Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 121 (2022) 104308

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology

incorporating Trenchless Technology Research
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tust

Hong Kong Zhuhai Macao Bridge-Tunnel project immersed tunnel and

artificial islands – From an Owners’ perspective
Su Quanke a, Zhu Yongling a, Chen Yue a, Fang Lei a, Yan Yu a, Su Zongxian a, Hans de Wit b, *,
Li Ying b
a
Hong Kong Zhuhai Macau Bridge Authority, Zhuhai, China
b
Tunnel Engineering Consultants, the Netherlands

A B S T R A C T

The Hong Kong Zhuhai Macao Bridge (HZMB) link is currently one of the largest fixed links ever realised. The link comprises various bridges, causeways, artificial
islands and tunnels and has a total length of more than 55 km with an investment of about RMB 120billion (approx. €15 billion). The Link accommodates a dual
carriageway with three traffic lanes in each direction.
The construction of the Link started at the end of 2010 and was opened to traffic in October 2018. The HZMB Link is internationally regarded as one of the most
challenging sea crossing projects in China and a demonstration of China’s comprehensive breakthrough in technology, scientific research and other related fields.
The offshore part of the HZMB Link, crossing the Pearl River Estuary involves one of the world’s longest and deepest immersed tunnels. The tunnel was designed
and constructed to meet state-of-the-art requirements and challenging structural, geotechnical and marine/offshore conditions. The HZMB tunnel won the ITA
Tunnelling Award Major Project of the Year 2018.
This paper presents the project from the Client perspective. The paper will give a general introduction of the project, will provide information regarding the
challenging environment in which the tunnel had to be realized and the high demanding design criteria that were applicable. Furthermore, the evaluation of the
various technical options will be discussed, ultimately leading to the selection of the immersed tunnel option. The paper will also look into the background of
selecting the Design & Build contract approach for this project and the experiences that were built up using this type of contract, new to China on this scale. Finally,
the paper introduces how operation and maintenance of the tunnel is planned and executed so as to guarantee the 120-year design lifetime. In Ref. (The Islands and
Tunnel Project of HZM Link et al., 2022) more details of the project are discussed from the D&B contractors’ perspective.

1. Introduction
1.1. Brief project description (Quanke et al., 2011; de Wit, 2011; Ying
Li and (Hans) de Wit,2017; de Wit and Kuiper, 2018)
The Main Bridge Project (Fig. 1) covers the main offshore section of
the HZMB link of some 30 km, crossing the Pearl River Estuary from the
Hong Kong border at the eastern side to the Zhuhai/Macao Border
Control Facility Island at the western side.
The Link accommodates a dual carriageway with three traffic lanes
in each direction. To allow the passage of sea going vessels, major cable
stayed bridges crossing different navigation channels are included in the
link (Fig. 2).
The crossing of the main shipping channels giving access to the port
areas of Guangzhou and Hong Kong and located at the eastern side of the
Pearl River Estuary, close to Hong Kong International Airport, is realised
using an approx. 6.7 km tunnel of which some 5.664 km is immersed
(yellow dashed line in Fig. 3). The transition from the bridges to the
tunnel is realised with artificial islands with a length of 625 m each.
1.2. The role in Great Bay area
The realization of the Hong Kong Zhuhai Macao Bridge was a major
decision made by the central government to support and stimulate the
economic and social development and integration of Hong Kong, Macao
and the Pearl River Delta region. It is an essential link in the main road
network connecting the big urban areas around Guangzhou, Shenzhen,
Hong Kong, Macao and Zhuhai (Fig. 4).
The project was a major achievement of close cooperation between
Guangdong, Hong Kong and Macao under the “one country, two sys­
tems” principle. The bridge link connects the east and west shores of the
Great Bay area of Guangdong, Hong Kong and Macao and is the Golden
Link of the Bay Area in the new era. It will promote and stimulate an
effective connection of transport infrastructure, close exchanges and

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: h.dewit@tec-tunnel.com (H. de Wit).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tust.2021.104308
Received 30 November 2021; Accepted 1 December 2021
Available online 21 December 2021
0886-7798/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Quanke et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 121 (2022) 104308

Fig. 1. HZMB aerial picture (taken from Hong Kong side).

Fig. 4. HZMB in the Great Bay Area.

cooperation between Guangdong, Hong Kong and Macao. The three

governments of Guangdong (Mainland China), Hong Kong and Macao
installed a designated project organization “Hong Kong Zhuhai Macao
Bridge Authority” for the realization of the project and that operated
under the responsibility and with the support of the three governments.
This appeared a successful model for an efficient preparation and real­
ization of a major world class, cross-border, infrastructure project.
The main project participants for the tunnel and artificial islands part
of the Link are listed in the colophon at the end of this paper.
Fig. 2. Jiuzhou Bridge, spanning one of the main navigation channels.

1.3. Alignment design

The horizontal alignment of the offshore link is of multi curve shape;

the main reason is that the link spans multiple navigation channels from
the West to the East. In order to improve the safety of passing ships, the
alignment was designed in a way that it is always perpendicular to the
flow of the channel, which explains the shape of the curved link. In
addition, the curved design is contributing to the driver’s safety (Fig. 5).
When driving on bridge with a curved alignment, the driver needs to
remain focused and keep paying attention to the road (drivers’
awareness).
The vertical alignment is developed to accommodate shipping in the
Pearl River Estuary as well. The alignment for the bridge sections is
about 20 m clearance above mean sea level at the non-navigation sec­
tions and some 20 ~ 42 m clearance above sea level for the cable stayed
bridges at the navigation channels. For the main navigation channels,
the vertical alignment had to be lowered to a very deep level, to enable
the future dredging of deep navigation channels (-26.78 m) to allow the
Fig. 3. HZMB main bridge layout.

cooperation between the mainland and Hong Kong and Macao, further
strengthen the position of Hong Kong as a trade centre, stimulate the
development of Macao’s tourism, and promote the development of the
Great Bay area as a whole.
As a leading project in the Great Bay area, the Hong Kong Zhuhai
Macao Bridge project has been under preparation and construction for
more than ten years. Hong Kong, Macao and Zhuhai City of Guangdong
Province, the main stakeholders of the project, are part of China.
However, due to historical reasons, different social and legal systems
and technical standards had to be considered and implemented. In the
process of the planning and the construction of the project, issues caused
by the differences between the three areas have been solved through
constructive communication, negotiation and innovation in a major
Fig. 5. Aerial view of HZMB indicating curved alignment (from Zhuhai side).

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S. Quanke et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 121 (2022) 104308
future passage of 300.000 tons oil tankers (roof at 29 m below lowest
tide). The longitudinal alignment design was further provided with a
“W”-shape in the middle section with a minimum of 0.3% slope to
ensure suitable natural drainage in this area (also see Fig. 8 - long
section).
1.4. Environmental conditions and design requirements
The HZMB tunnel was subject to stringent design requirements and
challenging environmental conditions. Some of the essential ones are
listed below.
Environmental conditions:
• Meteorology: the project is located in a subtropical marine monsoon
climate area:
o The annual average temperature is approx. 22.5 ◦ C; the average
temperature of July (hottest month) is around 28.5 ◦ C.
o The humidity in the area is relatively high with an average
monthly relative humidity of over 70%.
o The average annual rainfall is between 1880 and 2300 mm and the
average annual rainfall days are about 140.7 days.
o Typhoons will occur in the area on a yearly basis, with an average
number of about 2 and a maximum of around 6. The typhoons
mainly occur from June to October.
It can be concluded that the climate is not too favourable when it
comes to durability (especially when combined with the aggressive
marine environment) and for the working conditions during the
execution of the works.
Table 1
Water Levels.
Table 2
Water levels.
Table 3
Significant wave heights.
3
• Hydrology: at the project site the estuary has a width of approx. 30
km. Studies have shown that under normal conditions, there is:
o A gentle change of tides (irregular semi diurnal) with a limited
tidal range; the mean sea level is 0.54 m and the average tidal
range is 1.24 m (see Table 1).
o Under normal conditions the flow rates and waves are relatively low
and consequently low erosion of the banks and the navigation
channels; these would be convenient conditions for transport and
immersion. However, during the rain season the discharge of the
Pearl River can be considerable carrying fine sediments. Over the
dredged trench the flow velocity would drop causing the deposition
of sedimentation in the trench bottom. To limit siltation in the open
trench its excavation and the tunnel element placement, that time of
an open trench must be kept short as possible.
o The tidal flows are mainly in N-S and NNW-SSE direction (approx.
perpendicular to the alignment). The current speeds in ebb tide
(average 0.25–0.5 m/s) are slightly higher than in rising tide
(0.25–0.4 m/s). At spring tide, the speeds are slightly higher, at neap
tide slightly lower. Maximum currents of 1–2 m/s have been
observed as well.
However, in the area conditions may change rapidly, due to:
o Large discharge during the rain-season from the upstream Pearl
River area;
o Wind and wave conditions in the storm season (June-October).
In the Tables 2 and 3 current speeds and significant wave heights are
presented for various return periods:
It should be noted that for the transportation and the immersion of
the tunnel elements waves with longer periods, that result in wave
lengths (and lower wave heights) in the order of the length of the tunnel
elements may be more critical (swell waves).
• Geology: the seabed level varies from − 8 m to − 15 m. The Holocene
stratum includes silt, mucky clay and mucky clay mixed sand. It is
evaluated as a very weak, highly compressible and normally
consolidated soil layer. Under the Holocene stratum, the late Pleis­
tocene soil layer is encountered, with a thickness varying from 37 m
to 102 m (local); this stratum consists of over-consolidated clay
mixed with loose to medium dense sand layers overlying sand and
gravel layers. The deep bedrock is encountered at depths of 50–110
m below the seabed. The tunnel will be founded in the Holocene
stratum (shallower sections) and the Pleistocene stratum. Especially
in the Holocene stratum very challenging, soft and variable ground
conditions will be encountered.
• Seismic: The project is located in an area with moderate seismic
activity. The tunnel must be designed and detailed to cope with:
o Operation design earthquake (ODE): 63% exceedance probability
in 120 years, corresponding bedrock peak acceleration PGA =
52.9 cm/sec2; damage and water leakage due to this seismic event
is not allowed and the tunnel operation and availability
undisturbed;
S. Quanke et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 121 (2022) 104308

o Maximum design earthquake (MDE): 10% exceedance probability

in 120 years, corresponding bedrock peak acceleration PGA =
147.5 cm/sec2; repairable damage and minor leakage is allowed;
minimum disturbance to tunnel operation and availability is
allowed;
• Aggressive marine environment: The salinity of the sea water at the
project location varies between 2.75% and 3.19% (surface, seabed).
Combined with the warm climate this is regarded an aggressive
marine environment for the various structures.
Fig. 6. typical cross section immersed tunnel option (dimensions in m).
Stringent design requirements:

• for comparison purposes a cross section with outer dimensions of

• Navigation: The Pearl River estuary is one of busiest water ways in
44.8 m (width) by 10.8 (height) was used (which is not the ultimate
China, with an average of 4000 ships per day and 1.5 million ships
design). The cross section is indicated in the Fig. 6, below.
per year. The Pearl River Estuary is very wide at the bridge / tunnel
• lowest elevation of the road surface is − 40.2 m; this is approx. 2.5 m
link with several (navigation) channels. The tunnel passes under the
above the tunnel base (at approx. − 43 m);
Lingding West Channel and Tonggu Channel, covering total width of
• escape doors every 100 m;
approx. 4.2 km (includes two main channels of 575 m, suitably
• lengths of the artificial eastern and western islands are 950 m and
separated and two secondary channels of 150 m). As mentioned
980 m, with a width of 100 m (in later stage design was optimized).
earlier the vertical alignment design had to allow the future passage
300,000 tons oil tankers, using the main channels and with a safe
The geotechnical conditions are convenient from a construction
navigation width of 2810 m.
perspective and challenging from a design perspective. In the areas
• Aviation: Hong Kong International Airport is located near the land­
where weaker soils are encountered, soil improvement will be
ing point on the East Bank of the project; Macao airport is located
undertaken.
near the West Bank of the project. Sections of the HZMB had to meet
Bored tunnel option:
height requirements related to the flight cone for aircrafts landing at
An alignment has been developed for the bored tunnel option and the
or taking off from Hong Kong or Macao Airport.
cut & cover tunnels on the connecting artificial islands. For the design of
• Design life: for the project a design life of 120 years is applicable;
the alignment a minimum ground cover on top of the crown of the
considering the harsh environmental conditions this is considered a
tunnel has been adopted op 1 × D (outer diameter) at the entrance. This
challenge
was due to the soft and light weight soils at the transition to the islands
• Hydraulic blockage requirements: The Pearl River Estuary is
(and had consequences for the length of the islands). The cover on top of
considered a sensitive area with complex flow and current patterns.
the crown of the tunnel at the future navigation channel was taken as
For that reason, stringent hydraulic blockage requirements apply to
0.6 × D. This resulted in:
the project, defining a maximum 10% reduction of the hydraulic
flow profile.
• total length of the tunnel is 7,140 m, including bored section of
5,410 m;
2. Tunnel technical Scheme
• two bores with an inner diameter 15.48 m; outer diameter 16.88 m,
segment thickness 0.7 m. The cross section is indicated in the Fig. 7,
2.1. Why an immersed tunnel?
below.
• lowest elevation of the road surface is − 53.71 m; this is approx. 6.35
Initially, the whole Hong Kong Zhuhai Macao Link intended to adopt
m above the tunnel base (at approx. − 60 m);
a full bridge scheme. In that concept, the main shipping channels close
• cross passages every 500 m; escape from one tube to the other; (it
to Hong Kong Airport, would require suspension bridges with main
should be noted that from a tunnel safety perspective this is inferior
spans of approx. 2.000 m and towers with heights in the order 250–300
compared to the immersed tunnel option with 100 m spacings).
m. Due to height restrictions for Hong Kong Airport (see Fig. 1 and 3)
• lengths of the artificial eastern and western islands are 1200 m and
this was not possible, for which reason the bridge option had to be
1250 m, with a width of 100 m.
rejected for the section close to Hong Kong Airport and crossing the main
channels.
Due to the variable ground conditions the bored tunnel construction
Therefore, a tunnel option was more appropriate for this part of the
is considered very challenging; especially since both very soft soil con­
link and a comparison was made between the immersed and bored
ditions and rock conditions are encountered. Considering the significant
tunnel option. The tunnel alignment had to be lowered to a level to
diameter of the bored tunnel, which will be at the high end of what was
realize deep navigation channels in the future to allow the passage of
300,000 ton fully loaded oil tankers. For that reason, the navigation
channels would have to allow dredging to a level of − 26.78 m with a
minimum width at base level of 575 m. For both the immersed and the
bored tunnel option a concept design was developed. This would allow a
comprehensive comparison between options based upon construction
costs, time schedule, environmental impact (construction and opera­
tion) and project and construction risks.
Immersed tunnel option:
An alignment was developed for the immersed tunnel and the cut &
cover tunnels on the connecting artificial islands. This resulted in:

• total length of the tunnel of 6,648 m, including immersed section of

5,389 m;
Fig. 7. typical cross section bored tunnel (2 bores) option (dimensions in m).

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S. Quanke et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 121 (2022) 104308
realized in the world at that time, also the design was regarded as
challenging.
Comparison of the two options
The tunnel options were compared on the following aspects:
• Construction costs
The construction costs for the bored tunnel were estimated to be at
least 10% higher than the immersed tunnel; this was mainly due to the
longer and deeper bored tunnel, the cross passages, the deeper cut &
cover tunnels and the longer artificial islands. It should be noted that
this only involves cross passages every 500 m which is on the high-end
regarding tunnel safety and where 250 m would maybe be more
appropriate.
• Time schedule
For both options a construction planning was developed. The con­
struction of the immersed tunnel option was estimated to take 56
months. The construction of the bored tunnel would take 66 months,
some 10 months longer than for the immersed tunnel. Main reasons for
this difference:
o the fact that for the immersed tunnel option more construction ac­
tivities can take place in parallel. E.g. construction of the bored
tunnel can only start when the (at least one of the) artificial islands
including the deep cut & cover tunnels are completed; for the
immersed tunnel option the construction of the islands and cut &
cover tunnels can be done in parallel with the dredging and the
fabrication of the tunnel elements;
o longer tunnel, longer islands, deeper cut & cover tunnels
o construction of the cross passages
In addition, the risk for delays were regarded higher for the bored
tunnel option;
• (Environmental) Impact during construction phase
The construction of immersed tunnels generally has a larger/
different environmental impact than the construction of bored tunnels:
o Dredging of the immersion trench, although dredging techniques are
available nowadays that significantly reduce the impact.
o The island construction for the immersed tunnel option is more
favourable, due to the smaller sizes.
Fig. 8. Islands & tunnel plan and vertical layout (west = right side) / (E represents the tunnel elements).
5
o The various marine operations such as dredging, soil treatment and
foundation installation, immersion and backfilling can very well be
aligned with the shipping (including temporary deviations of the
shipping channels). The length of the tunnel is approx. 6 km and will
enable and allow this; however, still more impact will be experienced
from immersed tunnel construction
• Environmental impact during operation phase
In the evaluation is has been concluded that the environmental
impact of the bored tunnel is larger:
o Due to the longer islands the hydraulic blockage effects would be
larger;
o Since the bored tunnel is at a much deeper level (road level some
13.5 m deeper), the vehicles would need to overcome larger height
differences. This will influence / increase the car emissions and
therefore the impact on the environment.
• Project / construction risks
The overall risk level of the bored tunnel option for the HZMB project
is considered larger than the risk level of the immersed tunnel. Impor­
tant items in the risk evaluation are:
o Geological conditions with soft soil and hard rock are considered
more challenging for the bored tunnel construction with an excep­
tional diameter of 16.88 m (one of the worlds’ largest) and more
prone to delays. The immersed tunnel option is evaluated to be more
flexible for and adaptive to variation and surprises in the subground.
Additionally, the immersed tunnel is on a higher level, not touching
the hard rock.
o The time schedule for the bored tunnel is less flexible to mitigate
delays on main activities. Construction of the island(s), the launching
shaft, the bored tunnel and the finishing works are (more or less)
serial activities and delays in the individual activities will have an
immediate effect on the time schedule. The main activities in the
immersed tunnel construction can be to a greater extent carried in
parallel and therefore less sensitive to delays in the critical path of
the project.
o The immersed tunnel option is considered more sensitive to meteo­
rological, hydrological and other natural conditions especially for
the marine operations.
o The construction organization for the immersed tunnel is regarded
more complicated with more (external) stakeholders due to the many
marine operations and therefore requires a solid preparation to avoid
delays.
S. Quanke et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 121 (2022) 104308
Fig. 9. standard tunnel element composed of 8 segments of 22.5 m.
Fig. 10. Transportation and positioning tunnel element.
o Due to the many more joints and the deeper level the bored tunnel is
regarded more sensitive to water leakages than the immersed tunnel.
The bored tunnel was evaluated to have a higher risk profile, with a
greater number of risks that may have a significant effect on quality,
costs and schedule; for which reason a significant larger risk reservation
budget had to be added to costs, that were already estimated to be at
least 10% higher.
Fig. 11. Layout of production facility.
6
Fig. 12. Production facility at Guishan Island in full operation.
Based on the comprehensive comparison, it was concluded that for
the HZMB tunnel section, the immersed tunnel was the preferred option.
2.2. Tunnel design
2.2.1. Introduction
The HZMB tunnel has a length of 6.704 km with an immersed section
of approximately 5.664 km. A plan view and the longitudinal section of
the tunnel are shown in Fig. 8. The tunnel cross section comprises two
traffic tubes (tube for each traffic direction) and a central gallery for
evacuation/escape and services (cables, mains, pipes) including a
separate duct for smoke extraction. At both ends, the tunnel connects to
artificial islands to realize the transition from the tunnel to the bridge
sections. The maximum water depth for immersion (trench bottom) is
approx. 45 m.
The immersed section consists of 33 elements of which most are 180
m long. All are 37.95 m wide and 11.4 m high. A standard element of
180 m is composed of eight 22.5 m-long segments (Fig. 9).
Shear keys are used over the joints to prevent transverse and vertical
discontinuous movements over the segment joints. For the trans­
portation and immersion (see Fig. 10), temporary pre-stressing was used
to connect the 8 segments into a whole element structure with adequate
S. Quanke et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 121 (2022) 104308

strength and stiffness.

The tunnel elements were built in a production facility at Guishan
Island approx. 10 km away from the project location and using the cast
& launch construction method; this method was first used successfully
for the Øresund Link between Denmark and Sweden and allows an
efficient industrialized production of tunnel elements. In the Figs. 11
and 12 the factory is illustrated:

2.2.2. Structural design

Transverse direction
The HZMB immersed tunnel can be regarded as one of the most
challenging immersed tunnel projects in the world with amongst others
the following design challenges:

1) Large-spans for the road tubes: the maximum span for a 3 lane traffic
layout in one tube in the cross-section reaches 14.55 m.
2) Water depth: a depth at the tunnel base slab is over 40 m. The large
water depths are challenging for the water proofing of the tunnel.
3) Ground cover loads on the tunnel: Prior to the deepening of the
navigation channel sedimentation is allowed to take place on the
tunnel roof. The maximum sedimentation thickness on top of tunnel
can reach 21 m after tunnel is completed (see Fig. 8), which will be
the largest sedimentation load ever on an immersed tunnel.
4) Geological condition: the soil conditions are poor and locally quite Fig. 13. a. Option with central gallery for point extraction ventilation concept.
variable, and are considered very challenging for the tunnel design. b. Option with side galleries for full transverse ventilation.
5) Limitation structural dimensions: The individual tunnel element has
to be able to float during the transport and immersion stages, which
means that there is limitation to the element structural dimensions
determined by the balance between the upward water forces and the
downward element weight and the weight of temporary transport
and immersion equipment.
6) Seismic impact: the project is located at a medium seismic region (Ⅶ
earthquake intensity design). The seismic conditions must be prop­
erly incorporated in the design of the joints and tunnel seals / water
stops.

In the concept design stage various options were studied since the
above conditions were regarded not standard and the need for further
examination was recognized. Various cross section geometry concepts
and various structural solutions were studied:

• Regarding the geometry outline, this mainly concerned the study

with respect to the ventilation concept (longitudinal jet fans com­
bined with smoke extraction, so-called point extraction or fully
transverse ventilation – see Fig. 13
• For the structural design several solutions were studied. Considering
the conditions as mentioned earlier, the reinforced concrete option
may be challenging in terms of structural feasibility. This can be
mitigated to some extent by creating more air space in the cross
section (more floating capacity) that allows increased dimensions of
critical members (e.g. floor or roof slab). Another option is to apply
transverse post tensioning in the roof and floor slab. In the Fig. 14
below some examples are given.

Comprehensive studies were undertaken to compare various con­

ventional reinforced options and options with transverse post-tensioning
in roof and floor. Finally, it was concluded that the extended conven­
tional reinforced option (with slightly increased airspace allowing in­
crease thickness of roof and floor slab) was feasible under these
challenging conditions and preferred over the options with post-
tensioning:

• The high ground loads on the tunnel would require a significant Fig. 14. Structural concepts for cross section. a. Reinforced concrete option 1
amount of post-tensioning. Since the post-tensioning (at least pre- (increased height of tunnel cross section) b. Reinforced concrete option 2
dominantly) had to be installed in the element production stage, (increased width in central gallery) c. Transverse post-tensioning.
substantial temporary structures would be required to counter-act

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S. Quanke et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 121 (2022) 104308
Fig. 15. Concept design cross section (top) and detailed design cross sec­
tion (bottom).
the large loads resulting from the curved post-tensioning cables and
without the water and ground load acting on the cross section. This
would have cost and time implications.
• The installation of and stressing the post tensioning cables would
seriously affect the progress of the element production. Again, with
time implications.
In the detailed design stage, the D&C Contractor and his design team,
further optimized the cross section, as indicated in Fig. 15
Longitudinal direction
For the longitudinal design of concrete immersed tunnels in general
two options can be distinguished: the segmental tunnel (flexible) and the
monolithic tunnel (rigid). In case of a monolithic tunnel the individual
tunnel elements are continuous and capable of absorbing normal and
shear forces and bending moments. In case of a segmental tunnel a
tunnel element consists of several segments of 20–25 m. In the operation
phase the joints between the segments (segment joints) allow for de­
formations in longitudinal direction and rotations in both the horizontal
and vertical plane. Shear keys are provided in the joints to avoid
discontinuous displacements over the joints in both horizontal and
vertical direction. In order to make the segment joints watertight pro­
visions are required (e.g. rubber water stops sometimes combined with
small omega gaskets).
For HZMB tunnel both options were thoroughly studied in the
concept design stage. A straightforward selection for the longitudinal
design was not obvious since both options have advantages and disad­
vantages under the given specific project conditions. The following as­
pects were considered:
(1) Geotechnical conditions (including variation)
(2) Surcharge loads (magnitude and variation)
(3) Accidental loads such as seismic events and sunken ships
(4) Internal forces (bending moment, shear forces etc.)
(5) Construction costs
Based upon the various studies, it was concluded that the segmental
8
tunnel was more economical and capable to accommodate the adverse
geotechnical and surcharge conditions and impact of the accidental load
cases. The higher costs for the monolithic option were the result of the
heavy longitudinal reinforcement, the waterproofing membranes and a
shorter maximum length feasible for a tunnel element subjected to
challenging transport and immersion operations, heavy ground loads
and seismic impact. For the segmental tunnel the joints were identified
as critical items. Heavy shear keys in the inner and outer walls were
required to accommodate the impact of variation in tunnel support and
surcharge and seismic loads. In the roof and base slab shear keys are
applied to absorb the horizontal seismic shear forces. For water tightness
purposes a double seal (injectable rubber waterstop and omega gasket)
was selected to provide additional safety.
Initially, it was the intention to cut the pre-stressing at the segment
joints after the immersion of the element to restore joint flexibility and
to reduce structural forces. However, in the detailed design stage the
D&C Contractor proposed the innovative semi-rigid concept. In this
concept the longitudinal post-tension cables would not be cut at the
segment joints, after immersion. The idea was that the pre-stress force
would contribute to the shear capacity of the segment joint but would
also allow a flexible behaviour in case the bending moment capacity in
the segment joint would be exceeded. An additional advantage would
be, that cutting of the many cables (some 50–60 per element) at the
numerous segment joints (over 225) is avoided, saving a lot of time. The
D&C contractor carried out comprehensive, advanced studies and full-
scale tests to demonstrate the semi-rigid concept (ref (Lin et al., 2021;
The Islands and Tunnel Project of HZM Link et al., 2022). In addition,
the consultant of the Client performed an elaborate parallel and inde­
pendent study (ref (de Wit and Kuiper, 2018). In both cases the semi-
rigid concept could be confirmed.
2.2.3. Geotechnical / foundation design
2.2.3.1. Introduction. The structure - soil interaction is one of the gov­
erning factors in immersed tunnel design, especially when conditions of
the subsoil are challenging. For the HZMB tunnel variable and poor soil
conditions are encountered, particularly in the shallower sections of the
tunnel, where the connection with the artificial islands is planned. The
interface area between the artificial islands and tunnel is very complex
from a geotechnical point of view. Large land reclamations in combina­
tion with ground improvements (artificial islands) are carried out close to
large excavations (trench excavation of the tunnel). Careful consideration
of the designs is required in which a robust design approach, allowing an
adequate spare capacity, would be best appropriate to address the inev­
itable uncertainties. And although the immersed tunnel is capable to deal
with (differential) settlements, it was decided to apply sturdy design so­
lutions, involving improvement of the tunnel foundation conditions, in
which a smooth transition from the island cut & cover tunnel section to
the immersed tunnel section is implemented
2.2.3.2. Man-made foundation. The foundation design of an immersed
tunnel involves the man-made foundation bed that is installed between
the tunnel structure (1) and the original soils (2).
The foundation bed is required because dredging accuracies generally
do not meet the structural limitations related to uneven tunnel support and
differential settlements. For the HZMB tunnel a gravel bed was selected,
installed with great accuracy prior to the immersion operation.
2.2.3.3. Foundation improvement preliminary design. As indicated above,
foundation improvement measures are required over the shallower parts
of the tunnel alignment, connecting to the artificial islands. In this way
the settlements and differential settlements can be limited and therefore
also the internal forces in the tunnel. In addition, ground treatment is
applied to promote smooth transition from one tunnel part (e.g. piled cut
and cover tunnel at the islands) to the other (e.g. immersed tunnel).
S. Quanke et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 121 (2022) 104308
Fig. 16. Principles of end bearing piles (left) and SRP (right) – dimensions in mm.
In the concept and preliminary design stage a comprehensive study
was carried out after the various options that would create better
foundation conditions for the (immersed tunnel). The following options
were studied:
(1) Improvement of the ground properties in terms of strength and
stiffness and to increase the uniform behaviour of the ground (to
serve smooth transition).
• Replacement of soft soils by means of sandy gravels or gravel
• Settlement Reduction Piles (steel piles) in soft cohesive layers (no
end bearing!)
• Cement deep mixing piles in soft cohesive layers (close to islands)
• Sand compaction piles
(2) Foundation piles on bearing ground layers in case the ground is
too weak or too unpredictable (close to the artificial islands
where large reclamations are carried out) (Fig. 16).
For the tunnel, several foundation treatment schemes were devel­
oped, in which above options were used in different sections. In Table 4
and Fig. 17 the various types of ground treatment are presented that
were selected for the preliminary design that would serve as a reference
for the construction tender.
The soil investigation used for the preliminary design was still rela­
tively limited. In parallel with the preliminary design development,
extensive additional survey was undertaken to allow a proper assess­
ment of the risks and uncertainties and to adjust or optimize the designs
accordingly. The investigation was concentrated in areas where most
uncertainties exist (e.g. transition area between the immersed tunnel
and the artificial islands). Amongst others, the geotechnical investiga­
tion will include Cone Penetration Tests, Standard Penetration Tests and
Vane Shear Tests, Borehole testing to get (undisturbed) samples for
laboratory tests and soil classifications etc.
2.2.3.4. Foundation detailed design. For the detailed design the D&C
Contractor China Communications Construction Co., Ltd.(CCCC) and his
design team adjusted and optimized the foundation design, amongst
others by using the additional ground survey. The design is summarized
below but is discussed in more detail in ref (港珠澳大桥主体工程结构健
康监测系统需求分析报告, 2013).
Man-made foundation: a 2 m uniform riprap (mass stone) layer was
proposed to prepare a high-quality installation of the final gravel bed
(compensation of higher dredging tolerance, storage of sedimentation).
Thereafter, a 1.3 m gravel bed was installed in bunds and with a high
accuracy. The 2 m riprap preparation layer appeared to be a very suit­
able measure in these soft soil conditions, with a serious risk of siltation
Table 4
Ground treatment in preliminary design.
9
of the trench, and to create very good conditions for the installation of a
high-quality gravel bed (Fig. 18).
Ground treatment: In the below Table 5 the ground treatments along
the tunnel are presented:
The tunnel settlements have been closely monitored during the
construction phase as well as during the operation phase. From the
current monitoring results, it shows that the optimized man-made
foundation and the ground treatment works under the tunnel are
behaving consistent and generally within the expected bandwidth (also
see Fig. 32).
2.2.4. Artificial islands
2.2.4.1. Geometric design. In the early technical studies, a 100X1000m
rectangular shaped artificial island was initially designed. After carrying
hydraulic and aesthetic studies and undertaking physical model tests,
the islands were optimized from a hydraulic blockage and landscaping
perspective. (Fig. 19).
It resulted is an optimized design being a 625 m long oyster shell-
shaped artificial island (Fig. 20), which not only satisfies the transi­
tion function between bridge and immersed tunnel but is more suitable
for the hydrodynamic environment of the Pearl River Estuary. To house
all the necessary services on the island the width of the island was
increased to some 160 m, coming from a standpoint that a larger width is
not enlarging the hydraulic blockage.
2.2.4.2. Preliminary design. As for the tunnel, the geotechnical condi­
tions for the construction of the artificial islands are not very favorable
either. Since large land reclamations and extensive back fill operations
are involved the geotechnical design is quite delicate in order to meet
the settlement/deformation requirements that were defined. In the
concept and preliminary design stage numerous options were studied
and evaluated. From the various designs, it became obvious, that the
involvement of the construction companies would be essential. There
was a strong relation between the design and the actual execution and if
a contractor would be specialist in a certain special foundation or marine
works technique, it should be possible to incorporate that in the design.
This would stimulate cost and time efficiency and reduce risks. For the
D&C tender, a concept illustrative design (Fig. 21) was developed to
serve as a reference and that involved the following main stages:
• Excavate soft top layers of mud
• Sand compaction piles to improve underlying cohesive layers
(depending on back fill levels)
• In fill with coarse sand to be compacted
• Formation of the sea defense walls consisting of rock or stone layers
and revetments of doloses
• Install circular sheet piles walls or diaphragm walls as retaining
structure for the cut and cover tunnels (on some locations also to
serve as part of the sea defense in the final phase)
• Construct cut and cover tunnel founded on bored piles
• Finishing works
Based upon this reference design and a set of functional and technical
specifications, the bidding construction consortia could develop and
propose their designs.
S. Quanke et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 121 (2022) 104308

Fig. 17. Ground treatment along the tunnel alignment (preliminary design).

10
S. Quanke et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 121 (2022) 104308

Fig. 18. Man-made foundation.

2.2.4.3. Detailed design. The winning consortium led by China Com­

munications Construction Co., Ltd.(CCCC) proposed an alternative
design. To meet the intended date for the start of the immersion oper­
ations against the cut & cover tunnels on the islands (and ultimately
meeting the project time schedule) the construction period for the
artificial island was very short (total of 215 days). An innovative design
of deep driven steel cylinders was adopted to form the two artificial
islands in a very rapid way. Steel cylinders of 22 m diameter and up to
50 m height were driven deep into the soft underlying stratum,
following the perimeter of the island (Fig. 22). The west island was
provided with a separation wall, consisting of the same cylinders to
allow for the creation of a small pit for rapid construction of the cut &
cover tunnel section in order to be ready in time for the immersion of the
first tunnel element (also see Fig. 25, bottom).
The cylinders were produced in a steel factory in Shanghai and then
shipped to the project site. A large floating crane with special equipment
to lift the cylinders from the ship and accommodated with a device with
8 coupled vibrators was able to place the cylinders in one continuous
operation in a very short time in the soft soil. The connection between
the various cylinders was made with flexible infill sheets that could be
rapidly installed as well. The core of the island was then filled, with
sand, followed by treatment of deeper soft soils within the island and
outside the island where the ultimate revetments were to be placed (the
very shallow soft soils were removed – Fig. 23). By adopting this inno­
vative fast track construction technology, the artificial islands including
the cut & cover tunnels could be formed within the planned schedule
and secured the installation and backfilling of the first immersed tunnel
element safely.
With this alternative design the contractor was able to speed up the
construction efficiency of two artificial islands of 100,000 m2 by a factor
5 faster than traditional riprap cofferdam method (explained Fig. 21),
saving approx. 1.5 years on the critical path of the projects’ time
schedule. In addition, the amount of seabed excavation is greatly
reduced, and the pollution to the ocean is minimized.
The Figs. 24 and 25 below show some illustrative stages in the steel
cylinder installation.
In Fig. 26 an impression is given of the artificial island at completion.
2.2.5. Safety concept and tunnel ventilation
The length of the sub-sea tunnel, which stands at + 6 km, poses
specific challenges while considering tunnel safety. The HZMB requires
an integrated safety concept for the whole of the project, and specifically
so for the immersed tunnel. As with any project, safety does not only
relate to the structural component, such as the tunnel, but also to all
other items within the system, such as measures to prevent accidents as
much as possible (alignment, design speed, sightlines), monitoring and
Fig. 19. Hydraulic model tests after island shaping.
Fig. 20. Early concept of the artificial island.
detection measures in case of an accident (fire detection, cameras etc),
measures to control accidents (ventilation, sprinkler system, emergency
posts, traffic management etc.), escape ways and strategies(safe haven,
self-rescue principle) and the (tunnel) operations, that for example
include the emergency response procedures.
Tunnel ventilation is an essential item of the tunnel installations
design when it comes to health and safety in the operational phase and
regarding incident control. A ventilation concept has been selected with
longitudinal ventilation in the operational phase (jet fans supported by
natural ventilation induced by the piston effect and enhanced by the
traffic). In case of a fire a parallel smoke extraction system will be
activated using a semi transverse ventilation system supported by the
longitudinal ventilation system in the traffic tubes (jet fans) including a
separate smoke extraction cell (located above the escape cell – see
Figs. 27 and 28) combined with an additional system using a foam-water
fire extinguishing system, which can effectively control the fire growth.
When designing the ventilation system, the selection of a reasonable
fire scale is essential. A comprehensive investigation has been conducted
to understand the recommended fire scale of tunnel various countries
and their operational organization. Depending on the set of safety
measures that is incorporated in the tunnel and the type of traffic that
can use the tunnel, fire scales up to 200–300 MW can be defined (tanker
truck, little measures).
In the HZMB tunnel a series of safety measures are incorporated in
the tunnel, including a foam-water spray fire extinguishing system,

Table 5
Ground treatment detailed design.

11
S. Quanke et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 121 (2022) 104308
Fig. 21. Illustrative design of artificial island.
Fig. 22. Steel cylinders for the island formation (artificial island west) with
small pit.
which can effectively control the fire growth. In addition, vehicles that
carry flammable and explosive dangerous cargo are not allowed to ac­
cess the Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macao Bridge. Therefore, the fire scale was
defined to be 50 MW. CFD analyses were used to study and confirm the
ventilation system under the given fire scale (Fig. 29).
The longitudinal ventilation system (reversible jet fans) is used for
normal ventilation (in case self-ventilating piston effect is insufficient).
In case of a fire, the jet fans are turned on to control and regulate the
smoke, dampers in the exhaust duct located close to the fire are opened
and the axial flow ventilators in the smoke exhaust duct at the portals
are turned on. This ventilation system can effectively control the smoke
from spreading and the descending, which can improve capabilities of
disaster prevention and rescue, and at the same time, minimize the
damage to the tunnel structure and equipment caused by the fire.
3. Successful Implementation of a Design & Build Project In
China (Yongling et al., 2020; Jinwen and Yumin, 2018; 张劲文, 设
计施工总承包的中国式实践, 桥梁杂志, 2017)
Although most of the HZMB Link (bridge section) was constructed
Fig. 23. Illustration of the islands’ revetment and shore protection.
12
under a “Construct-only” contract, it was decided in an early stage the
HZMB tunnel was to be built under a “Design & Build”-contract,
considering the scale of this contract unique for China. It was clearly
recognized that such contract-form would be an opportunity to combine
the design, the construction but also the scientific research together and
that this would be beneficial to the project and to the contractor stim­
ulating and improving the independent innovation capability. With no
doubt, one of the reasons for the successful realization of the immersed
tunnel is the fact that the Design & Build contract principle was used.
Design & Build (D&B) is a mature international project contract
form, which contributes to clear managerial and organisational re­
sponsibilities within a project. The contractor is responsible for the
design, planning, organisation, control and construction of the works to
the Employers’ requirements, including the integration of project in­
terfaces and the overall management of industry supply chain. The form
of contract is considered appropriate for simple projects, where design is
not the main consideration or for (complicated) projects where there is a
strong interaction between design and construction and in which the
involvement of a contractor in strongly execution driven designs is
essential. As explained in section 2, the latter is very much the case for
the artificial islands and the tunnel, being on the critical path of the
whole project and involving the world’s longest sea strait crossing
tunnel to be realised under complex circumstances (deep water, complex
seabed geology), challenging offshore conditions, high environmental
requirements and a tight construction schedule. In 2006, the Ministry of
transport in China already decided to carry out pilot D&B projects for
Fig. 24. Various stages of artificial island construction (from top left to bottom
right: transport cylinders, installation of cylinder, installation of infill sheeting,
soil improvement around the perimeter of the island.
S. Quanke et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 121 (2022) 104308

Fig. 27. Cross section with smoke extraction cell.

highway design and construction to prepare for the larger infrastructure

projects adopting the D&B contract principle as well. As a result of these
pilots, it was decided that for the HZMB artificial islands & tunnel the
D&B contract form was to be adopted as well, based on the following:

• Single point of responsibility for design and construction, resulting in

a clearer and simpler project management and giving room to the
contractor to develop design that correspond better to specific in-
house construction capabilities and expertise.
• Allowing the contractor to integrate his key expertise in the design
solutions should contribute to the high-quality standard re­
quirements of complex and large projects.
• Ability to engage with the contractor and his team and his supply
chain in the project that would stimulate more practical or buildable
solutions. More suitable for the cross-border and cluster nature of the
project.
• Better opportunities to meet tight construction schedules by parallel
and cross activities between design and construction.
• Less project engineering interfaces.
• Less variation orders under the leadership of general contractor with
the designer and the contractor in one team.
Fig. 25. Various stages in the artificial island construction.
For the preparation of the D&B contract form, the Client defined a

Fig. 26. Impression of the artificial island at completion.

13
S. Quanke et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 121 (2022) 104308
Fig. 28. Principle of the smoke exhaust duct.
Fig. 29. Contour of the longitudinal section temperature distribution of the
tunnel in a typical fire scenario (the area of the smoke exhaust port is 8 m2).
project management mechanism under which bidding documents could
be defined. In order to create a good environment to operate the D&B
contract mode, the balance of the following aspects was considered,
especially regarding the specific project context:
• Under the framework of domestic laws and regulations of the
different main stakeholders, balance the interaction between the
various infrastructure construction procedures and design &
construction.
• Under the project legal responsibility system, balance the depth of
the Client’s involvement including the main stakeholders’
representation.
• Balance and ensure the stability and flexibility of the D&B con­
sortium (strict prequalification).
The development of D&B contract form in the Chinese context is an
integrated innovative process that combines the local Chinese context
with international practices so as to promote specific D&B contract
strategy in the mainland of China. For the HZMB artificial islands and
tunnel project the Client Organisation HZMBA provided the preliminary
design as the reference design in the bidding documents and selected the
D&B consortium (with special requirements for the consortium’s for­
mation and management). Through this principle, possible impact of the
specific existing domestic infrastructure procedures and qualification
system procedures on the efficiency of the D&B contracting procedures
could be resolved. It became an innovative new contract mode, made
suitable for China’s national situations and for the specific features of
the islands & tunnel. The decision-making process for the D&B contract
mode was a process of managing risks and transferring risks from the
government representative organisation to the (state-owned) contrac­
tors, following the principle of transferring specific risks to the organi­
sation best capable of managing them.
The preparation of the D&B bidding documents of the islands &
tunnel took 8 months. The documents fully represented the Client’s
ideas on the D&B contract development for the specific Chinese market
and integrated the international D&B common practice. It appeared a
solid foundation for the smooth implementation of the subsequent
design and construction.
After public bidding, on December 21, 2010, the Client and China
Communications Construction Co., Ltd.(CCCC) signed the D&B contract
for the HZMB artificial islands and tunnel project. After seven years of
14
development and innovation and overcoming many difficulties, the
artificial islands and tunnel project was completed and showed
remarkable achievements in the world’s civil engineering industry and
becoming a model for large-scale infrastructure construction.
Remarkable results were achieved. It took only seven months to
create an island in the deep sea (see section 2.2.4). The artificial islands
were completed one and a half years ahead of the planned schedule. The
project involved the world’s second and domestic first “cast&launch
factory” for the prefabrication of immersed tunnel elements (see section
2.2.1); it formed a complete set of technology and management systems
for the construction of offshore installation of immersed tunnel ele­
ments. The floating transport and installation process of 33 elements in
challenging marine environment with strong siltation and deep-water
trench was completed early 2017. An exceptional innovation was the
successful installation of the world’s first steel “sandwich” closure joint,
using the world’s largest single arm floating crane with a lifting capacity
of 12.000 ton (Fig. 30).
As explained, within the HZMB D&B project execution there was a
strong focus on the management and mitigation of risks. During the
whole design and construction process the Client organized interna­
tional and national expert meetings, in which (inter)national experts in
the design and the execution of complicated infrastructure works from
recognized universities and scientific institutes participate, to review the
main and the risk bearing components in the project. This is a Chinese
tradition, that is based on mutual commitment, responsibility and
confirmation and that could be very well fitted in the D&B Contract
concept as developed for HZMB.
In the process of construction, more than 100 verification tests and
special studies has been carried out successively, more than 10 pieces of
large-scale special equipment with international level were developed
and manufactured, a monitoring and risk management system for
offshore super long immersed tunnel construction has been established;
more than 10 technical innovations such as “fast island forming”, “fac­
tory production method”, “composite foundation” and “semi-rigid tun­
nel” were realized, and more than 400 patents have been obtained.
4. Operation AND maintenance of the Tunnel
4.1. Introduction
HZMB is a complicated large-scale offshore project combining
bridges, islands and an underwater tunnel. It is an essential component
of the main road network in the Pearl River Delta in Guangdong Pro­
vence and of the national planned highway network. No national or
international codes or standards cover all of items that are significant to
the operation and maintenance of this Main Link. Not only important for
a successful completion of the works but also to guarantee a durable and
sustainable link with a high availability level and operation quality in
the 120 years’ service life. Therefore, the Client Organization prepared a
systematic consideration on project specific standards and requirements
on operation and maintenance through the whole life process. Each
system relies on each other, complements and checks each other.
Especially, for the sea-crossing immersed tunnel considering the limited
experience in China, each system has been given high attention.
4.2. Operation and maintenance standards (港珠澳大桥专用营运及
维护标准, 2009; 港珠澳大桥营运及维护准则, 2009; 港珠澳大桥主体工
程运营维护技术手册, 2018; 港珠澳大桥主体工程运营维护技术手册,
2018)
In the feasibility study stage of the project in 2008, the Client
Organisation already formulated the “Specific Operation and Mainte­
nance Standard for Hong Kong Zhuhai Macao Bridge” to ensure that the
function and service requirements could be developed and defined for
the future operation phase. The compilation team of this standard has
extensively investigated and collected the practical experience from
S. Quanke et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 121 (2022) 104308
national and international major large bridges, tunnels and artificial
islands. The standard took reference of relevant regulations of the na­
tional and highway transportation industries, and relevant standards of
Hong Kong, Macao and foreign countries. It had also consulted experts
from all over the world. This standard provided very useful guidance
and help for the design, implementation, operation and maintenance of
Hong Kong Zhuhai Macao Bridge. Since the start of concept design,
designers have integrated the standard into the designs to improve
conditions for better future operation and maintenance.
In the preliminary design stage, the designer updated and prepared
the “Criteria for Operation and Maintenance of Hong Kong Zhuhai
Macao Bridge” based on the abovementioned standard. After being
reviewed by the Client’s consultant, it was included in the D&B bidding
documents for “islands & tunnel”, which was the subsequent basis for
the design and construction.
Before the handover of the whole project after construction and
under the management of the Client, Client’s consultant (lead party) and
together with designer and contractor, the “Technical Manual for
Operation and Maintenance (O&M) of Main Works of Hong Kong Zhuhai
Macao Bridge” was compiled, which was a further deepening of the
above two standards. It is divided into four Volumes, namely, the Gen­
eral Part(1), the Islands & Tunnel(2), the Bridges(3) and the Traffic
Engineering incl. installations and systems(4). Different from normal
O&M manuals in China, in the Volume of Islands & Tunnel special re­
quirements had been defined in the daily inspection and cleaning, reg­
ular inspection, periodic inspection, emergency inspection and special
inspection. As an innovation, the manual added the requirements for
initial inspection (time around handover), inspection accessibility,
technical condition evaluation, and especially the structural health
analysis and evaluation including durability inspection and monitoring,
durability evaluation and redesign. The manual emphasizes the impor­
tance of preventive maintenance and regular check of the structural
health state to guarantee the remaining service lifetime. Redesign
Fig. 30. Closure Joint installation.
15
(including repair, strengthening, replacement and other measures)
might be needed when the requirements cannot be met in mid-time. It is
an important technical guidance for the practical operation and main­
tenance of the project after completion.
4.3. Structural health monitoring design (港珠澳大桥主体工程结构
健康监测系统需求分析报告, 2013; 港珠澳大桥主体工程交通工程结构
健康监测工程施工图联合设计, 2012)
Since the preliminary design stage, the concept of health monitoring
system of Hong Kong Zhuhai Macao Bridge combining with the elec­
tronic manual inspection system has been established (Fig. 31) and was
implemented into the realization stage of the system. The main objec­
tives are:
• To provide a platform for the scientific and orderly O&M manage­
ment of Hong Kong Zhuhai Macao Bridge during the operation
period, and to establish a digital and information-based “archive” for
the whole life of the structure based on the comprehensive moni­
toring and management maintenance system.
• To effectively control the structural state and its’ development and
evolution trend during the operation period, timely diagnose and
warning of deviating conditions, performance of hierarchical and
comprehensive assessment on the health status of the structure are
implemented to ensure the safe operation of the structure.
• To provide decision support for reasonable, active and preventive
maintenance measures in order to effectively manage and reduce the
O&M costs of the whole lifecycle and maximize the service life of the
structure.
S. Quanke et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 121 (2022) 104308
The ideas of the Structure Health Monitoring System are as follows:
• Assess risks and analyse component vulnerability of each structural
item to determine the essential components of the structure.
• Based upon these structural essential components, develop and
establish a monitoring program. The monitoring plan includes
monitoring items, frequency, characteristic value, etc.
• The data of the automatic monitoring system and the manual in­
spection constitute the database for monitoring early warning and
structural safety assessment.
• Using to monitoring data and based on structural component eval­
uation, establish an early warning scheme including threshold /
trigger levels.
• Assess structural safety, mainly on technical condition assessment.
The automatic monitoring items of immersed tunnel in this project
amongst others include:
• Environmental temperature and humidity
• Traffic load
• Ground motion response
• Joint opening and displacement
• Structural stress
• Structural temperature
• Concrete corrosion
• Joint leakage
4.4. Intelligent maintenance and safe operation
In view of the long-term maintenance of the Hong Kong Zhuhai
Macao Bridge and the demand of safe traffic operation and emergency
management and control, a basic theory of key technical issues is
developed. This amongst others include the evolution mechanism of
Fig. 31. Overall framework of the monitoring system.
16
service performance of structures, the algorithm of condition assessment
and maintenance decision-making, the active management and control
of traffic operation and emergency intervention, and the integrated
intelligent operation and maintenance platform. The holographic
sensing technology, the 3D perception technology, and the related
equipment for sea-crossing facilities of HZMB are under development,
and a parallel digital Intelligent O&M Technical System is established,
so as to realize holographic perception, accurate evaluation, rapid
maintenance and active management and control of the operation status
of the facilities. This is to improve the service performance and service
life, to reduce the operation and maintenance cost, and to ensure the
operational safety.
In the first 3–5 years during operational phase, intelligent operation
and maintenance technology research and practical application will be
completed, including:
• Holographic stereo sensing technology and equipment.
• Service status assessment and intelligent maintenance technology
and equipment.
• Key technologies for intelligent operation and emergency response.
• Key technologies of bridge- island- tunnel multimodal data collection
and development of knowledge systems.
• Key technologies and special applications with the option to be easy
included in the intelligent platform.
Two key scientific items are planned to be solved on short notice:
1) The establishment of an evolution theory of the integrated digital
model of the whole life cycle of the bridge-island-tunnel system
based on big data science and technology.
S. Quanke et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 121 (2022) 104308
2) The preparation of an evolution mechanism and risk early warning
model of the service performance of the bridge-island-tunnel system
with multi field coupling of uncertainties.
It targets to break through five key technical problems:
1) Unmanned equipment with multi-sensor fusion and intelligent patrol
& inspection technology.
2) Real-time online evaluation, hierarchical early warning and long-
term service performance index system driven by data model.
3) Detailed parallel system for intelligent active control of traffic
operation and emergency response and intervention.
4) Data collaborative interconnection technology for intelligent O&M.
5) Scheduling technology of heterogeneous fusion of multimodal
massive data and multi-type services.
5. PERFORMANCE OF THE STRUCTURE
5.1. Impact of sedimentation and settlements
Two years after the completion of the works (approx. one year after
the opening), the overall condition of the tunnel is considered and
assessed as good. The settlements of the immersed tunnel are stable and
converging. Taking E13 in deep buried section as an example; the initial
monitoring of settlements started on Sept 20, 2013 (immediate after
immersion); the settlement data as of December 31, 2019 are as follows:
the cumulative average settlement measured at segment E13-S1 (pri­
mary end) was – 58.6 mm; the cumulative average settlement measured
by segment E13-S8 (secondary end) was – 43.1 mm. The cumulative
settlement time curve of E13 is presented in Fig. 32 and shows stabili­
zation of settlements.
To analyse the siltation level change after the backfilling of the
immersed tunnel, a multi beam sounding system has been used for the
whole tunnel siltation monitoring for 16 times since July 2017. Ac­
cording to the latest survey data in November 2019, compared with the
acceptance data of the backfilling of the tunnel element, the maximum
thickness of the siltation at the top of the tunnel element is approx. 7.3 m
located at E21 (the acceptance time of the backfilling of the element was
in December 2015). Considering both the results of the design calcula­
tion and the deformation monitoring data of the immersed tunnel, it can
be concluded that the current tunnel settlements (and maybe more
important the settlement development trend) are well within the
allowable range of the design, and therefore resulting in a safe and
sound structure.
5.2. Structural response after two strong typhoons
On August 23, 2017, the major typhoon “Pigeon” of level 15 landed
Fig. 32. E13 accumulative settlement- time curve.
17
on the waterfront of Zhuhai City, with a maximum wind force of level 15
(48 m/s) near the typhoon centre. After the typhoon, through the on-site
emergency inspection and judgment (at that time, the construction of
the structural health monitoring system was not fully completed, so the
automatic monitoring data was not recorded), it was concluded that the
bridge structure had performed very well with no damage to primary
structural components.
On September 16, 2018, another super typhoon “Mangosteen” of
level 17 made a frontal landing near Zhuhai City, Guangdong Province.
This was the second time that the Hong Kong Zhuhai Macao Bridge has
been “baptized” by a strong typhoon of over level 14 before it was
actually opened to traffic. During the typhoon, the bridge structure
monitoring system operated stable, and the maximum instantaneous
wind speed was up to 55 m/s, and the average maximum wind speed
was up to 47.05 m/s in ten minutes (all located at the top of Qingzhou
bridge tower – close to the western tunnel portal). All the monitoring
values of the structure were within the design allowable range. The
Hong Kong Zhuhai Macao Bridge survived this mega typhoon without
any structural damage.
5.3. Structural reaction after earthquake
At 06:55 on January 5, 2020, an earthquake with a magnitude of 3.5
occurred in the sea area of Zhuhai City, Guangdong Province, with a
focal depth of 12 km. The epicentre of the earthquake was located in the
south of Hong Kong Zhuhai Macao Bridge, with a straight distance of
about 24 km. According to the analysis of structural health monitoring
data, the impact intensity of the earthquake on the bridge was 2.96◦ , far
less than the seismic intensity of the bridge fortification, and the struc­
ture was not affected at all. At the time of earthquake, the vibration of
the tunnel structure increased obviously, but it was far less than the
design allowable value, and it recovered to the pre-earthquake level
immediately after the earthquake.
6. CONCLUSIONS
(1) Before, China had no experience in the construction of super long
and deep immersed tube tunnel under the marine offshore con­
ditions and founded in thick and soft soil conditions. After
advanced and detailed investigation and study, careful planning,
and cooperation with international teams, and systematic
experimental research, a large number of design and construction
parameters were obtained that were essential for the realization
of the fixed link including the tunnel. This very thorough prep­
aration of the project resulted in the successful construction and
completion of the whole project including the subsea immersed
tunnel. The HZMB link started normal operation late 2018. Using
an extensive monitoring program, it could be concluded that all
performance indexes are within the predetermined level.
(2) In the project preparation stage, the Owner took the lead and
conducted detailed investigation and verification of the project in
terms of design development, project scheme, taking into account
the challenging environmental conditions. The Owner analysed
technology, materials, equipment, management, project staffing
and other factors. Through risk analysis, various mitigating
measures and project plans were formulated. For verification of
criticical design items such as tunnel foundation treatment, lon­
gitudinal calculation, aseismic performance, joint design con­
cepts and so on, different independent analyses of several parties
(including universities and international consultants) and model
tests have been carried out to ensure to that technologies were
feasible and the process is controllable. Various sets of large-scale
special equipment and information control technology were
developed. The project goal was “long life and high quality” and
the established construction principle “Industrialization, large
scale, standardization and assembly ”. At the same time the D&B
S. Quanke et al. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology incorporating Trenchless Technology Research 121 (2022) 104308
contract mode was established, and the associated quality man­
agement methods were implemented with the help of partnership
and internationalization.
(3) The project has obtained research funds from the science and
technology support plan of the Central Government. More than
30 enterprises, universities and scientific research institutions
have conducted research and development on key technologies
and equipment for the design, construction and operation of the
deep buried immersed tunnel and the offshore artificial island for
more than five years. Many innovative design approaches and
solutions have been made, such as design philosophy, advanced
analysis methodologies and software, (structural) durability
principles, testing and monitoring technologies, emergency and
calamity prevention and management etc. The successful imple­
mentation of the project also benefitted from the great progress of
China’s capacity for equipment manufacturing and the coopera­
tion of different industries.
(4) The technology and management experience, the technical
standard and the industrial systems that were developed during
the preparation and realization of HZMB immersed tunnel and
artificial islands, can be used for reference for major transport
infrastructure interconnection projects in China’s “one belt one
road” countries, for the realization of major projects in the bay
area of Guangdong and Hong Kong, and for other similar projects
in China and around the world.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Appendix A
COLOPHON:
Project Organisation
Client Organisation:
• Client Hong: Kong-Zhuhai-Macao Bridge Authority
• Designer: Design JV led by HPDI for Concept Design (see below)
• Client Consultant: Tunnel Engineering Consultants (Netherlands)
and GMDI (China)
• Construction quality management consultant: Mott MacDonald Co.,
Ltd.
Designer and contractor:
• Conceptual and Preliminary design phase
• Lead designer: CCCC Highway Consultants Co., Ltd. (China)
• associate design members:
▪ COWI A/S (Denmark)
▪ Arup (Hong Kong)
▪ Shanghai Tunnel Engineering & Rail Transit Design and
Research Institute (China)
▪ CCCC First Harbor Consultants Co., Ltd. (China)
• General contracting phase design and construction of artificial
islands and tunnel works:
• General contracting consortium design and construction of artifi­
cial islands and tunnel work:
18
▪ Lead member: China Communications Construction Co.,
Ltd. (CCCC)
▪ Construction members:
• AECOM Co., Ltd. (project management support)
• Shanghai Urban Construction Group Corporation, Ltd.
▪ Design members:
• CCCC Highway Consultants Co., Ltd (design lead
member) (China)
• COWI A/S (Denmark)
• Shanghai Tunnel Engineering & Rail Transit Design and
Research Institute (China)
• CCCC Fourth Harbor Design Institute Co., Ltd. (China)
• Construction Supervisor of artificial islands and tunnel work:
• Lead member: China Railway Wuhan Bridge Engineering Consul­
tation & Management Co., Ltd. (China)
• Associate Members:
▪ Guangzhou Port & Waterway Engineering Supervision
Co., Ltd. (China)
▪ Guangzhou Municipal Engineering Supervision Co., Ltd.
(China)
Miscellaneous:
Several figures in this paper are based or have been taken from
design reports that were developed by the Design JV on behalf of the
Client in the Conceptual and Preliminary Design stage.
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