Forces and Newton - S Laws

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YOUR NOTES
International A Level Maths Edexcel 
3. Forces & Newton’s Laws
CONTENTS
3.1 Forces
3.1.1 Force Diagrams
3.1.2 Equilibrium in 1D
3.1.3 Equilibrium in 2D
3.1.4 Forces in 2D - Vector Notation
3.2 Newton's Second Law
3.2.1 F = ma
3.2.2 Connected Bodies - Ropes & Tow Bars
3.2.3 Connected Bodies - The Lift Problem
3.2.4 Connected Bodies - Pulleys
3.2.5 F = ma - Vector Notation
3.3 Further Forces & Newton's Laws
3.3.1 Resolving Forces & Inclined Planes
3.3.2 Coefficient of Friction
3.3.3 Coefficient of Friction - F = ma
3.3.4 Coefficient of Friction - Inclined Planes
3.3.5 Coefficient of Friction - Harder Problems
3.4 Momentum, Impulse & Collisions
3.4.1 Momentum & Impulse
3.4.2 Direct Collisions
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3.1 Forces YOUR NOTES


3.1.1 Force Diagrams
Force Diagrams
Why do we need force diagrams?
Force diagrams are used to help understand a given scenario and show which forces are
acting on which particles and in which direction they are acting
In diagrams an arrow is used to represent a force acting on a particle which shows the
direction in which the force is acting
The magnitude of the force is normally written next to its arrow
What types of forces could be involved?

Specific types of force encountered (which may not be mentioned in the question nor
labelled on a given diagram) are: weight (W N), tension (T N), thrust (T N), friction (F N) and
normal reaction (R N)
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Remember that the diagram is drawn to help understand the scenario - cars, blocks, etc are YOUR NOTES
modelled as particles occupying a single point in space and so all forces acting on the car, 
block, etc act at that same single point
The main forces that you will see are:
tension (a “pulling” force) acts away from a particle,
thrust (a “pushing” force) acts towards it
weight is W = mg where m kg is the mass of the particle and g is the
acceleration due to gravity – usually g = 9.8 m s-2
friction acts parallel to the surface in the opposite direction to motion
the normal reaction acts perpendicular to the surface (and friction)
 Worked Example
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YOUR NOTES

 Exam Tip
Always draw a force diagram if appropriate.
If a diagram is already given then add to it as you progress through the
question.
If a diagram is too small or it gets too complicated then draw a new diagram.
You may be able to manage with just drawing the section of the diagram you are
dealing with in any particular question part.
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3.1.2 Equilibrium in 1D YOUR NOTES


Equilibrium in 1D
What is Newton’s First Law of Motion (N1L)?
An object at rest will stay at rest, and an object moving with constant velocity will continue
to move with constant velocity, unless an unbalanced force acts on the object.
What is the resultant force and an unbalanced force?
The resultant force is the sum of forces acting on a particle – consider it as a single force
that achieves the same result as all the forces combined
An unbalanced force is a force acting on a particle that is not cancelled by another force
acting in the opposite direction
So a non-zero resultant force will be unbalanced (hence the wording in Newton’s First Law
of Motion) and the particle will accelerate
What does equilibrium mean?
A particle is in equilibrium if the resultant force acting on it is zero
In other words when the sum of the forces acting on a particle is zero
For example, in the horizontal direction, any forces acting to move the particle to the
left will be balanced by any forces acting to move the particle to the right.
There does not need to be the same number of forces in both directions – two forces
could be acting to move the particle to the left but are cancelled out by only one force
acting to move the particle to the right.
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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

 Exam Tip
It is unlikely you will get an exam question that only deals with one dimension at
AS and A level. However two-dimensional problems can often be broken down
into two one-dimensional problems so the principles in this note are important
to understand.
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3.1.3 Equilibrium in 2D YOUR NOTES


Equilibrium in 2D
What does two dimensions (2D) mean in mechanics?
In two dimensions, a particle may be considered as existing and being able to move
around two-dimensional space rather than in a single straight line (1D)
This 2D space is called a plane – so you may see the 0xy plane mentioned
The directions of the two dimensions are chosen so that they are perpendicular to each
other
The two directions are usually
horizontal and vertical, or
parallel and perpendicular to an inclined plane
What is the resultant force in 2D and an unbalanced force in 2D?
The resultant force in 2D is the sum of forces acting on a particle but this will now need to
be considered in two parts – one for each direction
An unbalanced force is a force acting on a particle that whereby one or both parts are not
cancelled by another force acting in the opposite direction
So a non-zero resultant force will be non-zero in at least one of the two dimensions, is
therefore unbalanced and the particle will accelerate
What does equilibrium in 2D mean?
In two dimensions a particle is in equilibrium if the resultant force acting on it is zero
For example, if the two dimensions involved are the horizontal and vertical directions,
a particle will be in equilibrium if any forces acting left are balanced by any forces
acting right and any forces acting up are balanced by any forces acting down
When a particle has several forces (at least 3 – have a think as to why!) acting on it – and it is
in equilibrium – the forces can be drawn “nose-to-tail” such that they form a polygon
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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

(a) Write down the resultant forces acting on the particle in both the horizontal and vertical
directions.
(b) Find the value of F.
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YOUR NOTES

 Exam Tip
Fnet is often used for resultant force in equations.
Sketching diagrams, or adding to any given in a question, can help you to
understand a problem and pick up some marks.
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3.1.4 Forces in 2D - Vector Notation YOUR NOTES


Forces in 2D - Vector Notation
How are forces and vectors linked?
Forces are vectors – they have magnitude and direction.
The magnitude of a force is measured in Newtons and the direction of a force is an angle,
usually measured in degrees, anti-clockwise from the horizontal
There are other ways to talk about direction – in particular Cartesian coordinates(x, y) are
used to describe the position of a point in two-dimensional space (plane), relative to a fixed
origin O.
You may see questions start with a sentence along the lines of “Relative to the frame of
reference Oxy …” – this means the two-dimensional space (plane) and distances within it
will be based on horizontal (x) and vertical (y) components relative to the origin O.
What is vector notation?
Forces in 2D should be given in the form pi +qj where i and j are unit vectors
Both column vectors and i, j notation can be used for calculating resultant vectors
Column vectors can be useful when calculating with vectors as mistakes are less
common, but you must remember to change the answer back to i, j notation form
A force written as a vector is written with its two components separated so the magnitude
and direction of the vector are not directly known
What are the notations for magnitude and direction?
The magnitude of the force F N would be denoted by |F| N or F N – notice the use of bold
and italics in particular
Direction is an angle, usually measured in degrees anti-clockwise from the horizontal, θ° is
usually used
How do I find the magnitude and direction of a force from its components?
For a force F = xi + yj N to find
its magnitude, |F| N or F N, use Pythagoras’ theorem
its direction (as an angle), use a diagram and trigonometry
y
If either (or both) components are negative then still use a diagram and tan θ ° = but
x
treat x and y as positive (so |x| and |y| strictly speaking)
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the angle found from tan θ ° =

y
may need adjusting depending on where, and which YOUR NOTES
x

way, the direction is being measured from
e.g. Find the direction at which the force F = (-8i - 6j) N, giving your answer as an angle
measured in degrees anti-clockwise from the positive horizontal direction
What does equilibrium with vectors mean?

In two dimensions a particle is in equilibrium if the resultant force acting on it in both
directions is zero
For vectors in i-j notation, a resultant force of zero would look like (0i + 0j) N
Both forms may be written as 0 N (called ‘the zero vector’)
 Worked Example
(i) Find the resultant force.
(ii) Find the magnitude of the resultant force and its direction as an angle measured
anti-clockwise from the i-direction.
(iii) A third force is applied to the particle such that it is brought into equilibrium.
Find the third force, giving your answer in the form (x i + y j) N
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YOUR NOTES

 Exam Tip
Ideally you should stick to the i-,j- vector notation used in a question but if you
prefer to use column vectors within calculations you can use a mixture within
the same question. Just be careful your final answer is in the correct format.
Draw diagrams – including ‘mini’-diagrams of individual forces/vectors – this
can help in understanding a problem and being accurate.
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3.2 Newton's Second Law YOUR NOTES


3.2.1 F = ma
F = ma
What is Newton’s First Law of Motion (N1L)?
An object at rest will stay at rest, and an object moving with constant velocity will continue
to move with constant velocity, unless an unbalanced force acts on the object
This law is explored more in 3.1.1 Equilibrium in 1D and 3.1.2 Equilibrium in 2D but has been
included here for completeness
What is Newton’s Second Law of Motion (N2L)?
The resultant force (Fnet) acting on a body is equal to the product of the mass of the body
and its acceleration
F = ma
F is the resultant force (N)
m is the mass (kg)
a is the acceleration (m s-2)
This will probably be the most familiar of Newton’s Laws of Motion as it has an equation (F =
ma) that you will use frequently in mechanics problems.
What is Newton’s Third Law of Motion (N3L)?
For two bodies, the force exerted on the second by the first is equal in magnitude but
opposite in direction to the force exerted on the first body by the second
This is sometimes loosely referred to as “for every action there is an opposite and equal
reaction”
When do I use F= ma (Newton’s Second Law or N2L)?
Use it to set up and solve equations when motion is involved
Some related equations may come from the constant acceleration equations (‘suvat’) but
F= ma is needed when force(s) and mass are mentioned or involved (neither force nor mass
are involved in the ‘suvat’ equations)
If not asked directly in a question it will be implied by the information given – motion and
acceleration will be involved and the mass of the particle will be relevant too
How do I solve problems using F= ma (N2L) and the ‘suvat’ equations?
F= ma can be used in conjunction with the ‘suvat’ equations – the linking connection is
acceleration (a)
‘suvat’ only questions will not involve mass or (resultant) force
Step 1. Draw a diagram and label all forces acting on the particle(s)
label the positive direction and any other useful information
If a diagram is given, add anything missing to it
Step 2. Use N2L, F = ma , or an appropriate ‘suvat’ equation.
If there is more than one particle involved you may have to do this for each
Step 3. Solve the equation
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In harder problems simultaneous equations may arise. YOUR NOTES

How do we deal with forces acting in different directions on a particle in 
motion?
At AS level, if forces are acting in different directions, those directions will be perpendicular
to one another
Thus nearly all questions at AS level involve forces acting horizontally (x-direction)
and/or vertically (y-direrction)
In such cases we apply N2L (F = ma) and ‘suvat’ equations separately to both directions
How do we use F = ma in problems involving weight?

Weight is a force
W = mg N where g m s-2 is the acceleration due to gravity
Weight always acts vertically downwards (towards earth)
If upwards is the positive direction (and assuming no other vertical forces are
involved) then acceleration would be negative, a = -9.8 m s-2
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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

(a) Find the acceleration of the train engine.
(b) Find the resultant force acting on the train engine.
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YOUR NOTES

(c) Given that the (only) driving force is 6250 N, find the total of any resistive forces acting
on the train engine.
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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 Sketching, or adding to given, diagrams can help to understand problems and

can help you decide which direction to take as positive.
Remember that F (in N2L) is the resultant force, sometimes seen as Fnet- be
careful not to get it muddled with any other forces that are, or could be,
denoted by F. To avoid confusion, use quote marks around “F = ma" to show
that the quoted F, m do not necessarily correspond to a mentioned in the
question.
Depending on which direction is taken as positive, the resultant force, F N , may
be negative and/or acceleration, a m s-2, may be negative (this is particularly
relevant for vertical motion)
Write a list of the quantities that are given in a question and another list of those
you are asked to find. This will help you decide which equation(s) to use.
A third list of the quantities you are not concerned can help as these may be
used to find intermediate results.
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3.2.2 Connected Bodies - Ropes & Tow Bars YOUR NOTES


Connected Bodies - Ropes & Tow Bars
What are connected bodies/particles?
The phrase connected particles refers to situations where two (or more) bodies (objects)
are connected in some way.
Common examples include:
a car towing a caravan or trailer
a load being raised by a lift (3.2.3)
two bodies connected by a rope that passes over a pulley (3.2.4)
Problems may involve the particles being stationary (in equilibrium) or in motion – in the
latter case Newton’s Laws of Motion will be involved.
What are Newton’s Laws of Motion?
Full details of Newton’s Laws of Motion can be found in 3.2.1 F = ma but Newton’s Third
Law of Motion (N3L) is particularly relevant for the problems covered in this note
For two bodies, the force exerted on the second body by the first is equal in magnitude
but opposite in direction to the force exerted on the first body by the second
What are ropes and how are they modelled?
A rope is typically used to connect two inanimate objects such as blocks, crates,
containers, etc
A rope would be modelled as a light inextensible string
The modelling assumption light means the rope’s mass is so small relative that it can
be ignored
Mathematically this means that the tension in the string is constant throughout its
length (i.e. tension is equal on both sides of the string)
The modelling assumption inextensible means the rope cannot be
extended/shortened in length
Mathematically this means that both connected particles will have the same
acceleration
A string would only be in tension (not thrust – see tow bars for thrust)
A string can go slack – for example if one particle is disconnected – in which case the
model being used would no longer apply and a new scenario would ensue with no
tension involved
What are tow bars and how are they modelled?

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A tow bar is a mechanism by which a car (or similar vehicle) can be connected to a caravan, YOUR NOTES
trailer (or similar) 
A tow bar is modelled as a light (inextensible) rod
A rod can either be in tension or thrust (compression)
For a car towing a caravan by a light rod, the rod would be in tension when the car
is accelerating, thrust when it is decelerating
What is a coupling?
A coupling is a general term referring to the connection between two objects - usually a
relatively complex system, such as how two train carriages are connected - but for
modelling purposes is simplified to a string or rod
How do I solve problems involving tow bars and ropes?
If a particle is in motion in the direction being considered, then Newton’s Laws of Motion
apply so use “F = ma” (N2L)
If a particle is not in motion in the direction being considered then “F = 0” can be used,
although
“F = ma” with “a = 0” will also work
Step 1.Draw a series of diagrams,
Label the forces and the positive direction of motion.
Colour coding forces acting on each particle may help.
Step 2. Write equations of motion, using “F = ma ” (or if no motion “F = 0”)
Step 3. Solve the relevant equation(s) and answer the question
Some trickier problems may lead to simultaneous equations
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If both particles are travelling in the same direction the system can be treated as one YOUR NOTES
particle (as well as separate particles) 
There is no tension at either side of the string when the system is treated as one -
mathematically they cancel each other out
For constant acceleration the ‘suvat’ equations could be involved
a m s-2 is the acceleration of the system

m1 kg and m2 kg are the masses of the two bodies
m1 g N and m2 g N are the weights of the two bodies
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T N is the tension in the string YOUR NOTES

D N is the driving force of the system 
F1 N and F2 N are the resistive forces acting on the two bodies

R1 N and R2 N are the normal reaction forces of the two bodies
* You do not necessarily need all diagrams but if in doubt draw all as they may help you to
understand the problem more clearly **
How do we form the equations for problems involving tow bars and ropes?
Form the equations as follows:
Treating the particles as one
Horizontally (→) D - (F1 + F2) = (m1 + m2)a
There is no vertical motion so use “F = 0”
(↑) (R1 + R2) - (m1 + m2)g = 0
(F= ma with a =0 will lead to the same equation)
Treating each particle separately
Particle 1: Horizontally (→) T - F1 = m1a
Vertically(↑) R1 -m1g = 0 (No motion)
Particle 2: Horizontally (→) D - T- F2 = m2a
Vertically(↑) R2 - m2g = 0 (No motion)
You do not necessarily need all equations but if in doubt attempt all and it may help you
make progress
 Worked Example
(a) Find the engine force from the plane.
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YOUR NOTES

(b) Find the tension in the tow rope.
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YOUR NOTES

 Exam Tip
Sketch diagrams or add to any diagrams given in a question.
If in doubt of how to start a problem, draw all diagrams and try writing an
equation for each. This may help you make progress as well as picking up some
marks.
Do not dismiss an equation in a direction because there is no motion – use “F =
0” to write an equation for that direction and you may be able to find one of the
unknowns in a problem.
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3.2.3 Connected Bodies - The Lift Problem YOUR NOTES


Connected Bodies - The Lift Problem
What is the lift problem?
The lift problem involves objects (particles) that are directly in contact with each other –
typically a person or crate in a lift
If it is not a person in the lift the object is often referred to as a load
There may be more than two objects involved – for example two crates stacked on top of
each other on a lift floor
Vertical motion is involved so use g m s-2, the acceleration due to gravity, where
appropriate
Gravity always acts vertically downwards
Depending on the positive direction chosen – and which other forces are acting
vertically – acceleration (a m s-2) may be positive or negative
Remember that acceleration links F= ma (N2L) and the ‘suvat’ equations
How do I solve ‘lift problem’ type questions?
Lift problems will only consider motion in the vertical direction
As motion is involved Newton’s Laws of Motion apply so use “F = ma” (N2L)
The steps for solving lift problems are the same as for solving rope problems
As both the lift and load are travelling in the same direction the system can be treated as
one particle (as well as separate particles)
There is no reaction force acting on the lift or load when treating the particle as one -
mathematically they cancel each other out
You can think of the upward as counteracting the person’s weight and moving the load
upwards; N3L applies so there must be an equal force acting in the opposite direction;
- you can think of this as the force keeping the person in contact with the lift floor whilst
it is moving
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YOUR NOTES

How do we form the equations for problems involving tow bars and ropes?
Form the equations as follows:
Treating the lift and person/load as one
(↓) (M + m)g - T = (M + m)a
Treating the lift and person/load separately
Lift: (↓) (Mg + R) - T = Ma
Person/load: (↓) mg - R = ma
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You do not necessarily need all equations but if in doubt attempt all and it may help you YOUR NOTES
make progress 
 Worked Example
(a) Briefly explain how the force of arises in this problem.
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YOUR NOTES

(b) Find the mass of the load, m kg .
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YOUR NOTES

(c) Find the tension,T N, in the cable of the lift.
 Exam Tip
Sketch diagrams or add to any diagrams given in a question.
If in doubt of how to start a problem, draw all diagrams and try writing an
equation for each. This may help you make progress as well as picking up some
marks.
Watch out for “hidden lift” problems – we’re not strictly talking elevators here!
For example, a load being raised by a crane; the “lift” would be a platform (such
as a pallet) and the “lift cable” would be the cable connecting the crane to the
load. Another common alternative is a fast rising (or falling) fairground ride.
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3.2.4 Connected Bodies - Pulleys YOUR NOTES


Connected Bodies - Pulleys
What is a pulley (or peg)?
A pulley is a wheel like device that rotates as a string passes over it allowing motion of any
particles attached to the string
Pulleys allow a (inextensible) string to change its orientation
In A level mathematical models, pulleys will always be smooth and light, so there is no
friction involved at the pulley and its mass is negligible
A peg is similar to a pulley but is a fixed point that a particle can be suspended from (like a
nail in a wall)
How do I solve pulley questions?

In all pulley questions the particles are moving in different directions so are considered
separately rather than the system being treated as one
If a particle is in motion in the direction being considered then Newton’s Laws of Motion
apply so use “F = ma” (N2L)
Step 1. Draw a series of diagrams
Label the forces and the positive direction of motion for each particle.
Colour coding forces acting on each particle may help
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YOUR NOTES

Step 2. Write equations of motion, using “F = ma”

Equations 1 and 2: Treating each particle separately
(↑) T - m1g = m1a
(↓) m2g - T = m2a
Step 3. Solve the relevant equation(s) and answer the question
Some trickier problems may lead to simultaneous equations
 Worked Example
Find the tension, T N , in the string and the acceleration, a m s-2 ,of the system.
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YOUR NOTES

 Exam Tip
Sketch a diagram or add to a diagram given in a question.
All pulleys are smooth and light; in many questions the pulley itself can be
ignored.
In pulley questions the particles will be moving in different directions - so each
particle needs to be considered separately.
If one particle is on a horizontal surface (such as a desk or table) then the weight
only need be considered if friction is involved (since F = μR and R is related to
weight).
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3.2.5 F = ma - Vector Notation YOUR NOTES


F = ma - Vector Notation
How is Newton’s Second Law (N2L) used with vectors?
The resultant force (F) and acceleration (a) are vectors
For forces and motion in two dimensions, F N and a m s-2 will be made up of two
components – a horizontal (x-) component and a vertical (y-) component
Displacement, velocity and weight are also vector quantities
Time and mass are scalar quantities
Vectors appear in bold(non-italic) font in textbooks, on exam papers, etc(i.e. F, a) but in
handwriting should be underlined (i.e. F, a)
What notation is used for forces as vectors?
All vectors are written in i-j format, however you may use column vector notation within
your working if you like
In i-j notation F = ma would look like
Fx i + Fy j = m ( ax i + ay j)
As a column vector F = ma would look like

⎛⎜ Fx ⎞⎟ ⎛a ⎞⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = m ⎜⎜⎜ x ⎟⎟
⎜⎜ F ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ a ⎟⎟
⎝ y ⎠ ⎝ y ⎠
When do I use F= ma (N2L) in vector/2D form?
If vectors/2D are being used this will be clear from the information given in the question –
any vector quantities will be given as a column vector or written in i-j notation
Remember F = ma is used when motion is involved – equations may come from ‘suvat’ (if
the acceleration is constant), or using N2L directly; look for (resultant) force, mass and
acceleration being involved
Use F= ma (N2L in 1D) or an appropriate ‘suvat’ (in 1D) equation to set up and solve separate
equations for both the horizontal ( x-) and vertical (y -) components.
How is Newton’s Second Law (N2L) used with problems involving weight?
Weight is a force, so it is a vector quantity
W = mg N where g m s-2 is the acceleration due to gravity
Weight always acts vertically downwards so it only acts in the j-direction
W = -mgj N (g≈ 9.8 m s-2 )
Treating the two dimensions separately means weight only needs to be considered when
looking at the vertical (y -) direction
Most 2D/vector problems are based on a bird’s-eye view – the two dimensions being
left/right and forwards/backwards, so the up/down (third) dimension where weight would
apply, is often not involved
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YOUR NOTES

A Force, F, acting on a snooker ball

How do we apply Newton’s Second Law (F = ma) in problems involving
vectors?
Step 1. If necessary, draw a diagram and label all forces acting on the particle(s)
label the i and j directions and any other useful information.
If a diagram is given, add any missing information to it.
Step 2. Taking each dimension/component at a time use F = ma
If there is more than one particle involved you may have to do this for each
Step 3. Solve the equations for each component and put the final answers back into vector
notation
In some harder problems simultaneous equations may arise
 Worked Example
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YOUR NOTES

 Exam Tip
If not given in the question, draw a diagram; label all forces and the positive
direction for both components.
Add to a diagram if given one, do not assume it is complete.
Write a list of the quantities that are given in a question and another list of those
you are asked to find. This will help you decide which equation(s) to use.
A third list of the quantities you are not concerned with can help as these may
be used to find intermediate results.
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3.3 Further Forces & Newton's Laws YOUR NOTES


3.3.1 Resolving Forces & Inclined Planes
Resolving Forces
If a single force is applied at an angle to the direction of motion it will need to be resolved into
components of the force that act perpendicular to each other.
Why resolve a force acting at an angle?
Resolving a force acting at an angle often helps to simplify a problem
The components of a force parallel and perpendicular to the line of motion allows different
types of problems to be solved
The parallel component of a force acting directly on a particle will be the component
that causes an effect on the particle
The perpendicular component of a force acting directly on a particle will be the
component that has no effect on the particle
Finding the horizontal and vertical components of a force can help solve problems acting in
the horizontal plane
The two components of the force will have the same combined effect as the original force
How do you resolve a force acting at an angle?
Use trigonometry to resolve a force acting at an angle
Draw a vector triangle of forces by decomposing the force into its horizontal and vertical
components
The original force will be the hypotenuse of the triangle and the two components will make
up the opposite and adjacent sides
How do we find a resultant force when two or more forces are acting at
angles to each other?
Force is a vector quantity, so finding the resultant of two or more forces is the same as
finding the resultant of two or more vectors
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It is possible to use geometry to find the resultant force without decomposing the forces YOUR NOTES
into their horizontal and vertical components 
Use the triangle law for vector addition to calculate the magnitude and direction of a
resultant force
You will need to use trigonometry to find the missing side or angle in the triangle.
 Worked Example
i. Find the vertical and horizontal components of the 10 N force.

ii. Explain why the resultant force acting to move the box is 5 3 N
iii. Work out the acceleration of the box.
iv. Calculate the magnitude of the normal reaction between the box and the floor.
Page 36 of 62
YOUR NOTES

 Exam Tip
Always draw a diagram and decompose any angled forces into their horizontal
and vertical components. Make sure you are confident with basic trigonometry
and angle properties.
Page 37 of 62
Inclined Planes YOUR NOTES

How do you solve a problem involving an inclined plane? 
Problems involving inclined planes will always be acting along the line of greatest slope of
the plane
The line of greatest slope is the most direct route with which it is possible to move from
the bottom to the top of the plane
A force said to be acting in the same vertical plane as the line of greatest slope will be
acting in the same plane as this most direct route
It is usually easier to resolve parallel and perpendicular to the plane
The normal reaction force always acts perpendicular to the plane and will not need to be
resolved
Weight (mg) always acts vertically downwards and so it is easier to use when resolved into
components perpendicular and parallel to the plane
When an object is moving up or down the inclined plane, it has acceleration only in the
parallel direction
The perpendicular forces will be equal in the positive and negative directions
Newton’s Second Law (F = ma) can be used in the parallel direction to determine
acceleration or missing forces
On an inclined plane friction will always act in the opposite direction to the direction the
object is moving in or on the point of moving in
 Worked Example
(i) Find the magnitude of the reaction force acting on the box.
(ii) Find the acceleration of the box up the slope.
Page 38 of 62
YOUR NOTES

 Exam Tip
Use a triangle of components on your force diagrams to help you work out the
components of the force but be careful not to count the components as two
separate forces. Make sure you are confident with angle properties and always
check you are using the correct angle between the force and the direction you
are resolving in.
Page 39 of 62
3.3.2 Coefficient of Friction YOUR NOTES


Coefficient of Friction
What is friction?
Friction is a force between a surface and an object that acts to resist motion of the object
across the surface
On a horizontal surface with no forces acting on a stationary object other than gravity and
the surface's normal reaction force, there is no force of friction
If an additional force acts on the object parallel to the surface then friction manifests as a
force in the opposite direction
Friction always acts in a direction parallel to the surface
Friction acts in the opposite direction to the resultant force that would cause the
object to move parallel to the surface
Up to a certain limiting value (see next section) the force of friction prevents motion
entirely
Beyond that limiting value friction is a force of constant magnitude in the opposite
direction to the motion of the object
What Is the coefficient of friction?
The magnitude of the frictional force satisfies the inequality:
F ≤ μR
where F is the force of friction, R is the normal reaction force between the object and the
surface, and μ is the coefficient of friction between the object and the surface
If there is no friction then μ= 0 and the surface is smooth
Otherwise μ > 0
The maximum possible frictional force is given by the equation
FMAX = μR
where FMAX is the maximum possible force of friction, and R and μ are as above
FMAX serves as a limiting value for mechanics problems involving friction
1. If the object is stationary and the resultant of other parallel forces to the surface is
less than or equal to FMAX then
the object remains stationary
the frictional force is always equal and opposite to the resultant of the other
horizontal forces
if the resultant of other horizontal forces is equal to FMAX then the object is said to
be in limiting equilibrium
2. If the object is stationary and the resultant of other horizontal forces becomes
greater than FMAX then
the object begins to accelerate in the direction of the resultant force
the frictional force is equal to FMAX with a direction always opposite to that of the
object's motion
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3. If the object is in motion parallel to the surface then (regardless of any other forces) YOUR NOTES
the frictional force will always be equal to FMAX with a direction opposite to that of the 
object's motion
 Worked Example
A box with a mass of 12 kg is at rest on a horizontal floor. The coefficient of friction between
the box and the floor is 0.7. A horizontal force of 80 N is applied to the box. Describe the
force of friction in this situation and determine whether or not the box will begin to move.
Page 41 of 62
YOUR NOTES

 Exam Tip
Always draw a force diagram and label it clearly.
Look out for the words smooth and rough in mechanics problems involving an
object moving (or potentially moving) along a surface:
If the surface is described as smooth then you can ignore friction in the
problem (ie μ= 0)
If the surface is described as rough than you need to include the force of
friction in solving the problem.
If a friction question states that an object is on the point of moving that means
that the object is in limiting equilibrium.
Page 42 of 62
3.3.3 Coefficient of Friction - F = ma YOUR NOTES


Coefficient of Friction - F = ma
How do we apply Newton’s Second Law (F = ma) in problems involving
friction?
The coefficient of friction combined with F = ma allows you to determine an object's
motion where friction is involved in a problem
For problems where the surface is horizontal:
Step 1. If necessary, resolve any angled forces into vertical and horizontal components
Step 2. Calculate the normal reaction force R
Be careful – if there are vertical forces other than gravity these will affect the value of R
with a horizontal surface R will always be directed vertically upwards
the magnitude of R will be such as to make the total vertical force on the object zero
Step 3. Calculate FMAX= μR and find the resultant (total force) of all the horizontal forces on
the object
Remember – if the resultant of the other horizontal forces is less than or equal to FMAX
then friction will exactly balance those forces out and the object will remain stationary
Step 4. Use F = ma to determine the acceleration of the object
For non-horizontal surfaces see the notes on inclined planes
 Worked Example
Find the acceleration of the block.
Page 43 of 62
YOUR NOTES

 Exam Tip
Always draw a force diagram and label it clearly. Look out for the words smooth
and rough in mechanics problems involving an object moving (or potentially
moving) along a surface:
problem (ie μ= 0)
friction in solving the problem
Be aware of whether the question is on a horizontal surface or an inclined
plane.
Page 44 of 62
3.3.4 Coefficient of Friction - Inclined Planes YOUR NOTES


Coefficient of Friction - Inclined Planes
How is the coefficient of friction used in problems involving inclined
planes?
On an inclined plane the basic principles are the same as for coefficient of friction on
horizontal surfaces
The important directions are parallel to the plane and perpendicular to the plane (instead
of horizontal and vertical)
Step 1. Resolve weight (and any other forces if necessary) into components parallel and
perpendicular to the plane
Step 2. Calculate the normal reaction force R
Be careful – R will never simply be equal to mg in an inclined plane problem!
R will always be directed perpendicular to and away from the plane
the magnitude of R will always be such as to make the total perpendicular force zero
Step 3. Calculate FMAX= μR and find the resultant (total force) of all the forces on the object
that are parallel to the plane
The force of friction F will always act parallel to the plane in the direction opposite to
any movement (or potential movement) of the object
Remember – if the resultant of the other parallel forces is less than or equal to FMAX
then friction will exactly balance those forces out and the object will remain stationary
Step 4. Use F = ma to determine the acceleration of the object
 Worked Example
A wooden block of mass 1 kg is released from rest on a rough plane that is inclined at 20°
above the horizontal. The coefficient of friction between the block and the plane is 0.2.
Find the acceleration of the block.
Page 45 of 62
YOUR NOTES

 Exam Tip
Always draw a force diagram and label it clearly.
Look out for the words smooth and rough in mechanics problems involving an
object moving (or potentially moving) along a surface:
problem (ie μ= 0)
friction in solving the problem
If a friction question states that an object is on the point of moving that means
that the object is in limiting equilibrium.
Page 46 of 62
3.3.5 Coefficient of Friction - Harder Problems YOUR NOTES


Coefficient of Friction - Equilibrium
How is friction used when a body is in equilibrium?
When a body is in static equilibrium under the action of a number of forces, including
friction, the value of friction will be less than or equal to the value of μR
When the value of friction is equal to μR, the body is in limiting equilibrium and is on the
point of moving
When a body is stationary on an inclined plane then it is either in equilibrium or in limiting
equilibrium, we cannot assume that F = μR
How is friction used when a body is moving?
When a body is moving under the action of a number of forces, including friction, the value
of friction will be equal to the value of μR
 Worked Example
A wooden block of mass m is stationary on a plane inclined at 25° above the horizontal. The
coefficient of friction between the block and the plane is µ. Find the least possible value of
µ.
Page 47 of 62
Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 Always draw a force diagram and label it clearly.

Look out for key vocabulary such as rough, smooth, equilibrium, on the point of
moving and limiting equilibrium and know how to use each.
Page 48 of 62
Coefficient of Friction – Connected Particles YOUR NOTES

How is friction used for connected particles? 
When two particles are connected by means of a light, inextensible string, friction will act
only on any particle that is resting on a rough surface
On an inclined slope, friction will act in the direction opposite to the direction the particle is
moving in or on the point of moving in
The direction they will move in depends on both the weight of the particles and the angles
of the slopes they are resting on
Compare the components of the weight in the direction of the motion the particles will
move in
The particle with the heavier component will move down the slope
 Worked Example
Page 49 of 62
YOUR NOTES

 Exam Tip
Be careful not to assume that the system will move in the direction of the
heavier particle, remember to consider the angle too. Make sure your diagram is
clear enough to work with, sometimes there can be a lot of information on the
diagram.
Page 50 of 62
3.4 Momentum, Impulse & Collisions YOUR NOTES


3.4.1 Momentum & Impulse
Momentum
What is momentum?
Any object that has mass and is moving has momentum
Momentum measures the quantity of motion that an object has
The momentum of a particle is defined as the product of its mass ( m kg) and its velocity (
v m s−1 )
Momentum =mv
The SI unit for momentum is kg m s − 1
Momentum is a vector quantity - so it has a magnitude and direction
The direction of the momentum of a particle is the same as the direction of motion of
the particle
The momentum is negative if the velocity is negative
 Worked Example
A dog of mass 15 kg is running with speed 6 m s−1 .
Find the momentum of the dog.
Page 51 of 62
Impulse YOUR NOTES

What is impulse? 
Impulse measures the effect of a force acting on a particle over time
If a constant force ( F N ) acts on a particle for t seconds then the impulse ( I ) of the force is
defined to be the product of the force and time
I = Ft
The SI unit for impulse is N s(newton seconds) which is equivalent to kg m s − 1
This is the same as the units for momentum
Impulse is a vector quantity – so it has magnitude and direction
The direction of the impulse of a force is the same as the direction of the force
The Impulse-Momentum Principle states that impulse is equal to the change in
momentum
I = mv − mu
where m is the mass, u is the initial velocity and v is the final velocity
What happens when two objects are in contact?
If two objects are in contact with each other then by Newton’s Third Law there will be equal
and opposite reaction forces
This means there will be equal and opposite impulses
For example, consider hitting a tennis ball with a racket, there will be
an impulse exerted by the racket on the ball which propels the ball forward
an impulse exerted by the ball on the racket which reduces the velocity of the racket
The magnitudes of these impulses are equal but they are in opposite directions
Page 52 of 62
YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

A car with mass 1200 kg is driving to the right along a smooth horizontal road with
speed 16 m s-1 . The driver applied a constant braking force of magnitude 1800 N for
5 seconds.
(a)
Find the magnitude of the impulse of the braking force.
(b) State the direction of the impulse.

(c) Find the speed of the car 5 seconds after the braking force was applied.
(a)
Find the magnitude of the impulse of the braking force.
(b)
State the direction of the impulse.
(c)
Find the speed of the car 5 seconds after the braking force was applied.
Page 53 of 62
Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 Always define a positive direction and be careful with negatives. Use common

sense to see if your answer makes sense - would you expect the velocity to
have increased or decreased?
Page 54 of 62
3.4.2 Direct Collisions YOUR NOTES


Collisions
What is a direct collision?
A direct collision is when two objects are travelling along the same straight line when they
collide
Before the collision:
One of the objects could be stationary
The two objects could be travelling in the same direction with the faster object behind
the slower one
The two objects could be travelling in opposite directions towards each other
After the collision:
One or both of the objects could be stationary
The two objects could be travelling in the same direction with the faster object in front
of the slower one
The two objects could be travelling in opposite directions away from each other
The two objects could coalesce (merge to form one object) and travel in either
direction
Explosions work like direct collisions and are when an object separates into two objects
travelling along the same straight line
An example of this is a bullet being fired from a gun, the bullet moves forwards and the
gun recoils backwards
For an explosion it is possible that the object is initially stationary and then splits into
two objects moving in opposite direction
Page 55 of 62
Conservation of Momentum YOUR NOTES

What is meant by conservation of momentum? 
The principle of conservation of momentum states that when two objects collide the
total momentum is unchanged
Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision
This only works if there are no external forces acting on the objects
If an object changes direction after a collision then its velocity changes between positive
and negative
It is important to be clear about which direction is positive
It can be written as: m1u 1 + m2u 2 = m1v 1 + m2v 2
One object has mass m1 kg, velocity u 1 m s−1 before the collision and v 1 m s−1 after
the collision
The other object has mass m2 kg, velocity u 2 m s−1 before the collision and v 2 m s−1
after the collision
How do I use conservation of momentum to solve collision problems?

STEP 1: Choose the positive direction
STEP 2: Draw a before/after diagram
Clearly show the mass, speeds and directions
If a direction is unknown, then choose any direction and if you get a negative value for
its velocity it means it is travelling in the opposite direction
If the two objects coalesce then you can either consider them as two particles moving
in the same direction with the same speed or consider them as one particle and add
together their masses
STEP 3: Form an equation using the conservation of momentum
Be careful with negatives
If an arrow is in the opposite direction to the positive direction, then its velocity is
negative
STEP 4: Solve and give answer in context
You might need to find the speed and/or direction after a collision
Page 56 of 62
YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

Two particles P and Q , with masses 3 kg and 5 kg respectively, are travelling in
opposite directions towards each other along the same straight line on a smooth
horizontal table when they collide directly. Immediately before the collision the
speeds of P and Q are 4 m s-1 and 2 m s-1 respectively. Immediately after the
collision the direction of motion of P is reversed and its speed is 1 m s-1.
(a)
Find the speed of Q immediately after the collision.
(b)
State whether the direction of motion of Q is changed by the collision.
 Exam Tip
Always draw clear diagrams with arrows!
When considering directions, use common sense - if two particles are travelling
in the same direction then they will not collide if the faster one is in front. Two
particles can't go through each other (at least not at this level of mathematics…)
so if two objects are travelling towards each other, then at least one of them
must change direction after the collision.
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3. Forces & Newton’s Laws

3.1 Forces YOUR NOTES

What types of forces could be involved?

3.1.2 Equilibrium in 1D YOUR NOTES

3.1.3 Equilibrium in 2D YOUR NOTES

(b) Find the value of F.

3.1.4 Forces in 2D - Vector Notation YOUR NOTES

the angle found from tan θ ° =

What does equilibrium with vectors mean?

(i) Find the resultant force.

3.2 Newton's Second Law YOUR NOTES

In harder problems simultaneous equations may arise. YOUR NOTES

How do we use F = ma in problems involving weight?

(a) Find the acceleration of the train engine.

(b) Find the resultant force acting on the train engine.

Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

3.2.2 Connected Bodies - Ropes & Tow Bars YOUR NOTES

What are tow bars and how are they modelled?

a m s-2 is the acceleration of the system

T N is the tension in the string YOUR NOTES

F1 N and F2 N are the resistive forces acting on the two bodies

(a) Find the engine force from the plane.

(b) Find the tension in the tow rope.

3.2.3 Connected Bodies - The Lift Problem YOUR NOTES

(a) Briefly explain how the force of arises in this problem.

(b) Find the mass of the load, m kg .

(c) Find the tension,T N, in the cable of the lift.

3.2.4 Connected Bodies - Pulleys YOUR NOTES

How do I solve pulley questions?

Step 2. Write equations of motion, using “F = ma”

3.2.5 F = ma - Vector Notation YOUR NOTES

As a column vector F = ma would look like

A Force, F, acting on a snooker ball

3.3 Further Forces & Newton's Laws YOUR NOTES

i. Find the vertical and horizontal components of the 10 N force.

Inclined Planes YOUR NOTES

3.3.2 Coefficient of Friction YOUR NOTES

3.3.3 Coefficient of Friction - F = ma YOUR NOTES

Find the acceleration of the block.

3.3.4 Coefficient of Friction - Inclined Planes YOUR NOTES

3.3.5 Coefficient of Friction - Harder Problems YOUR NOTES

Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

Coefficient of Friction – Connected Particles YOUR NOTES

3.4 Momentum, Impulse & Collisions YOUR NOTES

Impulse YOUR NOTES

(b) State the direction of the impulse.

Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

3.4.2 Direct Collisions YOUR NOTES

Conservation of Momentum YOUR NOTES

How do I use conservation of momentum to solve collision problems?

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