Recrystallization and Related Annealing

Phenomena Third Edition John

Humphreys
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmass.com/product/recrystallization-and-related-annealing-phenomena-th
ird-edition-john-humphreys/
Recrystallization and Related
Annealing Phenomena
Third Edition

John Humphreys
Gregory S. Rohrer
Anthony Rollett
Elsevier
Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the
Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance
Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher
(other than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our
understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become
necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using
any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods
they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a
professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any
liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or
otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the
material herein.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN: 978-0-08-098235-9

For information on all Elsevier publications visit our

website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals

Publisher: John Fedor

Acquisition Editor: Kostas Marinakis
Editorial Project Manager: Michelle Fisher
Production Project Manager: Vijayaraj Purushothaman
Designer: Greg Harris
Typeset by TNQ Books and Journals
Preface to the First Edition

Recrystallization and the related annealing phenomena which occur during the
thermomechanical processing of materials have long been recognized as being both of
technological importance and scientific interest. These phenomena are known to occur
in all types of crystalline materials; they occur during the natural geological
deformation of rocks and minerals, and during the processing of technical ceramics.
However, the phenomena have been most widely studied in metals, and as this is the
only class of material for which a coherent body of work is available, this book
inevitably concentrates on metallic materials. Although there is a vast body of literature
going back 150 years, and a large collection of reviews which are detailed in Chapter 1,
there have only been two monographs published in recent times on the subject of
recrystallization, the latest nearly 20 years ago. Since that time, considerable advances
have been made, both in our understanding of the subject and in the techniques
available to the researcher.
Metallurgical research in this field is mainly driven by the requirements of industry,
and currently, a major need is for quantitative, physically based models which can be
applied to metal-forming processes so as to control, improve and optimize the
microstructure and texture of the finished products. Such models require a more
detailed understanding of both the deformation and annealing processes than we have
at present. The development of the underlying science to a level sufficient for the
construction of the required models from first principles provides a goal for perhaps
the next 10e20 years.
The book was written to provide a treatment of the subject for researchers or students who
need a more detailed coverage than is found in textbooks on physical metallurgy, and a
more coherent treatment than will be found in the many conference proceedings. We have
chosen to emphasize the scientific principles and physical insight underlying annealing
rather than produce a comprehensive bibliography or handbook.
Unfortunately the generic term annealing is used widely to describe two metallurgical
processes. Both have a common result in that a hardened material is made softer, but the
mechanisms involved are quite different. In one case, associated with the heat treatment

xv
Preface to the First Edition

of ferrous materials, the softening process involves the g / a phase transformation. In

the second case, which is the one relevant to this book, the softening is a direct result of
the loss via recovery and recrystallization, of the dislocations introduced by work
hardening.
It is not easy to write a book on recrystallization, because although it is a clearly defined
subject, many aspects are not well understood and the experimental evidence is often
poor and conflicting. It would have been desirable to quantify all aspects of the
phenomena and to derive the theories from first principles. However, this is not yet
possible, and the reader will find within this book a mixture of relatively sound theory,
reasonable assumptions and conjecture. There are two main reasons for our lack of
progress. First, we cannot expect to understand recovery and recrystallization in depth
unless we understand the nature of the deformed state which is the precursor, and that is
still a distant goal. Second, although some annealing processes, such as recovery and
grain growth are reasonably homogeneous, others, such as recrystallization and abnormal
grain growth are heterogeneous, relying on local instabilities and evoking parallels with
apparently chaotic events such as weather.
It must be recognized that we are writing about a live and evolving subject. Very little
is finished and the book should therefore be seen as a snapshot of the subject at this
particular time as seen by two scientists who are undoubtedly biased in various ways.
We hope that when a second edition of this volume is produced in perhaps 10 years
time, or a new treatment is attempted, many aspects of the subject will have become
clearer.
Recovery and recrystallization depend on the nature of the deformed state and involve
the formation, removal and movement of grain boundaries. For these reasons we have
included treatments of the deformed state in Chapter 2, and the nature of grain boundaries
in Chapter 3. These are both large topics which merit complete books in themselves, and we
have not attempted a comprehensive coverage but have merely aimed to provide what
we regard as essential background information in order to make the volume reasonably
self-contained. Chapter 4 is concerned with the migration and mobility of grain boundaries,
and this contains some background information.
The main topics of the bookdrecovery, recrystallization and grain growthdare covered
in Chapters 5e11 and include specific chapters on ordered materials, two-phase alloys
and annealing textures. In order to illustrate some of the applications of the principles
discussed in the book we have selected a very few technologically important case studies in
Chapter 12. The final chapter outlines the ways in which computer simulation and modeling
are being applied to annealing phenomena, and in the appendix we provide an introduction
to the measurement and representation of textures for the benefit of readers who are not
specialists in this area.

xvi
 Preface to the First Edition

John Humphreys
Manchester Materials Science Centre
University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology
UK
Max Hatherly
School of Materials
University of New South Wales
Australia
August 1994

The need to reprint the book has provided an opportunity for us to correct some of the
errors and to carry out minor modifications to the text.
May 1996

xvii
Preface to the Second Edition

This second edition has a similar philosophy and format to the first, although
developments in the subject have necessitated some significant changes.
Recrystallization remains a very active research area, judging by the number of
publications and conferences on this and related areas, and the continuing developments
in many areas make it a difficult subject to capture. As in the preface to the first
edition, we ask the reader to remember that this book presents a personal view of the
subject, at a particular moment in time.
There have been two important changes in methods of investigating and analyzing
recrystallization since the first edition. The first is in the experimental determination of
microstructure and texture, where the increase in the power and application of the
Electron Backscatter Diffraction (EBSD) technique has provided data of a type which
was previously unavailable, and many examples of its use are included in the book.
The other change is in the increased amount of modeling and simulation of annealing
processes which is now carried out.
In terms of the subject areas covered in the first edition of the book, there has been
significant new activity in two areas of fundamental importance to the understanding of
recrystallization; the characterization of the deformed state, and the measurement of
grain boundary properties. Some new areas have also opened up. In the first edition we
briefly mentioned new research which indicated that deformation to very large strains
might lead to microstructural stability on subsequent annealing. This has now become a
major research area which is not only of scientific interest, but is also a potential
method of producing strong alloys, and this is given detailed coverage in this edition.
Developments in this and other areas have highlighted the difficulties of applying the
traditional terminologies to new phenomena, and it is now considered necessary to
subdivide recovery, recrystallization and grain growth into “discontinuous” and
“continuous” variants.
Changes in the layout of the book include a separation of deformation microstructure
(Chapter 2) and deformation texture (Chapter 3), introduction of a simple analytical model
which embraces recovery, recrystallization and grain growth (Chapter 10), a consideration

xix
Preface to the Second Edition

of continuous recrystallization during and after large strain deformation (Chapter 14), and a
summary of the methods of measuring recrystallization (Appendix 2).
Finally, access to video clips of some in situ annealing experiments and simulations which
may be of interest, is provided at the Website: http://www.recrystallization.info.
John Humphreys
Max Hatherly
April 2003

xx
Preface to the Third Edition

This third edition hews closely to its predecessors with significant additions in certain areas
where substantial advances have accumulated. In all areas, the text has been reviewed and,
where appropriate, re-written to account for recent additions to the literature. Concerning
the authorship, Max Hatherly is no longer with us, sadly; John Humphreys has retired and is
not to be blamed for any errors or mistakes that we may have introduced in this new
edition. In terms of content, computer modeling of grain boundaries has resulted in new
insights about their properties, especially energy and mobility. The combination of
automated serial sectioning and synchrotron-based characterization has provided 3-D maps
of microstructure and additional new insights. The descriptions of work hardening and
texture have been strengthened.
Anthony Rollett
Gregory Rohrer
August 2017

xxi
Acknowledgments

Figures have been reproduced with permission from the following sources:
The following figures are copied from Acta Materialia with the permission of Elsevier Science,
P.O. Box 800, Oxford OX5 1DX: Fig. 13.10 from Nes, E., Marthinsen, K. 2002 to Daaland and
Nes 1995. Origin of cube texture during hot rolling of commercial AleMneMg alloys. Mater.
Sci. Eng. A322, 176 (Fig. 6). Fig. 2.10 from Liu, Q., Juul Jensen, D., Hansen, N., 1998. Effect
of grain orientation on deformation structure in cold rolled aluminium. Acta Mater. 46, 5819
(Fig. 2). Fig. 16.7 from Upmanyu, M., Srolovitz, D.J., Shvindlerman, L.S., Gottstein, G., 1999.
Misorientation/dependence of intrinsic boundary mobility. Acta Mater. 47, 3901 (Fig. 2).
Fig. 4.21 from Goukon, N., Yamada, T., Kajihara, M., 2000. Boundary energies of S11
[110] asymmetric tilt boundaries. Acta Mater. 48, 2837 (Fig. 2). Fig. 5.2 from Winning, M.,
Gottstein, G., Shvindlerman, L.S., 2001. Stress induced grain boundary motion. Acta Mater.
49, 211 (Figs. 12 and 13). Fig. 5.33 from Protasova, S.G., Gottstein, G., Sursaeva, V.G.,
Shvindlerman, L.S., 2001. Triple junction motion in aluminum tricrystals. Acta Mater. 49,
2519 (Fig. 5). Fig. 2.26 from Duckham, A., Knutsen, R.D., Engler, O., 2001. Influence
of deformation variables on the formation of shear bands in Ale1 Mg. Acta Mater. 49,
2739 (Fig. 3).
The following figures are copied from Scripta Materialia with the permission of Elsevier
Science, P.O. Box 800, Oxford OX5 IDX: Fig. 5.12 from Molodov, D.A., Czubayko, U.,
Gottstein, G., Shvindlerman, L.S., 1995. Mobility of <111> tilt grain boundaries in the
P
vicinity of the special misorientation ¼7 in bicrystals of pure aluminium. Scr. Metall.
Mater. 32, 529 (Figs. 4 and 5). On the description of misorientations and interpretation of
recrystallisation textures. Scr. Mater. 35, 579 (Fig. 4). Fig. 12.7 from Engler, O., 2001b.
An EBSD local texture study on the nucleation of recrystallization at shear bands in the
alloy Al3%Mg. Scr. Mater. 44, 299 (Fig. 1). Fig. 4.7 from Yang, C.-C., Rollett, A.D.,
Mullins, W.W., 2001. Measuring relative grain boundary energies and mobilities in an
aluminum foil from triple junction geometry. Scr. Mater. 44, 2735 (Fig. 4).
The following figures are copied from Materials Science and Engineering, with the
permission of Elsevier Science, P.O. Box 800, Oxford OX5 IDX: Fig. 2.5 from Hughes,
D.A., 2001. Microstructure evolution, slip patterns and flow stress. Mater. Sci. Eng. A319,

xxiii
Acknowledgments

46 (Fig. 4). Fig. 2.5b from Nes, E., Marthinsen, K., 2002. Modeling the evolution in
microstructure and properties during plastic deformation of f.c.c.-metals and alloys e an
approach towards a unified model. Mater. Sci. and Eng. A322, 176 (Fig. 6). Fig. 6.27 from
Haslam, A.J., Phillpot, S.R., Wolf, D., Moldovan, D., Gleiter, H., 2001. Mechanisms of
grain growth in nanocrystalline fcc metals by molecular-dynamics simulation. Mater. Sci.
Eng. A318, 293 (Fig. 4). Fig. 15.3 from Engler, O., Hirsch, J., 2002. Texture control by
thermomechanical processing of AA6xxx AleMgeSi sheet alloys for automotive
applicationsda review. Mater. Sci. Eng. A336, 249 (Fig. 10).
The following figure is copied from Intermetallics, with the permission of Elsevier Science,
P.O. Box 800, Oxford OX5 IDX: Fig. 8.7 from Huang, Y.D., Froyen, L., 2002. Recovery,
recrystallization and grain growth in Fe3Al-Based Alloys. Intermetallics 10, 473 (Fig. 5).
The following figures are copied from Materials Science and Technology with the
permission of Maney Publishing, 1 Carlton House Terrace, London SW1Y 5DB: Fig. 3.3
from Hirsch, J., 1990b. Correlation of deformation texture and microstructure. Mater. Sci.
Technol. 6, 1048 (Fig. 3). Fig. 15.15 from Hayes, J.S., Keyte, R., Prangnell, P.B., 2000.
Effect of grain size on tensile behavior of a submicron-grained Ale3wt%Mg alloy. Mater.
Sci. Technol. 16, 1259 (Fig. 6).
The following figure is copied from Materials Science Forum, with the permission of Trans
Tech Publications Ltd., Brandrain 6, CH-8707, Ueticon-Zuerich, Switzerland: Fig. 3.15
from Benum, S., Engler, O., Nes, E., 1994. Mater. Sci. Forum 157e162, 913.
In the first edition of this book we acknowledged a great debt to those with whom we had
discussed and argued over the subjects covered by this book over a period of very many
years. During the writing of the book we had particularly useful discussions and
correspondence with Brian Duggan, Bevis Hutchinson, and Erik Nes. A large number of
others helped by providing advice, material, and in many other ways. They include
Sreeramamurthy Ankem, Mahmoud Ardakani, Christine Carmichael, Michael Ferry, Brian
Gleeson, Gunther Gottstein, Brigitte Hammer, Alan Humphreys, Peter Krauklis, Lasar
Shvindlerman, Tony Malin, Paul Munroe, Nigel Owen, Phil Prangnell, Fred Scott, Karen
Vernon-Parry, and David Willis.
A significant amount of the new research which has contributed to the second edition of the
book has been carried out in Manchester, and the strong support of the Engineering and
Physical Sciences Research Council and Alcan International is gratefully acknowledged.
The help, advice, and support of Pete Bate has been particularly valuable, and the
Manchester Light Alloy Processing Group, including Philip Prangnell, Norman Ridley,
Hedieh Jazaeri, Peter Hurley, Yan Huang, Andrew Clarke, Martin Ashton, Ian Brough, and
Matthew Jones, and their provision of data and figures has made a major contribution to this
edition. During the preparation of the second edition, critical comments and suggestions

xxiv
 Acknowledgments

from Michael Ferry and Robert Moon of the University of New South Wales have been
extremely valuable.
The third edition owes much to the research conducted at Carnegie Mellon University on
interfaces, largely under the support from the US National Science Foundation of the
Materials Research Science and Engineering Center. ADR and GSR are grateful to the
many individuals who helped with discussion, data, figures, etc.

xxv
Symbols
The following notation is generally used in the text. The subscripts i or n indicate the use of
letters or numbers for particular symbols. On rare occasions where the letters or symbols are
used for other purposes, this is specifically stated.
b Burgers vector of a dislocation
c, cn, C, Cn, Kn These denote “local” constants which are defined in the text
d Diameter of second-phase particle
D Grain or subgrain diameter
Di Diffusivity (s ¼ bulk diffusion, b ¼ boundary diffusion, c ¼ core
diffusion)
Ei Energy, e.g., stored energy of deformation ED
Fv Volume fraction of second-phase particles
G Shear modulus
k Boltzmann constant
M Boundary mobility
n Exponent, e.g., in the JMAK equation
Nv Number of grains or second-phase particles per unit volume
Ns Number of particles per unit area
P or Pi Pressure on a boundary
Q or Qi Activation energy, (for diffusion: s ¼ bulk, b ¼ boundary, c ¼ core)
R Grain or subgrain radius
s Shear strain
t Time
T, Tm Temperature, melting temperature (K)
v Velocity of dislocation or boundary
V Volume
X Fraction recrystallized
a, b Constants
g Energy of an interface or boundary
gSFE, gRSFE Stacking fault energy, reduced stacking fault energy
gb Energy of a high-angle boundary
gs Energy of a low-angle boundary
ε True strain
ε_ True strain rate
q Misorientation across a boundary; also, work hardening rate
l Interparticle spacing (defined in Eq. A2.13)
n Poisson ratio
n0 Atomic vibrational frequency
r Dislocation density

xxvii
Symbols

Sn Coincidence site lattice (CSL) grain boundaries. 1/n is the fraction

of sites common to both grains
s True stress
s Shear stress
41, F, 42 Euler angles, Bunge convention (defined in Appendix 1)
U Orientation gradient

xxviii
Abbreviations

ARB Accumulative roll bonding

CA Cellular automata
CLS Cahn, Lücke, Stüwe (theory of solute drag)
CPFEM Crystal plasticity finite element modeling
CSL Coincidence site lattice
DDW Dense dislocation wall
DRX Dynamic recrystallization
EBSD Electron backscatter diffraction
ECAE Equal channel angular extrusion
ECD Equivalent circle diameter
FE Finite element (modeling)
FEGSEM Field emission gun scanning electron microscope
GBCD Grain boundary character distribution
GBE Grain boundary engineering
GNB Geometrically necessary boundary
HAGB High-angle grain boundary
HSLA High-strength low-alloy (steel)
HVEM High-voltage transmission electron microscope
IDB Incidental dislocation boundary
IF Interstitial free (steel)
JMAK JohnsoneMehleAvramieKolmogorov kinetic model
LAGB Low-angle grain boundary
MD Molecular dynamics
MLI Mean linear intercept
ND, RD, TD Normal, rolling and transverse directions in a rolled product
ODF Orientation distribution function
PSN Particle-stimulated nucleation of recrystallization
SEM Scanning electron microscope
SFE Stacking fault energy
SIBM Strain-induced boundary migration
SMG Submicron-grained (alloy)
SPF Superplastic forming
TEM Transmission electron microscope

xxix
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction
1.1 Annealing of a Deformed Material
1.1.1 Outline and Terminology

The free energy of a crystalline material is raised during deformation by the presence of
dislocations and interfaces, and a material containing these defects is thermodynamically
unstable. Although thermodynamics would suggest that the defects should spontaneously
disappear, in practice the necessary atomistic mechanisms are often very slow at low
homologous temperatures, with the result that unstable defect structures are retained after
deformation (Fig. 1.1a).
If the material is subsequently heated to a high temperature (annealed), thermally
activated processes such as solid state diffusion provide mechanisms whereby the defects
may be removed or alternatively arranged in configurations of lower energy.
The defects may be introduced in a variety of ways. However, in this book we will mainly
be concerned with those defects, and in particular dislocations, which are introduced
during plastic deformation. The point defects introduced during deformation anneal out at
low temperatures and generally have little effect on the mechanical properties of the
material. In considering only materials that have undergone substantial plastic
deformation, we necessarily limit the range of materials with which we will be concerned.
Metals are the only major class of crystalline material to undergo substantial plastic
deformation at low homologous temperatures, and much of this book will be concerned
with the annealing of deformed metals. However, at high temperatures, many minerals and
ceramics readily deform plastically, and the annealing of these is of great interest. In
addition, some annealing processes such as grain growth are relevant to sintered, cast, or
vapor deposited materials as well as to deformed materials.
On annealing a cold-worked metal at an elevated temperature, the microstructure and the
properties may be partially restored to their original values by recovery in which annihilation
and rearrangement of the dislocations occurs. The microstructural changes during recovery
are relatively homogeneous and do not usually affect the boundaries between the deformed
grains; these changes in microstructure are shown schematically in Fig. 1.1b. Similar
recovery processes may also occur during deformation, particularly at high temperatures, and
this dynamic recovery plays an important role in the creep and hot working of materials.

Recrystallization and Related Annealing Phenomena. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-098235-9.00001-X

Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1
2 Chapter 1

Figure 1.1
Schematic diagram of the main annealing processes. (a) Deformed state; (b) recovered;
(c) partially recrystallized; (d) fully recrystallized; (e) grain growth; and (f) abnormal grain
growth.

Recovery generally involves only a partial restoration of properties because the dislocation
structure is not completely removed, but reaches a metastable state (Fig. 1.1b). A further
restoration process called recrystallization may occur in which new dislocation-free
grains are formed within the deformed or recovered structure (Fig. 1.1c). These then grow
and consume the old grains, resulting in a new grain structure with a low dislocation
density (Fig. 1.1d). Recrystallization may take place during deformation at elevated
temperatures and this is then termed dynamic recrystallization.
Although recrystallization removes the dislocations, the material still contains grain
boundaries, which are thermodynamically unstable. Further annealing may result in grain
 Introduction 3

Table 1.1: Examples of static annealing phenomena.

Recovery Recrystallization Grain Growth

Continuous Subgrain growth Continuous recrystallization Normal grain growth
Discontinuous Discontinuous subgrain growth Primary recrystallization Abnormal grain growth

growth, in which the smaller grains are eliminated, the larger grains grow, and the grain
boundaries assume a lower energy configuration (Fig. 1.1e). In certain circumstances this
normal grain growth may give way to the selective growth of a few large grains
(Fig. 1.1f), a process known as abnormal grain growth or secondary recrystallization.
Recent research has shown that borderlines between the various annealing phenomena are
often unclear, and it is known that recovery, recrystallization, and grain growth may occur
in two ways. They occur heterogeneously throughout the material, such that they may be
formally described in terms of nucleation and growth stages, and in this case, they are
described as discontinuous processes. Alternatively, they may occur uniformly, such that
the microstructures evolve gradually with no identifiable nucleation and growth stages. In
this case, the prefix continuous is used to categorize the phenomena. It should be
emphasized that this is a phenomenological categorization that does not imply the
operation of any particular micromechanism. The “continuous” phenomena include
recovery by subgrain growth, continuous recrystallization and normal grain growth and
the “discontinuous” phenomena include discontinuous subgrain growth, primary
recrystallization, and abnormal grain growth. Therefore, as shown in Table 1.1, there are
at least six static annealing phenomena that need to be considered. Note the modern
approach to phase transformations distinguishes between first-order with latent heat, i.e.,
discontinuities in the first derivative of free energy (with latent heat) versus second-order
with discontinuities in the second derivative. Again, primary recrystallization, for example,
certainly releases heat (as measured by calorimetry) like a first-order transition but there
clearly is no sense in which one can define a thermodynamic equilibrium. Therefore, all
annealing processes are, strictly speaking, second-order transitions.
Although these processes are analyzed separately in later chapters, there are circumstances
when they can be considered within a unified framework, as discussed in Chapter 10. This
has the merit of not only emphasizing the common features of the various processes, but,
in breaking down the conventional distinctions between the various annealing phenomena,
allows also for the emergence of new phenomena which may not conveniently fit into the
traditional categories.

1.1.2 Importance of Annealing

Many metallic materials are produced initially as large castings, which are then further
processed in the solid state by forging, rolling, extrusion, etc., to an intermediate or final
4 Chapter 1

product. These procedures, which may be carried out hot or cold, and which may involve
intermediate anneals, are collectively termed thermomechanical processing. Recovery,
recrystallization and grain growth are core elements of this processing.
To a large extent the mechanical properties and behavior of a metal depend on the
dislocation content and structure, the size of the grains and the orientation or texture of
the grains. Of these, the dislocation content and structure are the most important. The
mechanical properties depend primarily on the number of dislocations introduced during
cold working and their distribution. As this increases from w1011 m
2, typical of the
annealed state, to w1016 m
2, typical of heavily deformed metals, the yield strength is
increased by up to 5e6 times and the ductility decreased. If the strain hardened material
is subsequently heated to wTm/3, dislocation loss and rearrangement occur and this is
manifested by a decrease in strength and increased ductility. There is an enormous
literature on the magnitude of these changes, and any adequate treatment is beyond the
scope of this book. For details of these the reader is referred to the appropriate volumes of
Metals Handbook.
The grain size and texture after annealing are determined mainly by the
recrystallization process, and there are numerous examples of the need to control grain
size. For example, a small grain size increases the strength of a steel and may also
make it tougher, which is known as the HallePetch effect. However, a large grain size
may be required in order to reduce creep rates for use at high temperatures because
grain boundaries act as sources and sinks of point defects as well as nucleation points
for damage. Single crystal turbine blades in nickel-based superalloys represent the
ultimate engineering realization of the value in eliminating grain boundaries for high
temperature service. Superplastic forming, in which alloys are deformed to large strains
at low stresses, is an important technological process for the shaping of advanced
materials. Great ingenuity must be exercised in producing the required fine grain size
and preventing its growth during high temperature deformation. The control of texture
is vital for the successful cold forming of metals and particularly important examples
are the deep drawing of aluminum or steel to produce beverage cans and car body
parts. In the relatively new field of grain boundary engineering, deformation and
annealing is used to change the types of grain boundaries in the materials without
changing the grain size.

1.2 Historical Perspective

1.2.1 Early Development of the Subject

Although the art of metalworking including the procedures of deformation and heating has
been practiced for thousands of years, it is only comparatively recently that some
 Introduction 5

understanding has been gained of the structural changes that accompany these processes.
The early history of the annealing of deformed metals was chronicled very elegantly by
Beck (1963), and it is clear that the pace of scientific understanding was largely dictated
by the development of techniques for materials characterization. It should be noted that
this constraint still applies, but recent advances in the scope of computer simulations and
three-dimensional materials characterization have created many new opportunities.

1.2.1.1 Crystallinity and Crystallization

In 1829, the French physicist Felix Savart found that specimens from cast ingots of
various metals exhibited acoustic anisotropy, and concluded that cast ingots consisted of
crystals of different orientations. He also found that, although anisotropy changed as a
result of subsequent plastic deformation and annealing, heating alone produced no change.
This is the first recorded evidence for a structural change occurring during the annealing
of a cold-worked metal.
In the mid-19th century, the concept of the crystallization of metals was extensively
discussed, and it was widely thought that plastic deformation rendered metals amorphous.
This belief arose from the inability to observe grain structures in the deformed metals
using visual inspection. On reheating the deformed metal, however, the grain structure
could sometimes be seen (Percy, 1864; Kalischer, 1881) and this was then interpreted as
crystallization of the metal from its amorphous state.
The introduction of metallography using reflection optical microscopy by Sorby took the
subject a step forward and culminated in his paper of 1887. His optical metallography showed
elongated grains in deformed iron and that on heating, a new equiaxed grain structure was
produced, a process that he termed recrystallization. Furthermore, Sorby recognized that the
distorted grains must be unstable, and that recrystallization allowed a return to a stable
condition. Despite Sorby’s work, the idea that cold-worked metals were amorphous persisted
for some years and was not finally abandoned until the Bakerian lecture by Ewing and
Rosenhain in 1900 in which it was clearly shown that plastic deformation took place by slip
or twinning, and that in both of these processes the crystal structure was preserved.

1.2.1.2 Recrystallization and Grain Growth

Although recrystallization had been identified by the beginning of the 20th century,
recrystallization and grain growth had not clearly been distinguished as separate processes.
The outstanding work by Carpenter and Elam (1920) and Altherthum (1922) established
that stored energy provided the driving force for recrystallization, and grain boundary
energy that for grain growth. This is shown by the terminology for these processes used
by Altherthum, viz. Bearbeitungsrekristallisation (cold-work recrystallization) and
Oberflächenrekristallisation (surface tension recrystallization).
6 Chapter 1

In 1898, Stead proposed that grain growth occurred by grain rotation and coalescence, and
although Ewing and Rosenhain presented convincing evidence that the mechanism was
one of boundary migration, Stead’s idea was periodically revived until the work of
Carpenter and Elam finally settled the matter in favor of boundary migration.

1.2.1.3 Parameters Affecting Recrystallization

By 1920, many of the parameters that affect the recrystallization process and the resultant
microstructure had been identified.
Kinetics: The relationship of the recrystallization temperature to the melting temperature
was noted by Ewing and Rosenhain (1900) and Humfrey (1902) showed that the rate of
recrystallization increased with an increase in annealing temperature.
Strain: Sauveur (1912) found that there was a critical strain for recrystallization, and a
relationship between grain size and prior strain was reported by Charpy (1910). Carpenter
and Elam (1920) later quantified both of these effects.
Grain growth: In a very early paper on the control of microstructure during annealing,
Jeffries (1916) showed that abnormal grain growth in thoriated tungsten was promoted
in specimens in which normal grain growth had been inhibited.
Further developments in the understanding of recrystallization were not possible without a
more detailed knowledge of the deformed state. This was provided by the development of
the dislocation theory in 1934, and a notable early review of the subject following the
advent of the dislocation theory is that of Burgers (1941).
From about this period it becomes difficult to distinguish the papers of historical interest
from the early key papers that are still relevant to current thinking. The latter are cited as
appropriate within the various chapters of this book. However, it may be helpful to the
reader to have a source list of books, reviews, and conferences on the subject from the
past 50 years, which is given below.

1.2.2 Selected Key Literature (1952e2003)

Monographs on Recrystallization

Byrne, J.G. (1965), Recovery, Recrystallization and Grain Growth. McMillan,

New York.
Cotterill, P. and Mold, P.R. (1976), Recrystallization and Grain Growth in Metals.
Surrey Univ. Press, London.
Novikov, V. (1997), Grain Growth and Control of Microstructure and Texture in
Polycrystalline Materials. CRC Press, Boca Raton.
 Introduction 7

Multiauthor, Edited Compilations on Recrystallization

Himmel, L. (ed.), (1963), Recovery and Recrystallization of Metals. Interscience,
New York.
Margolin, H. (ed.), (1966), Recrystallization, Grain growth and Textures. ASM,
Ohio, USA.
Haessner, F. (ed.), (1978), Recrystallization of Metallic Materials. Dr. Riederer-
Verlag, G.m.b.H Stuttgart.
Review Articles and Books Containing Chapters on Recrystallization
Burke, J.E. and Turnbull, D. (1952), Recrystallization and Grain Growth. Progress in
Metal Phys., 3, 220.
Beck, P.A. (1954), Annealing of Cold-worked Metals. Adv. Phys., 3, 245.
Leslie, W.C., Michalak, J.T. and Aul, F.W. (1963), The annealing of cold-worked iron.
In: Iron and its Dilute Solid Solutions. (eds.) Spencer and Werner. Interscience.
New York. 119.
Christian, J.W. (2002), The Theory of Transformations in Metals and Alloys. Second
edition, Pergamon, Oxford.
Jonas, J.J., Sellars, C.M. and Tegart, W.J. McG. (1969), Strength and Structure Under
Hot Working conditions. Met. Revs., 130, 1.
Martin, J.W. and Doherty, R.D. (1976), The Stability of Microstructure in Metals.
Cambridge University Press.
Cahn, R.W. (1996), in Physical Metallurgy. (eds.) Cahn and Haasen. Fourth edition.
NortheHolland, Amsterdam.
Hutchinson, W.B. (1984), Development and Control of Annealing Textures in Low-
Carbon Steels. Int. Met. Rev., 29, 25.
Honeycombe, R.W.K. (1985), The Plastic Deformation of Metals. Edward Arnold.
Humphreys, F.J. (1991), Recrystallization and Recovery. In: Processing of Metals
and Alloys. (ed.) R.W. Cahn. VCH. Germany. 371.
Doherty, R.D., Hughes, D.A., Humphreys, F.J., Jonas, J.J., Juul Jensen, D., Kassner,
M.E., King, W.E., McNelly, T.R., McQueen, H.J. and Rollett, A.D. (1997), Current
issues in recrystallization: a review. Mats. Sci. & Eng., A238, 219.
Verlinden, B., Driver, J., Samajdar, I., and Doherty, R.D. (2007), Thermomechanical
Processing of Metallic Materials, Elsevier.
Proceedings of International Conferences
International Recrystallization Conference Series (1990e1999)
Chandra, T. (ed.), (1991), Recrystallization’90. TMS, Warrendale, USA.
Fuentes, M. and Gil Sevillano, J. (eds.), (1992), Recrystallization’92. Trans. Tech.
Pubs. Switzerland.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 THE HAPPINESS OF BEING
NEARSIGHTED

When Dr. St. George Mivart contributed to a well-known English

periodical his article, “The Happiness In—Ahem!”—the title naturally
attracted immediate attention and won for the paper a consideration
which led to the universal discussion that immediately followed. No
one wished or expected to go to the place concerning which he set
forth some of the particulars, and even some of the secrets; but as
everybody had friends who were in danger of such a fate, and
enemies who were certain of it, there was naturally no little curiosity
to learn from the writings of the early Fathers and later learned
ecclesiastics whom Dr. Mivart quoted how these persons would fare
there. To the general surprise, he disclosed that even in that dismal
abode, with an eternal summer of a temperature the height of which
no thermometer known to earthly science could measure, there was
yet to be expected at times a certain degree of felicity. Christmas
and Easter, it may be remembered, were days off, when holiday
existed, the fires were banked and comparative coolness prevailed.
To the man or woman of acute sight, who sees everything far or
near without the necessity of optical aids, and to whom all
surroundings are definite and clear, and who recalls the fellow-being
who must either wear glasses or grope and stumble and be
uncertain of environment, it would appear nonsense to say that there
is a happiness in being nearsighted. And yet in a certain form of
nearsightedness there are sources of delight which even the man of
perfect sight never knows. There are scientific distinctions which the
oculist who examines your eyes and the optician who is anxious to
sell you a pair of glasses will explain between the nearsightedness
which compels you to pore over a book, holding it close to your eyes,
and the other form which enables you to read the finest print without
glasses, and yet debars you from recognizing your wife or mother-in-
law half way across the street. There is certainly not much happiness
in the former, because, although it may give the impression that you
are a close student and a man of deep erudition to go about with a
book or newspaper directly at the end of your nose, the appearance
you present is not heroic or graceful, and the young ladies seeing
you are apt to smile; and being regarded as a book-worm and
pedant you can never hope to create much of a figure in society.
It is only the nearsighted man who can not distinguish things very
well at a distance, and who, therefore, gets a strictly impressionist
view of life, who really enjoys existence. He can do without his
glasses, if necessary, or if he does not think them becoming, and yet
experience almost perfect comfort. For him, indeed, the world never
loses its illusions, and years, far from robbing him of this boon, only
adds to the glamour of enchantment in which he lives. There are
those who maintain that the really great men of history have always
been short—not in funds, but in stature—and they instance
Socrates, Napoleon, Edmund Kean, Victor Hugo and a multitude of
others; but, in point of fact it may be still more conclusively shown
that the majority of great men have been short-sighted. Much of the
romantic view of existence taken by the ancients we may ascribe to
the fact that many of them were near-sighted and had not the use of
spectacles, which did not come into vogue until the Thirteenth
Century, although the Chinese, it is said, had them for some time
before that. Nothing but nearsightedness could have so stimulated
the imagination of Shakespeare and idealized everything about him,
although, indeed, it is true that we have no portraits or busts in which
he is shown to have worn glasses. Still, there are so many
references in his writings to “thickness of sight” and difficulties of
vision, and there are such exquisite descriptions of color effects, that
we can not doubt him to have been the victim of what the doctors
would call optical infirmity, although it is quite the reverse.
The fact that many of our famous modern poets did not wear
glasses is no proof that for definite seeking they did not require
them. Byron, Shelley or Keates, we may be sure, never would have
worn glasses in any circumstances, as such appurtenances would
have been out of character. There was not in their time the great
variety of the pince-nez that we have at present, rimless and almost
invisible; but there was the very fashionable single eyeglass, rather
larger than the monocle in use at present, and that Beau Brummel
himself, and later Count D’Orsay, did not disdain. The Duke of
Wellington used a single eyeglass, tied to a black ribbon, which hung
about his neck, habitually, and through it saw the Battle of Waterloo,
and, before the engagement was over, Blücher’s columns coming
up.
But to enjoy the happiness of being nearsighted the eyeglasses
and spectacles should be dispensed with and life viewed through the
natural organs alone. Then it is, as already remarked, that we get the
impressionist effect, which is the only one worth having. The man
with what are called good eyes perceives all the details, and
consequently all the coarse and ugly particulars of the life, still and in
motion, about him, and all its faults and shortcomings. After all, what
we want is feeling; the thousand intricacies of form we do not need
or desire; give us the general effects and our spirit transfigures them.
Give us figures, incidents and scenes in vague and poetic mass, and
the most delightful and thrilling emotions are aroused.
These are the results obtained by the nearsighted man. To him
there is very little that is ugly in life, and especially is it true that all
women are beautiful. As I go through the streets I meet at every turn
the most exquisite girls, of whose features, indeed, I know little in
detail, but there comes to me a general effect of brilliant eyes, lovely
complexions and entrancing hair. Every figure is elegant and each
walks with the step of a goddess. There are some old women, but
none middle-aged or faded; I know not that most distressing of
mortal wrecks, the woman “well preserved.” I catch a swift glimpse of
a face at a window, or one flashes from a carriage—it is always fair;
in the crowded thoroughfares of the shopping districts the tall and
picturesque hats, covered with flowers; the soft gowns, the ribbons
of myriad colors flit by, giving me but a glimpse, and ravish me. Still
more enchanting are these graceful beings at night by the electric
light, or vaguely disclosed in the wan beams of the moon.
Natural scenery has a charm which the unhappy man who is not
nearsighted can never know. Everything looks uncertain, dim, hazy
and very often mystical; colors affect the eye with a delicious
softness; there are no keen and cruel contrasts; distant woods and
skies, with the multitude of intermingled hues in summer, and the
browns and grays of autumn and winter, fall tenderly upon the vision.
The changes of light upon the mountain side, and, still more vividly,
the seashore, early in the morning or at sunset, stir the deepest
sources of sentiment. The nearsighted eye is never photographic;
the lines and colors are everywhere mingled and confused, and in
both rest and action there is a delicious complexity and
indefiniteness.
One can imagine no more interesting scene of movement than
that in the evening at the height of the season on the esplanade at
Atlantic City. I never witness it without thinking of two of the dreams
of De Quincey, which he describes in some detail—the one of the
crowd moving by in endless procession, like the figures on a frieze,
on and on forever, the other of the innumerable faces of his vision
revealed in the incessant convulsions of the ocean. At about half-
past eight o’clock in the evening toward the end of July, when the
season is at its climax, this impressive throng, in two lines, moving to
the right and to the left, is most numerous. There is, so far as I am
aware, nothing precisely like it anywhere else in the world—so
variegated, so well-dressed, so lively and so complicated. To enjoy it
perfectly there must be the vagueness of a veiled vision, and then, in
addition to the passing faces, you catch the soft, dreamy effects of
the costumes—whites and pinks, sometimes even the bold
Mephistophelean red; the dim azures, the pale greens subsiding into
yellow. In the two tides goes this strange army, slow in motion,
laughing, volatile, the silvery tinkle of feminine laughter and the
deeper murmur of conversation. To observe this throng has an
absorbing fascination, but if at times you rest, it is to look over the
railing of the esplanade at the darkness of the ocean and watch the
waves rushing in, like sheeted women with outstretched and
affrighted arms.
Summing up, if I were asked to define the special enjoyment
derived from nearsightedness, I should say that it arises from two
sources—the serenity of the scenes disclosed by the sight, the
absence of harshness in sky, landscape or environment anywhere;
the fusing of mean details into an agreeable mass. And even
stranger and pleasanter than this is the mystical effect; the softness
and dreaminess of atmosphere and distances; the indolent,
abstracted and slightly melancholy tone of mind produced; the
beguiling idealization of existence.
—Walter Edgar M’Cann.
 “An XVIII Century Beauty.”

From the miniature by Hugh Nicholson.

 COMMENT

We take great pleasure in presenting to our readers this month the

first installment of a serial story by the famous Spanish novelist, D.
Ramon Ortega y Frias. The translation is the work of Mr. L. Solyom,
of Washington, whose ability as a linguist is well known and of a very
high order. “Elena’s Daughters,” a romance full of the charm of
movement and color, depicts, with unusual skill, the life of the
Spanish people in the early part of the Seventeenth Century, when
Philip IV was king, and when love was won by the sword and honor
was held to be a priceless thing. The manners and customs, the
superstitions and ignorance, the desperate bravery and cunning of
the times are made to contribute to the absorbing interest of the
story, an interest that is fully maintained to the concluding sentence
of the last chapter.
D. Ramon Ortega y Frias was born in 1825. Long sickness and
family misfortunes compelled him to give up studies and to devote
his life to literary pursuits. He is one of the most popular Spanish
novelists—in fact, he may be considered the father of the Spanish
novel, being the first to replace the numerous French translations
which were almost exclusively read before he wrote his original
compositions. His subjects are drawn from Spanish history and give
true pictures of the manners and customs of the country. He has also
translated some works from the French, and has written poetry and
numerous critical literary articles.
 Through the courtesy of Mr. Hugh Nicholson, the well-known
English miniaturist, we are enabled to reproduce one of his most
important miniatures. It is called “An Eighteenth Century Beauty,”
and was given the place of honor in the inaugural exhibition of the
London Society of Miniature Painters, held in 1896. Mr. Nicholson
has been engaged in painting little portraits of prominent
Baltimoreans for the past two seasons, and his recent return to
Baltimore from abroad proves the continuance of his well-merited
popularity. His work is distinguished by exquisitely delicate coloring
and technique, and never lacks the strength necessary to the
successful portrayal of character.

A most important event in the artistic life of the South, and one
whose ultimate results are likely to be of such a far-reaching nature
that is impossible to even roughly estimate their valve at the present
time, occurred on January 18th., 1899. On that day a group of
representative and influential gentlemen met at the residence of Mr.
Theodore Marburg and founded what is known as The Municipal Art
Association of the City of Baltimore. Although the idea of such an
organization is not a new one,—such associations already exist and
are in a flourishing condition in New York, Boston and other Northern
Cities,—no such society can be found elsewhere in the South.
Baltimore can therefore for once be justly congratulated on having
shown a spirit of real enterprise and civic pride, which, sooner or
later, is sure to be followed by all her Southern sisters.
The main object of this new municipal art association is to receive
and collect funds for the beautifying of the public squares and
buildings of the City. It will also use its utmost endeavors—through
experts and disinterested, broad-minded laymen—to have such
funds judiciously expended. It is proposed to enlarge the
membership, which is somewhat limited at present, as much as
possible and at the same time, to form a woman’s auxiliary branch
that will work in harmony with the main organization, composed
exclusively of men. It is estimated that a body of at least two
thousand public-spirited men and women can thus be found and
eventually welded into a powerful association devoted to the very
best artistic interests of the people of Baltimore. If this calculation is
correct, a considerable amount of money will accumulate annually in
the treasury of the society, solely from the collection of the yearly
dues, which have been wisely fixed at the small sum of $5.00. In
order to increase the association’s resources much more rapidly
than is otherwise practicable, it has been resolved that life
membership may be procured by those who are willing to pay the
sum of $100.00, and that the title of “Patron” will be bestowed on all
those who are liberal enough to donate the sum of $1000, or more.
The money so collected from dues and voluntary contributions is to
be carefully husbanded until the amount becomes sufficiently large
to justify the directors in opening a worthy competition for the
decoration of some public building, the erection of a statue, or the
building of a monument of real and lasting artistic merit. It may not
be possible to procure enough money to purchase such a work of art
annually, but it will be a question of only a few years at most before
the results of this much needed society will become evident to the
least observant. It is with feelings of the greatest pleasure that we
commend this highly laudable and intelligent movement to the
people of Baltimore, and we hope they will give it their unswerving
and enthusiastic support.

At the first meeting of the organizers of The Municipal Art

Association of the City of Baltimore, it was stated that the articles
and by-laws governing this new society had been taken almost
bodily from those of the New York organization. It was argued that as
they had been thoroughly tested and proved to be of great working
value in New York, therefore they must of necessity be suited to the
needs of Baltimore. In a certain measure this is true, but the
reasoning is rather fallacious and misleading. The artistic conditions
that prevail at the present time in the two cities are by no means the
same: New York has a Metropolitan Museum, filled with the finest
specimens of ancient and modern art, which is always open to the
public, besides an Academy of Design, a Society of American
Artists, an Architectural League and any number of galleries that are
constantly instructing the people in what is being done by native and
foreign contemporaneous artists—whether they be painters,
sculptors, or architects. In Baltimore we have only the Walters’
Gallery,—a wonderfully fine collection of paintings, ceramics, and
bronzes, to be sure, but one that is practically unchanging and that is
open to the public for only a comparatively few days of the year,—
and such small exhibitions of pictures as can be collected from time
to time through the efforts and enterprise of Mr. David Bendann and
the Charcoal Club—an organization that is far from being supported
as it should be by those interested in the artistic development of the
City.
General Felix Agnus forcibly voiced the feeling of a great many of
the gentlemen who founded the new society when he suggested that
the scope of The Municipal Art Association of the City of Baltimore
be enlarged by such changes in the articles of incorporation as
would eventually empower it to erect a public Museum, and to
receive bequests in the shape of paintings and other works of art.
We would go farther than General Agnus and suggest to the board
of Directors that the New Art Association be not only empowered to
collect funds to build a Museum, but a fire-proof, well-lighted gallery
also, constructed especially for, and devoted solely to a yearly
exhibition of works by modern artists. Until this is done Baltimore
must of necessity remain more or less ignorant and provincial in all
artistic matters. Galleries for such yearly exhibitions exist in every
other large city of the United States, and that one has not been built
here long ago is due, we are sure, not to a dearth of funds or taste,
but solely to a curious lack of co-operation among those who have
the power and the inclination to stimulate the rational development of
a love for things of beauty.
We therefore hope that The Municipal Art Association of the City
of Baltimore will not imitate too closely the objects and the by-laws of
the New York Society, but will add these other two extremely
necessary projects to an already praiseworthy program, and thereby
render our citizens more appreciative of the artistic attractions they
propose to offer them in the near future.
 There is no spectacular display, either in the old world or in the
new, to compare with the New Orleans Mardi Gras. But there has
been too little care paid to the development of the floats and of the
costumes of the mummers,—those which are directly under the
control of the committee which is usually placed in charge.
We are always interested in art, and in the artist, and would
suggest that our New Orleans friends might add greatly to the
excellence of their entertainment by consulting men more of an
artistic than of a business temperament in arranging their annual and
unique displays.

The movements in the local security markets have shown a

somewhat halting tendency of late. This is not unnatural, following
the sustained upward movement and the broad and active buying
which has marked the operations in stocks and bonds for several
months. Operators and dealers are not disturbed that the market
should rest for awhile, and confidence is easy where it is felt that the
rising trend to values will again occur as soon as investors have
been able to scan the field anew and to digest the conditions which
affect the values of securities.
There has been no decline here, as this is essentially an
investment and not a speculative market. Prices are not stimulated
or advanced by stock jobbing operations and false rumors which so
seriously affect values in speculative centres, but rest solely on the
merits of the property which the security represents. There has been
a slight shading of values in a few instances in issues which had
been rapidly advanced by the strong public demand. This was
notably the case in the shares of some of the new trust companies.
The Continental Trust stock had an abnormal rise to $285 a share,
representing a premium of $85 a share, as $200 a share will be paid
in by the stockholders. Since the Stock Exchange permitted trading
in the receipts of this company the premium has declined 25 points,
as at the close of last week it was reported that the stock had been
offered 110, with 100 the best bid. Citizens’ Trust shares have also
fallen off from 57 to 49½, with declines less marked in the shares of
the older institutions, and with many of them showing gains.
The announcement of the entrance into the local trust field of a
new company with large capital and influential backing probably had
some unfavorable effect on the stocks of the companies recently
started. This new concern will be a strong bidder for business, and
while it is expected to work in a field of development, it is not unlikely
to receive some business which would have gone to the other
companies.
This field of trust seems to be a favorable and a profitable one,
however, for large combinations of capital.

We spoke in our last issue of the opportunity that was about to be

given to erect a fine and lasting monument to the memory of the
Confederate and Federal soldiers who lost their lives on the battle-
field of Antietam. This opportunity presented itself early in January to
the judges in charge of the competition for a commemorative
monument, or statue, for the erection of which ample funds were
voted by the Maryland Legislature. We had some misgivings as to
the artistic merits of the sketch that would be chosen,—owing to the
fact that such awards are usually left to the taste of artistically
incompetent persons, instead of to men whose training and
experience guarantee that the work shall be, if not great, of at least a
fair average quality,—but we had no idea that even judges selected
at random (as these evidently were) would be willing to put
themselves on record as approving a design that, while not out of
place for a summer-house or a soda-water fountain, is altogether so
in a memorial erected to the glory of our dead heroes.
If these gentlemen paid for the monument out of their own pockets
and offered it to the State as a gift, it still ought to be refused as
utterly unworthy the subject, or of public acceptance, but it is nothing
less than outrageous to force the taxpayers of Maryland to accept
and to furnish money for such a travesty on good taste. To make
matters even worse, and that, strange to say, the judges found was
entirely possible, the award was given to a New England contractor,
so that we are not only to have a most inappropriate monument, but
an inappropriate one made in another State for which an important
sum of money must be paid by the people of Maryland. We are not
narrow-minded in these matters, and believe that, to fittingly honor
our brave dead, we should have the best sculptor or architect that
can be procured, no matter whence he comes, but it can hardly be
claimed in this case that it was necessary to go outside the State.
In fact, it seems to us, it would hardly have been possible to find
anything more trivial or unsuitable, even had a prize been especially
offered for that purpose. That such things are accepted with so little
complaint by the press and public almost justifies one in abandoning
hope that we shall ever see any real improvement in our muddled
way of looking at questions of this sort.

No military organization in the United States is better and more

favorably known than the Fifth Maryland, distinctively a Southern
regiment.
For over thirty years it has stood the equal of any militia regiment
in the country. In latter years the only organization, in the popular
mind, that challenged its supremacy was the Seventh New York, and
when the famed Seventh declined to go to the Spanish war and the
Fifth, in a body, volunteered for government service, to go anywhere
they were ordered to go and do anything they were asked to do,
there could be no further doubt that the Fifth Maryland, which has
always clung to its gray uniform, emblematic of other days, was the
“real thing,” as far as the militia of the country was concerned.
It seems a shame that not only the people of Baltimore and of
Maryland, but the people of the South generally, should not take
vigorous offence that at this time, after the regiment has served its
country for over three months, and has returned to its armory in
Baltimore, for what are, apparently, political reasons and reasons of
personal gratification, this splendid body of men should be
threatened with dissolution.
 In this condition which confronts the command several things
enter.
In the first place, there never was any discord, never any
disagreement among the officers until a certain element appeared.
This element has gone now, but other troubles have arisen. Its old
commanding officer, whom all the men loved, was prevented from
going to the Spanish war with his command—questionably
prevented,—as subsequent events have shown. With him,
“physically disqualified,” were other officers, quite as well beloved
and respected by the men, and all of these gentlemen still hold their
commissions from the State of Maryland.
The order retiring them was one from the Adjutant-General of the
State, which order, by the way, has very recently been revoked,—
and now a board has been appointed to examine these officers
physically and otherwise. Before the Adjutant-General recalled his
retirement order, they had asked to be returned to the offices to
which their commissions lawfully entitled them.
The make-up of the board appointed to treat the cases of these
officers has been questioned, not only upon the ground that it is
partisan, but because some of its members are not qualified to serve
upon it. Before this number of “Dixie” goes to press the board will
have met. Possibly it will have reached its decision. It is probable, if it
disqualifies these men, that numbers of Southerners will consider it a
case of hanging them first and trying them afterwards.
The people like the Fifth Maryland. Its officers like it. And if the
“retired” officers are not allowed to go back to their command,—
these officers whom their men love,—there will be no more Fifth
Regiment. Its other officers will resign, its faithful enlisted men will
vanish like smoke, and in the place of the Fifth of fame there will be
a hybrid combination, sustained by that sort of political power that
commands no respect from honest-thinking men.
There is yet time for the “powers that be” to pause. The Fifth
Regiment is not a thing to be ruthlessly slaughtered. Parties come
and parties go, but there are elections yet to come, and the men of
Maryland and of the South will not forget those who killed their
cherished Fifth Maryland.
 BOOKS & AUTHORS
TWO POET-NOVELISTS.

GEORGE MEREDITH.
Art and artists are continually suffering at the hands of “belletristic
triflers.” Phrase-making is the passion of the day; and as a falsity or
a half-truth concerning literary matters is so much easier of utterance
than the awkward whole truth, that demands lengthy qualifications,
we seldom find the latter gaining in the race with glittering
mendacities. It is not, for instance, the saner body of Matthew
Arnold’s criticism that has been generally absorbed; it is his more or
less questionable catch-words and airy brevities of characterization.
These seem apt to the understanding because they fit so well the
tongue; their convenience gives them their fatal persuasion. The
world likes a criticism in little, a nut-shell verdict, something of
intellectual color that can readily be memorized for dinner-table
parlance, the vague generalization that conceals the specific
ignorance. Macaulay’s “rough pistolling ways and stamping
emphasis,” Scott’s “bastard epic style,” and the conception of
Shelley as “a beautiful and ineffectual angel beating in the void his
luminous wings in vain” have thus come to be solemn verities with
many who care more to talk literature than to read it. A whilom gaiety
of journalism served to convince the public that Whitman’s voice was
a “barbaric yawp”; and consequently his “Leaves of Grass” is seldom
glimpsed save in a spirit of derision. These are some of the unhappy
results of our latter-day strain after “a pregnant conciseness” of
language.
George Meredith like many of his predecessors has suffered much
from the thumb-nail criticism of the day. His judges are apt to insist
upon his mannerisms and to insist on nothing else. The generality of
readers hearing so much about the “mereditherambic style” rest
under the belief that this writer is a tripod of frenzied incoherence;
that he lacks, especially as a poet, both style and substance. That
this is far from being the truth about Meredith’s verse anyone who
has read it with attention well knows. Not only does much of it fulfil
the requisites of orthodox style, but it contains, even more than his
novels, the vital convictions of his mind. Indeed, it is in his verse we
come nearest the real teacher, as we come nearest the man in his
relation to life at large—to the general scheme of things.
A realization of George Meredith’s poetical virtues by the reader of
real literature is due a writer who has proved his claim to genius in a
monumental series of novels, a writer who, while not acceptable to
all, has yet many admirers that regard him as one of the strongest
towers of modern thought. One can, however, scarcely hope for
more than a limited acceptance of his poems; that he should be
popular in the ordinary meaning of the word, as some poets are
taken to heart by the sons of men, is indeed scarcely conceivable.
Such popularity, which is after all an equivocal tribute for the most
part, Mr. Meredith has never aimed to secure. His has been a life of
remoteness from profane ambitions, a life steadfast to the standard
early set for himself—a standard of the highest kind.
And yet, while Mr. Meredith may not exercise the attraction of
many other poets for the general reader, few will deny that in his
fruits of song one tastes the flavor of an original, deep-seeing mind;
that there is in the character of many of his poems what well rewards
the serious attention necessary to their complete comprehension.
Difficult in part they may seem in the casual reading, owing to
combined entanglement of rhetoric and ideas, but few who press
their inquiry past the line of a first natural discouragement of perusal
can fail totally to be affected by the spell they cast over the mind.
Beauty there is unquestionably lurking beneath what seems often a
wilful obscuration of theme. Coming here and there upon some
apparently dry metrical husk of thought, there falls, as from some
frost-bitten flower-pod, a shower of fairy seeds that lodge as a vital
donation within the remembrance. Groping in the midst of a
Meredithian mystery, even the less sensitive ear catches a ritornello
of exquisite, wholly seductive sound. For it is not so infrequently that
like his “The Lark Ascending.”

“He rises and begins to round,

He drops the silver chain of sound,
Of many links without a break,
In chirrup, whistle, slur and shake—”

The lark-note is not, however, the leading characteristic of Mr.

Meredith’s muse, although quite within the scope of it. It is rather the
lark’s joy in nature clothed with the more artificial vocalism of man.
Mr. Meredith is pantheist in large measure when he attunes his lute-
strings to the demands of Mother Earth. For him the gods of Greece
do not live only in the pages of Lempriere, as most modern poets
would have us believe, but they still maintain, albeit in more subtle
form, their old supreme habitation in lawn and sylvan hollow, or mix
with the familiar miracle of grey eve and rose-red dawn. In his verse
Mr. Meredith hastens to undo the harness of that worldly wisdom that
binds him in his novels. He re-baptizes himself to the graces of
nature pure, rejoices in all that belongs to the idealism of primitive
life. The poet can pipe as rustically as a faun when he is so minded.
He can pay a moving tribute to young love and the romance of
vernal feeling, as proved by that beautiful lift of minstrelsy, “Love in
the Valley,” with its limpid, ecstatic meter, its delicious imagery and
spiritual sweetness of thought; not to speak of many other lyrics of
the same sort. These lighter pleasures and profits of George
Meredith, together with his more serious efforts, like “Ode to the
Spirit of Earth and Autumn,” a magnificent color-poem, uniquely
accenting the bacchic abandon of October and trumpeting mightily
the note of triumphant manhood, and “The Nuptials of Attila,” full of a
haunting rush of language, ought to afford substantial relish to the
general admirers of high art.
Has George Meredith’s vigorous, almost massive harp a message
for humanity? is the natural inquiry of those who reading Wordsworth
or Tennyson find in their works sure faiths and consolatory teaching.
And is such message so abeyant that only those of his readers who
are endowed with power of subtle divination may find it? Certainly in
the case of the seer the debt of clear utterance is obligatory, just as
from the lyricist we look for delight and tears and mellifluence; it is a
responsibility that falls from heaven with the mantle of inspiration,
only a congenital inceptitude for lucidity excuses it. Too often, it must
be confessed, it is only the ghostly sense of a message that trails
through Mr. Meredith’s work, glimpsing and disappearing in will-o’-
wisp fashion. The thirsting traveller chasing such mirages of
meaning over the sands of obscurity may be pardoned if he
conclude that to only the very privileged few does the Fata Morgana
of his muse grant a kindly haven of specific instruction. But while this
is true of passages and poems, it is not true of all his poems. There
is much in his volumes of verse that state distinctly his philosophical
principles. The ground-work of Mr. Meredith’s philosophy is the worth
of nature as distinct from the artificial institutions of man. In nature
pure exists the true temple of wisdom; it is the tribunal whereat all
knowledge and sentiment must finally receive its endorsement or its
condemnation. In nature we open the real book of life. It is, therefore,
that in his verse we find continually a worship of the liberty of the
forest, a recognition of its power to promote the vital growth of heart
and head. Mr. Meredith would not have us forget that the mind and
spirit are integral elements of nature. Particularly in “The Woods of
Westermain,” beginning,

“Enter these enchanted woods,

You who dare—”

is this philosophy stated forcibly and at length. Naturalness in all

things is the keynote of his utterance. It is from his poetry that we
gain the clue to that humorous and seemingly harsh, satirical attitude
towards worldliness which distinguishes his novels and has
occasioned the frequent outcry that Mr. Meredith is a heartless
epigrammatist. The truer criticism is that he derides the artifices, the
sham decencies and mawkish sentimentality of society as the
earnest champion of the natural. Thus we find Sir Willoughby
Patterne in “The Egoist” demonstrating the pursuit of a spurious
worldly philosophy, as we find the hero of “Richard Feverel” proving
the mistake of yoking nature to an artificial system, while his women,
such as Clara in “The Egoist,” Nataly in “One of Our Conquerors,”
and Diana in “Diana of the Crossways,” are clear, protesting voices
against masculine prejudices and feminine bondage. This is also the
teaching of his remarkable poem entitled “Modern Love.” George
Meredith has within the last few months added to his poetical works
a work called “Odes in Contribution to the Song of French History”
(New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons), which while having a Pindarian
sublimity of intent, a plentitude of rapt and fiery passages is too
involved and vague to constitute a real master-work. Whatever be
said of Meredith’s faults, a serious reading of his verse cannot but
persuade one that he is a poet who is distinctly virile and worth
while. Though much that he has written may have the mark of
mortality, there is much also that wears the amaranthine wreath of
eternal life, either for beauty of phrase or for profundity of philosophic
truth.

THOMAS HARDY.
Genius proves itself as much by the tenacity of its taste for one
handicraft as by anything else; it evidences itself not so much in
versatility as in volume. It is rather a mark of mediocre mentality
when a man must needs lay his hand to the doing of this and that.
Genius, as a rule, has no such itch; generally speaking, he is content
to fulfill himself in one given direction—to maintain his being in a
single sphere with a passion superior to that of his fellows. Thus it is
we seldom find after leaving the regions of facile talent writers whose
inspiration expresses itself in prose and poetical form with equal
seriousness; one is the vehicle of the divine voice, the other a mere
diversion. Goethe, it is true, has given us “Wilhelm Meister,” Victor