9. Describe the primary function of each layer of the OSI and TCP/IP
reference model.

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10.Understand the similarities and differences between the OSI and

TCP/IP reference model.
11.Understand the general structure of ATM model.

 DIRECTIONS/ MODULE ORGANIZER

There are four lessons in the module. Read each lesson carefully then
answer the exercises/activities to find out how much you have benefited
from it. Work on these exercises carefully and submit your output to your
instructor or to the College of Computer Science office.

In case you encounter difficulty, discuss this with your instructor

during the face-to-face meeting. If not contact your instructor at the
College of Computer Science office.

Good luck and happy reading!!!

Lesson 1

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 Layered Network Architecture

1.1What Does Standard Means?

Standards play an important role in networking. Without standards,

manufacturers of networking products have no common ground on which to
build their systems. Interconnecting products from various vendors would be
difficult, if not impossible.

These days many vendors are hesitant to support new technology

unless there is standardization base from which to work. Vendors want to
know there will be some measure of interoperability for their hardware and
software. Otherwise, releasing a product could be a marketing nightmare if
it is not compatible with standards that are later embraced by the
marketplace.

To guarantee reliable transmission of data, there must be an agreed

method that governs how data is sent and received. For example, how does
a sending computer indicate which computer it is sending data to? And, if
the data will be passed through intervening devices, how are these devices
understand how to handle the data so that it will get to the intended
destination? And, what if the sending and receiving computers use different
data formats and data exchange conventions—how will the data be
translated to allow its exchange? These are only a few of the questions that
must be answered before data can be reliably transmitted and received
across a computer network.

A standard is an agreed-upon definition of a protocol. In the early

days of computer networking, each computer manufacturer developed its
own networking protocols. As a result, you weren’t able to easily mix
equipment from different manufacturers on a single network. Standards are
industry-wide protocol definitions that are not tied to a particular
manufacturer. With standard protocols, you can mix and match equipment
from different vendors.

To address the issues surrounding standardization, several

independent organizations have created standard design specifications for
computer-networking products. When these standards are adhered to,

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communication is possible between hardware and software products

produced by a variety of vendors.

There are several sources for standards. Vendors may provide

standards and references. Also, standards may be created by organizations
devoted to setting them up. Among the most well-known organizations
involved in setting standards for networking are:
 American National Standards Institute (ANSI): ANSI is an organization of
U.S. industry and business groups dedicated to the development of trade
and communication standards.
 Comité Consultatif Internationale de Télégraphie et Téléphonie
(CCITT): The CCITT, which is also known as the International Telegraph
and Telephone Consultative Committee, was established as part of the
United Nations International Telecommunications Union (ITU), and ITU
remains its parent organization.
 Electronics Industries Association (EIA): It develops industry standards
for the interface between data processing and communications
equipment. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE): It is a
U.S.-based society that publishes a variety of standards including those
for data communications. A subgroup of the IEEE, the 802 committees
began developing network specifications in 1980 to ensure low-cost
interfaces.
 International Organization for Standardization (ISO): It is a Paris-based
organization of member countries, each of which is represented by its
leading standard-setting organization.
 Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF): The organization responsible
for the protocols that drive the Internet.
 World Wide Web Consortium (W3C): An international organization that
handles the development of standards for the World Wide Web.

1.2Benefits of Using Layered Architecture

To reduce networks design complexity, most networks are organized

as a series of layers or levels, each one built upon one below it. The number
of layers, the name of each layer, the contents of each layer, and the
function of each layer differ from network to network and from one
standard to another. However, in all networks, the purpose of each layer is
to offer certain services to the higher layers, shielding those layers from the
details of how the offered services are actually implemented.

Layer N on one-machine carries on a conversation with layer N on

another machine (see Figure 2.1). The rules and conventions used in this
conversation are collectively known as the layer N protocol. Basically, a
protocol is an agreement between the communicating parties on how
communication is to proceed.

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Between each pair of adjacent layers there is an interface. The

interface defines which primitive operations and services the lower layer
offers to the upper one. When network designers decide how many layers to
include in a network and what each one should do, one of the most
important considerations is defining clean interfaces between the layers.
Doing so, in turn, requires that each layer perform a specific collection of
well-understood functions.

A set of layers and protocols is called network architecture. A well-

designed layered system must use the following principles.
 Layers should be created for every level of abstraction needed.
 Every layer should perform a very well defined function.
 There should be a minimum of information flow between the layers.

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1.3Communication Protocols

The specification of architecture must contain enough information to

allow implementers to write the program or build the hardware for each
layer so that it will correctly obey the appropriate protocol. Neither the
details of the implementation nor the specification of the interfaces are
part of the architecture because these are hidden away inside the machines
and not visible from the outside. It is not even necessary that the interfaces
on all machines in a network be the same, provided that each machine can
correctly use all the protocols.

The reference model provides a conceptual framework for

communication between computers, but the model itself is not a method of
communication. Actual communication is made possible by using
communication protocols. In the context of data networking, a protocol is a
formal set of rules and conventions that governs how computers exchange
information over a network medium. A protocol implements the functions of
one or more of the reference model layers. A wide variety of
communication protocols exist, but all tend to fall into one of the following
groups: LAN protocols, WAN protocols, network protocols, and routing
protocols. For example, LAN protocols operate at the physical and data-link
layers of the OSI model and define communication over the various LAN
medium. WAN protocols operate at the lowest three layers of the OSI model
and define communication over the various wide-area medium. Routing
protocols are network-layer protocols that are responsible for path
determination and traffic switching.

Finally, network protocols are the various upper-layer protocols that exist in
a given protocol suite.

1.4Communication between Systems

Information being transferred from a software application in one

computer system to a software application in another must pass through
each of the reference model layers. If, for example, a software application
in System A has information to transmit to a software application in System
B, the application program in System A will pass its information to the
application layer (Layer n) of System A. The application layer then passes
the information to the Layer n-1, which relays the data to the Layer n-2,
and so on down to the physical layer (Layer 1). At the physical layer, the
information is placed on the physical network medium and is sent across the
medium to System B. The physical layer of System B removes the

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information from the physical medium, and then its physical layer passes
the information up to the Layer 2, which passes it to the Layer 3, and so on
until it reaches the application layer (Layer n) of System B. Finally, the
application layer of System B passes the information to the recipient
application program to complete the communication process.

A given layer in the architecture generally communicates with three

other layers:
1. the layer directly above it
2. the layer directly below it
3. its peer layer in other networked computer systems.

The second layer in System A, for example, communicates with the

third layer of System A, the first layer of System A, and the second link
layer in System B.

One model layer communicates with another layer to make use of the
services provided by this layer. The services provided by adjacent layers
help a given layer communicate with its peer layer in other computer
systems. Three basic elements are involved in layer services: the service
user, the service provider, and the service access point (SAP)

1.5Information Exchange and Data Encapsulation

Layers in the model use various forms of control information to

communicate with their peer layers in other computer systems. This control
information consists of specific requests and instructions that are exchanged
between peer reference model layers.

Control information typically takes one of two forms: headers and

trailers. As the name suggests, headers are usually attached to the front of
a message. In some cases, however, this peer-to-peer control information is
sent at the end of the message, in which case it is called a trailer.

The exact format for the header attached by layer (n) protocol is defined by
its protocol specification. The rest of the message-that is, the data being
transmitted on behalf of the application-is called the message’s body or

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payload. We say that the application’s data is encapsulated in the new

message created by layer (n) protocol.

The information exchange process occurs between peer layers. Each

layer in the source system adds control information to data and each layer
in the destination system analyzes and removes the control information
from that data.

Every machine that can be connected to a network goes through

similar process in transferring that data out on the wire. The information
must be placed in a format suitable for the application that will receive it
on the other side. Once this is done, the machine goes through the process
of encoding the data into a network-ready format. This is done by breaking
the data up into small units called data units. The data units not only
contain raw data (just a few bytes in each data units), but it contains other
important information such as where the data will go, type of data unit and
how to detect and correct errors.

When one of the application programs sends a message to its peer, it

passes the message to layer (n) protocol. Layer (n) protocol does not care
that these bytes represent an array of integers, an email message, a digital
image, or whatever; it is simply charged with sending them to its peer.
However, layer (n) protocol must communicate control information to its
peer, instructing it how to handle the message when it is received. Layer (n)
protocol does this by attaching a header to the message.

This process of encapsulation is then repeated at each level of the

protocol graph; for example, layer (n-1) encapsulates layer (n)’s message by
attaching a header of its own. If we now assume that layer (n-1) sends the
message to its peer over some network, then when the message arrives at
the destination host, it is processed in the opposite order: layer (n-1) first
strips its header off the front of the message, interprets it (i.e., takes
whatever action is appropriate given the contents of the header), and
passes the body of the message up to layer (n) protocol, which removes the
header that its peer attached, takes whatever action is indicated by that
header, and passes the body of the message up to the application program.
The message passed up from layer (n) protocol to the application on host 2
is exactly the same message as the application passed down to layer (n)
protocol on host 1; the application does not see any of the headers that
have been attached to it to implement the lower-level communication
services. This whole process is illustrated in Figure 2.2.

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The complex process of network activity involves sending data from

one computer to another can be broken into discrete, sequential tasks. The
sending computer must:

1. Recognize the data.

2. Divide the data into manageable chunks.
3. Add information to each chunk of data to determine the location
of the data and to identify the receiver.
4. Add timing and error-checking information.
5. Put the data on the network and send it on its way.

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1.6Reference Models

1.6.1 Benefits of Modularity

Modularity brings many benefits, including the all-powerful benefit of not

having to understand all parts of a problem at the same time in order to
solve it. Modularity thus plays a role in presenting ideas in a book, as well as
in writing code. If a book’s material is organized effectively-modularly-the
reader can start at the beginning and actually make it to the end.

A network model reflects a design or architecture to accomplish

communication between different systems. Network models are also
referred to as network stacks or protocol suites.
A network model usually consists of layers. Each layer of a model represents
specific functionality. Within the layers of a model, there are usually
protocols specified to implement specific tasks. You may think of a protocol
as a set of rules or a language. Thus, a layer is normally a collection of
protocols.

There are a number of different network models. Some of these

models relate to a specific implementation, such as the TCP/IP network
model. Others simply describe the process of networking, such as the
International Organization for Standardization/Open System Interconnection
Reference Model (ISO/ OSI, or more simply, OSI).

The models, discussed below reflect a layered approach to

modularity, is almost universally used as a starting point for discussions of
protocol organization, whether the design in question conforms to the
model or deviates from it. We will introduce you to the most popular
reference models, they are:
 Seven-layer OSI protocol model
 TCP/IP model
 Equal-size packet protocol model

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 1.
EXERCISE
What is the role of standard?
2. What are the three general parts of data unit?
3. What is the purpose of the data field?
4. How is the header defined?
5. Is there always a data field in a message?
6. Are trailers common?

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Lesson 2

 Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)

3.11 OSI Layers

Perhaps no other standard has affected networking more than the OSI
model. Presented by the ISO in the late 1970s, this model was to serve as a
framework for worldwide communications. It has been adhered to in one
respect or another by all network vendors. However, few have based their
own implementation completely on the model with its seven layers of
functions. Most believe that having individual functions broken into so many
layers is impractical for their protocols (packet types) because of the
overhead each layer adds. This will become clearer to us as we examine the
functions of each layer and what is involved in using those functions.

As the data is being prepped for transfer, it is in effect, passing down

through the layers of the OSI model. The highest layer is the application;
the lowest is the cable or other physical medium. While passing through
these layers, other information may be tacked on to the packet in order to
ensure the data is delivered correctly. Once the recipient machine receives
the information, the data passes up through the layers where information
that has been tacked on at the sender is peeled off. Last on the layer list is
the application running on the receiver device. It gets the raw data
originally sent by the source machine. Figure 2.2 illustrates this concept.

The lower layers 1, 2, and 3 are network dependent. These layers are
highly involved with the exact network protocol with which the system is
directly interfacing. Layers 5 through 7 are application oriented, while layer
4 is a transition layer between the network and the application.

Another important feature of the OSI reference model is the concept

of layers that are point-to-point versus peer-to-peer as shown in Figure 2.3.
Functions in point-to-point layers are performed at each and every location
between the source and destination as well as being performed at the
source and destination. Since there may be thousands of nodes between the
source and destination, point-to-point functions may be performed
thousands of times while a message is traveling from its source to its
destination. All functions defined in layer 1 through 3 are point-to-point.
Functions in peer –to-peer layers (layer 4 through 7) are only performed at
the source and destination.

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2.1.1 Layer 1: Physical Layer

The physical layer defines the electrical, mechanical, procedural, and

functional specifications for activating, maintaining, and deactivating the
physical link between communicating network systems. Physical layer
specifications define characteristics such as voltage levels, timing of voltage
changes, physical data rates, maximum transmission distances, and physical
connectors. Physical-layer implementations can be categorized as either
LAN or WAN specifications.

2.1.2 Layer 2: Data-Link Layer

The data link layer provides reliable transit of data across a physical
network link. Different data link layer specifications define different
network and protocol characteristics, including physical addressing, network
topology, error notification, sequencing of frames, and flow control.
Physical addressing (as opposed to network addressing) defines how devices
are addressed at the data link layer. Network topology consists of the data-
link layer specifications that often define how devices are to be physically
connected, such as in a bus or a ring topology. Error notification alerts
upper layer protocols that a transmission error has occurred, and the
sequencing of data frames reorders frames that are transmitted out of
sequence. Finally, flow control moderates the transmission of data so that
the receiving device is not overwhelmed with more traffic than it can
handle at one time.

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The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) has

subdivided the datalink layer into two sub-layers: Logical Link Control) and
Medium Access Control (MAC).

2.1.3 Layer 3: Network Layer

The network layer provides routing and related functions that enable
multiple data links to be combined into an internetwork. This is
accomplished by the logical addressing (as opposed to the physical
addressing) of devices. The network layer supports both connection-oriented
and connectionless service from higher-layer protocols. Network-layer
protocols typically are routing protocols, but other types of protocols are
implemented at the network layer as well. Some common routing protocols
include Border Gateway Protocol (BGP), an Internet interdomain routing
protocol; Open Shortest Path First (OSPF), a link-state, interior gateway
protocol developed for use in TCP/IP networks; and Routing Information
Protocol (RIP), an Internet routing protocol that uses hop count as its
metric.

2.1.4 Layer 4: Transport Layer

The transport layer implements reliable internetwork data transport

services that are transparent to upper. Transport-layer functions typically
include flow control, multiplexing, virtual circuit management, and error
checking and recovery.

Flow control manages data transmission between devices so that the

transmitting device does not send more data than the receiving device can
process. Multiplexing enables data from several applications to be
transmitted onto a single physical link. Virtual circuits are established,
maintained, and terminated by the transport layer. Error checking involves
creating various mechanisms for detecting transmission errors, while error
recovery involves taking an action, such as requesting that data be
retransmitted, to resolve any errors that occur.

Some transport-layer implementations include Transmission Control

Protocol Name Binding Protocol, and OSI transport protocols. Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP) is the protocol in the TCP/IP suite that provides
reliable transmission of data. Name Binding Protocol (NBP) is the protocol
that associates AppleTalk names with addresses. OSI transport protocols are
a series of transport protocols in the OSI protocol suite.

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2.1.5 Layer 5: Session Layer

The session layer establishes, manages, and terminates

communication sessions between presentation layer entities.
Communication sessions consist of service requests and service responses
that occur between applications located in different network devices. These
requests and responses are coordinated by protocols implemented at the
session layer. Some examples of session-layer implementations include Zone
Information Protocol (ZIP), the AppleTalk protocol that coordinates the
name binding process; and Session Control Protocol (SCP), DECnet Phase IV
session-layer protocol.
2.1.6 Layer 6: Presentation Layer

The presentation layer provides a variety of coding and conversion

functions that are applied to application layer data. These functions ensure
that information sent from the application layer of one system will be
readable by the application layer of another system. Some examples of
presentation-layer coding and conversion schemes include common data
representation formats, conversion of character representation formats,
common data compression schemes, and common data encryption schemes.

Common data representation formats, or the use of standard image,

sound, and video formats, enable the interchange of application data
between different types of computer, systems. Conversion schemes are used
to exchange information with systems by using different text and data
representations, such as EBCDIC and ASCII. Standard data compression
schemes enable data that is compressed at the source device to be properly
decompressed at the destination. Standard data encryption schemes enable
data encrypted at the source device to be properly deciphered at the
destination.

Presentation-layer implementations are not typically associated with

a particular protocol stack. Some well-known standards for video include
QuickTime and Motion (MPEG). QuickTime is an Apple Computer
specification for video and audio, and MPEG is a standard for video
compression and coding.
Among the well-known graphic image formats are Graphics
Interchange Format (GIF), Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG), and
Tagged Image File Format (TIFF). GIF is a standard for compressing and
coding graphic images. JPEG is another compression and coding standard for
graphic images, and TIFF is a standard coding format for graphic images.

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2.1.7 Layer 7: Application Layer

The application layer is the OSI layer closest to the end user, which means
that both the OSI application layer and the user interact directly with the
software application.

This layer interacts with software applications that implement a

communicating component. Such application programs fall outside the scope
of the OSI model. Application-layer functions typically include identifying
communication partners, determining resource availability, and
synchronizing communication.

When identifying communication partners, the application layer

determines the identity and availability of communication partners for an
application with data to transmit. When determining resource availability,
the application layer must decide whether sufficient network resources for
the requested communication exist. In synchronizing communication, all
communication between applications requires cooperation that is managed
by the application layer.

Two key types of application-layer implementations are TCP/IP

applications and OSI applications. TCP/IP applications are protocols, such as
Telnet, File Transfer Protocol (FTP, and Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
(SMTP) that exist in the Internet Protocol suite. OSI applications are
protocols, such as File Transfer, Access, and Management (FTAM), Virtual
Terminal Protocol (VTP), and Common Management Information Protocol
(CMIP) that exist in the OSI suite.

2.2 IEEE Specifications

The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) has done

notable work in the standards area of networking. This organization is huge
with over 300,000 members made up of engineers, technicians, scientists,
and students in related areas. The Computer Society of IEEE alone has over
100,000 members. IEEE is credited with having provided definitive standards
in local area networking. These standards fall under a group of standards
known as the 802 Project executed by the Computer Society's 802
subcommittee.

The 802 standards were the culmination of work performed by the

subcommittee starting in 1980. The first published work was 802.1, which
specified a framework for LANs and internetworking. This was followed in

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1985 with specific LAN-oriented standards titled 802.2- 802.5. Since that
time there have been other references set up as well.

Figure 2.4: IEEE Data link Layer

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Most of the work performed by the (802) Project committee revolves

around the first two layers of the OSI model initiated by the ISO These
layers involve the physical medium on which we move data (cable type) and
the way that we interact with it. It addresses such crucial issues of how data
is placed on the network and how we insure its accuracy and flow. For a
better definition of these functions, the IEEE split the Data Link layer of the
OSI model up into two separate components as illustrated in Figure 2.4. The
802 Specification Categories are listed in the table 2.1.


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1. What are the devices that the physical link connects?

2. Which layers govern LAN transmission?
3. Which layers govern WAN transmission?
4. Distinguish between what the internet and transport layer standards
govern.
5. What do application layer standards govern?
6. Why do standards architectures break down the standards
development process into layers?
7. At what layer will you find HTTP, FTP, SMTP, and POP?
8. When a layer creates a message, what does it usually do immediately
afterward?
9. What does the layer below it usually do after receiving the next-
higher-layer message?
10.What is encapsulation?
11.What is a protocol?
12.Are all standards protocols? Explain.

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Lesson 3

 The TCP/IP Model

3.1TCP/IP Layers

TCP/IP has become the standard protocol used for interoperability

among many different types of computers. This interoperability is a primary
advantage of TCP/IP. Most networks support TCP/IP as a protocol. TCP/IP
also supports routing and is commonly used as an internetworking protocol,
that's why TCP/IP reference model is the network model used in the current
Internet architecture. It has its origins back in the 1960's with the
grandfather of the Internet, the ARPANET. This was a research network
sponsored by the Department of Defense in the United States.

The TCP/IP model does not exactly match the OSI model. There is no
universal agreement regarding how to describe TCP/IP with a layered model
but it is generally agreed that there are fewer levels than the seven layers
of the OSI model. Most descriptions present from three to five layers. In this
book we will consider TCP/IP protocols map to a four-layer conceptual
model. Each layer in this model corresponds to one or more layers of the
seven-layer Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model as shown in Figure
2.5.

3.2Layer 1: Network Access Layer

In TCP/IP the Data Link Layer and Physical Layer are normally
grouped together to make the Network Access layer (also called the
Network Interface layer). This layer is responsible for placing TCP/IP
packets on the network medium and receiving TCP/IP packets off the
network medium. TCP/IP was designed to be independent of the network
access method, frame format, and medium. In this way, TCP/IP can be used
to connect differing network types including LAN technologies such as
Ethernet and Token Ring and WAN technologies such as X.25 and Frame
Relay. Independence from any specific network technology gives TCP/IP the
ability to be adapted to new technologies such as Asynchronous Transfer
Mode (ATM).

3.3Layer 2: Internet Layer

The Internet layer is responsible for addressing, packaging, and

routing functions. The Internet Protocol (IP) is normally described as the
TCP/IP Network Layer. Because of the Inter-Networking emphasis of TCP/IP
this is commonly referred to as the Internet Layer. All upper and lower layer
communications travel through IP as they are passed through the TCP/IP
protocol stack.

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The core protocols of the Internet layer are IP, ARP, ICMP, and IGMP.
 Internet Protocol (IP)
 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
 Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
 Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP)

3.4Layer 3: Transport Layer

The Transport layer (also known as the Host-to-Host Transport layer)

is responsible for providing the Application layer with session and datagram
communication services. In TCP/IP there are two Transport Layer protocols.
The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) guarantees that information is
received as it was sent. The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) performs no end-
to-end reliability checks.

3.5 Layer 4: Application Layer

In TCP/IP the Application Layer also includes the OSI Presentation

Layer and Session Layer. In this document an application is any process that
occurs above the Transport Layer. This includes all of the processes that
involve user interaction. The application determines the presentation of the
data and controls the session. In TCP/IP the terms socket and port are used
to describe the path over which applications communicate.

There are many Application layer protocols and new protocols are
always being developed. The most widely-known Application layer protocols
are those used for the exchange of user information:

 Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
 Telnet, a terminal emulation protocol
 Additionally, the following Application layer protocols help facilitate
the use and management of TCP/IP networks:
 Domain Name System (DNS)
 Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)

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 1.
EXERCISE
What are the two dominant network standards architectures?
2. Do LAN standards come from OSI or TCP/IP?
3. Do WAN standards come from OSI or TCP/IP?
4. What is the benefit of reliable protocols?
5. Which layers govern transmission in LANs and WANs?
6. Which layers govern internetworking?
7. At Which layer are messages called frames?
8. At Which layer are they called packets?
9. If a source host and a destination host are separated by 23 networks,
how many packets will there be?
10.Which device encapsulates—the sending or the receiving device?

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Lesson 4

 Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP Models

4.1 Similarities

As it can be seen from the previous pages there are a number of

comparisons which can be drawn between the two models. This section will
therefore be focusing on highlighting the similarities and differences
between the OSI and TCP/IP models.

The main similarities between the two models include:

 Both of the OSI & TCP/IP models share a similar architecture (They
are both constructed with layers).
 Both models share a common "application layer". However, in
practice this layer includes different services depending on the
model.
 Both models have comparable transport and network layers: whatever
functions are performed between the presentation and network layer
of the OSI model similar functions are performed at the Transport
layer of the TCP/IP model.

4.2Differences

The main differences between the two models are as follows:

 The OSI model consists of 7 architectural layers whereas the TCP/IP
has only 4 layers.
 TCP/IP Protocols are considered to be standards around which the
internet has developed. The OSI model however is a "generic,
protocol- independent standard." it is merely used as a guidance tool.
 TCP/IP combines the presentation and session layer issues into its
application layer.
 TCP/IP combines the OSI data link and physical layers into the
network access layer.
 TCP/IP appears to be a simpler model. This is mainly due to the fact
that it has fewer layers.

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4.3Equal-Size Packet Protocol Model

The ATM protocol structure is shown in Figure 2.6. The three-

dimensional model includes four layers in the vertical dimension.

4.3.1 Physical Layer

The physical layer includes two sublayers:

 physical medium sublayer defines the physical and
electrical/optical interfaces with the transmission medium on
both the transmitter and the receiver. This layer also provides
timing information and line coding.
 transmission convergence sublayer provides frame adaptation and
frame generation/recovery.

4.3.2 ATM Layer

ATM Layer is the core of the ATM standard. It defines the structure of the
ATM cell and provides services which include:
 cell multiplexing and demultiplexing
 generic flow control
 header cell check generation and extraction
 remapping of virtual circuits an paths

4.3.3 ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)

This layer is analogous to the transport layer in the Internet protocol stack.
 maps higher-layer service data units, which are fragmented into
fixed-size cells to be delivered over the ATM interface
 collects and reassembles ATM cells into service data units for
transporting to higher layers.

ATM includes many different types of AALs to support many different

types of services.

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4.3.4 Higher Layers

The higher layers incorporate some of the functionality of layers 3

through 5 of the TCP/IP model. The control plane at the top of the cube
shown in involves all kinds of network signaling and control.

4.3.5 User Plane

The user plane involves the transfer of user information, such as the
flow-control and error-control mechanisms.

4.3.6 Management Plane

The management plane provides management function and an

information-exchange function between the user plane and the control
plane. The management plane includes
1. plane management that performs management and coordination
functions related to a system as a whole
2. the layer management that monitors bit error rates on a physical
communications medium.

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4.4Different Forms of Data Units

The data and control information that is transmitted through internetworks

takes a wide variety of forms. The terms used to refer to these information
formats are not used consistently in the internetworking industry but
sometimes are used interchangeably.

Common information formats include frame, packet, datagram,

segment, message, cell, and data unit. These terms are defined bellow:

 A frame is an information unit whose source and destination are data

link layer entities. A frame is composed of the data-link layer header
(and possibly a trailer) and upper-layer data. The header and trailer
contain control information intended for the data-link layer entity in
the destination system. Data from upper-layer entities is
encapsulated in the data-link layer header and trailer.
 A packet is an information unit whose source and destination are
network layer entities. A packet is composed of the network-layer
header (and possibly a trailer) and upper-layer data. The header and
trailer contain control information intended for the network-layer
entity in the destination system. Data from upper-layer entities is
encapsulated in the network-layer header and
trailer.
 The term datagram usually refers to an information unit whose
source and destination are network-layer entities that use
connectionless network service.
 Segment usually refers to an information unit whose source and
destination are transport-layer entities.
 Message is an information unit whose source and destination entities
exist above the network layer (often the application layer).
 A cell is an information unit of a fixed size whose source and
destination are data-link layer entities. Cells are used in switched
environments, such as Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) and
Switched Multimegabit Data Service (SMDS) networks. A cell is
composed of the header and payload. The header contains control
information intended for the destination data-link layer entity and is
typically 5 bytes long. The payload contains upper-layer data that is
encapsulated in the cell header and is typically 48 bytes long. The
length of the header and the payload fields always are exactly the
same for each cell.

Data unit is a generic term that refers to a variety of information

units. Some common data units are service data units (SDUs), protocol data
units, and bridge protocol data units (BPDUs). SDUs are information units
from upper-layer protocols that define a service request to a lower-layer
protocol. PDU is OSI terminology for a packet. BPDUs are used by the
spanning-tree algorithm as hello messages.

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 EXERCISE

1. How are OSI and TCP/IP complementary?

2. Compare the dominance of OSI at the physical and data link layers
with the dominance of TCP/IP at higher layers.
3. What are the functions of each layer in ATM reference model?
4. What are the functions of each plane in ATM reference model?

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