Makaut Question Banks Solution

3D PRINTING QUESTIONS AND SOLUTIONS
Rapid Prototyping is a unique technique to ___ for the development of

new products.
ANS. reduce the lead time and cost
With 3D printing, shapes of machine parts are created by ------------
ANS. building up layers
3D printing technique is also known as ---------------
ANS. layered manufacturing, free-form fabrication
Full form of STL is ____
ANS. Stereo-lithography
The process of obtaining a geometric CAD model from 3D points acquired by
scanning/digitizing existing parts/products is best known as:
ANS. Reverse Engineering
In the ___________ process, one starts with a single block of solid material
larger than the final size of the desired object and material is removed until the
desired shape is reached.
ANS. Subtractive process
To meet the customer’s demand in today’s market, we need -----------
ANS. Additive Manufacturing
Is Injection molding an example of additive manufacturing?
ANS. False
STL file format is represented by interaction of ______.
ANS. lines and triangles
The act of turning a digital 3D model into thin layers used for 3D printing is --
ANS. Slicing
Slicing a part is easier in____
ANS. STL method
STL file convert curved surface into__
ANS. Polygon
STL file consist ------- format
ANS. ASCII and Binary
STL file pluge several problems as they contain no __ data.
ANS. Topological
In STL, a valid model would be one whose one edge is shared by ___ facets
only.
ANS. 2
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Full form of FDM is_______.

ANS. Fused Deposition Modeling
Full from of MJM is _____
ANS. Multi Jet Modeling
Laminatedobject manufacturing(LOM) is developed by ---------
ANS. Cubic Technology
Solid Ground Curing (SGC) is developed by -----------------
ANS. Cubital
Name a 3d printing process which use extrusion concept ?
ANS. Fused deposition modeling (FDM)
Electron Beam Melting (EBM) is developed by ----------------
ANS. Acram
Name a 3d printing process which use input material as powder form?
Selective laser sintering (SLS), Direct Metal deposition (DMD), Electron
ANS.
BeamMelting(EBM
Name a 3d printing process which use input material as liquid form?
ANS. Stereolithography apparatus (SLA)
Name a base material in Electron Beam Melting (EBM) process?
ANS. Ti
Name a base material in in Selective laser sintering (SLS) process?
ANS. Thermoplastics, Metals powders
Name a AM processes that uses a photosensitive liquid polymer as the
starting material.
ANS. Stireolethography
Name a AM processes that uses molten material as the starting material.
ANS. Selective Laser Sintering
Ultrasonic Additive Manufacturing (UAM) is a hybrid sheet lamination process
combining ____
ANS. ultrasonic metal seam welding + CNC milling
Name a AM processes that uses solid sheet stock as the starting material.
ANS. Laminated – Object Manufacturing
Direct Metal Deposition is ____
ANS. a laser assisted direct metal manufacturing process
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How many approaches of the laminated object manufacturing process available ----
-------
ANS. 2
Built plate size of desktop FDM 3d printer is -----------
ANS. 200mm X 200mm X 200mm
Built plate size of industrial SLS 3d printer is -------------
ANS. 1500mm X 750mm X500mm
Typical layer height of desktop SLA 3d printer is -------------
ANS. 25 to 100 micron
Typical layer height of desktop FDM 3d printer is ----------
ANS. 50 to 400 microns
Dimensional accuracy of desktop SLA 3d printer is ----------
ANS. 0.5%
Dimensional accuracy achieved by FDM 3d printer is ----------
ANS. 0.5%
Support structures are required for which position?
ANS. overhanging position of meore than 450
Name a dissolavable support material.
ANS. PVA, HIPS
Minimum infill % used in FDM process is -----------
ANS. 10%
which 3d printing process is regularly used in the production of jewelary?
ANS. Vat Polymerization
Support structures are not required for -----------
ANS. SLS
Warping is one of the most common defects in --------------
ANS. FDM
Most common defects in SLA is -----------
ANS. Curling
In Extrusion based 3D printing AM system, the raw material is used in the form of
____
ANS. Filament
In the process of SLS, raw material used is in the form of ____
ANS. Powder
Polymerization happens ___ in case of SLA process.
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ANS. When the light of appropriate wavelength falls on liquid photopolymer

A tessellated model is said to be valid if there are _____
ANS. No missing facets, No degenerate facets and No overlapping facets
In STL files when chord length decrease then accuracy _______.
ANS. Increase
Full from of LENS is _____
ANS.Laser Engineered Net Shaping
5 MARKS QUESTION
List out the advantages of 3d printing process
3D printers are distinguished from other technologies by providing easier, faster
and cheaper solutions. 3D printers allow designing complex configurations that
need to overlap many of the normal manufacturing processes. At the beginning of
the emergence of this type of printer, plastic was the only material used in printing,
but with the development of technology, various materials such as ceramics, gold,
silver, titanium, and gypsum are introduced.
3D printing has entered life more than you can imagine. It has been used in space
science, engineering, medicine, and entertainment. With this type of printer, it will
be easier to obtain materials and tools more easily and at lower prices.
In the field of medicine, for example, it has become possible to design many forms
of tissues and organs, such as the heart, liver and kidneys, with ease.
With the development of 3D printing, it has also become possible to manufacture
prostheses and orthotics, replace eroded joints and manufacture medical devices.
In fact, Chinese surgeons have actually implanted a skull made by 3D printing of a
girl with hydrocephalus to keep the skull growing naturally.
With the development of a 3D printing machine, a lot of imagination has become a
reality, as it has become possible to make what we can imagine from shoes,
furniture, figures and toys with ease, and it has also become possible to design the
map that you want and then build your dream house with the dimensions you want
using 3D printing.
What is 3D printing? State the history of 3d printing systems and its
fundamental development
3D Printing or additive manufacturing is a process for making a physical object
from a three-dimensional digital model, typically by laying down many successive
thin layers of a material. It brings a digital object (its CAD representation) into its
physical form by adding layer by layer of materials.
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There is a real history of 3D printing: additive manufacturing is not a new

technique. But do you know what was the first technology ever developed?
Stereolithography, or SLA! The first attempts have been made by a French team of
engineers composed by Alain Le Méhauté, Olivier de Witte and Jean-Claude
André. Because of a lack of a business perspective, the project has been
abandoned.
But at the same time, Charles Hull was also interested in the technology and
submitted the first patent for SLA in 1986. He founded the 3D Systems
Corporation and in 1988, released the SLA-1, their first commercial product.
In the 90s, the main technologies have been developed such as the Fused
Deposition Modeling (or FDM) technology and the main actors of the sector also
started during this decade.
Since 2000, the evolutions of additive manufacturing are even faster, and
new applications are found every year: medical 3D printing, 3D printed cars,
mechanical applications of 3D printing. This technology opens new opportunities
in every sector. We will see more in detail the applications of 3D printing later in
this article.
List out the classification of 3d printing systems.
Classification of 3D printing technologies:
In 2015, the ISO/ASTM 52900 was created to standardize how 3D printers and 3D
printing technology are classified. A total of seven process categories were
established.
 Vat polymerization: liquid photopolymer (resin) cured by light
 Material extrusion: molten thermoplastic (filament) deposited through a
heated nozzle
 Powder bed fusion (PBF): powder particles fused by a high-energy source
 Material jetting: droplets of liquid photosensitive fusing agent deposited on
a powder bed and cured by light
 Binder jetting: droplets of liquid binding agent deposited on a bed of
granulated materials, which are later sintered together
 Direct energy deposition: molten metal simultaneously deposited and fused
 Sheet lamination: individual sheets of material cut to shape and laminated
together.
Explain the Generic of 3d printing Process
AM involves a number of steps that move from the virtual CAD description to the
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physical resultant part. Different products will involve AM in different ways and to
different degrees. Small, relatively simple products may only make use of AM for
visualization models, while larger, more complex products with greater
engineering content may involve AM during numerous stages and iterations
throughout the development process. Furthermore, early stages of the product
development process may only require rough parts, with AM being used because
of the speed at which they can be fabricated. At later stages of the process, parts
may require careful cleaning and post-processing (including sanding, surface
preparation, and painting) before they are used, with AM being useful here because
of the complexity of form that can be created without having to consider tooling.
Most AM processes involve, to some degree at least, the following eight steps
1. Conceptualization and CAD
2. Conversion to STL/AMF
3. Transfer and manipulation of STL/AMF file on AM machine
4. Machine setup
5. Build
6. Part removal and cleanup
7. Post-processing of part
8. Application
State about STL File Format in brief.
The STL files can be expressed in either Binary or ASCII format. Both styles
essentially complete the same task (converting a model into a format that is able to
be read and manufactured), but there are differences between the two formats.
The ASCII format is less common (due to the larger file sizes) but easier to
understand and is generally used for illustration and teaching. Most AM systems
run on PCs using Windows. The STL file is normally labeled with a “.STL”
extension that is case insensitive, although some AM systems may require a
different or more specific file definition. These files only show approximations of
the surface or solid entities and so any information concerning the color, material,
build layers, or history is ignored during the conversion process. Furthermore, any
points, lines, or curves used during the construction of the surface or solid, and not
explicitly used in that solid or surface, will also be ignored.
File Format Specifications
An STL file represents a surface geometry using facets. The facets define the
surface of a 3D object, and are uniquely identified by a unit normal, which is a line
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perpendicular to the triangle with length of 1.0, and by three vertices. The unit
normal vector is a line that is perpendicular to the triangle and has a length equal to
1.0. This unit length could be in mm or inches and is stored using three numbers,
corresponding to its vector coordinates. The STL file itself holds no dimensions, so
the AM machine operator must know whether the dimensions are mm, inches, or
some other unit. There are a total of 12 numbers stored for each facet as the
Normal and each vertex are specified by three coordinates each. The STL file does
not contain any scale information; the coordinates are in arbitrary units.
Discuss on slicing relevant to CAD for 3d printing.
Slicing the file
The second step in the 3d printing process is to slice the STL file. In this step, STL
file is sliced, meaning that the triangles are prepared to be manufactured. Each
manufacturing device uses its own software to slice a file. In order to slice the STL
file, first STL file slicing software must be opened and the desired STL file is
imported. Once it is imported, many different options for slicing become available,
such as
 the layer thickness,
 quality of print,
 Extrusion temperature,
 Material,
 In fill percentage, or the option to add support material or print rafts.
These options are selected based on the design needs. Most of these options are
found in the “settings” tab in the manufacturing machine’s software.
Once the slicing options are selected, STL file is then automatically sliced and
prepared for fabrication. The more complex the object, the more triangles are
required, and thus, the bigger the file that makes up the CAD model as well as a
support structure for the part to be produced properly.
Define and explain fused deposition modeling

Fused deposition modeling (FDM): Fused deposition modeling (FDM), also
known as fused filament fabrication (FFF), is an additive manufacturing process
that falls within the category of material extrusion. In FDM, an object is built by
selectively depositing melted material in a predetermined path, layer by layer. The
materials used are thermoplastic polymers, which come in a filament form.
FDM is the most widely used 3D printing technology. It comprises the largest
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installed base of 3D printers globally and is often the first 3D printing technology
that people encounter.
The FDM fabrication process works by first loading a spool of thermoplastic
filament into the printer. Once the nozzle has reached the desired temperature, the
filament is fed into the extrusion head and nozzle, where it melts.
The extrusion head is attached to a three-axis system that allows it to move in the
x-, y- and z- directions. Melted material is extruded in thin strands and deposited
layer by layer in predetermined locations, where it cools and solidifies. Fans can be
attached to the extrusion head to accelerate the cooling.
To fill an area, multiple passes are required, similar to coloring in a rectangle with
a marker. When a layer is finished, the build platform moves down (or in some
machine setups, the extrusion head moves up) and a new layer is deposited. This
process is repeated until the part is complete.
Explain the fundamental principle of stereo lithography process.
SLA is one of the most widely used vat photopolymerization technologies. It is
used to create objects by selectively curing a polymer resin, layer by layer, using
an ultraviolet (UV) laser beam. The materials used in SLA are photosensitive
thermo-set polymers that come in a liquid form.
Patented in 1986, SLA was the first 3D printing technology. And even today, SLA
is still the most cost-effective 3D printing technology available when parts of very
high accuracy or smooth surface finish are needed. Best results are achieved when
the designer takes advantage of the benefits and limitations of the manufacturing
process.
How does stereolithography work?
1. SLA 3D printing works by first positioning the build platform in the tank of
liquid photopolymer, at a distance of one layer height for the surface of the
liquid.
2. A UV laser creates the next layer by selectively curing and solidifying the
photopolymer resin.
3. During the solidification part of the photopolymerization process, the
monomer carbon chains that compose the liquid resin are activated by the
light of the UV laser and become solid, creating strong unbreakable bonds
between each other.
4. The laser beam is focused in a predetermined path using a set of mirrors,
called galvos. The whole cross-sectional area of the model is scanned, so the
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produced part is fully solid.

5. After printing, the part is in a not-fully-cured state. It requires further post-
processing under UV light if very high mechanical and thermal properties
are required.
How does SLS 3D printing work?
SLS 3D printing uses a laser to sinter small particles of polymer powder. The
entire cross section of the component is scanned, so the part is built solid. The
process works as follows:
1. The powder bin and the build area are first heated to just below the melting
temperature of the polymer.
2. A re-coating blade spreads a thin layer of powder over the build platform.
3. A CO2 laser then scans the contour of the next layer and selectively
sinters—fuses together—the particles of the polymer powder.
4. When a layer is complete, the build platform moves downwards and the
blade re-coat the surface. The process then repeats until the whole part is
complete.
5. After printing, the parts are fully encapsulated in the unsintered powder. The
powder bin must cool before the parts can be unpacked, which can take a
considerable amount of time—sometimes up to 12 hours.
6. The parts are then cleaned with compressed air or another blasting media,
then they are ready to use or further post-process.
Discuss the use of metallic materials in 3D printing
Metals: Metals are another type of materials used for 3DP. Metal alloys are
composed of two or more elements, in which at least one is a metallic element.
Alloying elements are added to the metal alloy to improve their physical
properties. There are two types of metals: ferrous and nonferrous.
Ferrous metals are based on iron element. There are thousands of varying types of
ferrous metals, but only few of them are used in 3DP. The most common ferrous
metal is steel and cast iron. The essential ferrous alloying element is carbon from
which steel and cast iron are formed. The carbon quantities added to the alloy
varies from an alloy to another. The range of carbons added is usually between
0.1% and 0.7% of the compound. Some other common alloying elements are
chromium, manganese, nickel, and molybdenum. Each alloying elements enhances
particular property of the alloy. Some general properties of ferrous alloys include
good strength, relatively low cost among metals, and process ability.
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Nonferrous alloys include all other metallic alloys. Nonferrous metals include
aluminum, nickel, copper, gold, magnesium, silver, tin, zinc, and titanium. Some
nonferrous alloys are easy to process and others not. For example, aluminum alloys
are easy to process, but titanium and nickel alloys are not. This is why aluminum
alloys are widely used in the aerospace industry. In rocket engine and gas turbine,
for instance, nonferrous alloys with high-temperature performances, such as nickel
and cobalt as the metal base constituent alloy, are needed due to their lower
tendency for oxidation.
Metals have various properties which make them attractive in 3DP industry. They
provide a good combination of strength, toughness, and machinability unlike
ceramics, which are brittle, and polymers, which cannot be used in high
temperature applications. In addition, metals have good electrical and thermal
conductivity and most importantly good ductility.
Discuss the use of Liquid Based Materials in 3D printing
Liquid-based materials are thermoplastic polymers (polyamide nylons)
or thermosetting polymers such as epoxies. In stereolithography, parts are built
from a photosensitive polymer fluid that cures under exposure to a laser beam.
This process has seen much development in the types of materials used, especially
in photosensitive polymers or photopolymers. Stereolithography has generally
been used on acrylates and epoxies. However, it is expected that stereolithography
resin suppliers will continue to make progress in creating new materials that have
selected thermoplastic properties.
In the late 1960s, the first UV curable photopolymers were developed to reduce air
pollution from solvent-based coatings. Photopolymers are solidified (cured) when
exposed to electromagnetic radiation with a specific wavelength including gamma
rays, X-rays, ultraviolet (UV), visible light and infrared. Radiation technology
today uses electron-beam (EB), and UV curing of photopolymers as the most
common commercial applications.
Acrylate-based photopolymers are the most widely used resin systems developed
for stereolithography. Later, resins were developed based on vinyl-ether (e.g.
Allied Signal’s Exactomer resins) and epoxy systems.
Most resins in use today are epoxies. These resin systems are developed to react to
UV light in the 325 nm laser wavelength from a helium-cadmium (HeCd) laser for
the SLA-250 stereolithography system [3D Systems]. Other resin systems have
been developed for different laser wavelengths.
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Discuss the use of Powder-Based materials in 3D printing

Powder-Based Materials: Powder-based RP systems use powder as the prime
material to prototype parts. In this section, powder-based materials will be
discussed in relation to the following RP systems: selective laser sintering (SLS) of
polymers and composites, direct metal deposition, direct shell casting for
polymers, metals, and ceramics.
Polymers
Thermoplastics: SLS process utilizes the Sinterstation (or the newer version
called Vanguard) from 3D Systems, which is used to fabricate both polyamide
(nylon), which is called DuraForm PA and PC. The laser-sintered method raises
the density of these materials to an intermediate density and then post processed to
increase their density.
Polymer Composites: Duraform GF is a glass-filled/nylon composite that is
composed of a glassfilled SLS polymer–matrix composite. Duraform consists of
glass particles imbedded inside an SLS nylon matrix, which work on lowering the
tensile strength of SLS nylon.
In addition, the glass particles make the matrix more brittle than the SLS nylon.
However, this composite has a higher elastic modulus, which adds a closer match
to the modulus of an actual component during the test inside a wind tunnel.
Elastomers: DSM Somos 201 is a powder, a thermoplastic elastomer that is
sintered to create highly flexible parts with elastomer characteristics. These models
can be used in place of urethane, silicone, or rubber parts in such applications as
moldings, gaskets, hoses, and vibration dampers. Somos 201 has a melting point of
156°C that makes it withstand heat and chemical solvents.
Powders: The process of SLS involves heating powders slightly below the melting
point using a laser in the case of a metal. Here, the temperature is high enough to
sinter or bond the individual powder particles together. Thereafter, the
postprocessing is used to increase the density of the powder.
The size of the powder particles in SLS is very small. For instance, the large-sized
particles cause the surface of the part to be very course. If the particles are too fine,
then the surfaces of the particles develop electrostatic charges that make the
powders difficult to spread in a 2D layer. In addition, larger particles need a faster
sintering rate
How do you design for FDM printing?
Designing for FDM: Although FDM is regularly defined as the simplest
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3D printing technology, there are a number of design limitations and rules that
must be considered. Most of this center around the anisotropic behavior of FDM
parts and the need for support material.
Support structures and part orientation: A common feature on FDM prints
are overhangs. Overhangs occur when the printed layer of material is only
partially supported by the layer below. Angled walls or curved surfaces are
examples of overhangs. When a feature is printed with an overhang of 45° or less
(relative to the horizontal) it can sag and requires support material beneath it to
hold it in place.
Support allows overhanging features that are below the 45° threshold to be
printed accurately (Figure b). The downside to support is that it must be removed
and this can have a detrimental effect on the surface of the part. Using dissolvable
support can ease this problem. The location and amount of support a print requires
is heavily dependent upon part orientation.
Key design consideration: Due to the nature of FDM, sagging or marks from
support material are to some extent always present unless the bridge is less than
5mm. If a smooth, level surface is required, an advanced solution is to split the
design into separate parts or do some form of post-processing.
Vertical axis holes: FDM often prints undersized vertical-axis holes. The printing
process for such a hole and the reason its diameter gets reduced can be summarized
as follows:
 As the nozzle prints the perimeter of a vertical axis hole, it compresses the
newly printed layer down onto the existing build layers to help improve
adhesion.
 The nozzle’s compressing force deforms the extruded round layer shape
from a circle into a wider, flatter shape.
 This increases the area of contact with the previously printed layer,
improving adhesion but widening the extruded segment.
State the design of Support structures and part orientation for Material Jetting
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Support structures and part orientation: As with most 3D printing technologies,

Material Jetting requires the use of support material to accurately print parts. Like
some FDM printers, Material Jetting prints support from a secondary dissolvable
wax-like material that is removed after the print is complete.
 Materials Jetting parts are limited by the need to manually remove support
material
 Any fully enclosed cavities will be filled completely with support material
that cannot be removed.
 In addition, long, narrow cavities or small holes are very difficult to clean.
Because of this, any holes or channels should be greater than 0.5 mm in
width (channels with a depth-to-width ratio of 2:1 are especially difficult to
clean).
 Escape holes generally do not assist with the removal of support material
and are therefore not required, as the support material is printed as a solid
(compared to SLA or SLS where the material being removed is a liquid or
powder).
 Manually removing support with pressurized water can also cause damage to
intricate or fine features of a model.
It should be noted that not all printed parts need to be cleaned with a waterjet
system. Manual support removal with small tools can allow for finer features to be
adequately cleaned.
If stronger features are required, consider using the glossy (instead of matte) option
when defining part surface finish, as glossy features are often stronger.
The part orientation is more flexible because of the homogeneous nature of the
printing process. As layers are cured, they blend. The system actually cures 3
layers deep during the print process: when a layer is deposited, it is cured to around
60%, when the second layer is dropped, this first layer cures to around 95%, and
when the third layer is dropped and the first is cured to 100%. This allows for
better layer bonding, reduces porosity, and also results in parts with homogeneous
properties, regardless of orientation.
How do you integrate Multi-material in: Material Jetting process.
Multi-material integration: Material Jetting is the only technology that is capable
of printing multimaterial parts at once (more than two). The functionality of
multimaterial printing can be utilized in three ways.
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 Mixed tray
 Digital materials
 Mixed parts
Mixed tray: Mixed tray produces separate parts from different materials on the
same build platform. For example, a flexible rubber part can be printed on the
same build platform as a rigid part. This removes the need to change materials
between prints, improving efficiency.
Digital materials: Digital materials are the result of combining two or three resins
in specific concentrations and microstructures to create a composite material with
hybrid characteristics. By combining flexible and rigid materials at specific ratios,
it becomes possible to produce parts with exact properties.
Mixed parts: Mixed parts can be made of multiple materials. Mixed part printing
removes the need for assembly of components, increasing production speed. When
used in conjunction with full color printing this allows for very realistic designs to
be produced.
Discuss Support structures and part orientation of Material Jetting
Support structures and part orientation: As with most 3D printing technologies,
Material Jetting requires the use of support material to accurately print parts. Like
some FDM printers, Material Jetting prints support from a secondary dissolvable
wax-like material that is removed after the print is complete.
 Materials Jetting parts are limited by the need to manually remove support
material
 Any fully enclosed cavities will be filled completely with support material
that cannot be removed.
 In addition, long, narrow cavities or small holes are very difficult to clean.
Because of this, any holes or channels should be greater than 0.5 mm in
width (channels with a depth-to-width ratio of 2:1 are especially difficult to
clean).
 Escape holes generally do not assist with the removal of support material
and are therefore not required, as the support material is printed as a solid
(compared to SLA or SLS where the material being removed is a liquid or
powder).
 Manually removing support with pressurized water can also cause damage to
intricate or fine features of a model.
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It should be noted that not all printed parts need to be cleaned with a waterjet
system. Manual support removal with small tools can allow for finer features to be
adequately cleaned.
If stronger features are required, consider using the glossy (instead of matte) option
when defining part surface finish, as glossy features are often stronger.
The part orientation is more flexible because of the homogeneous nature of the
printing process. As layers are cured, they blend. The system actually cures 3
layers deep during the print process: when a layer is deposited, it is cured to around
60%, when the second layer is dropped, this first layer cures to around 95%, and
when the third layer is dropped and the first is cured to 100%. This allows for
better layer bonding, reduces porosity, and also results in parts with homogeneous
properties, regardless of orientation.
Material Jetting support material is costly, so designs are often oriented to limit
support usage or to ensure that the presentation surface of a design is facing
upward for optimum surface finishing. This way contact with the support is
avoided when a glossy finish is chosen.
Explain Support structures for FDM printing.
Support structures for FDM printing: A common feature on FDM prints
are overhangs. Overhangs occur when the printed layer of material is only
partially supported by the layer below. Angled walls or curved surfaces are
examples of overhangs. When a feature is printed with an overhang of 45° or less
(relative to the horizontal) it can sag and requires support material beneath it to
hold it in place.
Support allows overhanging features that are below the 45° threshold to be
printed accurately (Figure b). The downside to support is that it must be removed
and this can have a detrimental effect on the surface of the part. Using dissolvable
support can ease this problem. The location and amount of support a print requires
is heavily dependent upon part orientation.
For some geometry, support is not required over the entire length of a surface.
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This is usually most applicable to curved surfaces (as the angle changes over the
length of the surface). By selectively placing support only where it is needed the
cost and time required to complete a print can be reduced.
State the options for SLA post processing.
SLA 3D printing is capable of producing prints with fine details and feature as
small as 0.3 mm. The biggest drawback to this technology is that parts are often
small and most prints need to be oriented at an angle and require support structures
to be attached to the model. These supports leave marks on the surface and create
uneven surfaces. Fortunately, most SLA resins are one of the easiest 3D printed
materials to post process. SLA resins allow for a range of finishing options with
the most common of these described below -
Basic support removal Process: The support structure is broken off or cut from
the model leaving a bumpy surface on the surfaces in contact with support
material. If a high quality surface finish is required adding extra material (at least
0.1 mm) to be sanded afterwards allows for better dimensional accuracy.
Sanded support nibs Process: Only the small support nibs are sanded off. This
process is suited for flat surfaces where it is easy to judge the surface is flat.
Because the surface is only sanded at the support nibs the overall geometry of the
parts is generally unaffected.
Wet sanded Process: Wet sanding generally achieves the smoothest surface finish
(depending on the number of sandpaper graduations used). On the unsupported
side of the model, only the build lines need to be sanded. This can typically be
achieved with a single high grade of sandpaper (no graduation needed) making the
finish a lot cheaper. The supported side is more labor intensive typically requiring
at least 4 sandpaper graduations. It is, therefore, best practice to place the supports
on the least visible part of the model. Depending on the support placement there
may be some accuracy loss as material is removed through the sanding process.
Mineral oil finish Process: This finish is similar to the wet sanded finish with the
exception of a mineral oil layer added after the sanding process. The mineral oil
helps to hide the white/light spots on the model creating a nice even finish.
This finish is well suited for mechanical parts reducing friction and lubricating the
surface.
Spray paint (clear UV protective acrylic) Process: Spray painting the model
helps to conceal layer lines reducing the need to sand the unsupported side of the
model. The varnish also protects the model from yellowing and post curing by
16 AOT/ME/SKL
limiting UV exposure.
Acrylic paint will not adhere well to flexible resin. If flexible resin needs to have a
glossy finish coating with a thin layer of resin then curing underwater can achieve
this, however, this affects tolerances and details dramatically.
Polished to clear transparent finish Process: The surface is sanded using
increased grit levels of sand paper (concluding with 2000 grit). The surface is then
polished with a polishing compound. This results in the most clear surface possible
but it is very time consuming and only possible on surfaces that can be sanded
easily.
This finish is well suited for simple shapes with few details (like the crystal of a
watch). It is less suited for models which need a clear finish on both sides with
complex geometries like ribs and small spaces.
This finish may not be suitable for tough and flexible resin as they are softer than
the other resins.
State the most common defects found in the FDM process and their causes.
Most common defects found in the FDM process: A well-calibrated printer, correct
lamination and an experienced operator are key to avoiding these problems.
Warping: Corners of the bottom part are bent upwards. Warping can be caused by
the following factors:
Lack of adhesion to the bed: This can occur due to excessive distance of the nozzle
in relation to the base, or poor leveling. It can also be caused by insufficient
adhesion from the extruded plastic to the print surface. It can be solved using
adhesives on the print surface
Thermal contraction in the upper layers which when shrinking pull the lower
layers. This happens mostly with materials such as ABS or Nylon. In these cases,
it's recommended to use an enclosed 3D printer that keeps the hot air inside the 3D
printer, reducing thermal contraction.
Cracking: when the layers of a part are not well joined, resulting in these layers
being separated. This problem can be caused by two different reasons:
Poor adhesion between the layers: the layers do not stick properly to each other.
Poor adhesion is usually caused by a low printing temperature. This can be solved
by increasing the print temperature or reducing the layer fan speed.
Thermal Shrinkages: the layers stick together well, but a difference in temperature
between different sections of the part causes it to deform, which can cause some
layers to separate. The best solution is to use an enclosed 3D printer and to avoid
17 AOT/ME/SKL
room temperature variations.

Layer shifting is a problem that occurs in the form of displacement on some axis at
a certain height. It can occur in the X-axis, the Y-axis or even both simultaneously.
he most common causes of layer shifting are:
Excessive temperature in the motors or drivers: the electronics are not designed to
operate continuously at a very high temperature. Add dedicated fans or heatsink to
each motor if necessary.
Lack of power in the motors: usually caused by a very low voltage value in the
drivers. Check if the motor's voltage can be increased in the mainboard, and follow
all security measures when doing it.
Mechanical failure: it can happen that we have some of our belt’s teeth broken, or
there is some debris on the shafts that can cause a jam in the movement of our
printer.
Stringing appears when, as the hot end moves between two sections of our print, a
small amount of plastic drips off and sticks to both sections, leaving a small thread
in between. This problem is usually caused by inaccurate settings used during the
slicing process. The most important parameters you should check in your slicer to
minimize stringing are the following:
Temperature: if you have stringing issues, the print temperature may be too high.
Try lowering the temperature, closer to the lower limit recommended by the
manufacturer.
Retractions distance: It is used to reduce pressure on the nozzle by pulling the
filament out of the hot zone during movements. Bowden 3D printers require a 3-
6mm retraction distance, while direct drive 3D printers use a 0.5-2mm retraction
distance.
Retraction speed: The higher the retraction speed, the lower the stringing. Values
between 40 mm/s and 60 mm/s usually work.
The elephant foot is a defect consisting of the expansion in the horizontal plane of
the layers of part. It can occur due to two things or, normally, a combination of
both: the nozzle is too close to the bed or the temperature of the print bed is too
high.
To solve this problem we must level our first layer and decrease the bed
temperature if it was too high.
State the most common defects found in the SLA process and their causes
Curling: One of the biggest problems relating to the accuracy of parts produced
18 AOT/ME/SKL
via SLA is curling. During the curing process, the resin shrinks slightly upon
exposure to the printer's light source. When the shrinkage is considerable, large
internal stresses develop between the new layer and the previously solidified
material, which results in the part curling.
Support is important to help anchor at-risk sections of a print to the build plate and
mitigate the likelihood of curling. Part orientation and limiting large flat layers are
also important. Over-curing (for example by exposing the part to direct sunlight
post-printing) might also cause curling.
The best way to prevent curling is to keep it in mind during the design process.
Avoid large thin and flat areas wherever possible, or add a structure to prevent the
part from curling.
Layer adhesion: SLA-printed parts have isotropic mechanical properties. This is
because a single UV laser pass is not enough to fully cure the liquid resin. Later
laser passes help previously solidified layers to fuse together to a very high degree.
In fact, curing continues even after the completion of the printing process.
To achieve the best mechanical properties, SLA parts must be post-cured, by
placing them in a cure box under intense UV light (and sometimes at elevated
temperatures). This greatly improves the hardness and temperature resistance of
the SLA part but makes it more brittle.
15 MARKS
Define 3d printing.
Explain the roles of3d
printing in prototype
development process.
(7)
ANS.
3D printing is an additive technology used to
manufacture parts. It is ‘additive’ in that it doesn’t
require a block of material or a mold to manufacture
physical objects; it simply stacks and fuses layers of
material. It’s typically fast, with low fixed setup costs,
and can create more complex geometries than
‘traditional’ technologies, with an ever-expanding list of
materials. It is used extensively in the engineering
19 AOT/ME/SKL
industry, particularly for prototyping and creating

lightweight geometries.
Prototyping is an essential step in the product
development process. For close to three decades now, 3D
print for prototyping has been widely used to create
physical prototypes for visualization purposes, functional
prototypes or testing. And the benefits are manifold.
Functional prototyping with 3D printing makes it easy
for product development to create multiple iterations
before proceeding into production tooling. This allows
companies to shorten their lead times and avoid costly
mistakes, before introducing new products to the market.
Functional prototypes can be 3D printed with materials
that are very similar to the end-use product materials.
This means that functional prototypes can also be used in
the testing phase of new product. The benefits are shorter
time to market and less costly tests.
b) State the application of
3d printing.
(5)
ANS.
3D printing can be used by all kinds of industries, and for
really different applications. Here is an overview of what
3D printing can do :
Automotive 3D printing
Additive manufacturing is more and more used in the
automotive sector. 3D printing to make car parts is really
convenient, especially for classic cars, with parts that are
no longer produced. It is also becoming a way to rethink
the structure of cars to make them
lighter and improve their performances and creating
more eco-friendly car models. 3D printing is now able to
produce technical parts for the automotive sector, and the
fully 3D printed car will become a reality in the
upcoming years.
20 AOT/ME/SKL
Medical 3D printing
Medical 3D printing is now becoming a common
application of this technology! From implants to custom-
made prosthetics, additive manufacturing is offering
plenty of great advantages to the medical sector.
Surgeons can also get 3D printed models to train before
their surgeries, these 3D printed organs can be really
useful and help save time and money. Surgeons are also
using additive manufacturing to create tools entirely
fitting their needs!
3D printing for architecture
Additive manufacturing can be used in the construction
sector to give life to mockups and get a better
visualization of your projects for you and your potential
customers. This is an efficient solution to materialize
your ideas.
3D printing for tooling
We already saw that 3D printing was an efficient
technique to improve the tooling process of car
manufacturers. But reducing tooling investment can be
beneficial for any business and you should definitely
start to think about it.
3D printing for robotics
Create rapid prototypes thanks to 3D printing to get parts
fitting your robot project. This technique is perfect to get
the perfect design for your project, with lighter parts and
reduced assembly time. The large offer of 3D printing
materials creates the possibility to get robotics parts with
incredible mechanical properties. Moreover, it is also
convenient to produce unique and specific parts with
great freedom of design.
c) Explain the limitations of 3d printing
c
(3)
ANS.
21 AOT/ME/SKL
Limited Materials: While 3D Printing can create items

in a selection of plastics and metals the available
selection of raw materials is not exhaustive. This is due
to the fact that not all metals or plastics can be
temperature controlled enough to allow 3D printing. In
addition, many of these printable materials cannot be
recycled and very few are food safe.
Restricted Build Size: 3D printers currently have small
print chambers which restrict the size of parts that can be
printed. Anything bigger will need to be printed in
separate parts and joined together after production. This
can increase costs and time for larger parts due to the
printer needing to print more parts before manual labour
is used to join the parts together.
Post Processing
Although large parts require post-processing, as
mentioned above, most 3D printed parts need some form
of cleaning up to remove support material from the build
and to smooth the surface to achieve the required finish.
Post processing methods used include waterjetting,
sanding, a chemical soak and rinse, air or heat drying,
assembly and others. The amount of post processing
required depends on factors including the size of the part
being produced, the intended application and the type of
3D printing technology used for production. So, while
3D printing allows for the fast production of parts, the
speed of manufacture can be slowed by post processing.
Large Volumes
3D printing is a static cost unlike more conventional
techniques like injection moulding, where large volumes
may be more cost effective to produce. While the initial
investment for 3D printing may be lower than other
manufacturing methods, once scaled up to produce large
volumes for mass production, the cost per unit does not
reduce as it would with injection moulding.
22 AOT/ME/SKL
(15 Marks)
a) Define and Explain
3D printing.
(3)
ANS.
3D Printing or additive manufacturing is a process for
making a physical object from a three-dimensional digital
model, typically by laying down many successive thin layers
of a material. It brings a digital object (its CAD
representation) into its physical form by adding layer by
layer of materials.
There are several different techniques to 3D Print an object.
We will go in further details later in the class. 3D Printing
brings two fundamental innovations: the manipulation of
objects in their digital format and the manufacturing of new
shapes by addition of material.
Digital + Additive Manufacturing
b) State the
Characteristics of
Additive
Manufacturing/ 3d
printing,
(6)
ANS.
Layer technologies in general and additive manufacturing in
particular show special characteristics:
I. The geometry of each layer is obtained solely and
directly from the 3D computer-aided design (CAD)
data of the part (commonly called a virtual product
model).
II. There are no product-related tools necessary and
consequently no tool change.
III. The material properties of the part are generated
during the build process.
IV. The parts can be built in any imaginable orientation.
23 AOT/ME/SKL
There is no need for clamping, thus eliminating the

clamping problem of subtractive manufacturing
technologies.
V. Nevertheless, some processes need support structures,
and the orientation of the part influences the parts’
properties.
VI. Today, all AM processes can be run using the same
so-called STL (or AMF) data structure, thus
eliminating data exchange problems with pre-
processors as used in subtractive manufacturing.
Additive manufacturing/3D printing therefore ensures
the direct conversion of the 3D CAD data (the virtual
product model) into a physical or real part.
Explain Additive
Manufacturing and
Product
Development.
(6)
ANS.
Additive Manufacturing and Product Development:
Industrial product formation involves the time period from
the first product idea to the introduction of the product to the
market. It includes the development of the product, the
development and the fabrication of the production facility,
and the production of the product itself.
The goal of all manufacturers is to keep this time span as
short as possible and therefore to optimize all sub-processes.
Additive manufactured parts are particularly suitable to
shortening the product development process and to
improving it at the same time. The biggest influence comes
from the fact that expensive and time-consuming tools can
be avoided with the use of additive manufacturing/3D
printing.
Product development covers rapid prototyping and rapid
manufacturing (of the production facility as well as of the
24 AOT/ME/SKL
product). In detail, ideation and conception are improved by

concept modeling, while the engineering design
and the technical preparation are supported by functional
prototyping. The fabrication of the products is done by direct
manufacturing. Rapid tooling supports the making of tools
and tool inserts. In the prototyping phase, prototype tooling
is applied, and in the production phase direct tooling is used.
The product development steps: idea, planning/definition,
conception, and development/ realization. For every step of
the product development cycle, models with different
characteristics are used and named. For example, models
used in the conception are concept models.
For rapid prototyping, it would be very useful to use
authoritative names for different models to show how the
requirements from the product development and the
requirements of the additive manufacturing production could
be best connected.
The key is to give the developer some data from which he
can see which prototype would be the best fit for the actual
product development step. If they are identical with the end
product, they are called components or end
products, even if they are produced in very small series or on
an individual basis.
(15 Marks)
a) Differentiate between additive manufacturing (AM) and CNC machining.
(5)
b) Describe in
detail the basic
steps involved in
3D printing.
( 10 )
ANS.
3d Printing involves a number of steps that move from the
virtual CAD description to the physical resultant part.
Different products will involve 3d Printing in different ways
25 AOT/ME/SKL
and to different degrees. Small, relatively simple products may

only make use of 3d Printing for visualization models, while
larger, more complex products with greater engineering
content may involve 3d Printing during numerous stages and
iterations throughout the development process. Furthermore,
early stages of the product development process may only
require rough parts, with 3d Printing being used because of the
speed at which they can be fabricated. At later stages of the
process, parts may require careful cleaning and post-
processing (including sanding, surface preparation, and
painting) before they are used, with 3d Printing being useful
here because of the complexity of form that can be created
without having to consider tooling. Most 3d Printing processes
involve the following eight steps------
Step 1: CAD: All 3d Printing parts must start from a software
model that fully describes the external geometry. This can
involve the use of almost any professional CAD solid
modeling software, but the output must be a 3D solid or
surface representation. Reverse engineering equipment (e.g.,
laser and optical scanning) can also be used to create this
representation.
Step 2: Conversion to STL: Nearly every 3d Printer accepts
the STL file format, which has become a defacto standard, and
nowadays nearly every CAD system can output such a file
format. This file describes the external closed surfaces of the
original CAD model and forms the basis for calculation of the
slices.
Step 3: Transfer to AM Machine and STL File
Manipulation: The STL file describing the part must be
transferred to the 3d Printer. Here, there may be some general
manipulation of the file so that it is the correct size, position,
and orientation for building.
Step 4: Machine Setup: The 3d Printer must be properly set
up prior to the build process. Such settings would relate to the
build parameters like the material constraints, energy source,
26 AOT/ME/SKL
layer thickness, timings, etc.

Step 5: Build: Building the part is mainly an automated
process and the machine can largely carry on without
supervision. Only superficial monitoring of the machine needs
to take place at this time to ensure no errors have taken place
like running out of material, power or software glitches, etc.
Step 6: Removal: Once the 3d Printer has completed the
build, the parts must be removed. This may require interaction
with the machine, which may have safety interlocks to ensure
for example that the operating temperatures are sufficiently
low or that there are no actively moving parts.
Step 7: Post-processing: Once removed from the machine,
parts may require an amount of additional cleaning up before
they are ready for use. Parts may be weak at this stage or they
may have supporting features that must be removed. This
therefore often requires time and careful, experienced manual
manipulation.
Step 8: Application: Parts may now be ready to be used.
However, they may also require additional treatment before
they are acceptable for use. For example, they may require
priming and painting to give an acceptable surface texture and
finish. Treatments may be laborious and lengthy if the
finishing requirements are very demanding. They may also be
required to be assembled together with other mechanical or
electronic components to form a final model or product.
(15 Marks)
a) Explain the
various demands
on CAD system
used in 3D
printing
(8)
ANS.
Demands on CAD Systems: When judging CAD systems as the
basis for additive manufacturing processes, many of the properties
27 AOT/ME/SKL
discussed in the preceding as possible should be taken into

consideration. The basic requirements for the systems are to
develop a 3D model and the possibility to transfer this model for
additive manufacturing via the interface. The transformation via
neutral interfaces into another CAD system and from there via an
STL interface to the AM machine should always be regarded as a
detour. The following features have been established as
advantageous for the selection of CAD systems:
 Parametric 3D designs: Instead of using fixed

measurements, parameters are agreed on that can be
correlated with each other by mathematical functions.
 Hybrid models: Hybrid models combine the advantages
of both solids and surface models and are therefore very
well suited for rapid prototyping applications.
 Continuous database: The CAD system and all
associated modules must always refer to a common,
compulsory database.
 Redundancy avoidance: A continuous database will
avoid redundancies; that the database will be free of data
unnecessarily stored more than once. Such multiple
storages are to be avoided in view of the storage
capacity, speed, and clarity of the program.
 Open system: It needs to be guaranteed that the systems
can be linked with specialized modules from
independent producers (reverse engineering, CT
modeling, and additive manufacturing software).
 Associativity: The internal architecture of the CAD
systems must ensure that any alterations cause all
dependencies to be checked and modified where
necessary.
Further, when choosing a CAD system, one should, for example,
assess how easy it is to learn to work with it and its level of
support in performing certain tasks, which may be specific for
special branches. The market offers a vast number of CAD
28 AOT/ME/SKL
systems that often differ only in specialties typical for specific

fields of activity. It is increasingly probable that all important
CAD systems either possess an STL interface already or will
obtain one in the near future. Usually other complementary rapid
prototyping interfaces are available, for example, SLC, PLY,
VRML, or HPGL.
b) Describe the advantages and disadvantages of the STL file
b format.
(7)
ANS.
The STL formulation, however, possesses practical advantages:
Given that the surface is based on triangles, it is possible to cut
the model at any desired z coordinate. Also, when the CAD model
is not available, STL models permit any desired scale at random
without reversing into the CAD.
 Because the intersection contains only data elements of a
type that can be described by relatively simple means,
syntax errors of the ASCII version in the programming of
the interface are very easy to recognize and eliminate, and
therefore they pose practically no problem.
 In contrast to contour-oriented intersections, smaller errors
may be repaired relatively easily. It is also an advantage
that a triangle provides a higher quality of geometric
information than does the contour vector.
 The STL formulation also has disadvantages:
It generates a large volume of data, especially when the
surface quality is improved by refining the net of triangles.
 STL files contain only geometrical information.
Information about color, texture, material, or other
characteristics of the physical model are missing.
(15 Marks)
a) Explain
slicing for
3d printing.
29 AOT/ME/SKL
(3)
ANS.
Slice meaning that the triangles are prepared to be manufactured.
Each manufacturing device uses its own software to slice a file. In
order to slice the STL file, first STL file slicing software must be
opened and the desired STL file is imported. Once it is imported,
many different options for slicing become available, such as
 the layer thickness,
 quality of print,
 Extrusion temperature
 Material
b) What is the process for creating STL files from a CAD system?
b
(6)
ANS.
There are three basic steps followed when creating an STL file:
 The selection of the part to be converted, choosing the
tolerance for the conversion process
 the approximation of the object by triangles
 That is then saved as an output file. As mentioned previously,
both the surface and solid parts of a model can be converted
into the STL format, but it is more difficult for surface models
to be created. When a surface model is being processed, there
are more steps to follow to ensure that the object is properly
produced.
 First, all places where different surfaces meet must be
determined. When these surfaces are changed into a series of
triangles, it is important to ensure that all edge vertices line up
and match to avoid zero-thickness points (places where the
object cannot be manufactured).
 After this, it is important to check that the normal for the object
(the orientation for a surface) points to the outside of the model.
Once this is checked, the rest of the object can be converted into
triangles and saved as an output file. Many times, this process can
be completed by the CAD software, but it is still important to do a
30 AOT/ME/SKL
quick recheck of all these steps. For both a regular model and a
surface model, there are also a series of interface tolerance and
appearance options that must also be addressed. These tolerances
include the
 Triangulation tolerance,
 Adjacency tolerance, and
 Auto-normal generation as well as the appearance options of
triangle display and header information.
Triangulation tolerance is the tolerance that determines how
smooth the approximation of the object will be. A smaller (referred
to as tighter) triangulation tolerance will produce more triangles
that lie along the edges and approximate the surface better.
However, this will increase the amount of time it takes to
manufacture the object. The default for most triangulation
tolerances is 0.0025 inches or 0.05mm, which creates a relatively
accurate object without increasing the manufacturing time too
much.
In addition to the triangulation tolerance, the adjacency tolerance
also affects the creation of the STL file. The adjacency tolerance
does not affect the processing of solids, but instead is used to
determine how closely two surfaces will be attached to one
another. With the use of triangles in STL files, it is not possible to
create perfectly curved surfaces so there are small edges between
every surface. Adjusting the adjacency tolerance will affect how
close these edges are to each other and how smooth an
approximated curve will be. The default value for the adjacency
tolerance is 0.005 inches or 0.12mm. Again, tightening the
adjacency tolerance will increase the production time, but will
make a more naturally curved surface.
The final tolerance for STL files is the auto-normal generation.
Normals are important as they determine the orientation of a
surface relative to a predetermined axis, which is often chosen by
the CAD software. Most CAD software has auto-normal
generation, meaning that the normal for every surface is chosen
automatically, saving the designer of the object time. Autonormal
31 AOT/ME/SKL
generation typically will produce normal pointing to the outside of

the object, which is necessary to print a surface model.
This is done by choosing a base surface (generally the first surface
created in the CAD software by the creator), checking the normal
of that surface, and then calculating all other normals from this
surface. The default for auto-normal generation is typically on, but
it can be turned off if the designer wants to manually adjust
normals to their choosing.
Following these tolerances, there are two appearance options that
can be adjusted. The triangle display option can be turned on and
off, which determines if the triangles are shown in when the object
is saved as in the STL format. In addition, the header display can
be toggled on and off, which determines if the text notes on the
object are shown or not.
c) Describe the STL file problems.
c
(6)
ANS.
A correct STL-based model is characterised by closed and connected
triangles that don’t overlap and where every edge is part of two
triangles. However, when converting from CAD to STL, errors can
frequently arise due to a fault in the conversion. These errors can
directly impact whether you’ll be able to 3D prints your part.
1. Holes or gaps in a mesh: One of the most common errors leading
to printing failures is missing triangles. This occurs when the adjacent
triangles fail to share two common vertices. If this error is
overlooked, the printer will not be able to correctly print the design.
Which is why it’s crucial to make the design in STL file manifold or,
as it’s also known, watertight – which means that there mustn’t be any
gaps on the surface.
2. Flipped normals: Each triangle in the mesh has a normal vector,
which points out to the outer side of a triangle. Normals tell the
printer which way to add the material. Occasionally, the normal
vector faces the reverse direction and this can lead to confusion
during the printing process. When the designed model has a flipped
32 AOT/ME/SKL
normal, a 3D printer has difficulties in identifying the inside and the

outside of the model, and so the model cannot be accurately sliced
and printed.
3. Intersecting and overlapping triangles: This error occurs when
two surfaces overlap or cross one another due to the complexity of the
internal geometry. While it typically doesn’t take too much effort to
repair such an error, if it isn’t corrected, this will inevitably add time
and cost to the process, as the model will require more material. To
avoid a failed print, you will need to remove or unify these triangles
with file repair software.
4. Bad edges: The problem of bad edges is encountered when the
edges of triangles are not properly connected to each other, creating
holes and bad contours. Bad edges result in non-manifold design,
which means that the digital model isn’t printable. Patching and
blending bad edges with the dedicated software tools can help to
repair the file and will allow you to print a high-quality object.
5. Noise shells: Shells are the outer layers of a print on the outside of
the model. The higher the number of shells, the denser outside walls
of the printed part. However, when a shell gets too small, it becomes
redundant and serves little purpose. Such shells are called “noise
shells” and, although they can be easily dealt with by flipping
inverted triangles.
(15 Marks)
a)
Define Tessellation
(2)
Tessellation is the process of approximating a surface using
triangles. The CAD STL file interface performs surface
tessellation and then outputs the information to either a Binary
or ASCII STL file format.
b) Explain the data format in 3d printing.
b
(5)
STL File Format, Binary/ASCII:
the STL files can be expressed in either Binary or ASCII
33 AOT/ME/SKL
format. Both styles essentially complete the same task

(converting a model into a format that is able to be read and
manufactured), but there are differences between the two
formats.
The ASCII format is less common (due to the larger file sizes)
but easier to understand and is generally used for illustration
and teaching. Most AM systems run on PCs using Windows.
The STL file is normally labeled with a “.STL” extension that
is case insensitive, although some AM systems may require a
different or more specific file definition. These files only show
approximations of the surface or solid entities and so any
information concerning the color, material, build layers, or
history is ignored during the conversion process. Furthermore,
any points, lines, or curves used during the construction of the
surface or solid, and not explicitly used in that solid or surface,
will also be ignored.
File Format Specifications
An STL file represents a surface geometry using facets. The
facets define the surface of a 3D object, and are uniquely
identified by a unit normal, which is a line perpendicular to the
triangle with length of 1.0, and by three vertices. The unit
normal vector is a line that is perpendicular to the triangle and
has a length equal to 1.0. This unit length could be in mm or
inches and is stored using three numbers, corresponding to its
vector coordinates. The STL file itself holds no dimensions, so
the AM machine operator must know whether the dimensions
are mm, inches, or some other unit. There are a total of 12
numbers stored for each facet as the Normal and each vertex
are specified by three coordinates each. The STL file does not
contain any scale information; the coordinates are in arbitrary
units.
The specifications of STL file format can be examined from
following two aspects.
Facets Orientation: Orientation of a facet is determined by the
direction of the unit normal and the order in which the vertices
34 AOT/ME/SKL
are listed. The orientation of the facets is specified in two ways

as follow:
 The direction of the normal is outward
 The vertices are listed in counter-clock-wise order from
outside, obeying the right-hand rule.
 Vertex to Vertex Rule According to this rule, each
triangle shares two vertices with each of its adjacent
triangles. Thus, a vertex of one triangle cannot lie on the
side of another triangle.
STL ASCII Format: The ASCII version of STL file format is
written in plain ASCII. However, due to its large size, the file
format is not selected as preferable format for usage.
c) Discuss the different interface tolerance in cad.
c
(5)
For both a regular model and a surface model, there are also a
series of interface tolerance and appearance options that must
also be addressed. These tolerances include the
 Triangulation tolerance,
 Adjacency tolerance, and
 Auto-normal generation as well as the appearance
options of triangle display and header information.
Triangulation tolerance is the tolerance that determines how
smooth the approximation of the object will be. A smaller
(referred to as tighter) triangulation tolerance will produce
more triangles that lie along the edges and approximate the
surface better. However, this will increase the amount of
time it takes to manufacture the object. The default for
most triangulation tolerances is 0.0025 inches or 0.05mm,
which creates a relatively accurate object without increasing
the manufacturing time too much.
In addition to the triangulation tolerance, the adjacency
tolerance also affects the creation of the STL file. The
adjacency tolerance does not affect the processing of solids,
but instead is used to determine how closely two surfaces
35 AOT/ME/SKL
will be attached to one another. With the use of triangles in

STL files, it is not possible to create perfectly curved
surfaces so there are small edges between every surface.
Adjusting the adjacency tolerance will affect how close
these edges are to each other and how smooth an
approximated curve will be. The default value for the
adjacency tolerance is 0.005 inches or 0.12mm. Again,
tightening the adjacency tolerance will increase the
production time, but will make a more naturally curved
surface.
The final tolerance for STL files is the auto-normal
generation. Normals are important as they determine the
orientation of a surface relative to a predetermined axis,
which is often chosen by the CAD software. Most CAD
software has auto-normal generation, meaning that the
normal for every surface is chosen automatically, saving the
designer of the object time. Autonormal generation
typically will produce normal pointing to the outside of the
object, which is necessary to print a surface model.
d) Explain slicing for 3d printing
d
(3)
Slice meaning that the triangles are prepared to be
manufactured. Each manufacturing device uses its own
software to slice a file. In order to slice the STL file, first STL
file slicing software must be opened and the desired STL file is
imported. Once it is imported, many different options for
slicing become available, such as
 the layer thickness,
 quality of print,
 Extrusion temperature
 Material
(15 Marks)
State the most common defects found in the FDM process and their causes
Most common defects found in the FDM process: A well-calibrated printer,
correct lamination and an experienced operator are key to avoiding these problems.
36 AOT/ME/SKL
Warping: Corners of the bottom part are bent upwards. Warping can be caused by
the following factors:
Lack of adhesion to the bed: This can occur due to excessive distance of the
nozzle in relation to the base, or poor leveling. It can also be caused by insufficient
adhesion from the extruded plastic to the print surface. It can be solved using
adhesives on the print surface
Thermal contraction in the upper layers which when shrinking pull the lower
layers. This happens mostly with materials such as ABS or Nylon. In these cases,
it's recommended to use an enclosed 3D printer that keeps the hot air inside the 3D
printer, reducing thermal contraction.
Cracking: when the layers of a part are not well joined, resulting in these layers
being separated. This problem can be caused by two different reasons:
Poor adhesion between the layers: the layers do not stick properly to each other.
Poor adhesion is usually caused by a low printing temperature. This can be solved
by increasing the print temperature or reducing the layer fan speed.
Thermal Shrinkages: the layers stick together well, but a difference in temperature
between different sections of the part causes it to deform, which can cause some
layers to separate. The best solution is to use an enclosed 3D printer and to avoid
room temperature variations.
Layer shifting is a problem that occurs in the form of displacement on some axis
at a certain height. It can occur in the X-axis, the Y-axis or even both
simultaneously. he most common causes of layer shifting are:
Excessive temperature in the motors or drivers: the electronics are not designed
to operate continuously at a very high temperature. Add dedicated fans or heatsink
to each motor if necessary.
Lack of power in the motors: usually caused by a very low voltage value in the
drivers. Check if the motor's voltage can be increased in the mainboard, and follow
all security measures when doing it.
Mechanical failure: it can happen that we have some of our belt’s teeth broken, or
there is some debris on the shafts that can cause a jam in the movement of our
printer.
Stringing appears when, as the hot end moves between two sections of our print, a
small amount of plastic drips off and sticks to both sections, leaving a small thread
in between. This problem is usually caused by inaccurate settings used during the
37 AOT/ME/SKL
slicing process. The most important parameters you should check in your slicer to
minimize stringing are the following:
Temperature: if you have stringing issues, the print temperature may be too high.
Try lowering the temperature, closer to the lower limit recommended by the
manufacturer.
Retractions distance: It is used to reduce pressure on the nozzle by pulling the
filament out of the hot zone during movements. Bowden 3D printers require a 3-
6mm retraction distance, while direct drive 3D printers use a 0.5-2mm retraction
distance.
Retraction speed: The higher the retraction speed, the lower the stringing. Values
between 40 mm/s and 60 mm/s usually work.
The elephant foot is a defect consisting of the expansion in the horizontal plane of
the layers of part. It can occur due to two things or, normally, a combination of
both: the nozzle is too close to the bed or the temperature of the print bed is too
high.
To solve this problem we must level our first layer and decrease the bed
temperature if it was too high.
State the most common defects found in the SLA process and their causes.
Curling: One of the biggest problems relating to the accuracy of parts produced
via SLA is curling.
During the curing process, the resin shrinks slightly upon exposure to the printer's
light source. When the shrinkage is considerable, large internal stresses develop
between the new layer and the previously solidified material, which results in the
part curling.
Support is important to help anchor at-risk sections of a print to the build plate and
mitigate the likelihood of curling. Part orientation and limiting large flat layers are
also important. Over-curing (for example by exposing the part to direct sunlight
post-printing) might also cause curling.
The best way to prevent curling is to keep it in mind during the design process.
Avoid large thin and flat areas wherever possible, or add a structure to prevent the
part from curling.
Layer adhesion: SLA-printed parts have isotropic mechanical properties. This is
because a single UV laser pass is not enough to fully cure the liquid resin. Later
laser passes help previously solidified layers to fuse together to a very high degree.
In fact, curing continues even after the completion of the printing process.
38 AOT/ME/SKL
To achieve the best mechanical properties, SLA parts must be post-cured, by

placing them in a cure box under intense UV light (and sometimes at elevated
temperatures). This greatly improves the hardness and temperature resistance of
the SLA part but makes it more brittle.
a) Explain Additive Manufacturing and Product Development.
Additive Manufacturing and Product Development: Industrial
product formation involves the time period from the first product idea to the
introduction of the product to the market. It includes the development of the
product, the development and the fabrication of the production facility, and the
production of the product itself.
The goal of all manufacturers is to keep this time span as short as possible
and therefore to optimize all sub-processes. Additive manufactured parts
are particularly suitable to shortening the product development process and
to improving it at the same time. The biggest influence comes from the fact
that expensive and time-consuming tools can be avoided with the use of
additive manufacturing/3D printing.
Product development covers rapid prototyping and rapid manufacturing (of
the production facility as well as of the product). In detail, ideation and conception
are improved by concept modeling, while the engineering design
and the technical preparation are supported by functional prototyping.
The fabrication of the products is done by direct manufacturing. Rapid tooling
supports the making of tools and tool inserts. In the prototyping phase, prototype
tooling is applied, and in the production phase direct tooling is used.
The product development steps: idea, planning/definition, conception,
and development/ realization. For every step of the product development cycle,
models with different characteristics are used and named. For example, models
used in the conception are concept models.
For rapid prototyping, it would be very useful to use authoritative names
for different models to show how the requirements from the product development
and the requirements of the additive manufacturing production could be
best connected.
The key is to give the developer some data from which he can see which
prototype would be the best fit for the actual product development step. If they are
identical with the end product, they are called components or end
products, even if they are produced in very small series or on an individual basis.
b) State the Characteristics of Additive Manufacturing/ 3d printing,
Layer technologies in general and additive manufacturing in particular show
special characteristics:
39 AOT/ME/SKL
 The geometry of each layer is obtained solely and directly from the
3D computeraided design (CAD) data of the part (commonly called a
virtual product model).
 There are no product-related tools necessary and consequently no
tool change.
 The material properties of the part are generated during the build process.
 The parts can be built in any imaginable orientation. There is no need
for clamping, thus eliminating the clamping problem of
subtractive manufacturing technologies.
 Nevertheless, some processes need support structures, and the orientation of
the part influences the parts’ properties.
 Today, all AM processes can be run using the same so-called STL (or
AMF) data structure, thus eliminating data exchange problems with pre-
processors as used in subtractive manufacturing.
Additive manufacturing/3D printing therefore ensures the direct conversion of
the 3D CAD data (the virtual product model) into a physical or real part.
a) Define and Explain 3D printing?
3D Printing or additive manufacturing is a process for making a physical object
from a three-dimensional digital model, typically by laying down many successive
thin layers of a material. It brings a digital object (its CAD representation) into its
physical form by adding layer by layer of materials.
There are several different techniques to 3D Print an object. We will go in further
details later in the class. 3D Printing brings two fundamental innovations: the
manipulation of objects in their digital format and the manufacturing of new
shapes by addition of material.
Digital + Additive Manufacturing
b) Describe in detail the basic steps involved in 3D printing.
3d Printing involves a number of steps that move from the virtual CAD description
to the physical resultant part. Different products will involve 3d Printing in
different ways and to different degrees. Small, relatively simple products may only
make use of 3d Printing for visualization models, while larger, more complex
products with greater engineering content may involve 3d Printing during
numerous stages and iterations throughout the development process. Furthermore,
early stages of the product development process may only require rough parts, with
3d Printing being used because of the speed at which they can be fabricated. At
later stages of the process, parts may require careful cleaning and post-processing
(including sanding, surface preparation, and painting) before they are used, with 3d
40 AOT/ME/SKL
Printing being useful here because of the complexity of form that can be created
without having to consider tooling. Most 3d Printing processes involve the
following eight steps------
Step 1: CAD: All 3d Printing parts must start from a software model that fully
describes the external geometry. This can involve the use of almost any
professional CAD solid modeling software, but the output must be a 3D solid or
surface representation. Reverse engineering equipment (e.g., laser and optical
scanning) can also be used to create this representation.
Step 2: Conversion to STL: Nearly every 3d Printer accepts the STL file format,
which has become a defacto standard, and nowadays nearly every CAD system can
output such a file format. This file describes the external closed surfaces of the
original CAD model and forms the basis for calculation of the slices.
Step 3: Transfer to AM Machine and STL File Manipulation: The STL file
describing the part must be transferred to the 3d Printer. Here, there may be some
general manipulation of the file so that it is the correct size, position, and
orientation for building.
Step 4: Machine Setup: The 3d Printer must be properly set up prior to the build
process. Such settings would relate to the build parameters like the material
constraints, energy source, layer thickness, timings, etc.
Step 5: Build: Building the part is mainly an automated process and the machine
can largely carry on without supervision. Only superficial monitoring of the
machine needs to take place at this time to ensure no errors have taken place like
running out of material, power or software glitches, etc.
Step 6: Removal: Once the 3d Printer has completed the build, the parts must be
removed. This
may require interaction with the machine, which may have safety interlocks to
ensure for example that the operating temperatures are sufficiently low or that
there are no actively moving parts.
Step 7: Post-processing: Once removed from the machine, parts may require an
amount of additional cleaning up before they are ready for use. Parts may be weak
at this stage or they may have supporting features that must be removed. This
therefore often requires time and careful, experienced manual manipulation.
Step 8: Application: Parts may now be ready to be used. However, they may also
require additional treatment before they are acceptable for use. For example, they
may require priming and painting to give an acceptable surface texture and finish.
41 AOT/ME/SKL
Treatments may be laborious and lengthy if the finishing requirements are very
demanding. They may also be required to be assembled together with other
mechanical or electronic components to form a final model or product.
a) Explain the various demands on CAD system used in 3D printing.

Demands on CAD Systems: When judging CAD systems as the basis for additive
manufacturing processes, many of the properties discussed in the preceding as
possible should be taken into consideration. The basic requirements for the systems
are to develop a 3D model and the possibility to transfer this model for additive
manufacturing via the interface. The transformation via neutral interfaces into
another CAD system and from there via an STL interface to the AM machine
should always be regarded as a detour. The following features have been
established as advantageous for the selection of CAD systems:
 Parametric 3D designs: Instead of using fixed measurements, parameters
are agreed on that can be correlated with each other by mathematical
functions.
42 AOT/ME/SKL
 Hybrid models: Hybrid models combine the advantages of both solids and
surface models and are therefore very well suited for rapid prototyping
applications.
 Continuous database: The CAD system and all associated modules must
always refer to a common, compulsory database.
 Redundancy avoidance: A continuous database will avoid redundancies;
that the database will be free of data unnecessarily stored more than once.
Such multiple storages are to be avoided in view of the storage capacity,
speed, and clarity of the program.
 Open system: It needs to be guaranteed that the systems can be linked with
specialized modules from independent producers (reverse engineering, CT
modeling, and additive manufacturing software).
 Associativity: The internal architecture of the CAD systems must ensure
that any alterations cause all dependencies to be checked and modified
where necessary.
Further, when choosing a CAD system, one should, for example, assess how easy
it is to learn to work with it and its level of support in performing certain tasks,
which may be specific for special branches. The market offers a vast number of
CAD systems that often differ only in specialties typical for specific fields of
activity. It is increasingly probable that all important CAD systems either possess
an STL interface already or will obtain one in the near future. Usually other
complementary rapid prototyping interfaces are available, for example, SLC, PLY,
VRML, or HPGL.
b) Describe the advantages and disadvantages of the STL file format.
The STL formulation, however, possesses practical advantages:
 Given that the surface is based on triangles, it is possible to cut the model at
any desired z coordinate. Also, when the CAD model is not available, STL
models permit any desired scale at random without reversing into the CAD.
 Because the intersection contains only data elements of a type that can be
described by relatively simple means, syntax errors of the ASCII version in
the programming of the interface are very easy to recognize and eliminate,
and therefore they pose practically no problem.
 In contrast to contour-oriented intersections, smaller errors may be repaired
relatively easily. It is also an advantage that a triangle provides a higher
quality of geometric information than does the contour vector.
43 AOT/ME/SKL
The STL formulation also has disadvantages:

 It generates a large volume of data, especially when the surface quality is
improved by refining the net of triangles.
 STL files contain only geometrical information. Information about color,
texture, material, or other characteristics of the physical model are missing.
c) Describe the STL file problems.
A correct STL-based model is characterised by closed and connected triangles that
don’t overlap and where every edge is part of two triangles. However, when
converting from CAD to STL, errors can frequently arise due to a fault in the
conversion. These errors can directly impact whether you’ll be able to 3D prints
your part.
1. Holes or gaps in a mesh: One of the most common errors leading to printing
failures is missing triangles. This occurs when the adjacent triangles fail to share
two common vertices. If this error is overlooked, the printer will not be able to
correctly print the design. Which is why it’s crucial to make the design in STL file
manifold or, as it’s also known, watertight – which means that there mustn’t be any
gaps on the surface.
2. Flipped normals: Each triangle in the mesh has a normal vector, which points
out to the outer side of a triangle. Normals tell the printer which way to add the
material. Occasionally, the normal vector faces the reverse direction and this can
lead to confusion during the printing process. When the designed model has a
flipped normal, a 3D printer has difficulties in identifying the inside and the
outside of the model, and so the model cannot be accurately sliced and printed.
3. Intersecting and overlapping triangles: This error occurs when two surfaces
overlap or cross one another due to the complexity of the internal geometry. While
it typically doesn’t take too much effort to repair such an error, if it isn’t corrected,
this will inevitably add time and cost to the process, as the model will require more
material. To avoid a failed print, you will need to remove or unify these triangles
with file repair software.
4. Bad edges: The problem of bad edges is encountered when the edges of
triangles are not properly connected to each other, creating holes and bad contours.
Bad edges result in non-manifold design, which means that the digital model isn’t
printable. Patching and blending bad edges with the dedicated software tools can
help to repair the file and will allow you to print a high-quality object.
5. Noise shells: Shells are the outer layers of a print on the outside of the model.
The higher the number of shells, the denser outside walls of the printed part.
However, when a shell gets too small, it becomes redundant and serves little
purpose. Such shells are called “noise shells” and, although they can be easily dealt
with by flipping inverted triangles.
44 AOT/ME/SKL
a) What is the process for creating STL files from a CAD system?
o The selection of the part to be converted, choosing the tolerance for
the conversion process
o the approximation of the object by triangles
o That is then saved as an output file.
As mentioned previously, both the surface and solid parts of a model can be
converted into the STL format, but it is more difficult for surface models to be
created. When a surface model is being processed, there are more steps to follow to
ensure that the object is properly produced.
o First, all places where different surfaces meet must be determined.
When these surfaces are changed into a series of triangles, it is
important to ensure that all edge vertices line up and match to avoid
zero-thickness points (places where the object cannot be
manufactured).
o After this, it is important to check that the normal for the object (the
orientation for a surface) points to the outside of the model.
o Once this is checked, the rest of the object can be converted into
triangles and saved as an output file. Many times, this process can be
completed by the CAD software, but it is still important to do a quick
recheck of all these steps.
For both a regular model and a surface model, there are also a series of interface
tolerance and appearance options that must also be addressed. These tolerances
include the
o Triangulation tolerance,
o Adjacency tolerance, and
o Auto-normal generation as well as the appearance options of triangle
display and header information.
Triangulation tolerance is the tolerance that determines how smooth the
approximation of the object will be. A smaller (referred to as tighter) triangulation
tolerance will produce more triangles that lie along the edges and approximate the
surface better. However, this will increase the amount of time it takes to
manufacture the object. The default for most triangulation tolerances is 0.0025
inches or 0.05mm, which creates a relatively accurate object without increasing the
manufacturing time too much.
In addition to the triangulation tolerance, the adjacency tolerance also affects the
creation of the STL file. The adjacency tolerance does not affect the processing of
solids, but instead is used to determine how closely two surfaces will be attached to
one another. With the use of triangles in STL files, it is not possible to create
45 AOT/ME/SKL
perfectly curved surfaces so there are small edges between every surface.
Adjusting the adjacency tolerance will affect how close these edges are to each
other and how smooth an approximated curve will be. The default value for the
adjacency tolerance is 0.005 inches or 0.12mm. Again, tightening the adjacency
tolerance will increase the production time, but will make a more naturally curved
surface.
The final tolerance for STL files is the auto-normal generation. Normals are
important as they determine the orientation of a surface relative to a predetermined
axis, which is often chosen by the CAD software. Most CAD software has auto-
normal generation, meaning that the normal for every surface is chosen
automatically, saving the designer of the object time. Autonormal generation
typically will produce normal pointing to the outside of the object, which is
necessary to print a surface model.
This is done by choosing a base surface (generally the first surface created in the
CAD software by the creator), checking the normal of that surface, and then
calculating all other normals from this surface. The default for auto-normal
generation is typically on, but it can be turned off if the designer wants to manually
adjust normals to their choosing.
Following these tolerances, there are two appearance options that can be adjusted.
The triangle display option can be turned on and off, which determines if the
triangles are shown in when the object is saved as in the STL format. In addition,
the header display can be toggled on and off, which determines if the text notes on
the object are shown or not.
c) Explain slicing for 3d printing
Slice meaning that the triangles are prepared to be manufactured. Each
manufacturing device uses its own software to slice a file. In order to slice the STL
file, first STL file slicing software must be opened and the desired STL file is
imported. Once it is imported, many different options for slicing become available,
such as
 the layer thickness,
 quality of print,
 Extrusion temperature
 Material
a) Define Tessellation
Tessellation is the process of approximating a surface using triangles. The CAD
STL file interface performs surface tessellation and then outputs the information to
either a Binary or ASCII STL file format.
b) Explain the data format in 3d printing.
46 AOT/ME/SKL
STL File Format, Binary/ASCII:

the STL files can be expressed in either Binary or ASCII format. Both styles
essentially complete the same task (converting a model into a format that is able to
be read and manufactured), but there are differences between the two formats.
The ASCII format is less common (due to the larger file sizes) but easier to
understand and is generally used for illustration and teaching. Most AM systems
run on PCs using Windows. The STL file is normally labeled with a “.STL”
extension that is case insensitive, although some AM systems may require a
different or more specific file definition. These files only show approximations of
the surface or solid entities and so any information concerning the color, material,
build layers, or history is ignored during the conversion process. Furthermore, any
points, lines, or curves used during the construction of the surface or solid, and not
explicitly used in that solid or surface, will also be ignored.
File Format Specifications: An STL file represents a surface geometry using
facets. The facets define the surface of a 3D object, and are uniquely identified by
a unit normal, which is a line perpendicular to the triangle with length of 1.0, and
by three vertices. The unit normal vector is a line that is perpendicular to the
triangle and has a length equal to 1.0. This unit length could be in mm or inches
and is stored using three numbers, corresponding to its vector coordinates. The
STL file itself holds no dimensions, so the AM machine operator must know
whether the dimensions are mm, inches, or some other unit. There are a total of 12
numbers stored for each facet as the Normal and each vertex are specified by three
coordinates each. The STL file does not contain any scale information; the
coordinates are in arbitrary units.
The specifications of STL file format can be examined from following two aspects.
Facets Orientation: Orientation of a facet is determined by the direction of the
unit normal and the order in which the vertices are listed. The orientation of the
facets is specified in two ways as follow:
 The direction of the normal is outward
 The vertices are listed in counter-clock-wise order from outside, obeying
the right-hand rule.
 Vertex to Vertex Rule According to this rule, each triangle shares two
vertices with each of its adjacent triangles. Thus, a vertex of one triangle
cannot lie on the side of another triangle.
STL ASCII Format: The ASCII version of STL file format is written in plain
ASCII. However, due to its large size, the file format is not selected as preferable
format for usage.
c) Discuss the different interface tolerance in cad.
47 AOT/ME/SKL
include the
 Triangulation tolerance,
 Adjacency tolerance, and
 Auto-normal generation as well as the appearance options of triangle
display and header information.
surface.
a) Explain Post-Processing requirement for 3D printing. b) How do
you Create STL Files from a CAD System. c) Classify 3D printing
technologies. 4+8+3
Post-processing refers to the (usually manual) stages of finishing the parts for
application purposes. This may involve abrasive finishing, like polishing and
sandpapering, or application of coatings. This stage in the process is very
application specific.
48 AOT/ME/SKL
Some applications may only require a minimum of post-processing. Other

applications may require very careful handling of the parts to maintain good
precision and finish.
Some post-processing may involve chemical or thermal treatment of the part to
achieve final part properties. Different AM processes have different results in
terms of accuracy, and thus machining to final dimensions may be required.
Some processes produce relatively fragile components that may require the use of
infiltration and/or surface coatings to strengthen the final part.
 The selection of the part to be converted, choosing the tolerance for the
conversion process
 the approximation of the object by triangles
 That is then saved as an output file.
As mentioned previously, both the surface and solid parts of a model can be
converted into the STL format, but it is more difficult for surface models to be
created. When a surface model is being processed, there are more steps to follow to
ensure that the object is properly produced.
First, all places where different surfaces meet must be determined. When these
surfaces are changed into a series of triangles, it is important to ensure that all edge
vertices line up and match to avoid zero-thickness points (places where the object
cannot be manufactured).
After this, it is important to check that the normal for the object (the orientation for
a surface) points to the outside of the model.
Once this is checked, the rest of the object can be converted into triangles and
saved as an output file. Many times, this process can be completed by the CAD
software, but it is still important to do a quick recheck of all these steps.
include the
• Triangulation tolerance,
• Adjacency tolerance, and
• Auto-normal generation as well as the appearance options of triangle display and
header information.
49 AOT/ME/SKL
surface.
This is done by choosing a base surface (generally the first surface created in the
CAD software by the creator), checking the normal of that surface, and then
calculating all other normals from this surface. The default for auto-normal
generation is typically on, but it can be turned off if the designer wants to manually
adjust normals to their choosing.
Following these tolerances, there are two appearance options that can be adjusted.
The triangle display option can be turned on and off, which determines if the
triangles are shown in when the object is saved as in the STL format. In addition,
the header display can be toggled on and off, which determines if the text notes on
the object are shown or not.
50 AOT/ME/SKL
a) State 3D printing applications in different domain (mention at least

five) 15
Automotive 3D printing: Additive manufacturing is more and more used in the
automotive sector. 3D printing to make car parts is really convenient, especially for
classic cars, with parts that are no longer produced. It is also becoming a way to
rethink the structure of cars to make them lighter and improve their performances
and creating more eco-friendly car models. 3D printing is now able to produce
technical parts for the automotive sector, and the fully 3D printed car will become
a reality in the upcoming years.
Medical 3D printing: Medical 3D printing is now becoming a common
application of this technology! From implants to custom-made prosthetics, additive
manufacturing is offering plenty of great advantages to the medical sector.
Surgeons can also get 3D printed models to train before their surgeries, these 3D
printed organs can be really useful and help save time and money. Surgeons are
also using additive manufacturing to create tools entirely fitting their needs!
3D printing for robotics: Create rapid prototypes thanks to 3D printing to get
parts fitting your robot project. This technique is perfect to get the perfect design
for your project, with lighter parts and reduced assembly time. The large offer of
3D printing materials creates the possibility to get robotics parts with incredible
mechanical properties. Moreover, it is also convenient to produce unique and
specific parts with great freedom of design.
3D printing for aeronautics and aerospace: Engineers are clearly making the
most of 3D printing to create technical parts for aeronautics and aerospace. With
the quick development of metal 3D printing, sectors such as Aeronautics and
aerospace are two sectors where parts manufactured have to be heat resistant and
robust, and with the great strength to weight ratio offered by this technology, these
51 AOT/ME/SKL
sectors are starting to use this technology really seriously. Tools, fixtures, aviation
parts, everything can be 3D printed!
3D printing for fashion: Fashion and 3D printing are opening new possibilities.
Indeed, designers are quite used to additive manufacturing, they use it to create
artistic pieces for fashion shows. But this technology tends to be more used to
manufacture traditional clothes, but also shoes. What are the advantages of this
manufacturing technique for fashion? Mass-customization, complete freedom of
design, and access to materials with great mechanical properties!
3D printing for education: 3D is the perfect solution to give life to the concept
and allow everyone to manipulate complex ideas with physical objects. Additive
manufacturing is helping to make the learning process easier, from primary
education to university. Using this technology, students can print mechanical parts,
architectural mockups, art or even prototypes!
3D printing for tooling: We already saw that 3D printing was an efficient
technique to improve the tooling process of car manufacturers. But reducing
tooling investment can be beneficial for any business and you should definitely
start to think about it.
a) What materials are used for SLS printing? State their characteristics.
b) What are the options for SLS post-processing? C) Discuss Common
applications of SLS. 8+4+3
The most widely used SLS material is Polyamide 12 (PA 12), also known as Nylon
12. The price per kilogram of PA 12 powder is approximately $50–$60. Other
engineering plastics such as PA 11 and PEEK are also available, but these are not
as widely used.
Polyamide powder can be filled with various additives to improve the mechanical
and thermal behavior of the produced SLS part. Examples of additives include
carbon fibers, glass fibers or aluminium. Materials filled with additives are usually
more brittle and can have highly anisotropic behavior.
SLS 3D printing produces parts with a powdery, grainy surface finish that can be
easily stained. The appearance of SLS printed parts can be improved to a very high
standard using various post-processing methods, such as media polishing, dyeing,
spray paintingand lacquering. Their functionality can also be enhanced by applying
a watertight coating or metal plating.
Common applications The versatility of the SLS process sees it used for a large
range of applications. Some of the most common applications of SLS are discussed
below.
52 AOT/ME/SKL
Functional parts: The biggest strength of SLS printing is that it offers a range of
strong, functional materials. Because of this, SLS is often used for the production
of parts that will be under load when placed in service. SLS allows for complex
geometries that can be easily printed from wellknown materials like PA 12.
Low run part production: SLS allows cost effective, low run production of function
parts to provide feedback on the design and performance of parts. Because SLS
always prints a full powder bin, multiple parts can be manufactured in a single
build, offering viable economies of scale at certain build sizes (“smaller than a
fist”).
Complex ducting (hollow sections): The powder based nature of SLS means that
it can create parts with hollow sections, something other support dependent
technologies are unable to do. SLS is ideally suited for the low run production of
complex ducting and piping. By removing traditional design constraints, SLS is
capable of printing parts that are optimized for application rather than manufacture.
a) Discuss Shrinkage & Warping, and Over-sintering for SLS printers b) How
do you remove powder of SLS process. c) What are the characteristics of SLS
3D printing? 5+4+6
Shrinkage & Warping: SLS parts are susceptible to shrinkage and warping. As
the newly sintered layer cools, its dimensions decrease and internal stresses
buildup, pulling the underlying layer upwards. 3 to 3.5% shrinkage is typical in
SLS, but machine operators take this into account during the build preparation
phase and adjust the size of the design accordingly.
Large flat surfaces are the most likely to warp. The issue can be mitigated
somewhat by orientating the part vertically in the build platform, but the best
practice is to reduce its volume by minimizing the thickness of the flat areas and by
introducing cutouts to the design. This strategy will also reduce the overall cost of
the part, as less material is used.
Over-sintering: Over-sintering occurs when radiant heat fuses unsintered powder
around a feature. This can result in loss of detail in small features, such as slots and
holes. As a rule of thumb, slots wider than 0.8mm and holes with diameter larger
than 2mm can be printed in SLS without fear of over-sintering. Read our article on
how to design parts for SLS 3D printing for more DFM tips.
Powder Removal: Since SLS requires no support material, parts with hollow
sections can be printed easily and accurately.
Hollow sections reduce the weight and cost of a part, as less material is used.
Escape holes are needed to remove the un-sintered powder from the inner sections
of the component. We recommend adding at least two escape holes to your design,
with a minimum diameter of 5mm.
53 AOT/ME/SKL
If a high degree of stiffness is required, parts must be printed fully solid. An

alternative is to make a hollow design omitting the escape holes. In this way,
tightly packed powder will be entrapped in the part, increasing its mass and
providing some additional support against mechanical loads, without an effect on
the build time. An internal honeycomb lattice structure can be added to the
hollowed interior (similar to the infill patterns used in FDM ) to further increase
the stiffness of the component. Hollowing a part this way may also reduce
warping.
The main characteristics of SLA are summarized in the table below:
a) State the advantages and disadvantages of SLA 3D printing b) How does
SLS 3D printing work?: c) Can you use SLS 3D printing for rapid
prototyping? 6+6+3
 The advantages of SLA 3D printing
SLA can produce parts with very high dimensional accuracy and with
intricate details.
 SLA parts have a very smooth surface finish, making them ideal for visual
prototypes.
 Speciality SLA materials are available, such as clear, flexible and castable
resins.
The disadvantages of SLA 3D printing
o SLA parts are generally brittle and not suitable for functional
prototypes.
o The mechanical properties and visual appearance of SLA parts will
degrade over time when the parts are exposed to sunlight.
o Support structures are always required and post-processing is
necessary to remove the visual marks left on the SLA part.
SLS 3D printing uses a laser to sinter small particles of polymer powder. The
entire cross section of the component is scanned, so the part is built solid. The
process works as follows:
1. The powder bin and the build area are first heated to just below the melting
temperature of the polymer.
2. A re-coating blade spreads a thin layer of powder over the build platform.
3. A CO2 laser then scans the contour of the next layer and selectively
sinters—fuses together—the particles of the polymer powder.
4. When a layer is complete, the build platform moves downwards and the
blade re- coat the surface. The process then repeats until the whole part is
complete.
54 AOT/ME/SKL
5. After printing, the parts are fully encapsulated in the unsintered powder. The
powder bin must cool before the parts can be unpacked, which can take a
considerable amount of time—sometimes up to 12 hours.
6. The parts are then cleaned with compressed air or another blasting media,
then they are ready to use or further post-process.
SLS is a great solution for the rapid prototyping of functional polymers because it
offers a very high degree of design freedom and high accuracy. And unlike FDM
or SLA 3D printing techniques, it produces parts with good and consistent
mechanical properties. This means it can be used to produce parts that are very
close to end-use quality, so you can use it throughout the production process, from
concept to trial models.
a) Compare Bottom-up (Desktop) and Top-down (Industrial) SLA printer b)
State the main characteristics of SLA 3D printing c)What are the options for
SLA post-processing? d) Mention some best practices of SLA 5+4+2+4
a) Discuss about the FDM printer parameters. b) Explain Infill and shell
thickness. c) What are the advantages and disadvantages of FDM 3D
printing? 6+4+5
a) Explain Bridging in FDM b) Discuss different Types of support used
in FDM printer. c) FDM 3D printing best practices 4+6+5
Bridging: Bridging in FDM occurs when the printer is required to print
between two supports or anchor points. Because there is nothing to build on, no
support is offered for the initial layer being printed and the material tends to sag.
Bridges most often occur in horizontal-axis holes found in the walls of objects or
in the top layer (or roof) of hollow parts.
One solution is to reduce the distance of the bridge, but the impact of this
depends on the part’s design constraints. Another solution to avoid sagging is to
include support. Support offers a temporary platform for the bridging layer to be
built upon. The support material is removed once the print is completed, although
it can leave marks on or damage the surface where the support was connected to
the final part.
Types of FDM support: FDM support can come in 3 different styles: dis-
solvable accordion and tree-like.
Dissolvable support: FDM printers with two print heads are able to print
support from a material that can be dissolved in water or a chemical solution.
The advantage of this is that removal of support is much simpler and the surface of
the printed model will be smoother. Dissolvable support will increase the cost of a
build, due to the added cost of the support material.
55 AOT/ME/SKL
When wanting to print with dissolvable support, materials must be matched

to ensure adequate layer adhesion between the primary printing material and
the support material. The most common FDM dissolvable support/build
material combinations are PLA with PVA (dissolved in warm water), and ABS
with HIPS (dissolved in a 1:1 ratio of (R)-(+)-Limonene and isopropyl alcohol).
Accordion support: Accordion support is the most common support style
for single-head printers because of its shape. It is suitable for most FDM prints due
to its simple geometry. Accordian support does require more material than
tree support and therefore increases the cost of a print.
Tree-like support is less popular but is preferred by some printers. The
advantage of tree support is that it has less contact with the print, which can result
in a better surface finish.
The disadvantage to tree support is that it offers less stability, often making
it unsuitable for complex prints that are very support dependent.
Dissolvable will always give the superior surface finish, but does increase
build cost and time. The printer operator is generally best positioned to make a
judgment on the type of support that is best suited for a design in terms of
printability.
FDM 3D printing best practices
 If a bridge exceeds 5mm, sagging or marks from support material can
occur. Splitting the design or post-processing can eliminate this issue.
 For critical vertical-hole diameters, drill after printing to achieve
higher accuracy.
 The addition of support will allow FDM printers to print wall angles
greater than 45°.
 Include a 45° degree chamfer or radius on all edges of an FDM part
touching the build plate.
 For applications with small vertical pins, add a small fillet at the base
or consider inserting an off-the-shelf pin into a printed hole instead.
 Splitting a model, reorienting holes and specifying build direction are
all factors that can lower cost, accelerate the printing process and improve
a design’s strength and print quality.
a) Discuss the material properties of the most popular FDM 3D printing

plastics – PLA and ABS - to find the best option for your application b)
56 AOT/ME/SKL
Discuss Thermosetting Polymers. c) Explain Powder-Based Materials used in

AM process 4+4+7
ABS: - ABS (Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene) is a thermoplastic that is commonly
used as a 3D printer filament. It is a thermoplastic that needs to be heated to
temperatures from 210 0 C to 250 0 C. ABS can only be printed on a 3D printer
with a heated bed, which prevents the cracking of the object. When ABS is heated,
it emits a strong unpleasant smell. ABS requires a complete enclosure while
printing. It is also a material generally used in personal or household 3D printing
and is a go-to material for most 3D printers.
PLA (Polylactic Acid): - PLA or Polylactic Acid are made from renewable
resources such as sugarcane or cornstarch. It is also called “green plastic”. It is a
thermoplastic that needs to be heated to temperatures from 160 0 C to 220 0 C.
PLA is also biodegradable and emits slight odors. PLA is most frequently used in
FDM desktop printing.
Thermosetting Polymers: Thermosetting polymers are arranged in a cross-linked
3D shape. They are chemically transformed into a rigid structure after cooling from
a heated plastic condition. However, a thermosetting polymer cannot be reshaped
once it is cooled during the curing process; therefore, they cannot be recycled. In
addition, in some cases, the polymers used are cured by non-thermal mechanisms.
This type of polymer typically includes
 alkyds,
 phenolics,
 amino resins, and
 Epoxies.
Thermosetting polymers are brittle, possessing mechanically and thermally better
properties than thermoplastics. That is, they are stronger than thermoplastic
polymers, making them suitable for high-temperature applications. Thermosetting
polymers have a wide range of applications, such as electronic components made
from alkyds, due to their good electrical insulation.
Also, phenolics have high heat and electrical resistance, making them great
electrical wiring and connector devices.
Aminos are known for their rigidity and hardness; therefore, they are used in
housing appliances such as toilet seats.
57 AOT/ME/SKL
Lastly, epoxies have great dimensional stability and possess high-mechanical

strength properties; they are typically used in pressure vessels, rockets motor
casings, heavy tools.
Powder-Based Materials: Powder-based RP systems use powder as the prime
material to prototype parts. In this section, powder-based materials will be
discussed in relation to the following RP systems: selective laser sintering (SLS) of
polymers and composites, direct metal deposition, direct shell casting for
polymers, metals, and ceramics.
Polymers
Thermoplastics: SLS process utilizes the Sinterstation (or the newer version
called Vanguard) from 3D Systems, which is used to fabricate both polyamide
(nylon), which is called DuraForm PA and PC. The laser-sintered method raises
the density of these materials to an intermediate density and then post processed to
increase their density.
Polymer Composites: Duraform GF is a glass-filled/nylon composite that is
composed of a glassfilled SLS polymer–matrix composite. Duraform consists of
glass particles imbedded inside an SLS nylon matrix, which work on lowering the
tensile strength of SLS nylon.
In addition, the glass particles make the matrix more brittle than the SLS nylon.
However, this composite has a higher elastic modulus, which adds a closer match
to the modulus of an actual component during the test inside a wind tunnel.
Elastomers: DSM Somos 201 is a powder, a thermoplastic elastomer that is
sintered to create highly flexible parts with elastomer characteristics. These models
can be used in place of urethane, silicone, or rubber parts in such applications as
moldings, gaskets, hoses, and vibration dampers. Somos 201 has a melting point of
156°C that makes it withstand heat and chemical solvents.
Powders: The process of SLS involves heating powders slightly below the melting
point using a laser in the case of a metal. Here, the temperature is high enough to
sinter or bond the individual powder particles together. Thereafter, the
postprocessing is used to increase the density of the powder.
The size of the powder particles in SLS is very small. For instance, the large-sized
particles cause the surface of the part to be very course. If the particles are too fine,
then the surfaces of the particles develop electrostatic charges that make the
powders difficult to spread in a 2D layer. In addition, larger particles need a faster
sintering rate.
58 AOT/ME/SKL
a) Discuss the different types of materials currently being used in 3D printers.

b) Discuss in brief Liquid Based Materials that are currently being used in
3D printers c) Discuss Common Binder Jetting Materials. 4+6+5
In general, there are three main categories of materials used in 3DP; they are
 liquid-based materials,
 solid-based materials, and
 Powder-based materials.
Each of these three categories has different types of materials such as polymers,
metals, ceramics, and composites.
Liquid Based Materials: Polymers: Liquid-based materials are thermoplastic
polymers (polyamide nylons) or thermosetting polymers such as epoxies. In
stereolithography, parts are built from a photosensitive polymer fluid that cures
under exposure to a laser beam. This process has seen much development in the
types of materials used, especially in photosensitive polymers or photopolymers.
Stereolithography has generally been used on acrylates and epoxies. However, it is
expected that stereolithography resin suppliers will continue to make progress in
creating new materials that have selected thermoplastic properties.
In the late 1960s, the first UV curable photopolymers were developed to reduce air
pollution from solvent-based coatings. Photopolymers are solidified (cured) when
exposed to electromagnetic radiation with a specific wavelength including gamma
rays, X-rays, ultraviolet (UV), visible light and infrared. Radiation technology
today uses electron-beam (EB), and UV curing of photopolymers as the most
common commercial applications.
Acrylate-based photopolymers are the most widely used resin systems developed
for stereolithography. Later, resins were developed based on vinyl-ether (e.g.
Allied Signal’s Exactomer resins) and epoxy systems.
Most resins in use today are epoxies. These resin systems are developed to react to
UV light in the 325 nm laser wavelength from a helium-cadmium (HeCd) laser for
the SLA-250 stereolithography system [3D Systems]. Other resin systems have
been developed for different laser wavelengths.
Perfecting the characteristics of resins has taken a long time. The early resins had
very high shrink factors and low impact strengths after curing. The larger the
shrink factor, the more difficult it becomes to create an accurate model. For
instance, an early acrylate resin, released by Ciba-Geigy in 1988, had a shrink
factor of 0.8%–1.1% and a low-impact strength. The next major breakthrough in
59 AOT/ME/SKL
resin development was SL5143, released in 1991. SL5143 was also an acrylate
resin, with a shrink factor of 0.7% and order of magnitude higher impact strength.
The increase in impact strength was vital because early models would shatter if
they were accidentally dropped. SL5143 was the first resin with enough strength to
allow normal handling without the fear of breaking the model. The reduction in
shrink factors was also very significant, and the most recent resins have 0.4% or
less.
Metals and Composites: Because liquid-based materials are mainly thermoplastic
polymers, currently, there is not that much variety to other materials such as
metals. However, composites such as carbon fiber can be melted into a liquid form
and inject molded similarly as plastic using a new technology that is still new to
the 3DP world.
Common Binder Jetting Materials: Binder Jetting powders come in range of
materials. The final application of the part defines the most appropriate powder.
The cost of the ceramic powders is usually low. Metal powders are more
expensive, yet more economical than DMSL/SLM materials. Unlike the SLS
process, 100% of the unbonded powder can be recycled, leading to more material
savings.
a) Why polymer materials are used for 3D printing system. b) Discuss most
popular type of Thermoplastic polymers materials that are used for 3D
printing. c) State the advantages and disadvantages of different thermoplastic
polymers used in 3D printing. 5+4+6
Polymers: Polymers are the most common type of materials used in 3DP. They
contain structural units called mers, which form to create the polymer. Some
general properties of polymers include
 Low electrical and thermal conductivity and high strength-to-weight ratio,
which make them particularly useful in 3DP.
 Polymers can also be processed at low temperature due to their low glass
transition temperatures.
 Also, they have low density and good chemical corrosion resistance.
 Polymers can be divided into three different categories:
Thermoplastic polymers,
 Thermosetting polymers, and
 elastomers.
60 AOT/ME/SKL
Thermoplastic Polymers: Thermoplastic polymers are the most popular type of

materials used for 3DP. They make up most of the types of filaments used in fused
deposition modeling with variety of colors. Thermoplastics are unique because
they can withstand multiple heating and cooling cycles without altering their
molecular structure. Common thermoplastics include
 polylactic acid (PLA)
 acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS),
 polycarbonate (PC),
 polyamides (nylon),
 polyvinyl alcohol (PVA),
 polystyrene (PS), and
 Polyethylene (PE).
61 AOT/ME/SKL
a) Compare SLM & DMLS. b) How does metal 3D printing work? c)

Discuss Benefits & Limitations of Metal 3D Printing. d) State the main
characteristics of SLM and DMLS systems. 4+4+4+3
Selective Laser Melting (SLM) and Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS) are two
metal additive manufacturing processes that belong to the powder bed fusion 3D
printing family. The two technologies have a lot of similarities: both use a laser to
scan and selectively fuse (or melt) the metal powder particles, bonding them
together and building a part layer-by-layer. Also, the materials used in both
processes are metals that come in a granular form.
The differences between SLM and DMLS come down to the fundamentals of the
particle bonding process (and also patents): SLM uses metal powders with a single
melting temperature and fully melts the particles, while in DMLS the powder is
composed of materials with variable melting points that fuse on a molecular level
at elevated temperatures.
Essentially: SLM produces parts from a single metal, while DMLS produces parts
from metal alloys. Both SLM and DMLS are used in industrial applications to
create end-use engineering products. In this article, we use the term metal 3D
printing to refer to both processes in general and we describe the basic mechanisms
of the fabrication process that are necessary for engineers and designers to
understand the benefits and limitations of the technology.
The basic fabrication process for SLM and DMLS are very similar. Here is how it
works:
1. The build chamber is first filled with inert gas (for example argon) to minimize
the oxidation of the metal powder and then it is heated to the optimal build
temperature.
2. A thin layer of metal powder is spread over the build platform and a high power
laser scans the cross-section of the component, melting (or fusing) the metal
particles together and creating the next layer. The entire area of the model is
scanned, so the part is built fully solid.
3. When the scanning process is complete, the build platform moves downwards
by one layer thickness and the recoater spreads another thin layer of metal powder.
The process is repeated until the whole part is complete. When the build process is
finished, the parts are fully encapsulated in the metal powder. Unlike polymer
powder bed fusion process (such as SLS), the parts are attached to the build
platform through support structures. Support in metal 3D printing is built using the
62 AOT/ME/SKL
same material as the part and is always required to mitigate the warping and
distortion that may occur due to the high processing temperatures.
When the bin cools to room temperature, the excess powder is manually removed
and the parts are typically heat treated while still attached to the build platform to
relieve any residual stresses. Then the components are detached from the build
plate via cutting, machining or wire EDM and are ready for use or further post-
processing.
Benefits & Limitations of Metal 3D Printing: Here are the key advantages and
disadvantages of metal 3D printing processes:
 Metal 3D printing processes can be used to manufacture complex, bespoke
parts with geometries that traditional manufacturing methods are unable to
produce.
 Metal 3D printed parts can be topologically optimized to maximize their
performance while minimizing their weight and the total number of
components in an assembly.
 Metal 3D printed parts have excellent physical properties and the available
material range includes difficult to process otherwise materials, such as
metal superalloys.
 The material and manufacturing costs connected with metal 3D printing is
high, so these technologies are not suitable for parts that can be easily
manufactured with traditional methods.
 The build size of the metal 3D printing systems is limited, as precise
manufacturing conditions and process control are required.
 Already existing designs may not be suitable for metal 3D printing and may
need to be altered.
63 AOT/ME/SKL

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3D PRINTING QUESTIONS AND SOLUTIONS

Rapid Prototyping is a unique technique to ___ for the development of

Full form of FDM is_______.

ANS. When the light of appropriate wavelength falls on liquid photopolymer

There is a real history of 3D printing: additive manufacturing is not a new

Define and explain fused deposition modeling

produced part is fully solid.

Discuss the use of Powder-Based materials in 3D printing

Support structures and part orientation: As with most 3D printing technologies,

room temperature variations.

industry, particularly for prototyping and creating

Limited Materials: While 3D Printing can create items

There is no need for clamping, thus eliminating the

product). In detail, ideation and conception are improved by

and to different degrees. Small, relatively simple products may

layer thickness, timings, etc.

discussed in the preceding as possible should be taken into

 Parametric 3D designs: Instead of using fixed

systems that often differ only in specialties typical for specific

generation typically will produce normal pointing to the outside of

normal, a 3D printer has difficulties in identifying the inside and the

format. Both styles essentially complete the same task

are listed. The orientation of the facets is specified in two ways

will be attached to one another. With the use of triangles in

To achieve the best mechanical properties, SLA parts must be post-cured, by

a) Explain the various demands on CAD system used in 3D printing.

The STL formulation also has disadvantages:

STL File Format, Binary/ASCII:

Some applications may only require a minimum of post-processing. Other

a) State 3D printing applications in different domain (mention at least

If a high degree of stiffness is required, parts must be printed fully solid. An

When wanting to print with dissolvable support, materials must be matched

a) Discuss the material properties of the most popular FDM 3D printing

Discuss Thermosetting Polymers. c) Explain Powder-Based Materials used in

Lastly, epoxies have great dimensional stability and possess high-mechanical

a) Discuss the different types of materials currently being used in 3D printers.

Thermoplastic Polymers: Thermoplastic polymers are the most popular type of

a) Compare SLM & DMLS. b) How does metal 3D printing work? c)

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