ideologies.
Some meanings in creative works are explicit, while 1-2 stalks of malunggay
Lesson I: Text as a Connected Discourse
Definition and Purposes of a Discourse
A discourse is a formal and often lengthy discussion of a topic,
where concepts and insights are arranged in an organized and
logical manner.
Below are the purposes of a discourse.
1. To inform – A discourse that aims to inform provides a
descriptive and comprehensive discussion on the topic
2. To persuade – A discourse that aims to persuade tries to
convince the readers that the proposed claim or solution is better
than any other proposal.
3. To entertain – A discourse that aims to amuse provides a
source of entertainment for its readers.
Below are three of those factors.
1. Culture – The beliefs, customs, attitudes, language.
2. Social environment – The author’s physical surroundings and
social relationships.
3. Experiences – Personal accounts or first-hand experience of
events, though subjective, establish credibility and reliability of
information presented in any discourse.
Types of Discourse
Argumentation – In this type of discourse, the writer
aims to persuade the audience or readers.
Description – This type of discourse is based on the
main impression of the author about the topic or subject.
Exposition – This aims to inform, clarify, and explain a
phenomenon.
Narration – This type of discourse is like storytelling. It
recalls events chronologically. It is told in the first, second, or third
person point of view.
Literary Discourse
A literary discourse is generally focused on creative
works, including nonfiction. Also, it includes texts that are used
strictly for business communication. The following are the three
types of literary discourse:
1. Poetic – This type of discourse is commonly found in
creative works like poems, novels, short stories, and plays. It
focuses on how language is used to form themes and convey
some are implied, especially in poems. Ordinary words, especially
those used in a poem, are made appealing through sound
patterns.
Example:
The Road Not Taken (An Excerpt)
By Robert Frost
I shall be telling this with a sigh
Somewhere ages and ages hence:
Two roads diverged in a wood, and I—
I took the one less traveled by,
And that has made all the difference.
2. Expressive – This type of discourse is commonly
found in academic journals, letters, diaries, and blogs. It is a
personal narrative and is typically written in the first-person point
of view. In the process, the writer reveals something about his or
her identity. In literary terms, expressive discourses are referred to
as creative nonfiction.
Example:
The Diary of a Young Girl (An Excerpt)
By Anne Frank
Sunday, 21 June 1942 Everyone at school is waiting to hear what
happens next. Who will move up a class, and who will stay down?
We’re all trying to guess! I think my girlfriends and I will be OK,
though we’ll have to wait patiently to find out. Most of my teachers
like me, but old Mr. Keesing gets angry with me because I often
talk too much! He made me do some extra homework and write
about ‘Someone Who Talks Too Much.’
3. Transactional – This type of discourse is commonly
found in instructional materials, advertisements, and editorial
articles, among others. It is directive in nature as it provides
detailed information on how something is done or achieved.
Moreover, it encourages the reader to do something or to take
action.
Example:
How to Cook Chicken Tinola
Ingredients:
1/2 kg chicken wings
1 red onion, peeled and sliced
1 clove of garlic, peeled and crushed
1 small ginger, peeled and julienned
1 small green papaya, peeled and cut into wedges
1 teaspoon of salt
1 teaspoon of pepper
3-4 cups of water
Procedure:
1. Prepare all the ingredients.
2. Heat the pan in a medium flame.
Add 2–3 tablespoons of oil.
3. Sauté garlic, onion, and ginger. Add chicken wings and sauté
for 3–4 minutes.
4. Pour 3–4 cups of water.
Let it simmer.
5. Add the papaya. Simmer until the chicken becomes tender.
6. Add the malunggay leaves.
7. Add salt and pepper to taste. 8. Serve and enjoy.
IV. Academic Discourse
• An academic discourse is expository or argumentative in nature.
Sometimes, it presents an individual’s insights regarding a
concept or method in a scholarly way.
Example: Medea is portrayed as an empowered woman in the
Euripides’ play. It is a far cry from how women were viewed and
represented in the Ancient Greece. Women then were mainly
portrayed as in charge of producing children, taking care of them,
and being a mistress of the household. Medea’s character defies
and challenges conformities. Her deeds, though evil in nature,
stem from the strength of her mind… Medea, although elicits pity
from the audience during the first part of the play as an
abandoned wife and mother, in the end, is feared and abhorred as
she proves to be aware of how wicked her deeds are and yet
would not have it the other way around: “I understand what evil I
am about to do but my wrath is stronger even than my thoughts…”
(Euripides 27).
The text is a review of Euripides’ famous play Medea. The critic,
although stating his or her insights of the play, writes in an
objective tone, using the third person point of view. Moreover, the
review does not use a figure of speech or idiomatic expression to
describe, elaborate, or prove a point.
• Structures or formats of academic discourses may vary
depending on the approved or recommended style guide to use.
Below is a general format.

1. Introduction – In this part, the writer states the
significance of the topic and the issues that need to be
addressed.
2. Body – In this part, the writer discusses the methods
of gathering information.
3. Conclusion – In this part, the writer reiterates the
claims and asserts his or her stand. He or she may
include insights and recommendations for further studies.
Activity I Direction: Identify what kind of discourse is presented in
Texts 1 and 2. Justify your answer by stating the characteristics of
each text.
Text 1: Good day! I apologized for the delayed response. The art
event will be held on the 16th of July. To get to the venue, turn left
from the mall. You will see a drugstore in the corner. Turn right
after two blocks. You will find a low-rise building beside a bank.
Go inside and inform the receptionist that you are one of the
participants. Do not forget to bring a proof of identification. The
venue is located on the third floor.
Text 2: Hi, Mom! Sorry I only checked my email now. It has been
crazy lately. I have been working on several course requirements
since last week. How are you and Dad? Please tell him I said hi
and I miss him. Anyway, I got accepted for internship in an
accounting firm. Can you believe it? Finally! My internship starts
this October. I will let you know about the details soon.
Lesson 2: Introduction to Writing across the Disciplines
Writing in the Sciences
 The following are some common writings in the sciences:
1. Case study – This is a careful and intensive study of a
specific subject or variable (e.g., person, phenomenon,
epidemic, event, etc.) in which scientists or researchers
identify what leads to its success or failure
2. Laboratory report – This is a formal documentation of
an experiment, which includes the objectives, methods,
and results.
3. Field report – This writing is commonly done in the
social sciences. It aims to analyze behavior patterns
manifested by the subject based on specific theories. It is
descriptive in nature as it provides a detailed account of
what the researcher has observed among the subjects
(e.g., people, events, places, etc.) and his or her analysis
of the situation.
Writing in Business
Memorandum – This is commonly referred to as memo.
It is a form of written communication in a corporate
setting. Its main purpose is to inform or convey
messages to concerned people or departments.
Résumé – This is a short document that shows a
person’s educational and professional background. It
gives brief but detailed information about an applicant’s
employment or work history.
1. Letter of request – This letter is persuasive in
nature. It aims to convince a person in authority or in
charge to grant permission for an action to be done
or accomplished. In this letter, the requester
explicitly states the purpose of the request.
Writing in the Humanities
Critique – This contains a writer’s opinion of the quality of any
piece of writing or work of art.
Review – This refers to an assessment of a particular work, such
as a movie, a book, or music.
The American Psychological Association (APA) and the
Modern Language Association (MLA) Citation Guides
• Citation guides refer to carefully crafted formats which are used
to acknowledge sources of information. Their styles vary,
depending on the prescribed guide by the university or the field of
study. For example, the American Psychological Association
(APA) is commonly used in social sciences, while the Modern
Language Association (MLA) is commonly used in humanities.
• Most citations contain the following elements: ○ Author’s name ○
Title of work (book, article, etc.) ○ Year of publication ○ Page
number (s) ○ Volume or issue number(s) or edition(s)
• Text and nontext information require citations. Whether a
paragraph is directly lifted or paraphrased, it still requires source
attribution. This way, one is safe from committing plagiarism.
• In-text citations are also known as parenthetical citations. When
a writer uses a phrase or paragraph from another source, he or
she encloses the verbatim piece in quotation marks or paraphrase
it and cites the source by placing the information inside the
parentheses. Keep in mind that the source of information provided
in an in-text citation should correspond to the reference list.
1. Short quotations – These are usually less than 40 words.
They are either paraphrased or enclosed in quotation marks.
○ APA format: Begin with the author’s last name
followed by the year of publication of the work. Then
present the quoted or paraphrased material and include
the page where it can be found. Alternatively, you can
present the paraphrased or quoted material first and then
the information about the source—the last name of the
author, the year of publication, and the page numbers, all
of which are enclosed in parentheses.
○ MLA format: This format follows an author-page
structure. The author’s last name is presented first, and
then it is followed by the page number(s). (In the APA
style, the word page is abbreviated to “p.” while pages
are abbreviated to “pp.” The “ps” do not appear in the
MLA in-text citation style.) The author-page structure
works in two ways.
Example: According to Reyes, the romance mode “creates a
world that is not fully equivalent to our own because it goes
beyond the parameters by which life is normally bounded” (101).
2. Long quotations – Quoted sentences containing at least forty
words are considered long quotations. This is called a block
quotation and is set apart from the main text.
○ APA format: Introduce the author’s last name first and
then indicate the year of publication enclosed in
parentheses. Present the passage without quotation
marks. Place the page number(s) enclosed in
parentheses after the period.
Example: Reyes (2012) particularly noted in her study that: As a
central mode in Philippine criticism, realism has given rise to a
number of critical views. In general, realist criticism favors serious,
socially committed and actively engaged works. Within this
conceptual framework, writings that do not hew to the radical
tradition assume less significance than those which follow the
tradition of Rizal and the “New Propagandists.”5 What originally
emerged in the late eighteenth century as a movement, and later
as an analytical tool, has become normative. (p. 102)
○ MLA format: Set the quote in a block quotation if it is
more than four lines long for prose, three lines long for
poetry, or two paragraphs long. The writer may add
introductory sentences which include the author’s last
name or, after the period, include the author’s last name
and page number. Enclose them in parentheses.
a) For prose, introduce the context first in one to two
sentences and then present the passage. Remove the
quotation marks.
Example: Mr. Bennet was so odd a mixture of quick parts,
sarcastic humour, reserve, and caprice, that the experience of
three-and-twenty years had been insufficient to make his wife
understand his character. Her mind was less difficult to develop.
She was a woman of mean understanding, little information, and
uncertain temper. When she was discontented, she fancied
herself nervous. The business of her life was to get her daughters
married; its solace was visiting and news. (Austen 4)
b) For poetry, keep the formatting as close to the original as
possible.
Example: Leaning into the evenings I throw my sad nets to your
ocean eyes. There my loneliness stretches and burns in the tallest
bonfire, arms twisting like a drowning man’s. I cast red signals
over your absent eyes which lap like the sea at the lighthouse
shore. (Neruda 5)
c) For more than two paragraphs, indent the first line of the
paragraphs.
Example: In Salungat: A Soledad S. Reyes Reader, Reyes
insisted that: As a central mode in Philippine criticism, realism has
given rise to a number of critical views. In general, realist criticism
favors serious, socially committed and actively engaged works.
Within this conceptual framework, writings that do not hew to the
radical tradition assume less significance than those which follow
the tradition of Rizal and the “New Propagandists.”5 What
originally emerged in the late eighteenth century as a movement,
and later as an analytical tool, has become normative.
This approach to Philippine literature offers a limited view of
vernacular writing, much of which is meat for the masses, since
realist criticism is ever conscious of the need to dissociate
serious/realistic from nonserious/romantic works. It would,
therefore, be instructive to focus our attention on the romance
mode that has helped generate a large number of works. (102)
• Reference List – This is usually found at the last section of a
published material. It is where the sources of information are
completely cited.
1. Books
a. A book with one author
○ APA format: Indicate the author’s last name
first and then the initial of his or her first name.
Place the year of publication and enclose it in
parentheses. Set the work’s title in italics. Then
include the location where the work was
published and its publisher.
Example: Austen, J. (2009). Pride and
Prejudice. New York, NY: Penguin Random
House.
○ MLA format: Introduce the author’s last name
and first name. Set the title of the work in italics.
Indicate the publisher and the year the work
was published.
Example: Austen, Jane. Pride and Prejudice.
Penguin Random House, 2009.
b. A book with two authors
○ APA format: Indicate the authors’ last names
first and then the initial of their first names.
Arrange them in an alphabetical order. Place
the year of publication and enclose it in
parentheses. Set the title of the work in italics.
Then include the location where the work was
published and its publisher.
Example: Cohn, R. & Levithan, D. (2008). Nick
& Norah’s Infinite Playlist. New York, NY:
Ember-Penguin Random House.
○ MLA format: Introduce the first author’s last
name and then the second author’s first and last
names. Arrange them in an alphabetical order.
Set the title of the work in italics. Indicate the
publisher and the year the work was published.
Example: Cohn, R. and David Levithan. Nick &
Norah’s Infinite Playlist. Ember-Penguin
Random House, 2008.
2. Periodicals – These commonly refer to magazines, news
articles, and scholarly journals. In citing periodicals, the following
elements are always included: author’s name, title of the article,
and the name of the periodical.
a. Journals – This type of periodical caters to a specific
audience.
○ APA format: Indicate the author’s last name
and the initial of the first name. Enclose the
issue date in parentheses by stating the year
first followed by the month and the day. Specify
the title of the article in sentence case, followed
by the title of the periodical. Set the title of the
periodical in italics and include the volume,
issue (in parenthesis), and page range.
Example: Scruton, R. (1996). The eclipse of
listening. The New Criterion, 15(3), 5–13.
○ MLA format: Indicate the author’s last name
and then the first name. Specify the title of the
article in title-case style of capitalization and
enclose the title in quotation marks. Set the title
of the periodical in italics. State the day,
abbreviated name of the month, year,
respectively, then the pages.
Example: Herrera, Christine. “Personal
Contacts Eyed to Repair China Relations.” The
Standard, 2 September 2016, A2.
b. Magazine – This type of periodical caters to a general
audience.
○ APA format: The format for magazine articles
is similar with the one for journals.
Example: Fantauzzo, L. (2016, July). Fear and
loathing in Orlando. Rogue, p. 72.
 ○ MLA format: The format for magazine quotation marks. Set the title of the periodical in
articles is similar with the one for journals. italics and then indicate the issue date by
Example: Fantauzzon, Laurel. “Fear and following this format: day, abbreviated name of
Loathing in Orlando.” Rogue, July 2016, 72. the month, year. Then indicate the URL
address. In providing the date of access,
3. Electronic sources – These contain a Web or uniform include the term “Accessed” and then the date:
resource locator (URL) or digital object identifier (DOI). Readers day, abbreviated month, year.
can use any of the two to verify the information included in the Example: Arong, Joanna. “Lost Horizons: How to Navigate the
reference list. Tibetan Countryside.” Rogue, 23 June 2016, http://rogue.ph/lost-
a. Books horizons-navigate-tibetan-countryside/. Accessed 25 Aug. 2016
○ APA format: Indicate the author’s last name
and initials of the first and middle names.
Provide the year of publication. Set the title of
the work in italics and then identify the medium.
Also, provide the URL or DOI address or the
download host.
Example: Hawkins, P. (2015). The girl on the
train. [Kindle version]. Retrieved from Amazon.
Com

○ MLA format: Provide the author’s last and

first names. Set the title of the work in italics.
Indicate the city where it was published, the
publisher, and the year. Specify the medium if it
is a book, e-book, PDF, etc.
Example: Hawkins, Paula. The Girl on the
Train. New York: Riverhead Books, 2015. E-
book.

b. Periodicals
○ APA format: Provide the author’s last name
and initials of first and middle names. Enclose
the issue date in parentheses, using the format
“year, month day.” Specify the title of the article
and then set the title of the periodical in italics.
Include the phrase “Retrieved from” followed by
the URL address.
Example: Arong, J. (2016, June 23). Lost
horizons: How to navigate the Tibetan
countryside. Rogue. Retrieved from
http://rogue.ph/lost-horizons-navigate-tibetan-
countryside/.

○ MLA format: Provide the author’s last and

first names. Enclose the title of the article in