Grade 11 Science Clinic Notes

DBE ESSENTIALS GRADE
11
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R Bartholomew, L Couperthwaite, N Cullinan, W Cloete, C de Beer, S Dippenaar, T Fairless, I Govender,
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Core Theory Summaries

Physics:
Physics Data 4
Vectors in 2D 7
Newton’s Laws of Motion 10
Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation 14
Electrostatics 15
Geometric Optics 17
Electromagnetism 19
Electricity 20
Chemistry:
Chemistry Data 23
VSEPR Theory and IMF 31
Ideal Gases 35
Quantitative Aspects of Chemical Change 36
Energy and Chemical Change 41
Acids and Bases 42
Redox Reactions 44
Exploiting the Lithosphere 45
www
www
Information sheets – Paper 1 (Physics)
TABLE 1: PHYSICAL CONSTANTS/TABEL 1: FISIESE KONSTANTES
NAME/NAAM SYMBOL/SIMBOOL VALUE/WAARDE

Acceleration due to gravity
g 9,8 m·s-2
Swaartekragversnelling
Gravitational constant
G 6,67 x 10-11 N⋅m2⋅kg-2
Swaartekragkonstante
Radius of Earth
RE 6,38 x 106 m
Straal van Aarde
Coulomb's constant
k 9,0 x 109 N⋅m2·C-2
Coulomb se konstante
Speed of light in a vacuum c 3,0 x 108 m·s-1
Spoed van lig in 'n vakuum
Charge on electron
e -1,6 x 10-19 C
Lading op elektron
Electron mass
me 9,11 x 10-31 kg
Elektronmassa
Mass of the Earth
M 5,98 x 1024 kg
Massa van die Aarde
TABLE 2: FORMULAE/TABEL 2: FORMULES
MOTION/BEWEGING
v f = v i + a Δt Δx = v i Δt + 21 aΔt 2
2 2 ⎛ v + vi ⎞
v f = v i + 2aΔx Δx = ⎜ f ⎟ Δt
⎝ 2 ⎠
FORCE/KRAG
Fnet = ma w = mg
Gm1m2 fs
F= µ s = (max)
r2 N
f
µk = k
N
WAVES, SOUND AND LIGHT/GOLWE, KLANK EN LIG
1
v=fλ T=
f
ni sin θi = nr sin θr c
n=
v
ELECTROSTATICS/ELEKTROSTATIKA
kQ 1Q 2 F
F= (k = 9,0 x 109 N⋅m2·C-2) E=
r2 Q
kQ W
E= 2 (k = 9,0 x 109 N⋅m2·C-2) V=
r Q
ELECTROMAGNETISM/ELEKTROMAGNETISME
ΔΦ
ε=−N Φ = BA cos θ
Δt
CURRENT ELECTRICITY/STROOMELEKTRISITEIT
Q V
I= R=
Δt I
1 1 1 1
= + + + ... R = r1 + r2 + r3 + ...
R r1 r2 r3
W = Vq W
P=
Δt
W = VI Δ t
P = VI
W= I2R Δ t
P = I 2R
2
V Δt V2
W= P=
R R
Grade 11 Science Essentials SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
Grade 11 Physics Definitions

Forces and
Resultant vector: the vector sum of two or more vectors
Vectors
Normal force (FN): • the force or the component of a force which a surface exerts on an object
in contact with it, and which is perpendicular to the surface
Frictional force (Ff): • the force that opposes the motion of an object and which acts parallel to the surface
Static frictional force (fs): • the force that opposes the tendency of motion of a stationary object relative to a
surface
Kinetic frictional force (fk): • the force that opposes the motion of a moving object relative to a surface
Newton's first law of motion: • A body will remain in its state of rest or motion at constant velocity unless a
non-zero resultant/net force acts on it
Newton's second law of motion: • When a resultant/net force acts on an object, the object will
Newton’s Laws
accelerate in the direction of the force at an acceleration directly proportional to the force and inversely proportional to the mass
of the object
Newton's third law of motion: • When object A exerts a force on object B, object B SIMULTANEOUSLY exerts an
oppositely directed force of equal magnitude on object A
Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation: • Each particle in the universe attracts every other particle with a
gravitational force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between their centres
Inertia: • the resistance of an object to any change in its state of motion
Weight: • the gravitational force, in newton (N), exerted by the Earth on an object
Refractive index: the ratio of the speed of light in vacuum (c) to the speed of light in a material (v)
Optical density: a measure of the refracting power of a medium
Normal: The line, which is perpendicular to the plane of the surface
Angle of incidence: The angle between the normal to a surface and the incident light ray
Angle of refraction: The angle between the normal to a surface and the refracted light ray
Snell’s law: The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence in one medium to the sine of the angle of refraction in the other
Geometrical
medium is constant
Optics
Critical angle: the angle of incidence in the optically denser medium for which the angle of refraction in the optically less
dense medium is 90°
Refraction: the change in direction of a light ray due to a change in speed when light travels from one medium into the other
of different optical density
Law of reflection: When light is reflected the angle of incidence is always equal to the angle of reflection
Angle of reflection: The angle between the normal to a reflecting surface and the reflected light ray
Wavefront: an imaginary line joining points on a wave that are in phase

Huygen’s principle: Every point of a wave front serves as a point source of spherical, secondary waves that move forward
2D and 3D
with the same speed as the wave
Wavefronts
Diffraction: the ability of a wave to spread out in wave fronts as the wave passes through a small aperture or around a sharp
edge
Coulomb's law: the magnitude of the electrostatic force exerted by two point charges (Q1 and Q2) on each other is directly
proportional to the product of the magnitudes of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance (r)
between them.
Electrostatics Electric field: a region in space in which an electric charge experiences a force. The direction of the electric field at a point is
the direction that a positive test charge would move if placed at that point
Electric field at a point: the electric field strength at a point is the electrostatic force experienced per unit positive charge
placed at that point
Faraday’s law: The magnitude of the induced emf across the ends of a conductor is directly proportional to the rate of change
Electromagnetism
in the magnetic flux linkage with the conductor
Ohm's law: The potential difference across a conductor is directly proportional to the current in the conductor at constant
Electric Circuits
temperature
6
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Grade 11 Science Essentials
Vectors in 2D SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
RESOLVING INTO COMPONENTS Fx COMPONENTS ON A SLOPE

x
Diagonal vectors can be broken into compo- θ When forces act on objects on a Fg // = Fg sin θ
nents. When vectors are broken into the x- and slope, it is useful to resolve vectors
y-components, we are determining the horizon- Fx = F cos θ into components that are parallel (//) Fg ⊥ = Fg cos θ F g//
tal (x-axis) and vertical (y-axis) effect of the F or perpendicular (⟂) components.
Fy
vector. We can use sin or cos, provided that the Fy = F sin θ The most common force resolved into
Fg θ
F g⟂
angle is between the force F and the horizon- components on a slope is weight (Fg).
tal.
θ
y
CONSTRUCTING FORCE TRIANGLE
When forces are not co-linear, force triangles can be used to determine resultant forces or the equilibrant. When force triangles are formed, basic geometric rules can be used to determine vectors or resultants.
Tail-to-head Parallelogram Manipulation
Used for consecutive vectors (vectors that occur in sequence). Used for vectors that act concurrently on the same object. The vector arrows can be manipulated to form a force triangle to determine the
The resultant is the diagonal of a parallelogram that originates resultant forces or an equilibrant. The vectors/arrows may only be moved if the
Eg. A boat travels 90 m east, and then moves 50 m north.
y from the tail of the vectors (common origin). magnitude and direction are both kept constant.
y When manipulating the vector arrows, the following has to remain the same:
• Length of arrow (magnitude)
• Angle of the arrow (direction)
• The direction of the arrow head
t
Vector 2
tan
su l
Re Eg. An object is suspended from a ceiling by 2 cables. Below is a free body dia-
Vector 2
nt
gram as well as a force triangle that can be used to calculate the values of T1 and
l ta
su
T2.
Re
x Free body diagram Force triangle
Vector 1
x
This principle can also be applied to more than 2 vectors Vector 1
taken in order. The resultant is from the tail of the first vector
to the head of the last. Eg. Two tugboats apply a force of 6 000N and 5 000N at bear-
y ings of 60° and 120° respectively on a cargo ship.
y
Vect
or 4
nt
Resulta
N
00
60
or 3
Resultant
x
Vect
x 50
00
N
Vector 1
o r2
ct
Ve
7
2D Vectors- Resultant and Equilibrant SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
RESULTANT: The single vector which has the same effect as the EQUILIBRANT: The force that keeps a system in equilibrium.
original vectors acting simultaneously on an object. The equilibrant is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the resultant force.
PYTHAGORAS (90° ONLY) SINE-RULE (NON-90°)
Pythagoras can only be applied to vector triangles that are right angle triangles. The sine-rule rule can be used to determine sides and angles of vector triangles that are not right angle
triangles.
FOR FINDING SIDES: FOR FINDING ANGLES:
o a o FOR FINDING SIDES:
R2 = x2 + y2 sin θ = cos θ = tan θ =
h h a a b c
= =
sin(A) sin(B) sin(C )
EXAMPLE:
A boat travels 90 m due east, and then moves 50 m due north. Determine the displacement FOR FINDING ANGLES:
of the boat. y sin(A) sin(B) sin(C )
= =
a b c
EXAMPLE:
An object is suspended from a ceiling by two cords as shown in the diagram below. Determine the mag-
nitude of T1 and T2.
t
tan
su l
Re
50 m
60°
60° 35°
T1 35°
T1 T2 T2
θ x
90 m
R 2
= x2 + y2
3 kg
R = 90 2 + 50 2 Fg
R = 102,96 m 35°
T2 55°
o
tan θ = a Fg = mg
35°
( 90 )
θ = tan −1 50 = (3)(9,8)
60° Fg = 29,4 N
∘
θ = 29,05
a b a b
sin A
= sin B sin A
= sin B
Remember that θ calculated is relative to the x-axis, T1 29,4 T2 29,4
∘
∴ bearing = 90 − 29,05 = 60, 95 ∘ ∘ T1 sin 55∘
= sin 95∘ sin 30 ∘
= sin 95∘
29,4 29,4
30° T1 = sin 55∘ × sin 95∘
T2 = sin 30∘ × sin 95∘
∴ Displacement = 102,96 m at a bearing of 60,95∘ T1 = 24,18 N T2 = 14,76 N
60°
8
2D Vectors- Resultant and Equilibrant SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
CONSTRUCTION COMPONENT ADDITION

By accurately constructing vector diagrams, the resultant or equilibrant can be determined by measure- The resultant of diagonal forces can be determined using Pythagoras by determining the x-resultant and
ment. The diagram has to be drawn using a ruler and protractor. The magnitude, represented by the y-resultant first. This is especially useful for determining resultants when more than 2 forces act on an
length of the line, is drawn using an appropriate scale, for example:
object and a force triangle can not be used.
1 cm = 1 N
Steps to determine resultant using component method:
1 mm = 1 N
1.Determine the x- and y-components of each force.
EXAMPLE: 2.Determine the x- and y-resultants of components.
3.Determine the resultant using Pythagoras.
Two forces are applied on an object as shown in the diagram below. Determine the resultant force by 4.Determine the angle using trigonometric principles.
construction.
EXAMPLE:
Three forces act on an object as shown in the diagram below. Determine the resultant force on the ob-
ject.
11 N 1.Determine the x- and y-components of each force.
11N force:
70° Fx = F cos θ Fy = F sin θ
40° = 11 cos 70 = 11 sin 70 11 N
= 3,76 N right (90o ) = 10,34 N up (0o ) 70°
40° 35°
30 N Fx = F cos θ
30N force:
Fy = F sin θ 30 N 20 N
= 30 cos 40 = 30 sin 40
= 22,98 N left (270o ) = 19,28 N down (180o )
Draw the forces using a specified scale and accurate angle measurements.
20N force:
Fx = F cos θ Fy = F sin θ
= 20 cos 35 = 20 sin 35
= 16,38 N right (90o ) = 11,47 N down (180o )
5,5 cm = 11 N
R 2. Determine the x- and y-resultants of components. 2,84 N
Scale: 0,5cm = 1N Take left (270o) as positive Take down (180o) as positive
Fx = − 3,76 + 22,98 − 16,38 Fy = − 10,34 + 19,28 + 11,47
= 2,84 N left (270o ) = 20,41 N down (180o )
15 cm = 30 N
20,41 N
3. Find resultant-Pythagoras. 4. Find angle- trigonometry
R
o
R2 = x2 + y2 tan θ = a
By measurement: 20,41
R = 2,842 + 20,412 θ = tan−1 2,84
∘
R = 20,61 N θ = 82,08
Resultant = 10,6cm = 21,20 N at an angle of 25° below the negative x-axis.
(The equilibrant will be 21,20 N at an angle of 25° above the positive x-axis)
∴Resultant = 20,61 N at a bearing of 187,92°
9
Newton’s Laws of Motion SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
FORCES
Non-contact force: A force exerted between Contact force: A force exerted between
A force is a push or a pull action exerted on an object by another object. This action can be exerted
objects over a distance without physical contact. objects that are in contact with each other.
while objects are in contact (contact force) or over a distance (non-contact force).
Electrostatic force (FE) Applied force (FA)
Because forces have magnitude and direction, they are vectors. Force is measured in newton (N). 1 N is
Gravitational force (w/Fg) Tension (T or FT)
the force required to accelerate a 1 kg object at 1 m·s-2 in the direction of the force. We can therefore
say that 1 N = 1 kg·m·s-2.
Magnetic force Friction (Ff or fs/fk)
Normal force (N/FN)
Normal force (FN) Friction (Ff or fs/fk)

The perpendicular force exerted by a surface on an object in contact with it. Frictional force due to a surface is the force that opposes the motion of an object in contact
with it, parallel to the surface.
FN Friction is the parallel component of the contact force on an object by the surface on which
The normal force is equal to the perpendicular component of
gravity if there are no other forces acting on the object. it rests. The friction between the contact surfaces is determined by the properties of both the contact
surfaces of the object and surface. The coefficient of friction (µs/µk) is a description of the roughness of
the surface. The rougher the surface, the greater the coefficient of friction.
FN = Fg
Static friction (fs) Kinetic friction (fk)
Fg
Static friction is the frictional force on a sta- Kinetic friction is the frictional force on a mov-
If alternative forces act on the object, the normal force will change depending on the direction and mag- tionary object that opposes the tendency of ing object that opposes the motion of the
nitude of the applied force. All vertical forces must be balanced if there is no acceleration in the vertical motion of the object. The magnitude of the object. The magnitude of the kinetic friction is
plane. static friction will increase from 0N as the parallel constant for the specific system at all velocities
FA FA component of the applied force is increased, until greater than zero, and irrespective of the applied
FN FN maximum static friction is reached. fs(max) is the force.
θ θ magnitude of friction when the object just starts
to move.
fs(max) = μs FN fk = μk FN
Fg Fg
fs(max) = maximum static friction (N) fk = kinetic friction (N)
μs = coefficient of friction (no unit) μk = coefficient of friction (no unit)
FN + FAy − Fg = 0 FN − Fg − FAy = 0
FN = normal force (N) FN = normal force (N)
FN + FA sin θ = Fg FN = Fg + FA sin θ
If the applied force is greater than the maximum static friction, the object will start to move.
Objects suspended from a rope/string/cable have no fsmax

FT
normal force, as there is no surface on which the object rests.
Fric%on (N)
The tension is equal to the perpendicular component of )
(f s
gravity if there are no other forces acting on the object n
c $o
OR the full magnitude of Fg for vertically suspended
c fri Kine%c fric%on (fk)
objects that are stationary/moving at constant velocity. a$
St
FT + (− Fg ) = 0
Fg
Applied force (N)
10
Newton’s Laws of Motion SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
Newton’s First Law of Motion Newton’s Second Law of Motion Newton’s Third Law of Motion
An object continues in a state of rest or uniform (moving with When a net force is applied to an object of mass, it acceler- When object A exerts a force on object B, object B simulta-
constant) velocity unless it is acted upon by an unbalanced (net ates in the direction of the net force. The acceleration is neously exerts an oppositely directed force of equal mag-
or resultant) force. directly proportional to the net force and inversely propor- nitude on object A.
Newton’s First Law is due to inertia- the resistance of an object to tional to the mass.
change its state of rest or constant/uniform motion. NB!
Newton’s Third Law describes action-reaction force pairs. These
−2 Newton’s Second Law is dependent on the resultant force-
Fnet = 0 N a = 0 m⋅s The vector sum of all forces acting on the same object.
are forces on different objects and can not be added or sub-
tracted.
A 3kg object moves up an incline surface at an angle of 15º with a
constant velocity. The coefficient of friction is 0,35. Determine Fnet = m a a ≠ 0 m ⋅ s −2 FA on B = − FB on A
the magnitude of the applied force.
FA
FN A 20 N force is applied to a 5 kg object. The object accelerates Force pairs properties:
up a frictionless incline surface at an angle of 15º. Determine
• Equal in magnitude
the acceleration of the object.
• Opposite in direction
Fg// FA • Acts on different objects (and therefore DO NOT CANCEL each
FN other out)
fk
15° Fg T
NOTE:
The force pairs shown
Take upwards as positive: Fg// here are gravitational
Fnet⊥ = 0 Fman on earth forces.
FN + (− Fg ⊥ ) = 0
FN = Fg ⊥
15° Fg T Fearth on man Gravity and Normal force
are NOT force pairs.
FN = m g cos θ
FN = (3)(9,8)cos 15∘
Take upwards as positive:
FN = 28,40 N
Fnet// = ma
∴ FN = 28,40 N ⊥ up from slope
FA + (− Fg // ) = ma Fman on wall
20 − (5)(9,8)sin 15∘ = 5a
Fnet// = 0 20 − 12,68 = 5a
FA + (− Fg // ) + (− fk ) = 0 7,32
a =
FA = Fg // + fk 5
FA = m g sin θ + μk FN ∴a = 1,46 m ⋅ s−2 // up the slope

FA = (3)(9,8)sin 15∘ + (0,35)(28,40)
∴ FA = 17,55 N
Effect of Newton’s Second Law on overloading:
According to Newton’s Second Law, the acceleration of an object Fwall on man
Importance of wearing safety belts: is directly proportional to the net force and inversely proportional
According to Newton’s First Law, an object will remain in motion at a to the mass of the object. If a vehicle is overloaded, the stopping
constant velocity unless a non-zero resultant force acts upon it. When a distance will increase which can lead to serious accidents. When Newton’s Third Law during an accident
car is in an accident and comes to a sudden stop, the person inside the brakes are applied, the force (friction) remains the same, but the According to Newton’s Third Law, the force that two objects exert
car will continue with a constant forward velocity. Without a safety increase in mass causes a decrease in negative acceleration, in- on each other is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. If
belt, the person will make contact with the windscreen of the car, caus- creasing the time (and distance) it takes for the vehicle to stop. two cars are in an accident, they will both exert the same amount
ing severe head trauma. The safety belt acts as an applied force (new of force on each other irrespective of their masses.
Fnet), preventing the forward motion of the person.
11
ALL EXAMPLES:
Newton’s Laws of Motion DIRECTION OF MOTION POSITIVE
SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
Horizontal Slopes
The vertical resultant = 0 N. The perpendicular (⟂) resultant = 0 N. Fg // = Fg sin θ
The horizontal resultant determines acceleration. The parallel (//) resultant determines acceleration.
Fg ⊥ = Fg cos θ
Pulled at an angle REMEMBER: Use components of weight.
FA FN Force applied down the slope Force applied up the slope
FAy
FN θ FN Ff FA FN FA
FN Ff FN
Ff Ff FAx
Fg// Fg//
Fg// Fg//
Fg Fg FA Fg⟂ Ff
FA fk Fg⟂
Horizontal: Vertical: θ Fg T
θ Fg T
Fnet = m a Fnet = 0
FAx + (− Ff ) = m a (− Fg ) + FN + FAy = 0 Parallel: Perpendicular: Parallel: Perpendicular:
Fnet = m a Fnet = 0 Fnet = m a Fnet = 0
Pushed at an angle Fg ∥ + FA + (− Ff ) = m a Fg ⊥ + (− FN ) = 0 − (Fg ∥) + − (Ff ) + FA = m a Fg ⊥ + (− FN ) = 0
FN FA FN
No force applied
θ
Parallel:
Ff FAx Ff FN Ff FN Ff Fnet = m a
Fg ∥ + (− Ff ) = m a
FAy
Fg Fg Fg// Fg// Perpendicular:
Fnet = 0
Horizontal:
Fnet = m a
Vertical:
Fnet = 0 Fg
Fg⟂ Fg ⊥ + (− FN ) = 0
θ T
FAx + (− Ff ) = m a Fg + (− FN ) + FAy = 0
Lift stationary/constant velocity Lift accelerating Lift in freefall (cable snap)
FT FT FT
Suspended FT
Vertical: Vertical: Vertical:
Horizontal resultant = 0 N.
Fnet = 0 Fnet = m a Fnet = m a
Vertical resultant determines acceleration.
Fg + (− FT ) = 0 Fg + (− FT ) = m a Fg = m a
REMEMBER: No normal or friction forces. Fg
Fg
Fg
Fg
Acceleration will be in the direc-
Fg Fg
tion of the greatest force.
12
ALL EXAMPLES:
Newton’s Laws of Motion DIRECTION OF MOTION POSITIVE
SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
Connected objects (e.g Pulley Systems) Objects attached by rope/cable

Do separate free body diagrams for each object. FN FN FN FN
The velocity and acceleration of all objects are equal in Horizontal: Horizontal:
magnitude and direction. Fnet = m a
Ff FT FT FA Ff FA Fnet = m a
Applied forces are applied to only one object at a time. (− Ff ) + FT = m a Ff FA + (− FT ) + (− Ff ) = m a
Simultaneous equations for acceleration and tension are FT
sometimes needed. Fg
Ff Fg
Fg Fg
REMEMBER:
Ropes/cables- The tension forces on
the objects are the same in magnitude Objects in contact
but opposite in direction. FN FN
FN FN
Touching objects- Newton’s Third Law FA
Horizontal: A FBA FAB B Horizontal:
Fnet = m a Ff FA Ff Ff FAB Fnet = m a

Same axis Ff
FA + (− FBA) + (− Ff ) = m a (− Ff ) + FAB = m a
Can be horizontal (multiple objects on a surface) or vertical FBA
(multiple suspended objects). Fg Fg
The velocity and acceleration of all objects are equal in Fg Fg
magnitude and direction.
Multiple axes
Multiple axes
FN
Horizontal (objects on a surface) AND vertical (suspended
FT1 FN FN
objects). In these examples,
FT1 FT2
The velocity and acceleration of all objects are equal in
Ff FT1 clockwise is positive: Ff
magnitude NOT DIRECTION. Right positive FT2
Fg Ff
Fg Down positive Fg Fg
Vector direction on multiple axes FT2
Clockwise: Fg
Right and Down positive
Fg
Left and Up negative
FN FT2 FN FN FT2
FT1
Ff FT1 Ff FT1 Ff FT2
OR
FT1
Anti-clockwise: Fg Fg Fg Fg Fg
FT2 Fg
Left and Up positive
Right and Down negative Horizontal: Vertical: Vertical: Horizontal: Horizontal: Vertical:
Fnet = m a Fnet = m a Fnet = m a Fnet = m a Fnet = m a Fnet = m a
FT1 + (− Ff ) = m a Fg + (− FT1) + FT 2 = m a Fg + (− FT 2 ) = m a FT1 + (− Ff ) = m a FT 2 + (− FT1) + (− Ff ) = m a Fg + (− FT 2 ) = m a
13
Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
Every particle in the universe attracts every other particle with RATIOS CALCULATIONS
a force which is directly proportional to the product of their 1. Write out the original formula. Gm1m2
masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance 2. Manipulate unknown as subject. The gravitational force can be calculated using F =
between their centres. 3. Substitute changes into formula (Keep symbols!). r2
4. Simplify ratio number. REMEMBER:
Gm1m2 5. Replace original formula with unknown symbol. Mass in kg
F= EXAMPLE:
r2 Two objects, m1 and m2, are a distance r apart and experience a
Radius in m
force F. How would this force be affected if: Radius: centre of mass to centre of mass.
F = force of attraction between objects (N)
G = universal gravitational constant (6,67 ×10−11 N·m2·kg−2 ) a) One mass is doubled and the distance between the masses is Direction is ALWAYS attractive.
m= object mass (kg) halved?
Both objects experience the same force.
r = distance between object centers (m) Gm1m2 (Newton’s Third Law of Motion)
F= Write out the formula
r2
A uniform sphere of matter attracts a body that is outside the shell as if G(2m1)m2 EXAMPLE:
all the sphere’s mass was concentrated at its center. = Substitute changes into formula
( 1 r)2 The earth with a radius of 6,38 x 103 km is 149,6 x 106 km
2
away from the sun with a radius of 696 342 km. If the earth
2 Gm1m2 has a mass of 5,97 x 1024 kg and the sun has a mass of
= Simplify ratio number
1 r2 1,99 x 1030 kg, determine the force between the two bodies.
4
Gm1m2
= 8( )
Thus, the distance is determined between the centers of the two bodies. r2 r = 6,38 × 10 3 km + 149,6 × 106 km + 696 342 km
∴ Fnew = 8 F Replace original formula = 6,38 × 106 m + 149,6 × 109 m + 696 342 × 10 3 m
b) Both the two masses as well as the distance are doubled? = 1,5 × 1011 m
Gm1m2
F= Write out the formula Gm1m2
r2 F=
rmoon rman G(2m1)(2m2 ) r2
= Substitute changes into formula 6,67 × 10−11(5,97 × 10 24 )(1,99 × 10 30 )
NOTE: NOTE: (2r)2 F=
The radius of the earth is added The radius of object 4 Gm1m2 (1,50 × 1011)2
= Simplify ratio number
to the distance between the (man) on the earth is 4 r2 F = 3,52 × 10 22 N attraction
earth and the moon. negligibly small. Gm1m2
= 1(
r2 )
The force of gravitational attraction is a vector, therefore all vec-
tor rules can be applied:
KNOW THE DIFFERENCE! ∴ Fnew = 1 F Replace original formula
• Direction specific
g vs G
DETERMINING GRAVITATIONAL ACCELERATION (g) • Can be added or subtracted
g: Gravitational acceleration (9,8 m·s−2 on earth)
Gm object mPlanet
g is the acceleration due to gravity on a specific planet. F = m object g and F=
r 2Planet
G: Universal gravitational constant (6,67×10−11 N·m2·kg−2)
Proportionality constant which applies everywhere in the universe. Gm o mP
m og =
r 2P
Mass vs Weight Take right as positive:
Gm o mP
Mass (kg) g= Fnet on satallite = Fm on s + Fe on s
m o r 2P
= −( )+ ( )
A scalar quantity of matter which remains constant everywhere in the Gm m m s Gm e m s
GmP
universe. ∴g= rms 2 res 2
r 2P
∴ ( )= ( )
Weight (N) [gravitation force] Gm m m s Gm e m s
Weight is the gravitational force the Earth exerts on any object. Weight Therefore the gravitational acceleration of an object only depends rms 2 res 2
differs from planet to planet. Fg = mg. Weight is a vector quantity. on the mass and radius of the planet. Object mass is irrelevant!
14
Electrostatics SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
FLASHBACK!! Unit of charges: CALCULATIONS- Electrostatic force

Prefix Conversion Electrostatic force is a vector, therefore all vec- The force can be calculated using • Substitute charge magnitude only.
tor rules can be applied: • Direction determined by nature of
Principle of conservation of charge. centi− (cC) ×10−2 kQ1Q2 charge (like repel, unlike attract).
• Direction specific F=
Q1 + Q2 milli− (mC) ×10 −3 r2 • Both objects experience the same
Q new = • Can be added or subtracted force (Newton’s Third Law of Motion).
2
micro− (µC) ×10−6
Principle of charge quantization. 1 Dimensional
nano− (nC) ×10−9
Q Determine the resultant electrostatic force on QB.
Ne− = pico− (pC) ×10−12
qe +
3 cm 5 cm
COULOMB’S LAW A B C
3
FAB FCB
The magnitude of the electrostatic force exerted by one point charge (Q1) −2 nC +3 nC −1 nC
on another point charge (Q2) is directly proportional to the product of the
magnitudes of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the kQ A Q B kQ C Q B
Fnet = FAB + FCB
distance (r) between them. 1 FAB = 2 FCB = 4
r2 r2
= (− 6 × 10−5) + (1,08 × 10−5)
9 × 109 (2 × 10−9 )(3 × 10−9 ) 9 × 109 (1 × 10−9 )(3 × 10−9 )
kQ1Q2 =
(3 × 10−2 ) 2
=
(5 × 10−2 ) 2 = − 4,92 × 10−5
F= ∴ Fnet = 4,92 × 10−5 N left
r2 = 6 × 10−5 N left (A attracts B) = 1,08 × 10−5 N right (C attracts B)
2 Dimensional
F = force of attraction between charges Q1 and Q2 (N)
k = Coulomb’s constant (9×109 N·m2·C−2) Determine the resultant electrostatic force on QB.
Q = magnitudes of charge (C)
r = distance between charges (m) -10 μC +7 μC
15 mm 2 FCB FCB
RATIOS B C
θ θ
In ratio questions, the same process is used as with Newton’s Law of Uni-
10 mm
versal Gravitation. OR
EXAMPLE:
Fnet FAB FAB Fnet
Two charges experience a force F when held a distance r apart. How
would this force be affected if one charge is doubled, the other charge is
tripled and the distance is halved.
A
+5 μC PYTHAGORAS :
3
kQ1Q 2 F 2net = F 2AB + F 2BC
F=
r2 kQ A Q B
1 FAB = Fnet = 4 500 2 + 2 800 2
k(2Q1)(3Q 2 ) r2
= Fnet = 5 300 N
( 1 r)2 =
9 × 109 (5 × 10−6 )(10 × 10−6 )
2
(10 × 10−3) 2
6 kQ1Q 2
= = 4 500 N down (A attracts B) tanθ = o
1 r2 4 a
4 FAB
kQ1Q 2 θ = tan−1
= 24( )
kQ C Q B FCB
FCB =
r2 r2 −1 4 500
θ = tan
= 24F 9 × 109 (7 × 10−6 )(10 × 10−6 ) 2 800
= θ = 58,11∘
(15 × 10−3) 2
= 2 800 N right (C attracts B) ∴ Fnet = 5 300 N at 58,11∘ clockwise from the positive x − axis
15
Electrostatics SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
ELECTRIC FIELDS ELECTRIC FIELD STRENGTH

An electric field is the region around an electric charge where another charge (or Electric field strength at any point in space is the force per unit charge experienced by a
charged object) will experience an electrostatic force. The direction of the electric positive test charge at that point.
field at a point is the direction that a positive test charge (+1C) would move if
placed at that point. F kQ
E= E=
Single point charges q r2
E = electric field strength (N·C−1) E = electric field strength (N·C−1)

F = force on charge q (N) k = Coulomb’s constant (9×109 N·m2·C−2)
q = charge (C) Q = charge (C)
+ −
r = distance from charge Q (m)
q is the charge that experiences the force. Q is the charge that creates the electric field.
Force due to
charge Q Certain point
Q in space
Unlike charges (of equal magnitude) r X
F Charge experiencing
Q the electric field due Distance between
q to charge Q charge Q and point X
+ −
EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE:
Charge B experiences a force of 2 N due to charge A. Determine the electric field strength at point P due to
Determine the electric field strength at point B. charge Q.
A B Q
5mm P
+2μC −5μC +3μC
Like charges
F kQ
E = q E =
r2
− −
2
= 9 × 109(3 × 10−6 )
–2C –2C
–C 5 × 10−6 =
(5 × 10−3) 2
= 4 × 10 N ⋅ C−1 to the right
5
= 1,08 × 109 N ⋅ C−1 to the right
Different magnitude charges Equal magnitude charges

DIRECTION OF E: DIRECTION OF E:
Direction that charge q would move Direction that point in space ( X )
IF it was positive. would move IF it was positive.
+C +2C + + NOTE:
Electric field strength is a VECTOR. All vector rules and calculations apply.
(linear addition, 2D arrangement, resultant vectors, etc.)
16
Geometric Optics SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
When waves reach a boundary between mediums, they can undergo: OPTICAL DENSITY AND REFRACTIVE INDEX SNELL’S LAW
REFLECTION Optical density Snell’s Law: The ratio of the angle of incidence and the
Normal angle of refraction is equivalent to the reciprocal of the
Propagation of light from air into glass Light can travel through a vacuum at 3×108 m·s−1, but slows down
ratio of refractive indices.
and back into air. as it moves through a transparent medium. The optical density is a
measure of the refracting power of a medium. The higher the optical
Laws of reflection: The angle of reflec-
tion is equal to the angle of incidence. θi θR density, the more the light will be refracted or slowed down as it ni sin θi = nr sin θr
moves through the medium.
The incident ray, reflected ray and the
normal all lie on the same plane. The velocity of light through a medium is inversely proportional to
the optical density of the medium. The speed of light in the same ni = refractive index (origin medium)
medium is constant. nr = refractive index (refracted medium)
θi = angle of incidence (origin medium)
The optical density can be quantified as a refractive index. The refrac-
θr = angle of refraction (refracted medium)
DIFFRACTION tive index is the ratio of the velocity of light in a vacuum to its veloc-
ity in a specified medium and can be determined by:
The ability of a wave to spread out in
wavefronts as they pass through a
c Change in optical density Direction of bend
small aperture or around a sharp edge. n=
v Less dense to more dense Towards normal
n = refractive index (no unit) More dense to less dense Away from normal
c = speed of light in vacuum (3×108 m·s−1)
REFRACTION
v = speed of light through medium (m·s−1)
When light moves between media of different optical densities, the light
undergoes refraction. Refractive index θi > θr θi < θr
θi1 Normal
The refractive index is defined as the ratio of the speed of light in
vacuum (c) to the speed of light in a material (v). The refractive in-
dex is directly proportional to the optical density and inversely propor- θi θi
tional to the velocity of light through the medium. More Less
dense dense
Medium Refractive index
θr1 Less More
θi2 Vacuum 1 θr dense dense
Air 1,0003 ≈ 1 θr
Water 1,33
θr2 Crown glass 1,50 − 1,62 EXAMPLE:
Light moves from air into glass (n = 1,55) at an angle of 25°
Diamond 2,42
Refraction: The bending of light as it moves across the boundary to the normal. Determine the angle of refraction in the glass.
between two media with different optical densities as a result of the
change in wave speed while the frequency remains constant. The refractive index (n) is also a quantitative description of the ni sin θi = nr sin θr
Normal: An imaginary line perpendicular to the surface of an object. amount of refraction (bending) that occurs when light moves be- 1 sin 25∘ = 1,55 sin nr
tween media of different refractive indices. The angle of refraction
Angle of Incidence: Angle between an incident ray and the normal on can be determined using Snell’s Law. There is a relationship between 1 sin 25∘
1,55
= sin θr
the surface. the angles of incidence and refraction when light travels through the
Angle of Refraction: Angle between a refracted ray and the normal on boundary between two different optical media. θr = 15,82∘
the surface.
17
Geometric Optics SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
CRITICAL ANGLE Conditions for Total Internal Reflection USES OF TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
Critical angle: The angle of incidence in the optically denser medium for which the Total Internal Reflection can only occur if: Fibre optics
angle of refraction in the optically less dense medium is 90°. The refracted ray trav- • Light moves from a more optically dense
els parallel to the boundary between the media. Core
to a less optically dense medium.
ni sin θi = nr sin 90∘ • The angle of incidence is greater than the

critical angle.
Steps to calculate critical angle: Cladding
The relationship between the incident angle and the critical angle determines what
will happen to light when it moves between media from a high optical density to a 1. Identify the more and less dense media Optical fibres are strands of flexible material strands that allow light to be
low optical density. and their respective refractive indices. transmitted over long distances using Total Internal Reflection. Optical fibres
θi < θcrit θi = θcrit θi > θcrit
2. Write out Snell’s Law formula. consist of an inner glass core with a high refractive index, surrounded by a
3. Assign the bigger refractive index to ni. cladding. The cladding has to have a lower refractive index than the core.
4. Assign the smaller refractive index to nr. Multiple optical fibres can be combined to form a fibre optic cable. Fibre optic
a b c 5. Assign 90° as θr. cables are primarily used in telecommunications and medicine.
6. Determine θi.
θi θi θi Telecommunications
EXAMPLE: • Light travels faster than current, therefore signal is faster in fibre optic ca-
a) Refraction Determine the critical angle if light bles than in copper wires.
θi < θcrit passes from crown glass (n = 1,60) to • Fibre optic cables are less vulnerable to interception and interference.
The light ray is refracted at a variable angle according to Snell’s Law. water (n = 1,33). • Fibre optic cables have very little resale value, making it less likely to be
stolen.
b) Refract 90°
θi = θcrit
The light ray travels along the border between the two media, at an angle of 90° ni sin θi = nr sin θr Medicine
• Fibre optics are used in endoscopes.
to the normal. 1,60 sin θi = 1,33 sin 90 • Endoscopes consists of 2 flexible fibre optic cables - one to produce light
c) Total Internal Reflection (TIR) 1,33 sin 90 and another to return the image.
sin θi =
θi > θcrit 1,60 • Enables doctors to examine a patient through natural openings in the body,
∘ such as the mouth, limiting the need for surgery.
The light ray is reflected internally into the incident medium. The angle of reflec- θi = 56,23
tion is equal to the angle of incidence. • Key-hole surgery can be performed, limiting scarring and recovery time.
HUYGENS’ PRINCIPLE DEGREE OF DIFFRACTION DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT

Huygens’ Principle states that every The degree of diffraction is directly proportional to the When monochromatic light is passed through a narrow slit, a diffraction pattern
point on a wavefront can serve wavelength and inversely proportional to the width of forms that consists of alternating light and dark bands. The light bands form as a
as a point source for secondary, the slit according to: result of constructive interference. The dark bands form as a result of destructive
circular wavelets with a speed interference.
λ
equal to that of the propagation Di f f r a ct ion ∝
of the waves. After a time, t, the w
new wavefront will be that of a sur- A narrower slit and longer wave produces more of a
face tangent to the secondary waves. curved pattern, in other words, more diffraction takes
A straight wavefront is a result of the superposition of infinite circular place.
waves. Wavelength Slit width
When a wave passes through a small aperture or past a sharp edge,

it curves around the corners of the obstacle or aperture. This phe- Longer wavelengths are diffracted more, therefore red light will diffract more
nomena is known as diffraction. than violet light.
According to Huygens’ principle, each point on the wavefront is a Longer wavelength = more diffraction / wider pattern
point source for a new wave, therefore only the wavefront that Narrower slit = more diffraction / wider pattern
passes the obstacle is able to continue moving in a straight line. No
new point sources are formed in the shadow region, resulting in
Single slit diffraction pattern:
wavefronts that curve around the edges.
18
Electromagnetism SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
INDUCTION OF A MAGNETIC FIELD INDUCTION OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT INCREASING THE INDUCED EMF
•Increase the rate of change of magnetic flux, ie. decrease
When current passes through a conductor, a magnetic field is induced When a magnet is brought close to a metal wire, it causes movement
the time it takes to change the flux, ie. increase speed of
around the wire. of charge in the wire. As a result, an EMF is induced in the wire. Only a
movement.
change in magnetic flux will induce a current.
The direction of the magnetic field can be determined by the right hand •Increase the number of loops in the coil.
thumb rule. For a straight, single wire, point the thumb of your right hand Faraday’s law states that the emf induced is directly propor- •Increase the strength of the magnet.
in the direction of the conventional current and your curled fingers will point tional to the rate of change of magnetic flux (flux linkage). •Increase the surface area of the loops in the coil.
in the direction of the magnetic field around the wire. •Increase the change of flux by changing the angle, θ,
Magnetic flux linkage is the product of the number of turns on
from a minimum of 0° to a maximum of 90°.
the coil and the flux through the coil.
I I ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF
Out of page Into page OVERHEAD CABLES
ε = emf (V)
− NΔϕ N= number of turns/windings in coil •Birds fly into power lines as they cannot see them from a
ε= Δɸ= change in magnetic flux (Wb)
Δt distance.
Δt= change in time (s) •This places birds at risk of becoming extinct because of
B the increase in unnatural mortality.
The magnetic flux is the result of the product of the perpendicular com- •Trees fall onto power lines and can cause fires to erupt.
ponent of the magnetic field and cross-sectional area the field lines •Trees have to be cut down to make space for the power
pass through. lines.
For a wire loop, the magnetic field is the sum of the individual magnetic
•There is no evidence that the electromagnetic effect of
fields around the single wires at each end. Use the right hand rule for a sin- ɸ= magnetic flux (Wb)
the power lines has any negative impact on people and the
gle wire at each end of the loop. B= magnetic flux density (T)
ϕ = BA cos θ A= area (m2)
surroundings as the strength of the field is low.
F F •The electromagnetic effect of the power line can disrupt
θ= angle between magnetic field line and normal
radio signals and for emergency services, this can be a
major problem.
B
Normal Normal
EXAMPLE
B θ θ θ A rectangular wire coil with a length of 5 cm and width
I
of 2 cm is placed perpendicularly in a magnetic field that
θ is 20 T in size, as in sketch A. The coil is then rotated
F F A=l ×b through 90° over 0.5 s to the position in sketch. B. Cal-
A=πr2 culate the induced EMF. (The coil consists of 100 turns).
A B
DIRECTION OF INDUCED CURRENT

I
As a bar magnet moves into a solenoid, the needle of the galvanometer N S N S
is deflected away from the 0 mark. As the bar magnet is removed, the
For a solenoid, curl your fingers around the solenoid in the direction of the needle deflects in the opposite direction. The magnetic energy is con-
conventional current and your thumb will point in the direction of the verted to electrical energy. The direction of the induced current can be
induced North pole. This is know as the right hand solenoid rule. determined using Lenz’s law.
Lenz’s Law states − NΔϕ
I ε =
B that the induced Δt
N
current flows in a S
direction so as to S − 100(20.(0,02 × 0,05) . cos90o ) − (20.(0,02 × 0,05) . cos0o )

set up a magnetic =
N
0,5
field to oppose N
the change in S
N
magnetic flux. S
ε = 4V
19
Electricity SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
SERIES PARALLEL CALCULATIONS (NO INTERNAL RESISTANCE)

If more resistors are added in series, If more resistors are added in parallel, the total resistance will Series circuit Parallel circuit
the total resistance will increase and decrease and the total current will increase, provided the emf
the total current will decrease pro- remains constant. 10 V V1
V1
vided the emf remains constant.
CURRENT is the rate of flow of charge.
Q
I=
t
I is the current strength, Q the charge in coulombs and t the time in seconds. SI unit is ampere (A). 3A A3
A1 A2 V2
A1 R1 A1 R1 R2
R1
A1 R1 R2 A2 4Ω
2Ω 5Ω
12 Ω
A2 R2 A2 R3 R2
R1 R2
a) Determine the total resistance.
IT = I1 = I2 IT = I1 + I2 IT = I1 + I2
1 1
I1 = IR1 = IR2 a) Determine the total resistance. = + 1
Rp R1 R2
RESISTANCE is the material’s opposition to the flow of electric current. Rtot = R1 + R2 1 1
= +
V = IR = 2+ 5 4 12
1
R is the electrical resistance of the conducting material, resisting the flow of charge through it. = 7Ω =
3
Resistance (R) is the quotient of the potential difference (V) across a conductor and the current (I) in
b) Determine the reading on A1 and A2. ∴ Rp = 3Ω
it. The unit of resistance is called the ohm (Ω).
V = IR b) Determine the reading on V1 and V2.
R1 R1 R2
10 = I (7) V1 = IR
R1 R2 I = 1,43 A = (3)(3)
∴ A1 = A2 = 1,43 A = 9V
R2 R3
∴ V1 = V2 = 9V
R s = R1 + R2 1 1 1 1 1 1
= + = + Combination circuits
Rp R1 R2 Rp R1 + R2 R3
15 V
Consider the circuit given. (Internal resistance is negligible)
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE (p.d.) is the work done per V2
NOTE: Calculate:
unit positive charge to move the charge from one point to an-
other. It is often referred to as voltage. 1. Emf (ε): voltage across cells when
W no current is flowing (open circuit). a) the effective resistance of the circuit.
V=
Q b) the reading on ammeter A1.
2. V term or VT: voltage across cells
V is Potential difference in V (volts), W is Work done or energy
R1
3Ω A1
when current is flowing. c) the reading on voltmeter V1.
transferred in J (joules) and Q is Charge in C (coulombs).
d) the reading on ammeter A2. 2Ω
V1 V1 V2 A2 R2
a)
1 1 1 4Ω
= +
R1 R1 R2 RP R2 R3 R3
1 1
V1 V2 = +
2 4 V1
R2 R3 3
=
R1 R2 4
V2 V3 4 b) c) d)
∴ Rp = = 1,33 Ω Vtot V1 V1
3 Rtot = RP = R2Ω =
I1 I1 I2
V4 Rtot = R3Ω + RP 15 V1 4,60
V3
4,33 = 1,33 = 2 =
= 3 + 1,33 I1 3,46 I2
Vs = V1 + V2 Vp = V1 = V2 = V3 Vp = V3 = V4 = (V1 + V2 ) = 4,33 Ω I1 = 3,46 A V1 = 4,60 V I2 = 2,30 A
20
Electricity SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
OHM’S LAW INTERNAL RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS (WITH INTERNAL RESISTANCE)

VT of external
The potential difference across the conductor is directly propor- The potential difference across a bat- ε = Vint + Vext circuit
tional to the current through the conductor provided that the tery not connected in a circuit is the 6V emf
temperature remains constant. emf of the battery. ΔV of internal
resistance
V Emf is the total energy supplied
R= per coulomb of charge by the cell.
I Vint = Ir Vext = IRext
5V
Proof of Ohm’s law: When connected in a circuit the poten-
tial difference drops due the internal
The current in the circuit is changed resistance of the cells.
using the rheostat, thus current is the ε = I(Rext + r)
independent variable and potential In reality all cells have internal resis-
A
difference is the dependent variable. tance (r). Internal resistors are al- EXAMPLE:
It is important that the temperature of ways considered to be connected in V
the resistor is kept constant. series with the rest of the circuit.
Determining the emf and internal resistance of a cell r
The resultant graph of potential differ-
ence vs current indicates if the con- V ε
V
ductor is ohmic or non-ohmic. V
Ohmic conductor Non-ohmic conductor r Gra
y – intecept Inte dient
rna = N 5Ω 3Ω
• An Ohmic conductor is a conduc- • A Non-ohmic conductor is a ε = Emf l re ega
si st -v
tor that obeys Ohm’s law at all conductor that does not obey A anc e
e
temperatures. Ohm’s law at all temperatures.
4Ω
V V
• Constant ratio for I . • Ratio for I change with change I When the switch is open the reading on the voltmeter is 12 V.
in temperature. When the switch is closed, the current through the 3 Ω resistor is 1 A.
• E.g. Nichrome wire
• E.g. Light bulb a) Calculate the total current of the circuit.
Independent variable Current (I) b) Calculate the internal resistance of the battery.
V V Dependent variable Potential difference (V)
c) How will the voltmeter reading change when the 4 Ω resistor is
e removed?
nc a) Rtop = R5Ω + R3Ω b) 1
=
1
+
1
ta Controlled variable Temperature
si s
Rp Rtop R 4Ω
Re = 5+ 3 1
t = = 8Ω = + 1
en
COST OF ELECTRICITY 8 4
i Rtop : R 4Ω
ad
3
=
Gr Electricity is paid for in terms of the amount of energy used
8 : 4
8
by the consumer. Rp =
8
= 2,67 Ω
I I 2 : 1 3
Note: ∴ Itop : I4Ω
POWER ε = I (R + r)
Cost of electricity = power × time × cost per unit P in kW
t in hours 1 : 2 12 = 3(2,67 + r)
Power is the rate at which work is done. r = 1,33 Ω
I4Ω = 2Itop
P = power (W) c) When the 4 Ω resistor is re-
W Example = 2(1)
P = W = work (J) moved, the external resistance
Δt = 2A increases and the current de-
A geyser produces 1200 W of power. Calculate the
Δt = time (s) cost of having the geyser switched on for 24 hours, if Itot = Itop + I4Ω creases. (I ∝ 1/R). Emf and
P = VI
I = current (A) the price of electricity is 85 c per unit. = 1+ 2 internal resistance are constant,
P = I2R Cost = power × time × cost per unit = 3A therefore a decrease in current
V = potential will result in an increase in ex-
difference (V) = (1,2)(24)(0,85)
V2 ternal VT (Voltmeter reading)
P = = R24,48
R R = resistance (Ω) V = ε – Ir
21
www
Information sheets – Paper 2 (Chemistry)
TABLE 1: PHYSICAL CONSTANTS/TABEL 1: FISIESE KONSTANTES
NAME/NAAM SYMBOL/SIMBOOL VALUE/WAARDE

Avogadro's constant
NA 6,02 x 1023 mol-1
Avogadro-konstante
Molar gas constant
R 8,31 J·K-1·mol-1
Molêre gaskonstante
Standard pressure
pθ 1,013 x 105 Pa
Standaarddruk
Molar gas volume at STP
Vm 22,4 dm3·mol-1
Molêre gasvolume by STD
Standard temperature
Tθ 273 K
Standaardtemperatuur
TABLE 2: FORMULAE/TABEL 2: FORMULES
p1V1 p 2 V2
= pV = nRT
T1 T2
m N
n= n=
M NA
V n m
n= c= OR/OF c=
Vm V MV
TABLE 3: THE PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS
1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
(I) (II) (III) (IV) (V) (VI) (VII) (VIII)
1 Atomic number 2
KEY/SLEUTEL
H He
2,1
Atoomgetal
1 4
3 4 29 5 6 7 8 9 10
Symbol
Li Be Electronegativity Cu B C N O F Ne
1,9
1,0
1,5
2,0
2,5
3,0
3,5
4,0
Elektronegatiwiteit Simbool
7 9 63,5 11 12 14 16 19 20
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Aℓ Si P S Cℓ Ar
0,9
1,2
1,5
1,8
2,1
2,5
3,0
Approximate relative atomic mass
23 24 Benaderde relatiewe atoommassa 27 28 31 32 35,5 40
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
0,8
1,0
1,3
1,5
1,6
1,6
1,5
1,8
1,8
1,8
1,9
1,6
1,6
1,8
2,0
2,4
2,8
39 40 45 48 51 52 55 56 59 59 63,5 65 70 73 75 79 80 84
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
0,8
1,0
1,2
1,4
1,8
1,9
2,2
2,2
2,2
1,9
1,7
1,7
1,8
1,9
2,1
2,5
86 88 89 91 92 96 101 103 106 108 112 115 119 122 128 127 131
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tℓ Pb Bi Po At Rn
0,7
0,9
1,6
1,8
1,8
1,9
2,0
2,5
133 137 139 179 181 184 186 190 192 195 197 201 204 207 209
87 88 89
Fr Ra Ac
0,7
0,9
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
226
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
140 141 144 150 152 157 159 163 165 167 169 173 175
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
232 238
TABLE 4A: STANDARD REDUCTION POTENTIALS
TABEL 4A: STANDAARDREDUKSIEPOTENSIALE
Half-reactions Eθ (V)
F2(g) + 2e −
⇌ 2F −
+ 2,87
3+ 2+
Co + e −
⇌ Co + 1,81
+
H2O2 + 2H +2e −
⇌ 2H2O +1,77
−
MnO 4 + 8H + 5e
+ −
⇌ Mn
2+
+ 4H2O + 1,51
Cℓ2(g) + 2e −
⇌ 2Cℓ −
+ 1,36
2−
Cr2O 7 + 14H + 6e
+ −
⇌
3+
2Cr + 7H2O + 1,33
+
O2(g) + 4H + 4e −
⇌ 2H2O + 1,23
+ 2+
MnO2+ 4H + 2e −
⇌ Mn + 2H2O + 1,23
2+
Pt + 2e −
⇌ Pt + 1,20
Br2(ℓ) + 2e −
⇌ 2Br −
+ 1,07
−
NO 3 + 4H + 3e
+ −
⇌ NO(g) + 2H2O + 0,96
2+
Hg + 2e ⇌ Hg(ℓ) + 0,85
Increasing reducing ability/Toenemende reduserende vermoë

−
+
Ag + e ⇌ Ag + 0,80
Increasing oxidising ability/Toenemende oksiderende vermoë
−
NO 3 + 2H + e
+ −
⇌ NO2(g) + H2O + 0,80
3+ 2+
Fe + e −
⇌ Fe + 0,77
+
O2(g) + 2H + 2e −
⇌ H 2O 2 + 0,68
I2 + 2e −
⇌ 2I
−
+ 0,54
+
Cu + e −
⇌ Cu + 0,52
+
SO2 + 4H + 4e −
⇌ S + 2H2O + 0,45
2H2O + O2 + 4e −
⇌ 4OH −
+ 0,40
2+
Cu + 2e −
⇌ Cu + 0,34
2−
SO 4 + 4H + 2e
+ −
⇌ SO2(g) + 2H2O + 0,17
2+ +
Cu + e −
⇌ Cu + 0,16
4+ 2+
Sn + 2e −
⇌ Sn + 0,15
+
S + 2H + 2e −
⇌ H2S(g) + 0,14
+
2H + 2e −
⇌ H2(g) 0,00
3+
Fe + 3e −
⇌ Fe − 0,06
2+
Pb + 2e −
⇌ Pb − 0,13
2+
Sn + 2e −
⇌ Sn − 0,14
2+
Ni + 2e −
⇌ Ni − 0,27
2+
Co + 2e −
⇌ Co − 0,28
2+
Cd + 2e −
⇌ Cd − 0,40
3+ 2+
Cr + e −
⇌ Cr − 0,41
2+
Fe + 2e −
⇌ Fe − 0,44
3+
Cr + 3e −
⇌ Cr − 0,74
2+
Zn + 2e −
⇌ Zn − 0,76
2H2O + 2e −
⇌ H2(g) + 2OH −
− 0,83
2+
Cr + 2e −
⇌ Cr − 0,91
2+
Mn + 2e −
⇌ Mn − 1,18
3+
Aℓ + 3e −
⇌ Aℓ − 1,66
2+
Mg + 2e −
⇌ Mg − 2,36
+
Na + e −
⇌ Na − 2,71
2+
Ca + 2e −
⇌ Ca − 2,87
2+
Sr + 2e −
⇌ Sr − 2,89
2+
Ba + 2e −
⇌ Ba − 2,90
+ -
Cs + e ⇌ Cs - 2,92
+
K +e −
⇌ K − 2,93
+
Li + e −
⇌ Li − 3,05
TABLE 4B: STANDARD REDUCTION POTENTIALS
TABEL 4B: STANDAARDREDUKSIEPOTENSIALE
Half-reactions Eθ (V)
+
Li + e −
⇌ Li − 3,05
+
K +e −
⇌ K − 2,93
+
Cs + e −
⇌ Cs − 2,92
2+
Ba + 2e −
⇌ Ba − 2,90
2+
Sr + 2e −
⇌ Sr − 2,89
2+
Ca + 2e −
⇌ Ca − 2,87
+
Na + e −
⇌ Na − 2,71
2+
Increasing oxidising ability/Toenemende oksiderende vermoë
Mg + 2e −
⇌ Mg − 2,36
3+
Aℓ + 3e −
⇌ Aℓ − 1,66
Increasing reducing ability/Toenemende reduserende vermoë

2+
Mn + 2e −
⇌ Mn − 1,18
2+
Cr + 2e −
⇌ Cr − 0,91
2H2O + 2e −
⇌ H2(g) + 2OH −
− 0,83
2+
Zn + 2e −
⇌ Zn − 0,76
3+
Cr + 3e −
⇌ Cr − 0,74
2+
Fe + 2e −
⇌ Fe − 0,44
3+ 2+
Cr + e −
⇌ Cr − 0,41
2+
Cd + 2e −
⇌ Cd − 0,40
2+
Co + 2e −
⇌ Co − 0,28
2+
Ni + 2e −
⇌ Ni − 0,27
2+
Sn + 2e −
⇌ Sn − 0,14
2+
Pb + 2e −
⇌ Pb − 0,13
3+
Fe + 3e −
⇌ Fe − 0,06
+
2H + 2e −
⇌ H2(g) 0,00
+
S + 2H + 2e −
⇌ H2S(g) + 0,14
4+ 2+
Sn + 2e −
⇌ Sn + 0,15
2+ +
Cu + e −
⇌ Cu + 0,16
2− +
SO 4 + 4H + 2e −
⇌ SO2(g) + 2H2O + 0,17
2+
Cu + 2e −
⇌ Cu + 0,34
2H2O + O2 + 4e −
⇌ 4OH −
+ 0,40
+
SO2 + 4H + 4e −
⇌ S + 2H2O + 0,45
+
Cu + e −
⇌ Cu + 0,52
I2 + 2e −
⇌ 2I
−
+ 0,54
+
O2(g) + 2H + 2e −
⇌ H 2O 2 + 0,68
3+ 2+
Fe + e −
⇌ Fe + 0,77
− +
NO 3 + 2H + e −
⇌ NO2(g) + H2O + 0,80
+
Ag + e −
⇌ Ag + 0,80
2+
Hg + 2e −
⇌ Hg(ℓ) + 0,85
− +
NO 3 + 4H + 3e −
⇌ NO(g) + 2H2O + 0,96
Br2(ℓ) + 2e −
⇌ 2Br −
+ 1,07
2+
Pt + 2 e −
⇌ Pt + 1,20
+ 2+
MnO2+ 4H + 2e −
⇌ Mn + 2H2O + 1,23
+
O2(g) + 4H + 4e −
⇌ 2H2O + 1,23
2− + 3+
Cr2O 7 + 14H + 6e −
⇌ 2Cr + 7H2O + 1,33
Cℓ2(g) + 2e −
⇌ 2Cℓ −
+ 1,36
− + 2+
MnO 4 + 8H + 5e −
⇌ Mn + 4H2O + 1,51
+
H2O2 + 2H +2 e −
⇌ 2H2O +1,77
3+ 2+
Co + e −
⇌ Co + 1,81
F2(g) + 2e −
⇌ 2F −
+ 2,87
APPENDIX 4 Cation and Anion table
TABLE 1
TABLE OF CATIONS/TABEL VAN kATIONE
hydrogen (waterstof) H+ beryllium (berillium) Be2+ aluminium (aluminium) Al3+ chromium (VI) [chroom (VI)] Cr6+
lithium (litium) Li+ magnesium (magnesium) Mg2+ [chromium (III) [chroom (III)] Cr3+ manganese (VII) [mangaan (VII)] Mn7+
sodium (natrium) Na+ calcium (kalsium) Ca2+ iron (III) [yster (III)] Fe3+
potassium (kalium) K+ barium (barium) Ba2+ cobalt (III) [kobalt (III)] Co3+
silver (silwer) Ag+ tin (II) [tin (II)] Sn2+
mercury (I) [kwik (I)] Hg+ lead (II) [lood (II)] Pb2+
copper (I) [koper (I)] Cu+ chromium (II) [chroom (II)] Cr2+
ammonium NH4+ manganese (II) [mangaan (II)] Mn2+
iron (II) [yster (II)] Fe2+
cobalt (II) [kobalt (II)] Co2+
nickel (nikkel) Ni2+
copper (II) [koper (II)] Cu2+
zinc (sink) Zn2+
TABLE 2
TABLE OF ANIONS/TABEL VAN ANIONE
fluoride (fluoried) F- oxide (oksied) O2-

chloride (chloried) Cl- peroxide (peroksied) O22-
bromide bromied Br- carbonate (karbonaat) CO32-
iodide (jodied) I- sulphide (sulfied) S2-
hydroxide (hidroksied) OH- sulphite (sulfiet) SO32-
nitrite (nitriet) NO2- sulphate (sulfaat) SO42-
nitrate (nitraat) NO3- thiosulphate (tiosulfaat) S2O32-
hydrogen carbonate (waterstofkarbonaat) HCO3- chromate (chromaat) CrO42-
hydrogen sulphite (waterstofsulfiet) HSO3- dichromate (dichromaat) Cr2O72-
hydrogen sulphate (waterstofsulfaat) HSO4- manganate (manganaat) MnO42-
dihydrogen phosphate (diwaterstoffosfaat) H2PO4- oxalate (oksalaat) (COO)22-/C2O42-
hypochlorite (hipochloriet) ClO- hydrogen phosphate (waterstoffosfaat) HPO42-
chlorate (chloraat) ClO3- nitride (nitried) N3-
permanganate (permanganaat) MnO4- phosphate (fosfaat) PO43-
acetate /ethanoate (asetaat) CH3COO- phosphide (fosfied) P3-
APPENDIX 5 Solubility table
Solubility Table
Soluble compounds Exceptions

Almost all salts of Na+, K+ and NH4+
All salts of Cl-, Br- and I-
⇔ Halides of Ag+, Hg22+ and Pb2+
Compounds containing F-
⇔ Fluorides of Mg2+, Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+ and Pb2+
Salts of
nitrate, NO3-
chlorate, ClO3-
perchlorate, ClO4-
acetate, CH3COO- KClO4
Salts of sulphate, SO42-

⇔ Sulphates of Sr2+, Ba2+ and Pb2+
Insoluble compounds Exceptions

All salts of
⇔ Salts of NH4+ and alkali metal cations
carbonate, CO32-
phosphate, PO43-
oxalate, C2O42-
chromate, CrO42-
sulphide, S2-
Most metal hydroxides OH- and
oxides, O2-
Grade 11 Science Essentials SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
Grade 11 Chemistry Definitions

Electronegativity: a measure of the tendency of an atom in a molecule to attract bonding electrons
Chemical bond: a mutual attraction between two atoms resulting from the simultaneous attraction between their nuclei and
the outer electrons
Valence electrons: the electrons in the highest energy level of an atom in which there are electrons
Covalent bond: the sharing of electrons between two atoms to form a molecule
Atomic Non-polar covalent (pure covalent): a bond in which the electron density is shared equally between the two atoms
Combinations Polar covalent: a bond in which the electron density is shared unequally between the two atoms
Molecule: a group of two or more atoms covalently bonded and that function as a unit
Bonding pair: a pair of electrons that is shared between two atoms in a covalent bond
Lone pair: a pair of electrons in the valence shell of an atom that is not shared with another atom
Bond energy: the energy needed to break one mole of its molecules into separate atoms
Bond length: the average distance between the nuclei of two bonded atoms
Boiling point: the temperature at which the vapour pressure of a substance equals atmospheric pressure
Melting point: the temperature at which the solid and liquid phases of a substance are at equilibrium.
Intermolecular
Vapour pressure: the pressure exerted by a vapour at equilibrium with its liquid in a closed system.
Forces
Solubility: the property of a solid, liquid, or gaseous chemical substance (solute) to dissolve in a solid, liquid, or gaseous
solvent to form a homogeneous solution.
Boyle’s law: The pressure of an enclosed gas is inversely proportional to the volume it occupies at constant temperature
Ideal Gases and
Charles’law: The volume of an enclosed gas is directly proportional to its kelvin temperature provided the pressure is kept
Thermal
constant
properties
Guy-Lussac’s law: the pressure of a gas is directly proportional to its temperature in kelvin at constant volume
Mol: the amount of substance having the same number of particles as there are atoms in 12 g carbon-12
Quantitative Avogadro’s number: the number of particles (atoms, molecules, formula-units) present in one mole
aspects of Molar mass: the mass of one mole of a substance measured in g·mol–1
chemical change Avogadro’s law: one mole of any gas occupies the same volume at the same temperature and pressure
Concentration: the amount of solute per litre of solution
Heat of reaction (ΔH): the energy absorbed or released per mole in a chemical reaction
Exothermic reactions: reactions that release energy
Energy and
Endothermic reactions: reactions that absorbs energy
Chemical Change
Activation energy: the minimum energy needed for a reaction to take place
Activated complex: the unstable transition state from reactants to products
Arrhenius theory:
Acid: a substance that produces hydrogen ions (H+)/hydronium ions (H3O+) when it dissolves in water
Base: a substance that produces hydroxide ions (OH–) when it dissolves in water
Lowry-Brønsted theory:
Acids and Bases Acid: a proton (H+ ion) donor
Base: a proton (H+ ion) acceptor
Ampholyte (amphiprotic substance): a substance that can act as either an acid or a base.
Acid-base indicator: a weak acid, or a weak base, which colour changes as the H+ ion concentration or the OH– ion
concentration in a solution changes
Oxidation: a loss of electrons/an increase in oxidation number

Reduction: a gain of electrons/a decrease in oxidation number
Redox Reactions
Oxidising agent: a substance that is reduced/that gains electrons/whose oxidation number decreases
Reducing agent: a substance that is oxidised/that loses electrons/whose oxidation number increases
30
Molecular Structure SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
MOLECULAR STRUCTURE BOND ENERGY A) Covalent Bonding

Knowing the structure of a molecule enables you to deter- There are various attractive and repulsive forces at play between the two atoms during (Between non-metals)
mine its physical and chemical properties. The structure bonding. Covalent bonding is the sharing of at least one pair
mainly depends on the type of chemical bond (force) that of electrons by two atoms.
• Attractive forces between the protons of
exist between the atoms that the molecule consists of. − −
one atom and the electrons of another. Non-polar (pure) covalent
CHEMICAL BONDS • Attractive forces between the protons An equal sharing of electrons (e.g. diatomic molecules)
Chemical bond: the net electrostatic force that two and electrons from the same atom. Eg. H H bond: !EN = EN(H) EN(H) = 0
atoms sharing electrons exert on each other. • A repulsive force between the protons
from each atom. Weak polar covalent
Bonding occurs when valence electrons are shared be- • A repulsive force between the electrons Eg. H Br bond: !EN = EN(Br) EN(H) = 0,7
tween two atoms or transferred from one atom to another. from each atom.
Valence electrons correspond to the group number of an Polar covalent
element on the Periodic table. An unequal sharing of electrons leading to a dipole
The net electrostatic forces will determine bond strength, which can be quantified as
forming
Valence electrons: electrons in the outermost en- the bond energy. This is the energy required to break the bond, or energy released Eg. H O bond: !EN = EN(O) EN(H) = 1,4
ergy level of an atom that take part in bonding. when bonds are formed.
The type of bond that forms is dependent on the difference Bond energy is the amount of energy required to break one mole of a B) Ionic Bonding
in electronegativity (!EN) between the atoms: specific covalent bond in gaseous phase. (between metals and non-metals)
Ionic bonding is a transfer of electrons and subse-
ΔEN = 0 : Non-polar (pure) covalent quent electrostatic attraction.
FACTORS INFLUENCING BOND STRENGTH
(an equal sharing of electrons)
Bond strength is determined by: 1. Involves a complete transfer of electron(s).
!EN < 1 : Weak polar
Bond length 2. Metal atom gives e- to non-metal.
!EN < 2,1: Polar covalent 3. Metal forms a positive cation.
The shorter the length of the bond, the stronger the bond.
(unequal sharing of electrons leading 4. Non-metal forms a negative anion.
to a dipole forming) Atom size 5. Electrostatic attraction of ions leads to formation of giant
The smaller the atoms, the stronger the bond. crystal lattice.
!EN ≥ 2,1: Ionic
(transfer of electrons and subsequent Bond order
electrostatic attraction) The more bonds (double, triple bonds etc.) between the atoms, the stronger the bond. Ionic Bonding takes place in two steps.
1. Transfer of e-(s) to form ions
BOND LENGTH 2. Electrostatic attraction
Bond length: the average distance between the nuclei of two
Electron transfer from
bonded atoms. sodium to chlorine
EP (kJ·mol−1)
As the atoms get closer, the attractive forces get stronger until the mini- Distance -
mum possible potential energy is reached (bond energy). The distance be- between
tween the nuclei of the atoms at the minimum potential energy is the bond A nuclei (pm) Na + Cl Na+ Cl
length. energy
D
Bond
If the two atoms get closer than the bonding length, they will be forced B
apart by the repulsive forces, increasing the potential energy. C) Metallic Bonding
FACTORS INFLUENCING BOND LENGTH Bond
Most stable (between metals)
bond length Metallic bonding is the bond between the positive
Bond length is determined by: length C metal nuclei and the sea of delocalized electrons.
Atom size Process of bond formation
The smaller the atoms, the shorter the bond.
The metal atoms release their va-
Bond order A: Atoms are infinitely separated, potential energy is nearly zero.
lence electrons to surround them.
The more bonds (double, triple bonds etc.) between the atoms, the shorter B: as the atoms move closer, the forces of attraction and repulsion
There is a strong but flexible bond
the bond. increase until the forces of attraction dominate.
between the positive metal nuclei
C: the lowest, most stable energy state reached, chemical bond forms.
Difference in electronegativity (!EN) and a sea of delocalised electrons.
D: Atoms move too close, forces of repulsion increase, potential en-
The greater the !EN, the shorter the bond. ergy increases.
31
Molecular Structure SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
LEWIS DIAGRAMS VALENCE SHELL ELECTRON PAIR REPULSION (VSEPR) BOND VS MOLECULAR POLARITY
Molecules and the atoms that they are made up of are extremely small and Valence shell electron pair repulsion theory: a model used to predict the shape Bond polarity
cannot be seen with the naked eye. Models are used to visualize the atoms of a molecule based on the number of electron pairs that surround the central
Bond polarity is determined by the electronegativ-
and the chemical bonds between them. One of the ways that we visualize atom.
ity of the 2 atoms that form the bond.
chemical bonds is by means of Lewis diagrams.
There are five ideal shapes, when there are no lone pairs on the central atom:
Electronegativity is the tendency of an
Lewis diagrams show the valence electrons around the nucleus, represented
Shape General Terminal Lone atom to attract a shared electron pair dur-
by the element symbol. Example
name formula atoms pairs ing bonding.
EXAMPLE:
Give the Lewis-diagrams for the following elements: Li, C, F If one atom has a greater electronegativity than
Linear *AX2 2 0 Cl Be Cl another, the electrons will be pulled more to-
Li C F F wards one atom than another. As such a shift of
electrons creates negative and positive charge
Trigonal
Bonding electron *AX3 3 0 B distributions inside the molecule.
Lone pairs planar
(unbonded)
F F Polar bond: an Non-polar bond: an
General steps to draw Lewis diagrams unequal distribution of equal distribution of
Lewis diagrams can be drawn for a variety of molecules by using the follow- H electrons between two electrons between two
atoms during bonding. atoms during bonding.
ing general steps: Tetrahedral *AX4 4 0 C H
1. Choose the central atom- the one with the lowest electronegativity H H H Cl H H
(found on the Periodic Table).
EN (Cl) > EN (H): EN (H) = EN (H):
2. Determine the total number of valence electrons. Cl Electrons shift towards Bonding electrons are
3. Put one shared pair between the central and terminal atoms. Trigonal Cl chlorine. evenly shared.
bipyramidal
*AX5 5 0 Cl P Cl
4. Arrange the remaining electrons around the atoms so that 8 electrons Chlorine sightly Charge is evenly
are placed around the terminal atoms. (except hydrogen = 2 electrons) Cl negative (δ−) and distributed and no
hydrogen slightly dipole formed.
5. If there are not 8 valence electrons around the central atom, move some F positive (δ+).
of the electrons in between the atoms to form multiple bonds. F F
Octahedral *AX6 6 0 S F Molecular polarity
EXAMPLE: F
A molecule can have polar bonds, but not be po-
Give the Lewis diagram for the CO2 molecule. F lar as a whole. Molecular polarity is determined
*A is the central atom and X represents the terminal atoms. by the shape of the molecule.
1. C is the central atom as it has an electronegativity of 2,5.
Molecules that have lone pairs will have a slightly different shape, since the lone Polar molecule: a Non-polar molecule:
2. CO2 has 4 + 6 + 6 = 16 valence electrons = 8 electron pairs.
pairs exert repulsive forces on the other bonding pairs, pushing them down. molecule over which a molecule over which
3. OCO charge is distributed the charge is evenly
4. 4 electrons have been used: 16-4 = 12 electrons are left. Shape General Terminal Lone unevenly. distributed.
Example
name formula atoms pairs
O C O O
F
B
5. Two bonds (a double bond) between each C and O are formed. H H F F
O C O Angular/ Lone pairs + EN (O): EN (F):

Bent
*AX2L2 2 2 O O is slightly negative. F is slightly negative.
DATIVE BONDING/ COORDINATE BONDING H H Lower EN (H): EN (B):
H is slightly positive. B is slightly positive.
A coordinate bond is formed when one atom donates both electrons to form
a bonding pair. The filled electron orbital (lone pair) of one atom overlaps ∴uneven charge F atoms evenly
Trigonal
with the empty orbital of another, eg. H3O+, NH4+.
+ H + pyramidal
*AX3L1 3 1 N H distribution distributed
∴polar molecule. ∴non-polar molecule.
H+ + H O H O H H+ + H N H H N H H H
H H H H asymmetrical molecule symmetrical molecule
32
Intermolecular Forces SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES (IMF) STRENGTH OF IMF

Intermolecular forces are weak forces of attraction Hydrogen bonding > Ion-dipole > dipole-dipole > ion-induced dipole > dipole-induced dipole > London (dispersion) forces
between molecules or between atoms of noble gases.
IMF vs Intramolecular bonds TYPES OF INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
Intermolecular forces are not the same as intramolecular
Hydrogen bonding IMF’s involving ions Van der Waals Forces
bonds.
Intramolecular bonds exist between atoms IN a molecule. Ion-induced Dipole-induced London dispersion
Hydrogen bonding Ion-dipole Dipole-dipole
Intermolecular forces exist between molecules or between dipole dipole forces
atoms of noble gases.
A type of dipole-dipole IMF that occur Ion induces a dipole IMF that occur Polar molecule IMF between non-
attraction, but much between an ion in an atom or in a between polar induces a dipole in an polar molecules that
(Inside) (Between) STRONGER. Between and a polar non-polar molecule molecules (same or atom or in a non- form temporary
small, highly molecule . not the same polar molecule. dipoles.
electronegative atoms. (dipole). Eg. Cl-ion and C6H14. molecules). Eg. O2 in water.
Elements F, N, O Eg. NaCl in water. Eg. H2S; CH3Cl.
‘Intra’
+ + bonded to H. Eg. H2O.
‘Inter’ + +
+ +
+ +
AMAZING WATER MOLECULE PROPERTIES OF WATER EXAMPLE:

Specific heat capacity Density The table below identifies the dominant intermolecular force present in
• Asymmetrical polar molecule. The amount of energy needed As water freezes, the molecules orientate them- each case.
to raise the temperature of selves so that the volume expands and the den-
1 kg of water by 1 °C. Water sity decreases. Ice forms a crystal lattice.
Substance Intermolecular force
has a high specific heat capac-
O ity. Liquid Solid CO2 London (dispersion)
A high heat capacity requires
H H more energy for the tempera- CO Dipole-dipole
ture to change. This helps with
• Intramolecular covalent bonds. heat regulation on the earth. NH3 Hydrogen bonding
• Bent/angular molecular shape. NaCl in water Ion-dipole
• Contains hydrogen bonding between Melting and boiling points
molecules. These strong IMF need a Strong hydrogen bonding
More dense Less dense HF Hydrogen bonding
large amount of energy to overcome. IMF’s require large amounts of
Decrease in density of ice helps regulate the NO and CH4 gas mix Dipole-induced dipole
• Water vapour acts as a greenhouse energy to overcome intermo-
lecular forces. temperature of the earth and the climate.
gas by absorbing the sun’s radiation. HCl Dipole-dipole
Melting point: 0 °C Ice floats on water forming an insulating layer
• The ocean acts as a heat reservoir KMnO4 in CHCl3 Ion-dipole
between water and the atmosphere keeping the
and regulates the temperature of
water from freezing and preserving aquatic life.
earth. Boiling point: 100 °C at
atmospheric pressure.
33
IMF and Physical properties SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
Phase of molecules Adhesion Density

IMF between molecules causes them to be attracted to one Adhesion is the intermolecular attraction of molecules to molecules of a Density is the number of particles per unit volume.
another. different substance (e.g. between water and glass).
Increased IMF increases the attractive force between the particles,
Stronger IMF = Stronger attraction The strength of adhesive forces are dependent on the two specific sub- causing the particles to become more tightly packed. The arrange-
stances interacting with each other. ment of the particles determine the number of particles per volume,
At the same temperature:
thereby determining the density.
Solid: Strong IMF Cohesion
Liquid: Intermediate IMF
Cohesion is the intermolecular attraction between molecules of the same
Gas: Weak IMF
substance (e.g. between water and water). Stronger IMF = Particles closer together = Greater density
Stronger IMF = Greater cohesive forces
Capillarity
INCREASING TEMPERATURE
Capillarity is the tendency of liquid to rise in a very thin tube. LOW DENSITY HIGH DENSITY
S Capillary action occurs when the adhesive forces are stronger than the
BOILING GA
cohesive forces.
MELTING UID Stronger IMF between liquid and tube = Greater capillary action
LIQ
LID
SO
DECREASING IMF
Increase in strength of IMF
Phase change
Melting: Melting points increase with increase in IMF.
Boiling: Boiling points increase with increase in IMF. Size of molecules
Viscosity
Larger molecule = Larger electron cloud = Stronger IMF
INCREASING TEMPERATURE (°C)
Viscosity is a liquids resistance to flow.

100
I Stronger IMF will cause the molecules in the liquid to hold together
HF
F Cl Br more strongly, causing the viscosity to increase.
0 Stronger IMF = Greater viscosity
Increase in strength of IMF
HI
Thermal expansion Surface tension
-100
HBr Thermal expansion is the expanding of a material when heated. Surface tension is the cohesive forces between mole-
HCl
cules on the surface of a liquid.
As the temperature increases, the kinetic energy of the molecules increase. This addi-
-200 tional energy can overcome the IMF and molecules move further apart. Molecules at the surface of a liquid experience only
inward intermolecular forces.
Stronger IMF = molecules held together strongly = Lower thermal expansion
Stronger IMF = Greater surface tension
HF contains hydrogen bonding→strongest IMF→highest boiling Solubility

point. HCl, HBr and HI all contain dipole-dipole forces and there- Solubility is the ability of a solute to dissolve in a solvent.
fore the boiling point increases with increasing molecular mass. A solute will dissolve in a solvent with similar IMF’s. “like dissolves like”.
Evaporation: Evaporation decreases with increase in IMF. Polar and ionic solute will dissolve in a polar solvent
Higher vapor pressures correspond to weaker IMF.
A non-polar solute will dissolve in a non-polar solvent
34
Ideal Gases SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY BOYLE’S LAW CHARLES’ LAW GAY–LUSSAC’S LAW

1 V1 V2 p1 p
Properties of gases according to kinetic molecular theory p1V1 = p 2V2 V∝ (constant T) = V∝ T (constant P) = 2 P∝ T (constant V)
P T1 T2 T1 T2
• Particles are far apart- large spaces between them.
• Particles move with Brownian motion- Fast, random motion. The volume of an enclosed gas is in- The volume of an enclosed gas is di- The pressure of an enclosed gas is di-
• Gases undergo diffusion- Particles spread out to fill the container. versely proportional to the pressure of rectly proportional to the absolute tem- rectly proportional to the absolute tem-
• The forces between particles are negligibly small. the gas if the temperature remains con- perature (in Kelvin) of the gas provided perature if the volume of the gas re-
• Particles collide elastically with other particles and the walls of stant. the pressure remains constant. mains constant.
the container. The temperature remains constant, there- Graph of p vs T
Pressure (kPa)
Three measurable variables: fore the average EK of the particles remains Graph of V vs T
the same. If the volume decreases, more
Temperature (T)- a measure of average kinetic energy.
Volume (cm3)
collisions would take place and the pressure
Volume (V)- the space occupied by the gas in the container.
would increase.
Pressure (p)- the outward force per unit area applied by gas when
the gas particles collide with the container walls. Graph of V vs p
Volume (cm3)
Standard Temperature and Pressure or STP
Temperature (K)
Standard Temperature = 0 °C or 273 K An increase in temperature indicates an in-
Standard Pressure = 101,3 kPa (1,013 x 103 Pa) Temperature (K) crease in kinetic energy. As kinetic energy
High T
increases, so does the outward force during
IDEAL GASES Mild T
Ideal gases are theoretical gases that obey the gas laws Low T By extending the graph, absolute zero (0 Kel- collisions between particles and container
under all conditions of temperature and pressure. Pressure (kPa) vin) can be derived. 0 K is the theoretical (pressure↑).
Graph of V vs 1/p minimum temperature, as volume (V) be- Example:
● The particles of a gas are all identical and in constant motion. comes zero at this temperature. Real gases
● The volume of the gas is due to the motion of the particles as the Calculate the pressure of a gas at 25 °C, if
Volume (cm3)
T deviate from the ideal gas laws at low tem-
particles have no volume themselves. gh originally the gas had a pressure of 200 Pa
Hi peratures, as the volume of the gas and its
● The intermolecular forces between gas particles are negligible. ld T particles can never become zero. at a temperature of 100 °C.
Mi
● All collisions are perfectly elastic.
Low T ℃ = K - 273 p1 p2
DEVIATION FROM IDEAL GAS =
K = ℃ + 273 T1 T2
At LOW temperatures:
200 p2
• Gas particles move much slower, NB: Temperature must always be meas- =
decreasing the number of colli- 1/p (kPa−1) ured in Kelvin!
373 298
p2 = 159,79 Pa
Volume
sions between the particles and Graph of pV vs p

the container walls. Pressure of
the gas is lower than expected. GENERAL GAS EQUATION
• Attractive forces are stronger
High T Example: Variables of fixed amount of gas when sys-
pV (J)
due to the particles being closer tem changes occur.

Mild T A certain sample of gas has a volume of
together and moving slower. p1V1 p V
Temperature Low T
125 cm3 at standard temperature and = 2 2
The gas is more likely to be- pressure. If the pressure of the gas re- T1 T2
come a liquid and the volume is mains constant but the temperature of the
greater than expected. p,V can be in any consistent units
Real gas Pressure (kPa) gas increases to 25 °C, calculate the new T in Kelvin
Example: volume of the gas.
At HIGH pressure: Ideal gas IDEAL GAS EQUATION
• The volume of the gas particles A balloon has a volume of 1000 cm3 at a T2 = 25 + 273 = 298 K Properties under single set of conditions.
becomes significant in relation
Volume
pressure of 60 kPa. If the pressure on the

to the container. V1 V2 pV = nR T
balloon changes to 100 kPa, calculate the
=
• Increases in the intermolecular new volume of the balloon. T1 T2 p = pressure in Pa
forces between the particles due p1V1 = p2V2 125 V2 V = volume in m3
to proximity, gas will liquify and =
(1000)(60) = (100)V2
273 298 n = number of mole of gas (mol)
the volume is larger than ex- V2 = 136,45 cm3 R = universal gas constant (8,31 J·K−1·mol−1)
pected. Pressure V2 = 600 cm3 T = temperature in K
35
Quantitative aspects of chemical change SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
The Mole Percentage Composition

Atoms, molecules and ions are too small to count, and there are so many particles in even the smallest sample of a
substance.
There are more particles of water in a teaspoon then there are teaspoons of water in all the oceans.
total M of element in compound
% of element= × 100
Rather than dealing with the particles individually, we deal with a special number of particles. M of compound
The mole is a name for a special number. Many numbers have names, such as:
2 = pair
3 = hat-trick Consider these iron ores: haematite and magnetite – which contains more iron by
12 = dozen mass?
The mole is the SI unit for the amount of substance. A mole of particles is an amount of 6,02 x 1023 particles. 6,02 Ore Haematite Magnetite
x 1023 is known as Avogadro’s number, NA.
Formula Fe2O3 Fe3O4
Avogadro’s number (NA ) is a large number to imagine:
Relative (2 x 56) + (3 x 16) (3 x 56) + (4 x 16)
602 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 . molecular mass =160 =232
[(2 x 56) /160] x 100 [(3 x 56) / 232] x 100
For example: This many grains of sand, piled on the surface of the earth would almost reach the moon. % iron by mass
= 70% = 72%
The mole is defined as the number of particles or atoms in 12,0 g of Carbon -12.
Molar Mass ∴ magnetite contains more iron
Particles are too small to weigh individually.
Molar mass (M) is defined as the mass, in grams, of one mole of particles (atoms, molecules or formula units)
Different types of Chemical Formulae
and is measured in the unit g.mol-1.
mass of substance (g) Consider the substance ethane
m
number of mole (mol) n=
M molar mass (g ⋅ mol−1) Ball and stick
model of ethane
Relative atomic mass (Ar) is the average mass of an atom compared to the mass of a Carbon 12 atom. It is
measured in atomic mass units (amu).
Molar mass (M) of an element is equal to the magnitude of relative atomic mass (Ar) in amu. This is found
on the periodic table. See the table below for other substances: It also can be represented using a formula. There are three types of formulas we use:
Type of Molar mass Actual number of each Eg. C2H6

Particles Example Formula Molecular formula
substance g.mol-1 atom.
Element Atoms Neon Ne 20 Simplest whole number ratio Eg.C1H3 → CH3
Empirical formula
Covalent Usually Carbon 12+16+16 of the atoms.
CO2
compound Molecules dioxide = 44 Shows how the atoms are
Ionic Ions (formula 23+35,5 joined.
Salt NaCl Structural formula
compound units) = 58,5
Positive kernels
Metallic
and delocalized Gold Au 197
compound
electrons
EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE:

What is the relative formula mass of Calcium sulphate (CaSO4)? What is the molar mass of What is the relative molecular mass of sucrose (C12H22O11)? What is the molar mass of
MR (CaSO4) = AR (Ca) + AR (S)+ (4 x AR (O)) Calcium sulphate (CaSO4)? MR (C12H22O11) = 12 x AR (C) + 22 x AR (H)+ 11 x AR (O) sucrose(C12H22O11) ?
= 40 + 32 + (4 x 16) 136 g.mol-1 = (12x 12) + (22x1) + (11 x 16) 342 g.mol-1
= 136 (no unit) = 342 (no unit)
36
Concentrations of solutions Molar Volumes of Gases

Solutions are homogeneous (uniform) mixtures of solute and solvent. If different gases have the same volume under the same conditions of temperature and pressure, they will have the
The solvent and solute can be a gas, liquid, or solid. The most common solvent is same number of molecules.
liquid water. This is called an aqueous solution.
Solution Solute Solvent

salt water Salt water
Soda water Carbon dioxide water
Concentration
The concentration of a solution is the number of mole of solute per unit vol-
ume of solution.
number of moles (mol)
n
concentration (mol ⋅ dm−3) c=
V volume (dm3)
The molar volume of a gas, VM, is the volume occupied by one mole of the gas.
can also be calculated with
m VM for all gases at STP is 22.4 dm3·mol−1.
c=
MV Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP) is 273K (0°C) and 1,013×105 Pa (1 atm).
i.e. The number moles of solute per 1 dm of solu- 3
Note: This also means that for reaction at constant temperature and pressure, gas volumes will react in the same ratio as
tion i.e. mol.dm-3. If a solution of potassium per- 1000 cm3 = 1 dm3 (= 1 litre) the molar ratio.
manganate KMnO4 has a concentration of 2
mol.dm-3 it means that for every 1 dm3 of solution,
1 cm3 = 0,001 dm3
1 cm3 = 1 ml N2 + 2O2 → 2NO2
there are 2 moles of KMnO4 dissolved in the solvent.
1 mol + 2 mol → 2 mol
EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE:
A solution contains 10 g of sodium hy- Calculate the mass of solute in 600 cm3
1 dm3 + 2 dm3 → 2 dm3
droxide, NaOH, in 200 cm3 of solution.
Calculate the concentration of the solu-
of 1,5 mol·dm-3 sodium chloride solu-
tion. V volume of gaseous substance (dm3)
tion.
V = 600 cm3 = 0,6 dm3 number of moles (mol)
n=
VM
m
n(NaOH) = M
10 molar gas volume at STP (22,4 dm3 ⋅ mol−1)
= 23 + 16 + 1 M(NaCl) = 23 + 35,5
= 0,25 mol = 58,5 g ⋅ mol−1
V = 200 cm3 = 0,2 dm3 n = cV

EXAMPLE:
A gas jar with a volume of 224 cm3 is full of chlorine gas, at STP. How
= 1,5 × 0,6 many moles of chlorine gas are there in the gas jar?
n
c(NaOH) = V
= 0,9 mol
V
0,25 n = VM
= 0,2
m = nM =
0,224
= 1,25 mol ⋅ dm−3 = 0,9 × 58,5 22,4
= 52,65 g = 0,01 m ol
37
Water of crystallization EXAMPLE:

Some ionic crystals trap a certain number of water 13,2 g of a sample of zinc sulphate, ZnSO4.xH2O, was Calculating the Empirical Formula from Percentage Composition
molecules between the ions as they are forming. heated in a crucible. Calculate the number of moles of The empirical formula of a compound can also be found from its percentage composi-
These water molecules are known as “Water of crys- water of crystallisation if 7.4 g of solid remained. tion. We assume that 100 g of the compound is analysed, then each percentage gives
tallization”. the mass of the element in grams in 100 g of the compound.
1 . m(H2 O) = 13,2 g − 7,4 g
Eg. Hydrated copper sulphate:
CuSO4 · 5 H2O has 5 water molecules per formula = 5,8 g An oxide of sulphur contains 40% sulphur and 60% oxygen by mass. Determine
the empirical formula of this oxide of sulphur.
unit. When the hydrated salt crystals are heated, the
m
water molecules evaporate off, leaving the anhy- 2 . n(H2 O) =
drous salt behind.
M Steps Sulphur Oxygen
5,8
= 18
Step 1: 40 60
CuSO4 · 5 H2O(s) → CuSO4 (s) + 5 H2O(g) % of element
= 0,32 mol
To calculate the number of moles of water of crystalli- Step 2: 40 60
m
zation: 3 . n(ZnSO4 ) = M
Mass of element (g)
7,4 Step 3: n=m/M n=m/M
1. Calculate the mass of water that evaporated off. = 161 Mol = 40 / 32 = 60 / 16
2. Calculate the moles of water. = 1,25 mol = 3,75 mol
= 0,046 mol
3. Calculate the moles of anhydrous salt.
4. Determine the ratio of water to anhydrous salt. Step 4: 1,25 / 1,25 3,75 /1,25
mol water Smallest mol ratio =1 =3
5. Write the formula for the hydrated salt. 4 . ratio = mol anhydrous salt
0,32
= 0,046 Empirical formula: SO3
Note:
The dot in the formula ( · ) between the = 1:7
salt and the water means that a light bond
is formed. It is NOT a multiplication dot. 5 . ∴ formula = Z nSO4 ⋅ 7H2O
Calculating the Empirical Formula of a Compound from Mass

To calculate the empirical formula of a compound from mass: Empirical formula is the chemical formula of a compound that shows
1.Determine the mass of the elements. the smallest whole number ratio of the atoms.
2.Determine mol of each substance.
3.Simplify the atomic ratio.
EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE:
In a combustion reaction 0,48 g of magnesium ribbon is burnt. The amount of magnesium oxide pro- A sample of an oxide of copper contains 8 g of copper combined with 1 g of oxygen.
duced is 0,80 g. Calculate the empirical formula for magnesium oxide. Find the empirical formula of the compound.
Steps Copper Oxygen
Steps Magnesium Oxygen
Step 1:
Step 1: 8g 1g
0.48 g 0.80 – 0.48 = 0.32 g Mass of element
Mass of element
Step 2: n=m/M n=m/M
n=m/M n=m/M
Step 2: Mol = 8 / 63,5 = 1 / 16
= 0.48 / 24 = 0.32 / 16
Mol (divide by mass of 1 mol) (divide by mass of 1 mol) = 0,126 mol = 0,0625 mol
= 0,02 mol = 0,02 mol
Step 3:
Step 3: 0,126/0,0625 0,0625/0,0625
Atom ratio
Atom ratio 1 1 ≈2 =1
(divide by smallest no in ratio)
(divide by smallest no in ratio)
Empirical formula: MgO Empirical formula: Cu2O
38
Quantitative aspects- Reactions SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
Empirical formula to Molecular Formula Approach to reaction stoichiometry Limiting Reactants

The empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of 1. Write a balanced chemical equation. In a reaction between two substances, one reac-
atoms in a molecule. The molecular formula is the actual ratio 2. Change the ‘given’ amount into mole (use limiting reactant if applicable). tant is likely to be used up completely before the
of the atoms in a molecule. 3. Determine the number of mole of the ‘asked’ substance using the mole ratio. other. This limits the amount of product formed.
4. Determine the ‘asked’ amount from the number of mole.
The molecular formula can be calculated from the empirical for- Consider the reaction between magnesium and
mula and the relative molecular mass. EXAMPLE: dilute sulphuric acid. The balanced chemical equa-
To obtain iron, iron (III) oxide reacts with carbon monoxide tion is
STEPS TO DETERMINE MOLECULAR FORMULA:
according to the following word equation:
1. Determine the empirical formula (if not given). Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
2. Determine the molar mass of the empirical formula. iron (III) oxide + carbon monoxide →iron + carbon dioxide
This means that 1 mole of magnesium reacts with
3. Determine the ratio between molecular formula and empirical What mass of iron is produced from 48 g of iron (III) oxide? 1 mole of sulphuric acid. Both reactants will be
formula. completely used up by the time the reaction stops.
4. Multiply the ratio into the empirical formula 1. Fe 2 O3(s) + 3CO(g) → 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)
What happens if 1 mole of magnesium and 2 mole
EXAMPLE: of sulphuric acid are available to react? There is
2.
m
Butene has the empirical formula CH2. The molecular mass of n(Fe 2 O3) = M
now insufficient magnesium to react with all of the
butene is 56g·mol-1. Determine the molecular formula of bu- sulphuric acid. 1 mole of sulphuric acid is left after
48
tene. = 160
the reaction.
= 0,3 mol All of the magnesium is used up, We say the mag-
nesium is the limiting reactant. Some sulphuric
1. Empirical formula given: CH2 3. acid is left after the reaction. We say the sulphuric
Fe 2 O3 : Fe acid is in excess.
2.
M(CH2 ) = 12 + 1 + 1 1 : 2
= 14 g ⋅ mol−1 0,3 mol : 0,6 mol The amount of limiting reactant will deter-
mine:
3. 4.
ratio number =
molecular formula mass m(Fe) = nM • The amount of product formed.
empirical formula mass
= (0,6)(56) • The amount of other (excess) reactants used.
56
= 14 = 33,6 g
= 4
Determining limiting reactants
GIVEN VALUE
4.
CH2 × 4 = C4 H8 STEP TWO: 1. Calculate the number of moles of each reactant.
2. Determine the ratio between reactants.
Solid: Solution: Gas: 3. Determine limiting reactant using the ratios.
Balanced chemical equations m V
n= n = cV n=
M 22,4
Eg . N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g) GIVEN MOL (At STP)
NOTE:
The balanced chemical equation is the “recipe”. It tells us: STEP THREE:
If one reactant is in excess, it means
• The reactants used i.e. Nitrogen and Hydrogen Use molar ratios that there is more than enough of it.
ASKED MOL
• The products produced. i.e. ammonia If there are only 2 reactants and one is in
• The states of the reactants and products (all gases here) STEP FOUR: excess, it means that the other is the limit-
• The molar ratio of the reactants to products. ing reactant.
Solid: Solution: Gas:
1 molecule of nitrogen reacts with 3 molecules of hydrogen to n
form 2 molecules of ammonia. m = nM c= V = n× 22,4
1 mole of nitrogen reacts with 3 moles of hydrogen to form 2
moles of ammonia.
ASKED VALUE V
(At STP)
39
EXAMPLE: Percentage Purity Percentage Yield

A 8,4 g sample of nitrogen reacts with 1,5 g hydro- Sometimes chemicals are not pure and one needs to calculate the Yield is the measure of the extent of a reaction, generally measured by comparing
gen. The balanced equation is: percentage purity. Only the pure component of the substance will the amount of product against the amount of product that is possible.
react. For an impure sample of a substance:
N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g) Some of the product may be lost due to evaporation into the surrounding air, or due
to a little being left in solution. Some of the reactants may not react. We say that
Determine (a) which reactant is the limiting reac- Mass of pure substance the reaction has not run to completion.
tant, and (b) the mass of ammonia that can be Percentage purity = × 100
produced. Mass of impure substance This results in the amount of the product produced being less than the maximum
theoretical amount you would expect. We can express this by the percentage yield:
(a)
1. STEPS TO DETERMINE THE PERCENTAGE PURITY
n(N2 ) = m Actual yield
M 1. Determine moles of products. Percentage yield = × 100
8,4 2. From the balanced formula, determine the ratio between reactants Theoretical yield
=
28 and products.
= 0,3 mol 3. Using the ratio, determine the number of moles of reactants.
Percentage yield is usually determined using mass, but can also be determined with
4. Determine the mass of pure reactant.
mol and volume.
5. Calculate the percentage purity of the sample.
m
n(H2 ) =
M STEPS TO DETERMINE THE PERCENTAGE YIELD
1,5
= EXAMPLE: 1. Determine moles of reactants.
2
2. From the balanced formula, determine the ratio between reactants and products.
= 0,75 mol An impure sample of calcium carbonate, CaCO3, contains calcium 3. Using the ratio, determine the number of moles of products.
sulphate, CaSO4, as an impurity. When excess hydrochloric acid 4. Determine the theoretical mass of product.
2. was added to 6 g of the sample, 1200 cm3 of gas was produced 5. Calculate the percentage yield.
N2 : H2 (measured at STP). Calculate the percentage purity of the cal-
1 : 3 cium carbonate sample. The equation for the reaction is: EXAMPLE:
0,3 mol : 0,9 mol
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2 O(l) + CO2(g) 128g of sulphur dioxide, SO2, was reacted with oxygen to produce sulphur trioxide,
0,25 mol : 0,75 mol SO3. The equation for the reaction is:
V 1,2 2SO2(g) + O2(g) → 2SO3(g)

3 . 1. n(CO2 ) = = = 0,054 mol
If all nitrogen is used, 0,9 mol hydrogen is VM 22,4 140 g of SO3 was produced in the reaction. Calculate the percentage yield of the
needed, However, only 0,75 mol hydrogen is avail- reaction.
2. 3.
able. The hydrogen will run out first, therefore CaCO3 : CO2
hydrogen is the limiting reactant. CaCO3 : CO2 m 128
1 : 1 1. n(SO2 ) = = = 2 mol
1 : 1 M 64
0,054 : 0,054
(b) 2. 3.
∴ 0,054 mol CaCO3 reacted SO2 : SO3 SO2 : SO3
Because the hydrogen is the limiting reactant, it
will determine the mass of ammonia produced: 4.
2 : 2 1 : 1
m(CaCO3) = nM = (0,054)(40 + 12 + 16 + 16 + 16) = 5,4 g 1 : 1 2 : 2
H2 : NH3 ∴2 mol SO3
5.
3 : 2 Mass of pure substance 4. m(SO3) = nM = (2)(32 + 16 + 16 + 16) = 160 g
Percentage purity = × 100
0,75 mol : 0,5 mol Mass of impure substance
5.
5,4 Mass of product produced
Percentage purity = × 100 Percentage yield = × 100
m(NH3) = nM 6,0 Maximum theoretical mass of product
= (0,5)(17) Percentage purity = 90 % Percentage yield = 140
× 100
160
= 8,5 g
Percentage yield = 87.5 %
40
Energy and Chemical Change SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
ENERGY CHANGE ENTHALPY AND ENTHALPY CHANGE

The energy change that takes place occurs because of bonds being broken and new bonds being formed. Enthalpy (H) is the total amount of stored chemical energy (potential energy) of the reactants and the
products. During chemical reactions, energy can be exchanged between the chemical system and the
When bonds are broken, energy is absorbed from the environment.
environment, resulting in a change in enthalpy. This change in enthalpy, !H, represents the heat of the
When bonds are formed, energy is released into the environment. reaction measured in kJ·mol−1.
The net energy change will determine if the reaction is endothermic or exothermic. The heat of reaction (!H) is the net change of chemical potential energy of the system.
ACTIVATION ENERGY
CHEMICAL SYSTEM AND THE ENVIRONMENT
In order to start a reaction, energy first needs to be absorbed to break the bonds. This energy is known
The chemical system is the reactant and product molecules.
as the activation energy- the minimum energy required to start a chemical reaction.
The environment is the surroundings of the chemical system, including the container in which the reac-
Once the bonds have been broken, the atoms in the chemical system form an activated complex- a
tion takes place, or the water in which the molecules are dissolved.
temporary transition state between the reactants and the products.
CATALYST
ENDOTHERMIC EXOTHERMIC
In order for a reaction to occur, enough
energy has to be provided (activation en-
ergy) for particles to collide effectively.
Definition: A reaction that absorbs heat energy from the surroundings Definition: A reaction that releases heat energy into the environment
The amount of required energy can be de-
creased by using a catalyst. A catalyst is a
More energy absorbed than released More energy released than absorbed chemical substances that lowers the activa-
tion energy required without taking part in
Net energy change is energy absorbed from the environment Net energy change is energy released into the environment the reaction. By lowering the activation
energy, the rate of the reaction can also be
increased.
The chemical system’s energy increases (!H>0) The chemical system’s energy decreases (!H<0)
A catalyst is a substance that in-
creases the rate of the reaction but
The environment’s energy decreases The environment’s energy increases
remains unchanged at the end of the
reaction
Temperature of the environment decreases (test tube gets colder) Temperature of the environment increases (test tube gets hotter)
IMPORTANT REACTIONS
Ac+vated Ac+vated
ENDOTHERMIC
Complex Complex
Photosynthesis
Eﬀect of light
Eﬀect of 6CO2 + 6H2 O C6 H12 O6 + 6O2 ; !H>0
Poten+al Energy- EP (kJ)
Poten+al Energy- EP (kJ)

catalyst catalyst
EA
Products EXOTHERMIC
Reactants Cellular respiration
EA C6 H12 O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2 O ; !H<0
ΔH ΔH
Combustion
Reactants Products
CH 4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2 O ; !H<0
C 2 H5OH + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 3H2 O ; !H<0
Course of reac+on Course of reac+on
41
Acids and Bases SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
ACID/BASE DEFINITIONS CONCENTRATED VS DILUTE ACIDS AND BASES INFLUENCE OF ACID/BASE STRENGTH
Arrhenius Concentration is the number of moles of solute per unit volume Reaction rate
An acid is a substance that produces hydrogen ions (H+)/ n m
of solution. ( c = of c = ) Reaction rates increase as the strength of the acid/base in-
hydronium ions (H3O+) when it dissolves in water. V MV creases.
A base is a substance that produces hydroxide (OH−) when
A concentrated acid/base contains a large amount (mol) of acid/ Stronger acid = higher concentration of ions = greater rate of
dissolved in water.
base in relationship to the volume of water. reaction.
Lowry-Brønsted
An acid is a proton (H+ ion) donor. A dilute acid/base contains a small amount (mol) of acid/base in Conductivity
A base is a proton (H+ ion) acceptor. relationship to the volume of water. Conductivity increases as the strength of the acid/base increases.
ACID PROTICITY Concentrated strong acid - 1mol.dm-3 of HCl Stronger acid = higher concentration of H+ = greater
Some acids are able to donate more than one proton. The number of protons conductivity.
Concentrated weak acid - 1mol.dm-3 of CH3COOH
that an acid can donate is referred to as the acid proticity.
1 proton- monoprotic 2 protons- diprotic 3 protons- triprotic Dilute strong acid - 0,01mol.dm-3 of HCl
Dilute weak acid - 0,01mol.dm-3 of CH3COOH COMMON ACIDS COMMON BASES
HCl → Cl− + H+ H2SO4 → HSO4− + H+ H3PO4 ⇌ H2PO4− + H+
(Similar for bases) Hydrochloric acid Sodium Hydroxide S
HSO4− → HSO42− + H+ H2PO4− ⇌ HPO42− + H+ (HCl) (NaOH) T
S
HPO42− ⇌ PO43− + H+ STRONG VS WEAK ACIDS AND BASES T R
CONJUGATE ACID-BASE PAIRS The strength of an acid/base refers to the ability of the sub- R Potassium hydroxide O
Nitric acid (HNO3) N
stance to ionise or dissociate. O (KOH)
An acid forms a conjugate base when it donates a proton. N G
acid ⇌ conjugate base + H+ G
ACIDS Sulfuric acid
HA ⇌ A– + H+ (H2SO4)
A strong acid will ionise completely in water. Sodium hydrogen
A base forms a conjugate acid when it accepts a proton. HCl (g) + H2O (l) → H3O+ (aq) + Cl− (aq) Oxalic acid ((COOH)2) carbonate (NaHCO3)
base + H+ ⇌ conjugate acid (strong acid → weak conjugate base) Hydrofluoric acid (HF)
W
HA ⇌ A– + H+ Sulfurous acid (H2SO3)
W Calcium carbonate E
A weak acid will only partially ionise in water. Carbonic acid E (CaCO3) A
Conjugate acids and bases differ only by a proton (H+).
2H2CO3 (l) + 2H2O (l) ⇌ 2H3O+ (aq) + CO32− (aq) (H2CO3) A K
EXAMPLE: (weak acid → strong conjugate base) Acetic acid / ethanoic acid K Sodium carbonate
Identify the conjugate acid-base pair in the following example: (CH3COOH) (Na2CO3)
H+ Conjugate acid-base pair
BASES Ammonia
Phosphoric acid (H3PO4)
(NH3)
A strong base will dissociate completely in water.
HNO3 (g) + H2O (l) → NO3− (aq) + H3O+ (aq) NaOH (s) → Na+ (aq) + OH− (aq) THE pH SCALE
acid base conjugate base conjugate acid (strong base → weak conjugate acid)
The pH of a solution is a number that represents the acidity or
alkalinity of a solution.
Conjugate acid-base pair
A weak base will dissociate only partially in water. The greater the concentration of H+ ions in solution, the more
AMPHOLYTE/ AMPHIPROTIC SUBSTANCES 2Mg(OH)2 (s) ⇌ Mg2+ (aq) + 2OH− (aq) acidic the solution and the lower the pH. The lower the concen-
tration of H+ in solution, the more alkali the solution and the
Ampholyte- A substance that can act as either an acid or a base. (weak base → strong conjugate acid) higher the pH.
Ampholytes/amphiprotic substances can therefore either donate or accept The pH scale is a range from 0 to 14, and is a measure of the
protons. Common ampholytes include H2O, HCO3− and HSO4−. [H3O+] at 25 °C (in water). pH = − log[H3O+ ]
NH3 is an exception, it ionises.
HSO4− as an ampholyte:
Neutral
Acid: HSO4− + H2O → SO42− + H3O+ NH3 (g) + H2O (l) ⇌ OH− (aq) + NH4+ (aq)
Base: HSO4− + H2O ⇌ H2SO4 + OH− 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

42
Acids and Bases SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
ACID REACTIONS HYDROLYSIS OF SALTS INDICATORS

Acid reactions are reactions during which Hydrolysis is the reaction of An indicator is a compound that changes colour according to the pH of the sub-
ACID BASE SALT stance. During titrations, the indicator needs to be selected according to the pH
protons (H+) are transferred. an ion with water. During
hydrolysis, the salt will form of the salt solution that will be produced (see hydrolysis).
Strong Weak Acidic
acid + metal → salt + H2 an acidic, alkali or neutral
HA + M → A— + M+ + H2 solution. The pH of the salt Strong Strong Neutral
2HNO3(aq) + 2Na(s) → 2NaNO3(aq) + H2(g) solution is determined by the COLOUR AT
COLOUR COLOUR PH RANGE OF
relative strength of the acid Weak Weak Neutral INDICATOR EQUIVALENCE
IN ACID IN BASE EQUIVALENCE
and base that is used to form POINT
acid + metal hydroxide (base) → salt + H2O the salt. Weak Strong Alkali
HA + MOH → A— + M++ H2O
H2SO4(aq) + Mg(OH)2(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) How to determine the pH of a salt
Litmus Red Blue 4,5 - 8,3
NH4Cl Na2CO3
NH4Cl → NH4+ + Cl– Na2CO3 → 2Na+ + CO32–
NH4+ + H2O ⥂ NH3 + H3O+ Na+ + H2O ⥃ NaOH + H+ Methyl orange Red Yellow Orange 3,1 - 4,4
acid + metal oxide → salt + H2O
HA + MO → A— + M+ + H2O Cl– + H2O ⥄ HCl + OH– CO32– + 2H2O ⥂ H2CO3 + 2OH–
2HCl (aq) + MgO(s) → MgCl2(aq) + H2O(l) Bromothymol
·NH3 is a weak base ·NaOH is a strong base Yellow Blue Green 6,0 - 7,6
blue
·Equilibrium lies to the right ·Equilibrium lies to the left
acid + metal carbonate → salt + H2O + CO2 ·High concentration H3O+ ·Low concentratioin H+/H3O+ Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink Pale Pink 8,3 - 10,0
HA + MCO3 → A— + M+ + H2O + CO2
2HCl (aq) + CaCO3(s) → CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) ·HCl is a strong acid ·H2CO3 is a weak acid Neutral: pH 7
·Equilibrium lies to the left ·Equilibrium lies to the right
·Low concentration OH– ·High concentration OH– Neutralisation is when the equivalence point is reached. Equivalence point is
The ionic salt is made up of A— (from the acid) and NOT when the solution is at pH 7, but when the acid/base has completely re-
M+ (from the base). High [H3O+], low [OH–], +
Low [H3O ], high [OH ], –
acted with the base/acid according to the molar ratio. The pH at neutralisation
∴NH4Cl(aq) is acidic (pH<7) ∴Na2CO3(aq) is alkali (pH>7) is dependent on the salt that is formed. (see hydrolysis).
TITRATIONS Titration setup EXAMPLE:

A titration is a practical laboratory method to de- During a titration, 25 cm3 of dilute H2SO4 neutralises 40 cm3 of NaOH solution.
Va Burette
termine the concentration of an acid or base. The If the concentration of the H2SO4 solution is 0,25 mol.dm−3, calculate the con-
concentration of an acid or base can be deter- Acid centration of the NaOH.
mined by accurate neutralisation using a
standard solution- a solution of known con- Stopcock H2 SO4 + 2NaOH → Na 2 SO4 + 2H2 O
centration. Neutralisation occurs at the equiva- na = 1 nb = 2
lence point, when the acid/base has completely ca = 0,25 mol ⋅ dm−3 cb = ?
reacted with the base/acid according to the molar Conical flask Va = 25 cm3 = 0,025 dm3 Vb = 40 cm3 = 0,04 dm3
ratio. Vb
na cV Base & By titration equations By first principles:
= a a Indicator na c aVa
nb cbVb nb
=
c bVb
Acid:
n = cV
1 (0,25)(0,025) = (0,25)(0,025)
n- number of mole of substance (mol) / mol ratio 1. Pipette a specific amount of the standard solution into conical flask =
2 c b (0,04)
from the balanced equation (usually base). = 6,25 × 10−3 mol
c- concentration of acid/base (mol.dm−3) cb = 0,31 mol ⋅ dm−3
2. Add appropriate indicator to flask (according to pH of final solution).
V- volume of solution (dm3) 3. Fill the buret with the solution of unknown concentration (usually Base:
n
acid). c =
1 mL = 1 cm 3 V
1 L = 1 dm3 4. Add solution from burette to conical flask at a dropwise rate (remem- 6,25 × 10−3 × 2
ber to swirl). =
1000 mL = 1 L 0,04
1000 cm3 = 1 dm3 5. Stop burette when indicator shows neutralisation/equivalence point
= 0,31 mol ⋅ dm−3
has been reached.
43
Redox reactions SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
REDOX REACTION REPRESENTING REDOX REACTIONS

A redox reaction is a reaction in which there is a transfer of electrons Redox reactions can be shown in two half-reactions showing the transfer of electrons. NOTE:
between elements. The number of e−
Oxidation half-reaction: X → X + 2e 2+ −
(electrons are shown as products)
Oxidation is the loss of electrons (oxidation number increases). Reduction half-reaction: Y + 2e− → Y2− (electrons are shown as reactants) must balance.
Reduction is the gain of electrons (oxidation number decreases). Nett reaction: X + Y → XY (no electrons are shown in the reaction)
The oxidising agent is the substance which accepts electrons. EXAMPLE:
It is the substance which is reduced and causes the other substance In the following equations identify the oxidising and reducing agents:
to be oxidised. a) CuO + H2 →Cu + H2O b) 2NO + 2CO → N2 + CO2
The reducing agent is the substance that donates electrons. Step 1:
It is the substance which is oxidised and causes the other substance write all oxidation CuO + H2 → Cu + H2O 2NO + 2CO → N2 + CO2
to be reduced. numbers +2 −2 0 0 +1 −2 +2 −2 +2 −2 0 +4 −2
OIL: Oxidation is loss
RIG: Reduction is gain Step 2:
Cu: +2→ 0 N: +2→ 0
Identify change in
LEO: Loss of electrons is oxidation O: −2 → −2 O: −2 → −2
oxidation number
GER: Gain of electrons is reduction H: 0 → +1 C: +2 → +4
for each element
OXIDATION NUMBERS Cu2+(CuO): oxidation number decrease→gained N2+(NO): oxidation number decrease→gained
Step 3:
In order to keep track of the electrons during a chemical reaction oxi- electrons→reduced→oxidising agent electrons→reduced→oxidising agent
Identify what has
dation numbers are assigned to each element in the reaction. The H2: oxidation number increase→lost C2+ (CO): oxidation number increase→lost
oxidised/reduced
oxidation number is similar to the valency of the element. electrons→oxidised→reducing agent electrons→oxidised→reducing agent
Rules for assigning oxidation numbers. EXAMPLE:

1. Pure elements and diatomic elements (eg. O2) = 0. Write the balanced redox reaction for the following reactions:
a) Mg + FeSO4 → MgSO4 + Fe b) Zn + AgNO3 → Ag + Zn(NO3)2
2. Hydrogen = +1 (except when bonded to a metal, then −1).
Step 1:
3. Oxygen = -2 (except peroxides, eg. H2O2, = −1).
Write all oxidation Mg + FeSO4 → MgSO4 + Fe Zn + AgNO3 → Ag + Zn(NO3)2
(when bonded to fluorine, = +2). 0 +2 +6 −2 +2 +6 −2 0 0 +1 +5 −2 0 +2 +5 −2
numbers
4. Metals = group number.
group 1=+1; group 2 =+2; group 3=+3 Step 2: Mg: 0 → +2
Zn: 0 → +2
Identify change in Fe: +2 → 0
5. The oxidation number of monoatomic ions is the same as its N, O: −2 → −2
oxidation number S: +6 → +6
charge. Eg. Zn2+: Zn = +2 Ag: +1 → 0
for each element O: −2 →−2
6. Group 17 elements = −1.
Mg: oxidation number increased → lost Ag+(AgNO3): oxidation number decrease →
7. The oxidation number of transition metals is indicated by stock Step 3:
electrons → oxidised gained electrons→reduced
notation. Eg. iron (III) chloride : Fe = +3 Identify what has
Fe2+ (FeSO4): oxidation number decrease → Zn: oxidation number increase→lost
oxidised/reduced
8. In a neutral compound, the sum of the oxidation numbers is 0. gained electrons → reduced electrons→oxidised
9. In a polyatomic ion the sum of the oxidation numbers is equal to Step 4:
the charge of the ion. Ox: Mg → Mg2+ + 2e− Ox: Zn → Zn2+ + 2e−
Write the half
Red: Fe2+ + 2e− → Fe Red: Ag+ + e− → Ag
Example: reactions
Give the oxidation number of each of the elements in the following:
Step 5: Ox: Mg → Mg2+ + 2e− Ox: Zn → Zn2+ + 2e−
Balance electrons Red: Fe2+ + 2e− → Fe Red: 2Ag+ + 2e− → 2Ag
a) O2 b) H2S c) KMnO4 d) SO42- e) FeCl3
O=0 H = +1 K = +1 S = +6
Fe = +3 Step 6:
S = −2 Mn = +7 O = −2
Write overall Fe2+ + Mg → Mg2+ + Fe 2Ag+ + Zn → Zn2+ + 2Ag
O = −2 Cl = −1
reaction
44
Exploiting the lithosphere SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
LITHOSPHERE GOLD MINING

• The lithosphere is made up of the earth’s crust and upper mantle. Gold is a precious metal that has a high market value.
• The crust contains non-renewable fossil fuels, minerals and soil chemicals (nutrients). Mined in the Witwatersrand (Gauteng), Welkom and Virginia (Free State), Klerksdorp (North West) and
in Mpumalanga.
Crust
Upper Mantle } Lithosphere STEPS IN GOLD EXTRACTION
Mantle 1. Gold ore
Outer Core Gold ore is extracted from deep-level mining.
Inner Core
2. Comminution : Crushing and milling
Gold is crushed into a fine powder.
• The elements in the lithosphere are not in element form. The compounds are in the form
of ore- mixture of rock, sand and minerals. 3. Leaching: Cyanidation process
• Mining and mineral extraction is required to extract useful materials from the lithosphere. A cyanide solution is used to dissolve the gold from the fine powder.
4Au(s) + 8NaCN(aq) + 2H2 O(l) + O2(g) → 4NaAu(CN)2(aq) + 4NaOH(aq)

Mining can occur in open-pit mining or deep-level mining.
Open-pit mining is the removal of soil from the surface of the crust. This results in big holes
4. Extraction
(Kimberley, Cullinan) and is very destructive to the environment.
Gold is removed from solution by precipitation. Zinc is dissolved in gold solution, and
Deep-level mining is the digging of shafts and subterranean tunnels deep in the crust. It has zinc replaced the gold. The Gold forms a precipitate which is removed by filtration.
less environmental impact, but is more expensive and requires highly skilled workers. It re-
sults in large mounds of processed soil (mine dumps). NaAu(CN)2(aq) + Zn(s) → 2Au(s) + Zn(CN)2(aq) + 2NaCN(aq)
MINING IN SOUTH AFRICA
5. Recovery: Smelting
History of mining in South Africa
The precipitate that has been filtered out is smelted in a furnace to form gold bars of
MATERIALS AND EVIDENCE FOUND 99% purity.
ERA PERIOD
WEAPONS IN SA
6. Refining: produces 99,9% pure gold
Early (2,5 mil - 200 Hand axe - sharpened Mrs Ples in Sterkfontein Calcination: other metals are oxidised in the presence of gold to remove moisture
000 years ago) stone caves Fusion: Calcinated material is mixed with flux and melted in a furnace. Gold floats and
is removed.
Middle (250 000 -
Stone Stone treated with fire Blombos caves
30 000 years ago)
age
IMPACT OF GOLD MINING ON THE ENVIRONMENT
Tools made from stone,
Late (30 000 years
wood and bone. Pottery Melkhoutboom caves Gold mining results in holes in the ground. The soil removed creates mine dumps, resulting in a loss of
ago)
and copper objects biodiversity.
Bronze 30 000 - 1 800 Bronze tools and Water from mines can pollute ground and surface water.
age years ago objects Large amounts of energy is required to smelt the gold.
Iron Iron metal weapons, Mellville Koppies and Cyanidation uses and forms cyanide compounds which are toxic.
1 800 years ago
age more advanced Mapungubwe furnaces
Current mining activity in South Africa

Mining is important to the South African economy. A variety of minerals and precious metals
are exported, stimulating the GDP, employment and infrastructure development.
45
Exploiting the lithosphere SCIENCE CLINIC 2019 ©
IRON MINING PHOSPHATE MINING

Iron is a strong material used in manufacturing of a wide range of products. Phosphate is a primary nutrient for all plants, stimulating root development and increasing flower
growth.
Large iron mines promote job creation and stimulates the economy.
Phosphates are used to produce fertilisers, phosphoric acid and animal food supplements.
Iron is not mined in its pure form, it is found as magnetite (Fe3O2) and haematite (Fe2O3).
The largest phosphate mining site in South Africa is in Phalaborwa (Limpopo).
Mined in Kathu (Northern Cape) and Thabazimbi (Limpopo).
Phosphates are processed by Foskor (Richard’s Bay) to produce phosphoric acid and phosphate-based
STEPS IN IRON EXTRACTION fertilisers.
1. Mining STEPS IN PHOSPHATE EXTRACTION
Iron ore is mined from open-pit mines.
1. Mining
Phosphate is mined from open-pit mines. High-grade phosphate tailings are produced
2. Crushing
from copper mines.
Iron ore is crushed to reduce the particle Iron Ore
size. Coke (C) 2. Primary crushing
Limestone (CaCO3) Phosphate rocks are crushed into a coarse ore.
3. Separation and Sorting
3. Secondary & Tertiary crushing
Iron ore is separated according to purity.
Waste Gases Course ore is crushed into a fine ore powder.
High grade iron ore are sent directly to
blast furnace. Lesser grade iron ore un- Iron ore is reduced 4. Milling
dergoes benificiation. 600°C The ore powder is mixed with water to form a fine slurry.
to iron metal (Fe(s))
5. Phosphate floatation
4. Benificiation Slag forms
800°C - 1 000°C Air is bubbled through the slurry to separate phosphates from the ore.
Lesser grade ore is further crushed and (CaSiO3)
washed to form a slurry. The slurry is 6. Filtration
magnetised and pellets are formed from Phosphates are filtered from the slurry.
the slurry. Lastly the pellets undergo sin- (CO2) 1 900°C 7. Drying
tering, it is heated to set the pellets.
Phosphates are heated and dried to form a dry chemical powder.
5. Blending
Hot air Hot air 8. Transportation
Pellets of various grades are mixed. Slag Phosphates are taken to fertiliser companies/ processing plants.
Slag
6. Furnacing Molten iron 8.a) Fertiliser Company
Iron ore pellets are placed into a blast Sulfuric acid is added to make soluble superphosphates. Su-
furnace with coke (Carbon) and Lime- Blast Furnace perphosphates are used in fertilisers.
stone (CaCO3). Iron ore is then reduced
to pure molten iron. Impurities are re- 2Ca 5(PO4 )3 F + 7H2SO4 → 3Ca(H2 PO4 )2 + 7CaSO4 + 2HF
moves as slag.
8.b) Processing Plant
IMPACT OF IRON MINING ON THE ENVIRONMENT Phosphoric acid added to make triple-superphosphates. Be-
cause it does not contain calcium sulfate, the product is a
Open-pit mining destroys the landscape and vegetation. higher percentage phosphate.
Large amounts of water is required, reducing the amount of water in aquifers available to fauna and
flora. Ca 5(PO4 )3 F + 7H3PO4 + 5H2 O → 5Ca(H2 PO4 )2 ⋅ H2 O + HF
Large open-pit mines result in a lot of dust pollution in the atmosphere.
IMPACT OF PHOSPHATE MINING ON THE ENVIRONMENT
Large amounts of CO2 are released from the blast furnacing processes.
Phosphate processing creates fluoride and SO2 air pollutants.
Large amounts of electricity are required to melt the iron ore.
The products of phosphates (fertilisers) can pollute water systems leading to eutrophication (algae
Iron products (steel etc.) are recyclable, however the recycling process required large amounts of elec- bloom, algae die, decomposing algae removes oxygen out of the water, living organisms die).
tricity.
46

Grade 11 Science Clinic Notes

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DBE ESSENTIALS GRADE

www .scienceclinic.co.za facebook.com/scienceclinicsa © Science Clinic (Pty) Ltd 2019

Core Theory Summaries

TABLE 1: PHYSICAL CONSTANTS/TABEL 1: FISIESE KONSTANTES

NAME/NAAM SYMBOL/SIMBOOL VALUE/WAARDE

TABLE 2: FORMULAE/TABEL 2: FORMULES

Grade 11 Physics Definitions

Wavefront: an imaginary line joining points on a wave that are in phase

RESOLVING INTO COMPONENTS Fx COMPONENTS ON A SLOPE

CONSTRUCTION COMPONENT ADDITION

Normal force (N/FN)

Normal force (FN) Friction (Ff or fs/fk)

Objects suspended from a rope/string/cable have no fsmax

FA = m g sin θ + μk FN ∴a = 1,46 m ⋅ s−2 // up the slope

Lift stationary/constant velocity Lift accelerating Lift in freefall (cable snap)

Connected objects (e.g Pulley Systems) Objects attached by rope/cable

Fnet = m a Ff FA Ff Ff FAB Fnet = m a

FLASHBACK!! Unit of charges: CALCULATIONS- Electrostatic force

ELECTRIC FIELDS ELECTRIC FIELD STRENGTH

E = electric field strength (N·C−1) E = electric field strength (N·C−1)

Different magnitude charges Equal magnitude charges

ni sin θi = nr sin 90∘ • The angle of incidence is greater than the

HUYGENS’ PRINCIPLE DEGREE OF DIFFRACTION DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT

When a wave passes through a small aperture or past a sharp edge,

DIRECTION OF INDUCED CURRENT

direction so as to S − 100(20.(0,02 × 0,05) . cos90o ) − (20.(0,02 × 0,05) . cos0o )

SERIES PARALLEL CALCULATIONS (NO INTERNAL RESISTANCE)

OHM’S LAW INTERNAL RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS (WITH INTERNAL RESISTANCE)

TABLE 1: PHYSICAL CONSTANTS/TABEL 1: FISIESE KONSTANTES

NAME/NAAM SYMBOL/SIMBOOL VALUE/WAARDE

TABLE 2: FORMULAE/TABEL 2: FORMULES

Increasing reducing ability/Toenemende reduserende vermoë

Increasing reducing ability/Toenemende reduserende vermoë

TABLE OF CATIONS/TABEL VAN kATIONE

TABLE OF ANIONS/TABEL VAN ANIONE

fluoride (fluoried) F- oxide (oksied) O2-

Soluble compounds Exceptions

Salts of sulphate, SO42-

Insoluble compounds Exceptions

Grade 11 Chemistry Definitions

Oxidation: a loss of electrons/an increase in oxidation number

MOLECULAR STRUCTURE BOND ENERGY A) Covalent Bonding

O C O Angular/ Lone pairs + EN (O): EN (F):

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES (IMF) STRENGTH OF IMF

AMAZING WATER MOLECULE PROPERTIES OF WATER EXAMPLE:

Phase of molecules Adhesion Density

Viscosity is a liquids resistance to flow.

HF contains hydrogen bonding→strongest IMF→highest boiling Solubility

KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY BOYLE’S LAW CHARLES’ LAW GAY–LUSSAC’S LAW

sions between the particles and Graph of pV vs p

due to the particles being closer tem changes occur.

pressure of 60 kPa. If the pressure on the

The Mole Percentage Composition

Type of Molar mass Actual number of each Eg. C2H6

EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE:

Concentrations of solutions Molar Volumes of Gases

Solution Solute Solvent

V = 200 cm3 = 0,2 dm3 n = cV

Water of crystallization EXAMPLE:

Calculating the Empirical Formula of a Compound from Mass

Empirical formula to Molecular Formula Approach to reaction stoichiometry Limiting Reactants

EXAMPLE: Percentage Purity Percentage Yield

V 1,2 2SO2(g) + O2(g) → 2SO3(g)

ENERGY CHANGE ENTHALPY AND ENTHALPY CHANGE