Isosceles triangle

In geometry, an isosceles triangle

(/aɪˈsɒsəliːz/) is a triangle that has two
sides of equal length. Sometimes it is
specified as having exactly two sides of
equal length, and sometimes as having at
least two sides of equal length, the latter
version thus including the equilateral
triangle as a special case. Examples of
isosceles triangles include the isosceles
right triangle, the golden triangle, and the
faces of bipyramids and certain Catalan
solids.
 Isosceles triangle

Isosceles triangle with vertical axis of

symmetry

Type triangle

Edges and vertices 3

Schläfli symbol ()∨{}

Symmetry group Dih2, [ ], (*), order 2

Properties convex, cyclic

Dual polygon Self-dual

The mathematical study of isosceles
triangles dates back to ancient Egyptian
mathematics and Babylonian
mathematics. Isosceles triangles have
been used as decoration from even earlier
times, and appear frequently in
architecture and design, for instance in the
pediments and gables of buildings.

The two equal sides are called the legs

and the third side is called the base of the
triangle. The other dimensions of the
triangle, such as its height, area, and
perimeter, can be calculated by simple
formulas from the lengths of the legs and
base. Every isosceles triangle has an axis
of symmetry along the perpendicular
bisector of its base. The two angles
opposite the legs are equal and are always
acute, so the classification of the triangle
as acute, right, or obtuse depends only on
the angle between its two legs.

Terminology, classification,
and examples

Euclid defined an isosceles triangle as a

triangle with exactly two equal sides,[1] but
modern treatments prefer to define
isosceles triangles as having at least two
equal sides. The difference between these
two definitions is that the modern version
makes equilateral triangles (with three
equal sides) a special case of isosceles
triangles.[2] A triangle that is not isosceles
(having three unequal sides) is called
scalene.[3] "Isosceles" is made from the
Greek roots "isos" (equal) and "skelos"
(leg). The same word is used, for instance,
for isosceles trapezoids, trapezoids with
two equal sides,[4] and for isosceles sets,
sets of points every three of which form an
isosceles triangle.[5]

In an isosceles triangle that has exactly

two equal sides, the equal sides are called
legs and the third side is called the base.
The angle included by the legs is called the
vertex angle and the angles that have the
base as one of their sides are called the
base angles.[6] The vertex opposite the
base is called the apex.[7] In the equilateral
triangle case, since all sides are equal, any
side can be called the base.[8]

Special isosceles triangles

Isosceles right triangle Three congruent inscribed squares in the Calabi

triangle
 A golden triangle subdivided into a smaller golden The triakis triangular tiling
triangle and golden gnomon

Catalan solids with isosceles triangle

faces

Triakis tetrahedron Triakis octahedron Tetrakis hexahedron Pentakis Triakis icosahedron

dodecahedron

Whether an isosceles triangle is acute,

right or obtuse depends only on the angle
at its apex. In Euclidean geometry, the
base angles can not be obtuse (greater
than 90°) or right (equal to 90°) because
their measures would sum to at least 180°,
the total of all angles in any Euclidean
triangle.[8] Since a triangle is obtuse or
right if and only if one of its angles is
obtuse or right, respectively, an isosceles
triangle is obtuse, right or acute if and only
if its apex angle is respectively obtuse,
right or acute.[7] In Edwin Abbott's book
Flatland, this classification of shapes was
used as a satire of social hierarchy:
isosceles triangles represented the
working class, with acute isosceles
triangles higher in the hierarchy than right
or obtuse isosceles triangles.[9]

As well as the isosceles right triangle,

several other specific shapes of isosceles
triangles have been studied. These include
the Calabi triangle (a triangle with three
congruent inscribed squares),[10] the
golden triangle and golden gnomon (two
isosceles triangles whose sides and base
are in the golden ratio),[11] the 80-80-20
triangle appearing in the Langley's
Adventitious Angles puzzle,[12] and the 30-
30-120 triangle of the triakis triangular
tiling. Five Catalan solids, the triakis
tetrahedron, triakis octahedron, tetrakis
hexahedron, pentakis dodecahedron, and
triakis icosahedron, each have isosceles-
triangle faces, as do infinitely many
pyramids[8] and bipyramids.[13]
Formulas

Height

For any isosceles triangle, the following six

line segments coincide:

the altitude, a line segment from the

apex perpendicular to the base,[14]
the angle bisector from the apex to the
base,[14]
the median from the apex to the
midpoint of the base,[14]
the perpendicular bisector of the base
within the triangle,[14]
 the segment within the triangle of the
unique axis of symmetry of the triangle,
and[14]
the segment within the triangle of the
Euler line of the triangle, except when
the triangle is equilateral.[15]

Their common length is the height of the

triangle. If the triangle has equal sides of
length and base of length , the general
triangle formulas for the lengths of these
segments all simplify to[16]
This formula can also be derived from the
Pythagorean theorem using the fact that
the altitude bisects the base and partitions
the isosceles triangle into two congruent
right triangles.[17]

The Euler line of any triangle goes through

the triangle's orthocenter (the intersection
of its three altitudes), its centroid (the
intersection of its three medians), and its
circumcenter (the intersection of the
perpendicular bisectors of its three sides,
which is also the center of the circumcircle
that passes through the three vertices). In
an isosceles triangle with exactly two
equal sides, these three points are distinct,
and (by symmetry) all lie on the symmetry
axis of the triangle, from which it follows
that the Euler line coincides with the axis
of symmetry. The incenter of the triangle
also lies on the Euler line, something that
is not true for other triangles.[15] If any two
of an angle bisector, median, or altitude
coincide in a given triangle, that triangle
must be isosceles.[18]

Area

The area of an isosceles triangle can be

derived from the formula for its height, and
from the general formula for the area of a
triangle as half the product of base and
height:[16]

The same area formula can also be

derived from Heron's formula for the area
of a triangle from its three sides. However,
applying Heron's formula directly can be
numerically unstable for isosceles
triangles with very sharp angles, because
of the near-cancellation between the
semiperimeter and side length in those
triangles.[19]
If the apex angle and leg lengths
of an isosceles triangle are known, then
the area of that triangle is:[20]

This is a special case of the general

formula for the area of a triangle as half
the product of two sides times the sine of
the included angle.[21]

Perimeter

The perimeter of an isosceles triangle

with equal sides and base is just[16]
As in any triangle, the area and
perimeter are related by the
isoperimetric inequality[22]

This is a strict inequality for isosceles

triangles with sides unequal to the base,
and becomes an equality for the
equilateral triangle. The area, perimeter,
and base can also be related to each other
by the equation[23]

If the base and perimeter are fixed, then

this formula determines the area of the
resulting isosceles triangle, which is the
maximum possible among all triangles
with the same base and perimeter.[24] On
the other hand, if the area and perimeter
are fixed, this formula can be used to
recover the base length, but not uniquely:
there are in general two distinct isosceles
triangles with given area and perimeter
. When the isoperimetric inequality
becomes an equality, there is only one
such triangle, which is equilateral.[25]

Angle bisector length

If the two equal sides have length and

the other side has length , then the
internal angle bisector from one of the
two equal-angled vertices satisfies[26]

as well as

and conversely, if the latter condition

holds, an isosceles triangle parametrized
by and exists.[27]

The Steiner–Lehmus theorem states that

every triangle with two angle bisectors of
equal lengths is isosceles. It was
formulated in 1840 by C. L. Lehmus. Its
other namesake, Jakob Steiner, was one of
the first to provide a solution.[28] Although
originally formulated only for internal
angle bisectors, it works for many (but not
all) cases when, instead, two external
angle bisectors are equal. The 30-30-120
isosceles triangle makes a boundary case
for this variation of the theorem, as it has
four equal angle bisectors (two internal,
two external).[29]
Radii

Isosceles triangle showing its

circumcenter (blue), centroid (red),
incenter (green), and symmetry axis
(purple)

The inradius and circumradius formulas

for an isosceles triangle may be derived
from their formulas for arbitrary
triangles.[30] The radius of the inscribed
circle of an isosceles triangle with side
length , base , and height is:[16]
The center of the circle lies on the
symmetry axis of the triangle, this
distance above the base. An isosceles
triangle has the largest possible inscribed
circle among the triangles with the same
base and apex angle, as well as also
having the largest area and perimeter
among the same class of triangles.[31]

The radius of the circumscribed circle

is:[16]
The center of the circle lies on the
symmetry axis of the triangle, this
distance below the apex.

Inscribed square

For any isosceles triangle, there is a

unique square with one side collinear with
the base of the triangle and the opposite
two corners on its sides. The Calabi
triangle is a special isosceles triangle with
the property that the other two inscribed
squares, with sides collinear with the sides
of the triangle, are of the same size as the
base square.[10] A much older theorem,
preserved in the works of Hero of
Alexandria, states that, for an isosceles
triangle with base and height , the side
length of the inscribed square on the base
of the triangle is[32]

Isosceles subdivision of other

shapes

Partition of a cyclic pentagon into

isosceles triangles by radii of its
circumcircle
For any integer , any triangle can be
partitioned into isosceles triangles.[33] In
a right triangle, the median from the
hypotenuse (that is, the line segment from
the midpoint of the hypotenuse to the
right-angled vertex) divides the right
triangle into two isosceles triangles. This
is because the midpoint of the hypotenuse
is the center of the circumcircle of the
right triangle, and each of the two triangles
created by the partition has two equal radii
as two of its sides.[34] Similarly, an acute
triangle can be partitioned into three
isosceles triangles by segments from its
circumcenter,[35] but this method does not
work for obtuse triangles, because the
circumcenter lies outside the triangle.[30]

Generalizing the partition of an acute

triangle, any cyclic polygon that contains
the center of its circumscribed circle can
be partitioned into isosceles triangles by
the radii of this circle through its vertices.
The fact that all radii of a circle have equal
length implies that all of these triangles
are isosceles. This partition can be used to
derive a formula for the area of the
polygon as a function of its side lengths,
even for cyclic polygons that do not
contain their circumcenters. This formula
generalizes Heron's formula for triangles
and Brahmagupta's formula for cyclic
quadrilaterals.[36]

Either diagonal of a rhombus divides it into

two congruent isosceles triangles.
Similarly, one of the two diagonals of a kite
divides it into two isosceles triangles,
which are not congruent except when the
kite is a rhombus.[37]

Applications

In architecture and design

 Obtuse isosceles pediment of the Pantheon, Rome Acute isosceles gable over
the Saint-Etienne portal,
Notre-Dame de Paris

Isosceles triangles commonly appear in

architecture as the shapes of gables and
pediments. In ancient Greek architecture
and its later imitations, the obtuse
isosceles triangle was used; in Gothic
architecture this was replaced by the acute
isosceles triangle.[8]

In the architecture of the Middle Ages,

another isosceles triangle shape became
popular: the Egyptian isosceles triangle.
This is an isosceles triangle that is acute,
but less so than the equilateral triangle; its
height is proportional to 5/8 of its base.[38]
The Egyptian isosceles triangle was
brought back into use in modern
architecture by Dutch architect Hendrik
Petrus Berlage.[39]

Detailed view of a modified Warren

truss with verticals

Warren truss structures, such as bridges,

are commonly arranged in isosceles
triangles, although sometimes vertical
beams are also included for additional
strength.[40] Surfaces tessellated by
obtuse isosceles triangles can be used to
form deployable structures that have two
stable states: an unfolded state in which
the surface expands to a cylindrical
column, and a folded state in which it folds
into a more compact prism shape that can
be more easily transported.[41] The same
tessellation pattern forms the basis of
Yoshimura buckling, a pattern formed
when cylindrical surfaces are axially
compressed,[42] and of the Schwarz
lantern, an example used in mathematics
to show that the area of a smooth surface
cannot always be accurately approximated
by polyhedra converging to the surface.[43]

Flag of Guyana Flag of Saint Lucia

In graphic design and the decorative arts,

isosceles triangles have been a frequent
design element in cultures around the
world from at least the Early Neolithic[44]
to modern times.[45] They are a common
design element in flags and heraldry,
appearing prominently with a vertical base,
for instance, in the flag of Guyana, or with
a horizontal base in the flag of Saint Lucia,
where they form a stylized image of a
mountain island.[46]

They also have been used in designs with

religious or mystic significance, for
instance in the Sri Yantra of Hindu
meditational practice.[47]

In other areas of mathematics

If a cubic equation with real coefficients

has three roots that are not all real
numbers, then when these roots are
plotted in the complex plane as an Argand
diagram they form vertices of an isosceles
triangle whose axis of symmetry coincides
with the horizontal (real) axis. This is
because the complex roots are complex
conjugates and hence are symmetric
about the real axis.[48]

In celestial mechanics, the three-body

problem has been studied in the special
case that the three bodies form an
isosceles triangle, because assuming that
the bodies are arranged in this way
reduces the number of degrees of freedom
of the system without reducing it to the
solved Lagrangian point case when the
bodies form an equilateral triangle. The
first instances of the three-body problem
shown to have unbounded oscillations
were in the isosceles three-body
problem.[49]

History and fallacies

Long before isosceles triangles were

studied by the ancient Greek
mathematicians, the practitioners of
Ancient Egyptian mathematics and
Babylonian mathematics knew how to
calculate their area. Problems of this type
are included in the Moscow Mathematical
Papyrus and Rhind Mathematical
Papyrus.[50]
The theorem that the base angles of an
isosceles triangle are equal appears as
Proposition I.5 in Euclid.[51] This result has
been called the pons asinorum (the bridge
of asses) or the isosceles triangle
theorem. Rival explanations for this name
include the theory that it is because the
diagram used by Euclid in his
demonstration of the result resembles a
bridge, or because this is the first difficult
result in Euclid, and acts to separate those
who can understand Euclid's geometry
from those who cannot.[52]

A well-known fallacy is the false proof of

the statement that all triangles are
isosceles, first published by W. W. Rouse
Ball in 1892,[53] and later republished in
Lewis Carroll's posthumous Lewis Carroll
Picture Book.[54] The fallacy is rooted in
Euclid's lack of recognition of the concept
of betweenness and the resulting
ambiguity of inside versus outside of
figures.[55]

Notes

1. Heath (1956), p. 187, Definition 20.

2. Stahl (2003), p. 37 (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=jLk7lu3bA1wC&pg=PA37) .
3. Usiskin & Griffin (2008), p. 4.
4. Usiskin & Griffin (2008), p. 41.
 5. Ionin (2009).
6. Jacobs (1974), p. 144.
7. Gottschau, Haverkort & Matzke (2018).
8. Lardner (1840), p. 46.
9. Barnes (2012).
10. Conway & Guy (1996).
11. Loeb (1992).
12. Langley (1922).
13. Montroll (2009).
14. Hadamard (2008), p. 23.
15. Guinand (1984).
16. Harris & Stöcker (1998), p. 78.
17. Salvadori & Wright (1998).
18. Hadamard (2008), Exercise 5, p. 29.
19. Kahan (2014).
20. Young (2011), p. 298.
21. Young (2011), p. 398.
22. Alsina & Nelsen (2009), p. 71.
23. Baloglou & Helfgott (2008), Equation (1).
24. Wickelgren (2012).
25. Baloglou & Helfgott (2008), Theorem 2.
26. Arslanagić.
27. Oxman (2005).
28. Gilbert & MacDonnell (1963).
29. Conway & Ryba (2014).
30. Harris & Stöcker (1998), p. 75.
31. Alsina & Nelsen (2009), p. 67.
32. Gandz (1940).
33. Lord (1982). See also Hadamard (2008,
Exercise 340, p. 270).
34. Posamentier & Lehmann (2012), p. 24.
35. Bezdek & Bisztriczky (2015).
36. Robbins (1995).
37. Usiskin & Griffin (2008), p. 51.
38. Lavedan (1947).
39. Padovan (2002).
40. Ketchum (1920).
41. Pellegrino (2002).
42. Yoshimura (1955).
43. Schwarz (1890).
44. Washburn (1984).
45. Jakway (1922).
46. Smith (2014).
47. Bolton, Nicol & Macleod (1977).
48. Bardell (2016).
49. Diacu & Holmes (1999).
50. Høyrup (2008). Although "many of the early
Egyptologists" believed that the Egyptians
used an inexact formula for the area, half
the product of the base and side, Vasily
Vasilievich Struve championed the view
that they used the correct formula, half the
product of the base and height (Clagett
1989). This question rests on the
translation of one of the words in the Rhind
papyrus, and with this word translated as
height (or more precisely as the ratio of
height to base) the formula is correct (Gunn
& Peet 1929, pp. 173–174).
51. Heath (1956), p. 251.
52. Venema (2006), p. 89.
53. Ball & Coxeter (1987).
54. Carroll (1899). See also Wilson (2008).
55. Specht et al. (2015).

References

Alsina, Claudi; Nelsen, Roger B. (2009), When

less is more: Visualizing basic inequalities,
The Dolciani Mathematical Expositions,
vol. 36, Mathematical Association of
America, Washington, DC, ISBN 978-0-88385-
342-9, MR 2498836 (https://mathscinet.ams.
org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=2498836)
Arslanagić, Šefket, "Problem η44",
Inequalities proposed in Crux
Mathematicorum (https://www.imomath.co
m/othercomp/Journ/ineq.pdf) (PDF), p. 151
Ball, W. W. Rouse; Coxeter, H. S. M. (1987)
[1892], Mathematical Recreations and Essays
(13th ed.), Dover, footnote, p. 77, ISBN 0-486-
25357-0
Baloglou, George; Helfgott, Michel (2008),
"Angles, area, and perimeter caught in a
cubic" (http://forumgeom.fau.edu/FG2008vol
ume8/FG200803.pdf) (PDF), Forum
Geometricorum, 8: 13–25, MR 2373294 (http
s://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?
mr=2373294)
Bardell, Nicholas S. (2016), "Cubic
polynomials with real or complex
coefficients: The full picture" (https://files.eri
c.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1121417.pdf) (PDF),
Australian Senior Mathematics Journal, 30 (2):
5–26
Barnes, John (2012), Gems of Geometry (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=7YCUBUd-4
BQC&pg=PA27) (2nd, illustrated ed.),
Springer, p. 27, ISBN 9783642309649
Bezdek, András; Bisztriczky, Ted (2015),
"Finding equal-diameter triangulations in
polygons", Beiträge zur Algebra und
Geometrie, 56 (2): 541–549,
doi:10.1007/s13366-014-0206-6 (https://doi.
org/10.1007%2Fs13366-014-0206-6) ,
MR 3391189 (https://mathscinet.ams.org/m
athscinet-getitem?mr=3391189) ,
S2CID 123507725 (https://api.semanticschol
ar.org/CorpusID:123507725)
Bolton, Nicholas J; Nicol, D.; Macleod, G.
(March 1977), "The geometry of the Śrī-
yantra", Religion, 7 (1): 66–85,
doi:10.1016/0048-721x(77)90008-2 (https://
doi.org/10.1016%2F0048-721x%2877%2990
008-2)
Carroll, Lewis (1899), Collingwood, Stuart
Dodgson (ed.), The Lewis Carroll Picture Book
(https://archive.org/details/lewiscarrollpict0
0carruoft/page/264/) , London: T. Fisher
Unwin, pp. 264–266
Clagett, Marshall (1989), Ancient Egyptian
Science: Ancient Egyptian mathematics,
American Philosophical Society, Footnote 68,
pp. 195–197 (https://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=8c10QYoGa4UC&pg=PA19) ,
ISBN 9780871692320
Conway, J.H.; Guy, R.K. (1996), "Calabi's
Triangle" (https://books.google.com/books?i
d=0--3rcO7dMYC&pg=PA206) , The Book of
Numbers, New York: Springer-Verlag, p. 206
Conway, John; Ryba, Alex (July 2014), "The
Steiner–Lehmus angle-bisector theorem",
The Mathematical Gazette, 98 (542): 193–
203, doi:10.1017/s0025557200001236 (http
s://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs002555720000123
6) , S2CID 124753764 (https://api.semantics
cholar.org/CorpusID:124753764)
Diacu, Florin; Holmes, Philip (1999), Celestial
Encounters: The Origins of Chaos and Stability
(https://books.google.com/books?id=26Utg
DSw_MQC&pg=PA122) , Princeton Science
Library, Princeton University Press, p. 122,
ISBN 9780691005454
Gandz, Solomon (1940), "Studies in
Babylonian mathematics. III. Isoperimetric
problems and the origin of the quadratic
equations", Isis, 32: 101–115 (1947),
doi:10.1086/347645 (https://doi.org/10.108
6%2F347645) , MR 0017683 (https://mathsci
net.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=001768
3) , S2CID 120267556 (https://api.semantics
cholar.org/CorpusID:120267556) . See in
particular p. 111.
Gilbert, G.; MacDonnell, D. (1963), "The
Steiner–Lehmus Theorem", Classroom
Notes, American Mathematical Monthly, 70
(1): 79–80, doi:10.2307/2312796 (https://do
i.org/10.2307%2F2312796) ,
JSTOR 2312796 (https://www.jstor.org/stabl
e/2312796) , MR 1531983 (https://mathscin
et.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=153198
3)
Gottschau, Marinus; Haverkort, Herman;
Matzke, Kilian (2018), "Reptilings and space-
filling curves for acute triangles", Discrete &
Computational Geometry, 60 (1): 170–199,
arXiv:1603.01382 (https://arxiv.org/abs/160
3.01382) , doi:10.1007/s00454-017-9953-0
(https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00454-017-995
3-0) , S2CID 14477196 (https://api.semantic
scholar.org/CorpusID:14477196)
Guinand, Andrew P. (1984), "Euler lines,
tritangent centers, and their triangles",
American Mathematical Monthly, 91 (5): 290–
300, doi:10.2307/2322671 (https://doi.org/1
0.2307%2F2322671) , JSTOR 2322671 (http
s://www.jstor.org/stable/2322671) ,
MR 0740243 (https://mathscinet.ams.org/m
athscinet-getitem?mr=0740243)
Gunn, Battiscombe; Peet, T. Eric (May 1929),
"Four geometrical problems from the
Moscow Mathematical Papyrus" (https://arc
hive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.70988/201
5.70988.Journal-Of-Egyptian-Archaeology-Vo
l15#page/n247/mode/2up) , The Journal of
Egyptian Archaeology, 15 (1): 167–185,
doi:10.1177/030751332901500130 (https://
doi.org/10.1177%2F030751332901500130) ,
JSTOR 3854111 (https://www.jstor.org/stabl
e/3854111) , S2CID 192278129 (https://api.s
emanticscholar.org/CorpusID:192278129)
Hadamard, Jacques (2008), Lessons in
Geometry: Plane geometry (https://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=SaZwAAAAQBAJ) ,
translated by Saul, Mark, American
Mathematical Society, ISBN 9780821843673
Harris, John W.; Stöcker, Horst (1998),
Handbook of mathematics and computational
science (https://books.google.com/books?id
=DnKLkOb_YfIC) , New York: Springer-Verlag,
doi:10.1007/978-1-4612-5317-4 (https://doi.
org/10.1007%2F978-1-4612-5317-4) ,
ISBN 0-387-94746-9, MR 1621531 (https://m
athscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=1
621531)
Heath, Thomas L. (1956) [1925], The Thirteen
Books of Euclid's Elements (https://archive.or
g/details/thirteenbooksofe00eucl) , vol. 1
(2nd ed.), New York: Dover Publications,
ISBN 0-486-60088-2
Høyrup, Jens (2008), "Geometry in
Mesopotamia and Egypt", Encyclopaedia of
the History of Science, Technology, and
Medicine in Non-Western Cultures, Springer
Netherlands, pp. 1019–1023,
Bibcode:2008ehst.book.....S (https://ui.adsab
s.harvard.edu/abs/2008ehst.book.....S) ,
doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-4425-0_8619 (http
s://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4020-4425-0_8
619)
Ionin, Yury J. (2009), "Isosceles sets" (http://
www.combinatorics.org/Volume_16/Abstrac
ts/v16i1r141.html) , Electronic Journal of
Combinatorics, 16 (1): R141:1–R141:24,
doi:10.37236/230 (https://doi.org/10.3723
6%2F230) , MR 2577309 (https://mathscinet.
ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=2577309)
Jacobs, Harold R. (1974), Geometry, W. H.
Freeman and Co., ISBN 0-7167-0456-0
Jakway, Bernard C. (1922), The Principles of
Interior Decoration (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=gUJIAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA48) ,
Macmillan, p. 48
Kahan, W. (September 4, 2014),
"Miscalculating Area and Angles of a Needle-
like Triangle" (https://people.eecs.berkeley.ed
u/~wkahan/Triangle.pdf) (PDF), Lecture
Notes for Introductory Numerical Analysis
Classes, University of California, Berkeley
Ketchum, Milo Smith (1920), The Design of
Highway Bridges of Steel, Timber and
Concrete (https://archive.org/stream/designh
ighwaybr02ketcgoog#page/n127/mode/2u
p/search/isosceles) , New York: McGraw-Hill,
p. 107
Langley, E. M. (1922), "Problem 644", The
Mathematical Gazette, 11: 173
Lardner, Dionysius (1840), A Treatise on
Geometry and Its Application in the Arts (http
s://archive.org/details/atreatiseongeom00lar
dgoog) , The Cabinet Cyclopædia, London
Lavedan, Pierre (1947), French Architecture (h
ttps://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.12
5578/2015.125578.French-Architecture#pag
e/n41/mode/2up) , Penguin Books, p. 44
Loeb, Arthur (1992), Concepts and Images:
Visual Mathematics (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=3PEGCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA180) ,
Boston: Birkhäuser Boston, p. 180, ISBN 0-
8176-3620-X
Lord, N. J. (June 1982), "66.16 Isosceles
subdivisions of triangles", The Mathematical
Gazette, 66 (436): 136–137,
doi:10.2307/3617750 (https://doi.org/10.230
7%2F3617750) , JSTOR 3617750 (https://ww
w.jstor.org/stable/3617750) ,
S2CID 125411311 (https://api.semanticschol
ar.org/CorpusID:125411311)
Montroll, John (2009), Origami Polyhedra
Design, A K Peters, p. 6 (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=SeTqBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA6) ,
ISBN 9781439871065
Oxman, Victor (2005), "On the existence of
triangles with given lengths of one side, the
opposite and one adjacent angle bisectors"
(http://forumgeom.fau.edu/FG2005volume5/
FG200503.pdf) (PDF), Forum
Geometricorum, 5: 21–22, MR 2141652 (http
s://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?
mr=2141652)
Padovan, Richard (2002), Towards
Universality: Le Corbusier, Mies, and De Stijl (h
ttps://books.google.com/books?id=it3rZrdqP
UoC&pg=PA128) , Psychology Press, p. 128,
ISBN 9780415259620
Pellegrino, S. (2002), Deployable Structures (h
ttps://books.google.com/books?id=tolqCQA
AQBAJ&pg=PA99) , CISM International
Centre for Mechanical Sciences, vol. 412,
Springer, pp. 99–100, ISBN 9783211836859
Posamentier, Alfred S.; Lehmann, Ingmar
(2012), The Secrets of Triangles: A
Mathematical Journey, Amherst, NY:
Prometheus Books, p. 387, ISBN 978-1-
61614-587-3, MR 2963520 (https://mathscin
et.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=296352
0)
Robbins, David P. (1995), "Areas of polygons
inscribed in a circle", American Mathematical
Monthly, 102 (6): 523–530,
doi:10.2307/2974766 (https://doi.org/10.230
7%2F2974766) , JSTOR 2974766 (https://ww
w.jstor.org/stable/2974766) , MR 1336638 (h
ttps://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getite
m?mr=1336638)
Salvadori, Mario; Wright, Joseph P. (1998),
Math Games for Middle School: Challenges
and Skill-Builders for Students at Every Level
(https://books.google.com/books?id=zncWT
vABsdMC&pg=PA70) , Chicago Review
Press, pp. 70–71, ISBN 9781569767276
Schwarz, H. A. (1890), Gesammelte
Mathematische Abhandlungen von H. A.
Schwarz, Verlag von Julius Springer, pp. 309–
311
Smith, Whitney (June 26, 2014), "Flag of
Saint Lucia" (https://www.britannica.com/top
ic/flag-of-Saint-Lucia) , Encyclopædia
Britannica, retrieved 2018-09-12
Specht, Edward John; Jones, Harold Trainer;
Calkins, Keith G.; Rhoads, Donald H. (2015),
Euclidean geometry and its subgeometries (ht
tps://books.google.com/books?id=CrJPCwA
AQBAJ&pg=PA64) , Springer, Cham, p. 64,
doi:10.1007/978-3-319-23775-6 (https://doi.
org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-23775-6) ,
ISBN 978-3-319-23774-9, MR 3445044 (http
s://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?
mr=3445044)
Stahl, Saul (2003), Geometry from Euclid to
Knots, Prentice-Hall, ISBN 0-13-032927-4
Usiskin, Zalman; Griffin, Jennifer (2008), The
Classification of Quadrilaterals: A Study in
Definition, Research in Mathematics
Education, Information Age Publishing,
ISBN 9781607526001
Venema, Gerard A. (2006), Foundations of
Geometry, Prentice-Hall, ISBN 0-13-143700-3
Washburn, Dorothy K. (July 1984), "A study of
the red on cream and cream on red designs
on Early Neolithic ceramics from Nea
Nikomedeia", American Journal of
Archaeology, 88 (3): 305–324,
doi:10.2307/504554 (https://doi.org/10.230
7%2F504554) , JSTOR 504554 (https://www.
jstor.org/stable/504554) , S2CID 191374019
(https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1
91374019)
Wickelgren, Wayne A. (2012), How to Solve
Mathematical Problems (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=eTTDAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT24
5) , Dover Books on Mathematics, Courier
Corporation, pp. 222–224,
ISBN 9780486152684.
Wilson, Robin (2008), Lewis Carroll in
Numberland: His fantastical mathematical
logical life, an agony in eight fits, Penguin
Books, pp. 169–170, ISBN 978-0-14-101610-
8, MR 2455534 (https://mathscinet.ams.org/
mathscinet-getitem?mr=2455534)
 Yoshimura, Yoshimaru (July 1955), On the
mechanism of buckling of a circular cylindrical
shell under axial compression (https://ntrs.na
sa.gov/citations/19930093840) , Technical
Memorandum 1390, National Advisory
Committee for Aeronautics
Young, Cynthia Y. (2011), Trigonometry (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=IN5u3XZ92
S8C) , John Wiley & Sons,
ISBN 9780470648025

External links

Weisstein, Eric W., "Isosceles triangle" (h

ttps://mathworld.wolfram.com/Isoscele
sTriangle.html) , MathWorld
Retrieved from
"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Isosceles_triangle&oldid=1193716598"

This page was last edited on 5 January 2024, at

07:28 (UTC). •
Content is available under CC BY-SA 4.0 unless
otherwise noted.