Earthquake Geotechnical Engineering

Module 3: Dynamic Soil Properties

Dr. Shiv Shankar Kumar

Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
NIT Patna, Bihar – 800005
 Dynamic soil properties

 Damages during earthquakes

 Ground deformation
 Foundation failure of building, dam,
bridges
 Ground failure due to liquefaction
 Occurrence of landslides (in hilly area)

For most of damages, dynamic behavior of soils is the governing factor

 Behaviour of soils subjected to dynamic loading is governed by dynamic soil properties.
 Dynamic soil properties
• Measurement of Dynamic Soil Properties
 Measurement of dynamic soil properties is a critical task in
geotechnical earthquake engineering problems.
 Soil properties influence the wave propagation and other low-
and high-strain phenomena include Poisson's ratio, density,
stiffness, and damping.
» The stiffness and damping characteristics of cyclically loaded
soils are critical to the evaluation of many geotechnical
earthquake engineering problems – not only at low strains but
because soils are nonlinear materials, also at intermediate and
high strains.
• Variety of field and laboratory techniques are available, to
measure the dynamic soil properties at low and high strain levels.

• Each techniques have different advantages and limitations

with respect to the problems concern in the field. 2
 Dynamic soil properties
• Why low strain and high strain properties ???
 Low strain level
 Higher soil stiffness
 Low damping ratio
 Linear stress–strain behaviour of soil
 High strain level
 Non-linear stress-strain behaviour of soil
 High damping ratio
 Significant volume change

 Applicability of the dynamic soil Properties ???

 Ground response analyses
 Liquefaction evaluation studies
 Seismic design of various structures
 Seismic requalification of the structures
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 Dynamic soil properties
• Field techniques

 Seismic reflection and refraction

 Steady-state vibration
Low shear strain
 SASW and MASW
(< 0.01%)
 Seismic borehole survey
» Cross-hole, down-hole and up-hole

 Standard penetration test

 Cone penetration test
High strain
 Dilatometer test (> 0.01%)
 Pressure-meter test

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 Dynamic soil properties
• Laboratory techniques
 Resonant column test
 Bender element test Low shear strain (< 0.01%)
Element tests

 Ultrasonic pulse test

 Cyclic triaxial test

 Cyclic simple shear test High shear strain (> 0.01%)
 Cyclic torsional shear test

 Shake table test

Model (Physical) tests
 Centrifuge test

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 Dynamic soil properties
• Resonant column tests
 It is the most commonly used laboratory test for measuring the
low-strain properties of soils.
 Apply harmonic torsional or axial loading by electromagnetic
loading system on solid or hollow cylindrical specimen.

Figure. Typical resonant column test apparatus: (a) top view of loading system,
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and (b) profile view of loading system and soil specimen.
 Dynamic soil properties
 After specimen preparation, saturation and consolidation is done
before the cyclic loading.
 Loading frequency is initially set at a low value and is then
gradually increased until the response (strain amplitude) reaches
a maximum.
 Lowest frequency at which the response is locally maximized is
the fundamental frequency of the specimen.
» Fundamental frequency is a function of the low-strain stiffness
of the soil, the geometry of the specimen, and certain
characteristics of the resonant column apparatus.
 Resonant column test provides stiffness and damping
characteristics of soil under controlled conditions.
 Effectsof effective confining pressure, strain amplitude, and
time can be investigated 7
 Dynamic soil properties
• Ultrasonic Pulse Test
 It measures wave propagation velocity in the laboratory using piezoelectric
materials.
 Transmitters and receivers made of piezoelectric materials, changes its
dimensions, subjected to a voltage.
 High-frequency electrical pulse applied to the transmitter causes it to
deform rapidly and produce a stress wave that travels through the specimen
toward the receiver.
» When the stress wave reaches the receiver, it generates a voltage pulse that is
measured. L2
G   vs   2
2

 To obtain the wave tc

propagation velocity, the
distance between the
transmitter and receiver is
divided by the time difference
between the voltage pulses.
» Used for very soft
materials, such as seafloor
sediments. 8
 Dynamic soil properties
• Bender element tests
A technique, to measure shear wave velocity of soil specimen in
laboratory, made up of piezoelectric bender elements
One is transmitter and other is receiver
of this bender element, changes its
2
dimensions, subjected to a voltage. G   v    L  2
 
Electrical pulse applied to the  t 
s

transmitter causes it to deform Figure. Piezoelectric bender

rapidly and produce a stress element. Positive voltage causes
element to bend one way, negative
wave that travels through the voltage causes it to bend the other.
specimen toward the receiver.
When stress wave reaches the
receiver, it generates a voltage
pulse that is measured and
then wave propagation
velocity evaluated. 9
 Dynamic soil properties
• Cyclic Triaxial Test
(a)
(a)

Axial
AxialLVDTs
LVDTs

Radial LVDT
Radial LVDT
Dynamic triaxial setup
11 On-sample LVDT
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 Dynamic soil properties
Limitations of Equipment
 High shear strain (Shear strain > 0.01%)
 Membrane interface
 Pore-pressure measurement only at top and bottom
 Stress concentrations near top cap and base of the specimens
 Necking formation at the top of the specimen
 Regular or harmonic loading (Cyclic loading)
 Irregular loading (earthquake loading)
 Uniform deformation of soil specimen
 Use on-sample LVDT
 Bedding error and tilting of the specimens
 Use on-sample LVDT
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 Dynamic soil properties
Actuator
On-sample LVDTs to measure Local Strains
(a) External LVDT
Dynamic Servo- Load ram
actuator valve

AWC – Air-water cylinder

External LVDT
AVC – Automatic volume change Submersible load cell
CDC – Compact dynamic controller Top cap
CP – Cell pressure Mounting block
BP – Back pressure cap
ial cell PP – Pore pressureGauge length Rubber membrane
– Automatic on/off solenoid valve Radial LVDT
Soil On-sample LVDT1 On-sample LVDT2
Soil

Displacement measure
AWC Rubber band

Pedestal
AVC

P line BP line

PP  In any triaxial
measure sample, in the presence of the end platens and porous stones
Volume change measure
 Surface friction arises at the sample boundaries
 Tritech
Relatively
100kNhigh stress concentration zone develop against the deformation

(lateralAir
and vertical)
supply for BP at the sample boundaries
Air supply to actuator
 Central region of the sample are free from these boundary effect
» Undergo local deformation, resulting local strains developments
 Dynamic soil properties
• Stress path at different conditions

Figure. Time histories of deviator stress and stress paths for (a) isotropically
consolidated conditions, (b) anisotropically consolidated conditions with cyclic
deviator stress amplitude greater than deviator stress during consolidation (producing
stress reversals), and (c) anisotropically consolidated conditions with cyclic deviator
stress amplitude less than deviator stress during consolidation (no stress reversals).
 Dynamic soil properties
• Evaluation of Dynamic Properties
1.

Deviator
(a) stress (σd) Deviator Emax
Emax
1
Esec stress (σd) 1 Esec1
1
σd,max 1
σd,max
a
AΔ
εmin Axial
εmax strain (ε) Loading Curve
AL AΔ1
d
σd,min g
εmin Esec1  Esec 2
 d ,max   d ,min 
o Axial
Esec   d /  εmax strain (ε) Esec, a 
 max   min  AL A
Δ2
b 2
A
Ga  Esec, a /[2(1   )]
1 AL
D 
G  Esec /[2(1   )]
4 A c f
e σd,min
  (1   ) 1
Esec2 Unloading Curve   (1   )
1 AL AL ( o  a b c  d )
D  1
4 A D#  
 A1  A 2  A
 Use of Symmetrical Hysteresis Loop (SHL) is conventional approach to evaluate
the dynamic properties (ASTM D3999)
 Damping ratio is evaluated from the stored energy in 1st quadrant
 For Asymmetrical Hysteresis Loop (ASHL), since the stored energy is not equal in
all quadrants, damping ratio based on SHL methodology will be inaccurate
 ASHL methodology is used for proper estimation of dynamic properties
 Dynamic soil properties
• Dynamic Simple Shear Test
 It is capable of reproducing earthquake stress conditions much
more accurately than is the cyclic triaxial test.
 Most commonly used for liquefaction studies.

Figure. Dynamic Simple Shear

(DSS) apparatus 15
Figure. Loading conditions in field and DSS testing
 Dynamic soil properties
 A cylindrical specimen is restrained against lateral expansion by
rigid boundary platens, a wire-reinforced membrane or a series of
stacked rings.
 By applying cyclic horizontal shear stresses to the top or
bottom of the specimen, the test specimen is deformed in the
same way as the soil element subjected to vertically
propagating s-waves.

Figure. Cyclic simple shear apparatus. Soil

specimen is contained within wirereinforced Figure. Schematic diagrams of shear
rubber membrane (After Airey and Wood, 1987.) displacements (after Fakharian & Evgin, 1997)
 Dynamic soil properties
• Cyclic Torsional Shear Test
 Many difficulties are associated with cyclic triaxial and cyclic
simple shear tests, which can be avoided by loading cylindrical soil
specimens in torsion.

3T  1 
h   3 3
2  r2  r1 
Figure. Hollow cylinder apparatus. The specimen is enclosed within internal and external
membranes on which internal and external pressures can be applied independently. Application
of cyclic torque induces cyclic shear stresses on horizontal planes.
 Dynamic soil properties
 Cyclic torsional shear tests allow isotropic or anisotropic initial
stress conditions and can impose cyclic shear stresses on horizontal
planes with continuous rotation of principal stress axes.
 Testsare most commonly used to measure stiffness and
damping characteristics over a wide range of strain levels.

» Ishihara and Li (1972) developed a torsional triaxial for solid

specimens.

» Dobry et al. (1985) used strain-controlled cyclic torsional loading

along with stress-controlled axial loading of solid specimens.

» Drnevich, (1967, 1972) developed hollow cylinder cyclic

torsional shear apparatuses to increase the radial uniformity of
shear strains.
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 Dynamic soil properties
• Model Tests
 Model tests are used to evaluate the performance of a particular
prototype or to study the effects of different parameters on a field
problem.
 Usually attempt to reproduce the boundary conditions of a
particular problem by subjecting a small-scale physical model
of a full-scale prototype structure to cyclic loading.
» very useful for identification of important phenomena and
verification of predictive theories,

 Shaking Table Tests

 Centrifuge Tests
» Both model tests have certain drawbacks, such as similitude and
boundary effects. 19
 Dynamic soil properties
 Shaking Table Tests
 Virtually all physical model testing can be performed on
shaking table.
» Shaking table tests are useful for liquefaction, post-earthquake
settlement, foundation, and lateral earth pressure problems.
 Large pumps and large hydraulic
actuators are required to produce
large displacements of heavy
models at moderate or high
frequencies.

Figure. Shaking table

with soil bin used for
dynamic earth
pressure research
(After Sherif et al.,
1982.)
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 Dynamic soil properties
• Centrifuge Tests
 A 1/N-scale model located at a distance, r, from the axis of a
centrifuge (see below Fig.) is rotated at a rotational speed,   N is
which r
which is sufficient to raise the acceleration field at the location of
the model to N times the acceleration of gravity.
 Stress conditions at any point in the model should be identical
to those at the corresponding point in the full-scale prototype.

Figure. Cross section through a geotechnical centrifuge. (After O'Reilly, 1991.)

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 Dynamic soil properties
Table. Scaling Factors for Centrifuge Modeling*

Source: After Kutter and James

(1989).
*Values are based on the
assumption that the same soils
and fluid are used in the model
and the prototype and that the
soil properties are not
rate dependent.

For example, stresses and strains in a 30-m (100-ft) high prototype earth dam
could be modeled with a 30-cm (1-ft) high centrifuge model accelerated to 100g
(of course, the particle size of the model soil will correspond to a prototype
particle size that is 100 times larger, too). A harmonic 1-Hz base motion lasting
10 sec at the prototype scale would be modeled by 100-Hz motion lasting 0.1 sec
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in the model.
 Dynamic soil properties
• Stress-strain behavior of Cyclically Loaded Soils
Maximum shear modulus
or, Initial tangent modulus
Used in nonlinear analysis
Gmax
Used in linear analysis

Tangent shear
modulus Secant shear
modulus

Used in equivalent-
linear analysis

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 Dynamic soil properties
 Equivalent-linear model
 Equivalent linear model is an approximation of the actual
nonlinear behavior of the soil.
 Parameters Secant shear modulus (Gsec) and Damping ratio
(ξ) are referred as equivalent linear material parameters.
» Used in the ground response analysis

Figure. Backbone curve showing typical variation of Gsec with shear strain 24
 Dynamic soil properties
Note: Equivalent linear model cannot be used directly for
problems involving permanent deformation or failure
Because the equivalent linear models imply that the strain will
always return to zero after cyclic loading
 and since a linear material has no limiting strength, failure
cannot occur.

where, WD = dissipated energy

Ws = maximum strain energy
Aloop = area of the hysteresis loop

Figure. Secant shear modulus, Gsec, and

tangent shear modulus, Gtan
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 Dynamic soil properties
 Maximum Shear Modulus, Gmax
 Shear strains less than 3 × 10-4 %

 Measured shear wave velocities is generally the most reliable means

of evaluating the in situ value of Gmax for a particular soil deposit
 Empirical relationships for Maximum Shear Modulus, Gmax
 When shear wave velocity measurements are not available

where F(e) = function of the void ratio

OCR = overconsolidation ratio,
k = overconsolidation ratio exponent
σ'm = mean principal effective stress
n = stress exponent, and
Pa = atmospheric 26
 Dynamic soil properties
 Empirical relationships for Maximum Shear Modulus, Gmax

where, K2, max is determined from the void ratio or relative

(see Table) and,
σ'm is mean principal effective stress (lb/ft2) (Seed and
Idriss, 1970)

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 Dynamic soil properties
 Empirical Relationships between Gmax and In-Situ Test Parameters

Source: Kramer (1996) 28

 Dynamic soil properties
 Estimation of Gmax from CPT tip resistance for uncemented
silica sands (After Baldi et al., 1989)

29
 Dynamic soil properties
Effect of environmental and loading conditions on maximum shear
modulus of normally consolidated and moderately overconsolidated
soils

30
 Dynamic soil properties
 Modulus reduction curves for fine-grained soils of different
plasticity (After Vucetic and Dobry, 1991)

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 Dynamic soil properties
 Effects of effective confining pressure and plasticity index on
modulus reduction behaviour combined by Ishibashi and Zhang
(1993)

32
 Dynamic soil properties

Figure. Influence of mean effective confining pressure on modulus

reduction curves for (a) non-plastic (PI= 0) soil, and (b) plastic (PI= 50)
soil. (After Ishibashi (1992)
33
 Dynamic soil properties
 Effect of cyclic degradation on shear modulus (After Vucetic
and Dobry, 1991 )

34
 Dynamic soil properties
 Effect of environmental and loading conditions on modulus ratio
(at a given strain level) of normally consolidated and moderately
overconsolidated soils

35
 Dynamic soil properties
 Variation of damping ratio of fine-grained soil with cyclic shear
strain amplitude and plasticity index (After Vucetic and Dobry
(1991 )

36
 Dynamic soil properties
 Figure shows that some energy is dissipated even at very low strain
levels (the mechanism is not well understood), therefore, the
damping ratio is never zero.
 No hysteretic dissipation of energy takes place at strains below
the linear cyclic threshold shear strain.
 The damping behavior of gravel is similar to that of sand (Seed
et al., 1984).
 Damping behavior is also influenced by effective confining
pressure, particularly for soils of low plasticity.
 Ishibashi and Zhang (1993) developed an empirical expression
for the damping ratio (ξ) of plastic and non-plastic soils.

37
 Dynamic soil properties
 Effect of environmental and loading conditions on damping
ratio of normally consolidated and moderately overconsolidated
soils

38
 Dynamic soil properties
• Nonlinear Models
 Nonlinear stress-strain behavior of soils represent the more
accurate nonlinear soil model which follow actual stress-strain path
during cyclic loading.

 Does not require the shear strain to be zero, when the shear stress
is zero.

 This model represents the

permanent deformation / strains in
the soil, which is one of the most
important advantages of cyclic
nonlinear models over equivalent
linear models.

39
 Dynamic soil properties
 Nonlinear analyses integrate the equations of motion in small time
steps.

Figure. (a) Nomenclature for uniform soil deposit of infinite lateral extent
overlying bedrock; (b) discretization of soil deposit into N sublayers

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 Dynamic soil properties
• Advanced constitutive models

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Thank you
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