CHAPTER IV

THE CULTURE

What does “culture” means? There are several definitions of “culture”. The father of
sociology, Emile Durkheim, asserted that culture has the power over individuals to create
beliefs, such as belief in God. He added that with more people holding the same beliefs, social
order is also strengthened (Little and McGivern, 2016). Meanwhile the father of cultural
anthropology, Edward Tylor stated that in general, culture id the way of life of a group of people
that “includes their knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs, and any other capabilities and
habits required by man as a member of society” (Tylor, 1974, 1981)

General Objectives:

1. Discuss the role of culture in shaping human behavior

2. Explain cultural relativism
3. Explain why there is universal values
4. Describe the qualities of moral identity of Filipinos
5. Analyze how is moral character developed
6. Discuss the different stages of moral development

Lesson I. How Culture Shapes Human

Behavior

Culture is a complex phenomenon. It contains nearly all aspects of shared human

experiences. How does culture affect human behavior? Since human beings are naturally social
creature, we as people, are also naturally drawn to participate in culture. People want to belong,
to be accepted by peers. We also need protection from danger. Being part of a social group not
only feeds our needs to be accepted, it also increases the human being’s chances to survive.
Thus, because of the safety in numbers that being part of a group provides, human beings
learned to modify behaviors to match that which their cultural group deems acceptable.
 WHAT TO EXPECT

1. Identify the five (5) elements of culture

2. Discuss the three elements that influence human behavior

Lesson Outline

The 5 Basic Elements of Culture

1. Symbols
Symbols can be anything that a group of people find meaningful. For example, in
religious groups the cross is symbol for Christianity while the crescent is for Islam.
2. Language
Language is a complex symbol system that enabled human beings to communicate
either verbally or through writing. Ilocano, Bisaya, Tagalog, and several other native
languages were already spoken in Pre-Colonial Philippines. Their ancient script or writing
called baybayinhad characters, and each represented a complete syllable (Lewis, 2015)
3. Beliefs
Beliefs are assumptions or convictions held to be true by an individual or a group of
people. These assumptions/convictions could be about events, people or things. For
example, ancient civilizations attributed events to spirits and gods. This is what we now call
as “superstitious belief”. However, when people started to think critically and scientific
research flourished, events are now explained differently. This also shows that beliefs
change through time.
4. Values
Values are culturally acceptable standards of behavior. It is what a person considers
important or beneficial in life. For example, in pre-colonial Philippines there were evidences
that women were equally valued and held central roles in society just as did the men.
(Perez, 2013). This was in stark contrast to Spanish colonizers however, who valued women
mainly as domestic caretakers.
5. Norms
Norm is informal guideline by a particular group of people or social unit about what is
considered normal or correct/incorrect social behavior. For instance, the Filipino norm in
 relating to other people is to get along well with others, even with complete strangers. This
Filipino trait is called “pakikisama”.

How does Culture define Moral Behavior?

One of the revered founders of Western Philosophy – Plato, in his famous philosophical
work, The Republic, cited three critical elements that jointly influence the human person’s moral
development.

The 3 Elements
 Native traits (genetic characteristics)
 Early childhood experience
 One’s cultural surroundings

Plato implied that if a person’s cultural surroundings reward conformity to agreeable

norms it would lead the person to behave much better and quell undesirable conduct. He also
expressed that the power of culture over an individual is more potent in children because they
do not have any pre-existing values. The child’s cultural surroundings create these values and
dispositions. Thus, Plato insisted that a child’s cultural surroundings should “express the image
of a noble character”; that role models should display the conduct of a proper human being
because the behavior of the adults serves as the child’s moral foundation as he or she grows
and develops (Conford, 1966; Pekarsky, 1998).
 In some countries, children are allowed to marry but in most countries this is
unacceptable. Divorce is not allowed in the Philippines, but Filipino Muslim men and women can
legally divorce their respective wife or husband. Why are there so many differences in societies
on what is acceptable and or not? Is it true that different cultures have radically different moral
codes? Are there any values that all societies commonly have? This lesson will discuss the
advantages of cultural relativism and the dangers of holding this viewpoint.

WHAT TO EXPECT

1. Cite the advantage and danger of cultural relativism

2. State relationships among cultural practices

Lesson Outline

Why can’t all Cultural Practices be always Correct?

The world is wide and huge. Part of what makes world interesting is that it is home to
different groups of people who have developed their own unique outlook on how to survive and
thrive. These difference led people to view life differently and live completely different lifestyle.
German-American anthropologist Franz Boaz first articulated this in 1887, “…civilization is not
something absolute, but … is relative, and … our ideas and conceptions are true only so far as
our civilization goes”. However, the first to use the term “cultural relativism” was philosopher and
social theorist Alain Locke in 1924. Cultural relativism explains why one behavior or practice is
completely acceptable by a particular group of people, while it is taboo in another. It refers to the
idea that values, knowledge, and behavior of people must be understood within its own cultural
context, and not by the standards of other cultures. Hence, all moral and ethical standards (or
the judgment of what is right or wrong) is valid and there is not “one” standards that is “better”
among all other.
Dr. James Rachels (1941-2003) – Philosopher / university Professor, in his book The
Element s of Moral Philosophy, laid out five claims of cultural relativism (as to why right or
wrong)
These claims are:
 1. Different societies have different moral codes.
2. The moral code of a society determines what is right or wrong. There is no objective
standard considered better than others.
3. There are no universal moral truths.
4. The moral code of a particular society has no special status. It is but one among many.
5. It is arrogant for one culture to judge another culture. There should be tolerance among
cultures.

The Advantage and Dangers of Cultural Relativism

Rachels identified two positive lessons we can learn from cultural relativism.
1. It warns us from assuming that our preferences are the absolute rational standard.
2. It reaches us to keep an open mind and to be more amenable in discovering the truth.
Many of our practices are relevant only to our particular community. This implies our
moral views are reflection of our society’s prejudices. Cultural relativism makes us understand
that what we think as truth may actually be just the result of cultural conditioning.
On the other hand, the dangers of Cultural Relativism are:
1. We cannot call out societal practices that promote harm.
If cultural relativism is true, then we should not condemn what Hitler and Nazis
did against the Jews Apartheid in South Africa, or any form of maltreatment, damage,
injury, or destruction that one community inflicts upon anyone or anything.
2. We cannot justifiably criticize our own culture’s harmful practices.
This implies that to decide whether your action is right or wrong all you need to
do is check whether your action is in accordance with the standards of YOUR society. If
your actions are in line with your culture, then you have done nothing wrong – even
though your actions were harmful. After all, if it is true that you cannot criticize other
cultures, then all the more you cannot criticize your own culture since people in your
group accept it as a way of life. For example, if cultural relativism is to be followed then
2016 Metro Manila Film Fest officials did not have the right to take back the Fernando
Poe, Jr. Memorial Award granted to the film “Oro” where a dog was really slaughtered in
the movie because dogs as “pulutan” is part of an issue.
3. The idea of social progress becomes doubtful
Progress means replacing something old with something better. However, if
cultural relativism is to be followed, by what standards do we say that a society has
become better? The idea of social reform is now eradicated because we are prohibited
from judging one society as better over others. For example, Spanish colonial era was in
effect a different society than modern Philippines. Hence, we cannot say that Filipinos
have made social progress from being slaves to conquistadores into a freedom-loving
society because slavery during the Spanish colonial era was the norms and it was a
different time compared to modern Philippines.
 Lesson III. Universal Values

Overview
A value is a universal value if it has the same value or worth for all people. Spheres of
human value encompass morality, aesthetic preference, human traits, human endeavor and
social order. Whether universal value exist is an unproven assumption of moral philosophy and
cultural anthropology, though it is clear that certain values are found across the great diversity of
human cultures, such as primary attributes of physical attractiveness (e.g. youthfulness,
symmetry) whereas other attributes (e.g. slenderness) are subject to aesthetic relativism as
governed by cultural norms.

WHAT TO EXPECT

1. Explain why universal values necessary for survival

2. Identify the three universal values shared by all cultures
3. Describe the universal or core ethical values
Lesson Outline

I. Why there are Universal Values

The claim for universal values can be understood into two different ways. First, it could
be that something has universal value when everybody finds it valuable. This was Isaiah Berlin’s
understanding of the term/ According to Berlin “…universal values…are values that a great
many human beings in the vast majority of places and situations, at almost all times, do in fact
hold in common, whether consciously and explicitly or as expressed in the behavior…”. Second,
something could have universal value when all people have reason to believe it has value.
AmartyaSen interprets the term in this way, pointing out that when Mahatma Gandhi argued that
non-violence is a universal value, he was arguing that all people has reason to value non-
violence, not that all people currently value non-violence. Many different things have been
claimed to be of universal value, for example fertility, pleasure, and democracy.
The dangers that cultural relativism present led thinkers such as ethics experts Dr.
James Rachels to reject cultural relativism because it is implausible. The empirical basis of
cultural relativism is that cultures are dramatically different in its views of what is right or wrong.
However, when it comes to important moral issues, there are three values that are universal
(Rachels, 2004).

II. The Three Universal Values Shared By All Cultures

1. Caring for the young
2. Murder is wrong
3. Tell the truth

The theoretical point here is that “there are some moral rules that all societies will have
in common, because those rules are necessary for society to survive” (Rachels, 2004). Imagine
if human being do not care for their young. Homo Sapiens will eventually be an extinct species.
In the same manner, we will eventually be wiped out too if people were free to kill other people.
Moreover, what kind of society will it be if the presumption of everyone’s statement is that it is a
lie? What reason do you have to pay attention to anyone? If lying is our way of life, how can you
believe what your teacher is teaching? What is the use of having a teacher in the first place?
What is the use of talking to each other at all?

III. The Universal or the Core Ethical Values

Trustworthiness, respect, responsibility, fairness, caring, and citizenship — are six core
ethical values.

Using core ethical values as the basis for ethical thinking can help detect situations where
we focus so hard on upholding one value that we sacrifice another — eg we are loyal to friends
and so do not always tell the truth about their actions.

1. TRUSTWORTHINESS

Trustworthiness concerns a variety of behavioral qualities — honesty, integrity, reliability

and loyalty.

Honesty

There is no more fundamental ethical value than honesty. We associate honesty with
people of honor, and we admire and trust those who are honest.
Honesty in communications is about intent to convey the truth as best we know it and to avoid
communicating in a way likely to mislead or deceive.

There are three dimensions:

Truthfulness — truthfulness means not intentionally misrepresenting a fact (lying). Intent is the
crucial distinction between truthfulness and truth itself. Being wrong is not the same thing as
being a liar, although honest mistakes can still damage trust.

Sincerity/non-deception — a sincere person does not act, say half-truths, or stay silent with
the intention of creating beliefs or leaving impressions that are untrue or misleading.

Frankness — In relationships involving trust, honesty may also require us to volunteer

information that another person needs to know.

Honesty in conduct prohibits stealing, cheating, fraud, and trickery. Cheating is not only
dishonest but takes advantage of those who are not cheating. It’s a violation of trust and
fairness.

Not all lies are unethical, even though all lies are dishonest. Occasionally dishonesty is
ethically justifiable, such as when the police lie in undercover operations or when one lies to
criminals or terrorists to save lives. But occasions for ethically sanctioned lying are rare - eg
saving a life.

Integrity

There are no differences in the way an ethical person makes decisions from situation to
situation - no difference in the way they act at work and at home, in public and alone.

The person of integrity takes time for self-reflection so that the events, crises and the
necessities of the day do not determine the course of their moral life. They stay in control.

The four enemies of integrity are:

• Self-interest — Things we want

• Self-protection — Things we don’t want

• Self-deception — A refusal to see a situation clearly

• Self-righteousness — An end-justifies-the-means attitude

Reliability

When we make promises or commitments to people our ethical duties go beyond legal
obligations. The ethical dimension of promise-keeping imposes the responsibility of making all
reasonable efforts to fulfill our commitments.

It is also important to:

Avoid bad-faith excuses — Honorable people don't rationalize noncompliance or create

justifications for escaping commitments.

Avoid unwise commitments — Before making a promise consider carefully whether you are
willing and likely to keep it. Think about unknown or future events that could make it difficult,
undesirable or impossible to keep your commitment. Sometimes, all we can do is promise to do
our best.

Avoid unclear commitments — Since others will expect you to live up to what they think you
have promised to do, be sure that, when you make a promise, the other person understands
what you are committing to do.

Loyalty

Loyalty is about promoting and protecting the interests of certain people, organizations
or affiliations. Some relationships — husband-wife, employer-employee, citizen-country —
create an expectation of loyalty.

Prioritizing Loyalties.Because so many individuals and groups make loyalty claims on us, it is
often impossible to honor them all simultaneously. Consequently, we must rank our loyalty
obligations in some rational fashion. In our personal lives, for example, it’s perfectly reasonable,
and ethical, to look out for the interests of our children, parents and spouses even if we have to
subordinate our obligations to other children, neighbors, or co-workers in doing so.

Safeguarding Confidential Information.Loyalty requires us to keep secrets or information

learned in confidence.

Avoiding Conflicting Interests.Employees and public servants have an additional

responsibility to make all professional decisions on merit not personal interests. Their goal is to
maintain the trust of the public.

2. RESPECT

Respect is about honoring the essential worth and dignity of all people, including
oneself. We are morally obligated to treat everyone with respect, regardless of who they are and
what they have done. We have a responsibility to be the best we can be in all situations, even
when dealing with unpleasant people.

Respect focuses on:

Civility, Courtesy and Decency - A respectful person is a good listener. The respectful person
treats others with consideration, conforming to accepted notions of taste and propriety, and
doesn’t resort to intimidation, coercion or violence except in extraordinary and limited situations
to teach discipline, maintain order or achieve social justice.

Tolerance - An ethical person accepts individual differences and beliefs and judges others only
on their character.

3. RESPONSIBILITY

Life is full of choices and being responsible means being in charge of our choices and
therefore our lives. It means being accountable for what we do and who we are. It also means
recognizing that what we do, and what we don’t do, matters.

Accountability

An accountable person is not a victim and doesn’t shift blame or claim credit for the work
of others.

Pursuit of Excellence

The pursuit of excellence has an ethical dimension when others rely upon our
knowledge, ability or willingness to perform tasks safely and effectively.
Diligence.Responsible people are reliable, careful, prepared and informed.

Perseverance.Responsible people finish what they start, overcoming rather than surrendering
to obstacles and excuses.

Continuous Improvement.Responsible people look for ways to do their work better.

Self-Restraint

Responsible people exercise self-control, restraining passions and appetites (such as

lust, hatred, gluttony, greed and fear). They delay gratification if necessary and never feel it’s
necessary to "win at any cost."

4. FAIRNESS
 Fairness is a tricky concept. Disagreeing parties tend to maintain that there is only one
fair position - their own. But while some situations and decisions are clearly unfair, fairness
usually refers to a range of morally justifiable outcomes rather than discovery of one fair answer.

Process

A fair person uses open and unbiased processes for gathering and evaluating
information necessary to make decisions. Fair people do not wait for the truth to come to them;
they seek out relevant information and conflicting perspectives before making important
decisions.

Impartiality

Decisions should be unbiased without favoritism or prejudice.

Equity

It is important not to take advantage of the weakness, disadvantage or ignorance of

others. Fairness requires that an individual, company, or society correct mistakes, promptly and
voluntarily.

5. CARING

Caring is the heart of ethics. It is scarcely possible to be truly ethical and not genuinely
concerned with the welfare others. That is because ethics is ultimately about our responsibilities
toward other people.

Sometimes we must hurt those we care for and some decisions, while quite ethical, do
cause pain. But one should consciously cause no more harm than is reasonably necessary.

6. CITIZENSHIP

The concept of citizenship includes how we ought to behave as part of a community.

The good citizen knows the laws and obeys them - but they also volunteer and stay informed on
the issues of the day.

Citizens do more than their "fair" share to make society work, now and for future generations.
Citizenship can have many expressions, such as conserving resources, recycling, using public
transportation and cleaning up litter.
 Lesson IV. The Filipino Way

The Filipino culture is a mix of both Eastern and Western cultures. The beliefs and
traditions of pre-colonial Philippines was mainly indigenous Malay heritage (Baringer, 2006).
Then the Spanish colonized the island and the Hispanic culture influenced the natives. In turn,
the American shape the modern Filipino culture and this is primarily manifested by the wide use
of the English language in the Philippines today. It was form these influences that formed the
Filipino character. The brief occupation of the British (1762-1764) and the Japanese (1942-
1945) however had no cultural influence in the Philippines at all.

WHAT TO EXPECT

1. Evaluate the elements of Filipino moral identity

2. Demonstrate Filipino strength and weaknesses of character/

Lesson Outline

I. Qualities of the Filipinos Moral Identity

Psychologist, educator, and former Chairperson of the Commission on Higher

Education, Dr. Patricia B. Licuanan, wrote that the strengths and weaknesses of the Filipino
character are rooted in factors such as:

1. The home environment

2. The social environment
3. Culture and language
4. History
5. The educational system
6. Religion
7. The economic environment
8. The political environment
9. Mass media, and
10. Leadership and models
 Licuanan said that in the home environment, Filipino children are taught to value family
and give it primary importance. The Filipino social environment is characterized by depending
on one another to survive. This dependence on relationships and the struggle for survival make
Filipinos group oriented (1994).
Meanwhile, Filipino culture and language depict openness to foreign elements with no
basic consciousness of our cultural core (Licuanan, 1994). The Filipino Colonial Mentality such
as the importance of the English language in our educational system, the wider following of the
Hollywood movies, foreign soap operas/TV shows, and foreign songs/singers over Filipino
movies, shoes, and music is a manifestation of our attachment to foreign elements.
Licuanan added that our colonial history is regarded as the culprit behind our colonial
mentality. Unfortunately, most Filipino elite are of no help in setting an example of overcoming
colonial mentality because they are even more westernized in their ways. Present day media on
the other hand reinforced these colonial influences (1994).
The Philippine educational system is also instrumental in molding the strengths and
weaknesses of the Filipino character. Schools are highly authoritarian. Early on, children learnt
that well-behaved and obedient students are praised and rewarded. This teaches passivity and
conformity. The Filipinos are also religious. Religion taught us optimism and resilience.
However, it also instilled in us a fatalistic attitude. Since religious communities are also highly
authoritarian, this further reinforced our being passive and conformist (Licuanan, 1994).
Several Filipino traits are rooted in our economic environment. The hard life drove the
Filipinos to work hard and take risks, such as leaving our family to work abroad. This further
developed our ability to survive. Unfortunately, our political environment and government
structures and systems are framing with problems. For instance, the fact that political power is
mainly in the hands of the elite and the absence of strong government presence enhanced the
Filipinos already extreme family centeredness (Licuanan, 1994). The economic and political
environments are among the elements that developed the culture of corruptions in the
Philippines.
Meanwhile, how did mass media reinforce our colonial mentality? What did you noticed
with the ads, the music, movies, fashion, etcetera shown on TV, aired over the radio, printed in
the newspaper/magazines, or went viral online? These were greatly based on American pop
culture. The emphasis on the superiority of an imported brand or product through mass media is
in fact part of Filipino’s daily life.
 Filipinos highly respect authorities, we lean on our leaders and role models. Any
person with authority is looked up to. Thus, when our leaders violate the law and when there is
lack of accountability for leaders who break the law, the Filipino mindset is hugely affected in a
negative way (Licuanan, 1994).

II. Strengths of the Filipino Character

The Filipino traits listed here is certainly not exhaustive, but these are what we have in
common the most. The strong aspects of the Filipino characters are:
1. Pakikipagkapwa-tao
2. Family orientation
3. Joy and humor
4. Flexibility, Adaptability, and Creativity
5. Hard work and industry
6. Faith and religiosity
7. Ability to survive

Pakikipagkapwa-taois demonstrated in Filipino’s openness, helpfulness, and generosity;

in the practice of bayanihanor mutual assistance; and the famous Filipino hospitality (Licuanan,
1994; Guevarra and Gripaldo, [Ed.] 2005) Filipinos are also possess a genuine love for the
family. This love is not just for one’s spouse and children but also to parents, grandparents,
aunts, uncles, cousins (even very distant ones), and even to ceremonial relatives. This love is
shown through giving honor and respect to parents and elders, care for the children, generosity
towards kin, and the personal sacrifices that a Filipino endures for the welfare of the family
(Manauat and Gripaldo [Ed.], 2005) this strong family orientation gave a Filipino a sense of
belonging and security.
Filipinos are also cheerful and fun loving. Our various fiestas and social gathering
demonstrates the Filipino joy and humor. We can laugh at those we love and hate, and can
make a joke about our good and bad fortune. Even in the most trying times, Filipinos will always
find a reason to smile and laugh. This pleasant disposition contributed to our ability to overcome
life’s challenges. Filipinos are also tremendous in adjusting and adapting to any circumstances.
We can improvise and make use of whatever is at hand to create and produce. Our flexibility,
adaptability, and creativity are reasons why many Filipinos thrive in various part of the world
(Licuanan, 1994).
 Filipinos also value hard work and industry. This trait is most noticeable to our
willingness to take risks and work in other countries. Filipinos also value faith and religiosity.
This can be related to bahalanamindset. There is actually a positive side to this fatalistic trait.
For Filipinos, the bahalanaattitude could serve as a “kickstarter” or a “pampalakasloob” to move
him or her into action (Gripaldo, 2005).
All these positive Filipino traits mentioned contribute to our ability to survive. The
salawikainor proverbs “matutongmamaluktothabangmaikliangkumot” aptly depicts our survival
instinct. We can endure, make do, and get by on so little while looking forward to the coming of
better days. This trait is the reason why Filipinos continue to carry on even through our harsh
economic and social circumstances (Tianco and Gripaldo [Ed.], 2005; Licuanan, 1994)

Weaknesses of the Filipino Character

Aside from identifying the roots and strengths of the Filipino character, Dr. Patricia B.
Licuanan also pointed out our weaknesses. This is important because this enables the Filipino
to identify the areas that need improvement in order to grow and develop as a person. An
informed and improved Filipino will also result in a stronger and more progressive nation.
Generally, these weaknesses are:
 Extreme Personalism
 Extreme Family-Centeredness
 Lack of Discipline
 Passivity and Lack of Initiative
 Colonial Mentality
 Lack of Self-Analysis and Self-Reflection
Licuanan noted that Filipinos function in the world by personally relating to things,
events, and people. We find it difficult to separate objective tasks and emotional involvement.
This is where the palakasansystem spring from. Filipinos wants to get special treatment and will
always look for “inside connections” in most (if not all) of his or her transactions. For example,
family and friends are given preference in hiring; in the delivery of the services; and even in
voting (Licuanan, 1994). Since persona; contacts are involved, requests of this nature also
become difficult to turn down. Extreme Personalismis another element that led to the
prevalence of graft and corruption in the country.
The family may be a source of strength for Filipino, but extreme family-centeredness is
also hi/her flaw. Family is valued above anything and everyone else. Thus, concern for the rest
of community and for the common good is less important. Extreme family-centeredness is
manifested in our political system where political dynasties lord over our elected government
posts starting from the barangay level the way up to the national positions. (McCoy, 1994,
Licuanan, 1994).
The Filipino’s lack of discipline is characterized by out idiomatic expression “ningas
cogon”. Project starts out with full enthusiasm and interest, but no sooner it was started that the
enthusiasm and interest just as soon died down (Licuanan, 1994). Another related characteristic
is “Filipino time”. Filipinos are known to be always late – we arrive late or we start late. Since
global trends strictly follow schedules, this trait that disregard the importance of time is
adversely affecting Filipino productivity (Tan, 2016).
Filipinos have very high respect for authority. Unfortunately, this also led to general
passivity and lacking initiative. For instance, there is strong reliance on leaders and
government to solve the nation’s problems out ordinarily. Filipinos are also do not feel the need
to initiate or contribute to the solution. This trait is also related to our lack of discipline. Look at
our traffic problem. We expect the government to solve the monstrous traffic jam; yet, traffic
rules and regulations are also blatantly ignored every day.
Generally, Filipino loves anything foreign. Foreign elements are adapted and
incorporated into our image. I the process, we are also losing our cultural identity. Licuanan
noted that this colonial mentalityis connected to our general feelings of inferiority, where we
think foreigners – especially Westerners, are superior (1994).
The kanya-kanya syndrome is related to the Filipino traits of extreme personalism and
extreme family-centeredness. Persona and in-group interests are supreme and the drive to fulfill
these interests is completely insensitive to the common good. The kanya-kanya syndrome
dampened our sense of community and cooperation – and we trample on each other’s right as a
result. The expression crab mentality, where we tend to pull others down to climb up, exemplify
the kanya-kanyasyndrome.
Dr. Licuanan further observed that the joyful and fun-loving Filipino also ahs the
tendency to be superficial and somewhat flighty. This means that in time of crisis, either
personal or social, there is a general lack of analysis and reflection (1994). A manifestation of
this lack of self-analysis and self-reflection is the expression that the Filipinos are
“madalingmakalimot” or have short memory. This means, as a nation, we easily forget the
mistakes we made; hence we make the same mistakes again. This is one reason why
traditional politicians or “trapos” are always re-elected to the office.
The Filipino character is a contradiction. For example, our bayanihan cultures coexist
comfortably with our kanya-kanya syndrome. Many of our strong points, in fact, are linked to our
weaknesses. Despite these weaknesses, however, there is still much good in the Filipino
character. What is important is that we know our values as a nation because these helps us
grow and develop. We need to understand our character as a Filipino because this is the first
step towards creating the future we want as an individual and as a nation.
 Moral characters are those dispositions or the tendency to act or think in a particular way
for which a person can be held morally responsible. Thus, moral character traits are rational,
informed, stable and reliable disposition (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2017).

WHAT TO EXPECT

1. Explain the philosophical roots of moral character

2. Demonstrate a good moral character by answering a moral dilemma.

Lesson Outline

What is Moral Character

First let us know the most basic definition of the terms moral, character, and moral
character.
 Moral – concerned with the principle of right and wrong behavior or the goodness and
badness of human character. (Merriam – Webster 2017)
 Character – define as the mental and moral qualities distinct to an individual. (Merriam –
Webster 2017); also denotes to the moral dimension of a person – in Philosophy.
(Timpe, 2007)
 Moral Character – refers to existence (or lack of) virtues such as integrity, courage,
fortitude, honesty, and loyalty. (Merriam – Webster 2017)

Philosophical Views on Moral Character

What do the great ancient minds think about moral character? Let us look at the
viewpoints of Eastern and Western thinkers.

Confucian Traditions

The Philosophy of moral development is rooted in an ancient view. For Confucian

traditions, moral development was attributed to ”four beginnings” of the human personality
(Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2017). These “four beginnings” were considered as seeds
of human personality that will naturally unfold to become human activities. Take note though,
that contrary to Western understanding of personality as a given human conditions,
personality in Confucian perception meant – “an achieved state of moral excellence” (Ammes,
1997; Klemme, WEB).
Thus, in this concept, every person is born with four beginnings. However, each of these
do not yet capture the concept of self. However, when the four beginnings are put together, it
may be perceived in Western understanding as the “pre-self” or “potential self” (Klemme, WEB).

The Four Beginning in Confucian Traditions (as presented earlier in this module)
1. The heart of compassion, which leads to Jen.
2. The heart of righteousness, which leads to Yi.
3. The heart of propriety, which leads to Li.
4. The heart of wisdom, which leads to Zhi.

 Jen means goodwill, sympathy towards others, and generosity.

 Yi means righteousness and the respect of duty, which is respecting your position as
guardian towards nature and humanity.
 Li deals with outward behavior such as etiquette, customs and rituals.
 Zhimeans wisdom, and this wisdom is a product of practicing Jen, Li, and Yi in one’s life
(Liu, 2002).

Aristotle and Virtue Ethics

Virtue ethics is an approach that reduces the emphasis on rules, consequences, and
particular acts. Instead, virtue ethics focus on the quality of the person. Although action and
consequences are significant, virtue ethics does not focus on whether an action is, right or
wrong; nor o whether the consequences are good or bad. It is more concerned with whether the
person is acting as a virtuous person should act in the situation.
Virtue ethics is largely identified with Aristotle. In ancient Western philosophy, Aristotle’s
discussion on moral character, particularly virtue, is the most influential view on topic. Aristotle
argued that each person has a built-in desire to be virtuous and that if the person is focused on
being good person, the right action will follow effortlessly and you will do good things.
What does it mean to be a good person? Aristotle believed that humans have an
essence. He called this essence “proper functioning” where everything has a function and the
thing that performs as intended is called good when it is able to fulfill this function. Thus, a
scissor is a good scissor if it can cut. A car is good if it runs and takes you to your destination. A
person is also good if he or she fulfills what nature expects of him or her. Hence, a person
needs to sleep, be healthy, grow, and develop as nature intended. However, aside from its
natural instincts, a person according to Aristotle is also a “rational animal” and a “social animal”.
Therefore, using reason to live and get along with other people is also the human person’s
function. A “good” person is one who fulfills all these functions.
So what does it mean to be virtuous? Virtue for the Greeks is equivalent to excellence. A
man has a virtue as a flautist, for instance, if he plays the flute well, since playing the flute is the
distinctive activity of a flautist. A person of virtue is someone who performs the distinctive
activity of being human well. The principle of being virtuous is called the “Doctrine of the Golden
Mean” – that moral behavior is the one that is in the middle of two extreme behaviors (or what
called wastes). When he said “extreme behavior”, it meant the act was excessive or deficient.
For example, in Aristotelian’s view, eating is a human function as demanded by nature. When a
person overeat (gluttony), this behavior is excessive; while a person who diets too much
(starvation) is deficient. Thus, the virtue when eating is temperance or to eat just the right
amount at all times to keep your body nourished sad healthy. Temperance is the golden mean
between gluttony and starvation. Aristotle understood virtue as a character that can be
developed, and that this can be developed by practicing the golden mean (the Doctrine of the
Mean). In time, good behavior will come naturally.
It is important to note that Aristotle's Doctrine of the Mean does not claim that you
behave moderately at all times; such as when you get angry, you should only ever be
‘moderately’ angry. In Aristotle's philosophy, you should be angry as the situation demands
which can be very angry or only slightly irritated. He concluded that virtue is a choice of
behaving the right way, at the right time, with the right people, and that this choice determined
by rational principle and practical wisdom (Lacewing, 2015). The virtuous man is the kind of
man (note: the term ‘man’ in Aristotle’s writing is equated with person and not just opposed to
women) who is able to satisfy both inclination and rational desires because his or her
inclinations and desires are aligned. The virtuous man wants t do what is good and does it
because he/she derives pleasure from choosing and doing what is moral.
But why do we have to be virtuous? The reason, according to virtue ethics, is
Eudaimonia. Generally, eudaimonia can be translated as ‘’happiness’’, ‘’well-being’’ or the
‘’good life’’ and that this is the goal of human life. Aristotle believed that to achieve eudaimonia
you need to practice the virtues in your everyday activity all through your life.
 Lesson VI. Stages of Moral Development

Lawrence Kohlberg was a 20th century developmental psychologist and moral

philosopher. When he was the director of Harvard’s Center for Moral Education, Kohlberg’s
research focused on the moral development of children particularly on how they develop a
sense of what is right or wrong, as well as justice. He observed that children move through what
he believed as definite stages of moral development.

WHAT TO EXPECT

1. Tell how one develops a sense of what is right and wrong

2. Categorize the different stages of moral development

Lesson Outline

Kohlberg’s Theory

He studied the morality using the very interesting (if controversial) technique. In his
research, he would ask children and adults to try solve moral dilemmas in short stories and
asked the participants to think out loud so he could follow their reasoning. The reason for this
was that Kohlberg was not interested with the specific answers to the dilemmas – he wanted to
know how the person got to his or her answer.
His theory holds the moral reasoning, which is the basis for ethical behavior, has
identifiable developmental stages and each become more adequate at responding to moral
dilemmas as the person progresses from one stage to the next. He asserted that the process of
moral development was principally concerned with justice, and that the process goes on
throughout the individual’s lifetime.
After looking at hundreds of interviews using several stories, Kohlberg outlined three
broad levels and six specific stages of moral development.

Level I: Pre-conventional morality

 Judgment at this level is solely focused on the self. This line of moral reasoning is
common among children although some adults would also exhibit such behavior. The child,
having no concept about society’s conventions on what is right or wrong, would base its
judgment mainly on the external consequences of its action.

 Stage 1: Punishment-Obedience Orientation

This is called the pre-moral stage where decisions and actions are determined by
immediate physical consequence and not the true moral value. The overall goal at this
stage is to avoid punishment.

 Stage 2: Reward Orientation

As children grow older, they begin to see that there is actually room for negotiation
because other people have their own goals to meet and wants that must be satisfied too.
Children learn to behave in a manner based on the principle “What’s in it for me?”

Level II: Conventional Morality

This level of moral reasoning is typical adolescent and adults. Conventional morality is to
reason in a conventional (something that is generally accepted) manner. It is accepting the rules
and standards of one’s group. This means decisions and the morality of his or her actions are
based on society’s views and expectations. The focus on this level is the “significant others”
also called as “Tyranny of the They” (They say… They say that… They say I should…)

 Stage 3: Good Boy/Good Girl Orientation

At this stage, the child tries to seek approval from other people by living up to their
expectations. He/She also now understands the concept of loyalty, trust, and gratitude
as well as become interested in motives and intentions behind the particular decisions or
actions.

 Stage 4: Authority Orientation

By this time, individuals have reached adulthood and they usually consider society as a
whole when making judgments. The focus at this stage is following the rules, maintaining
law and order, doing ones duty, and respecting authority.
Level III: Post Conventional
This is also known as the ‘principled level’. It is marked by a growing realization that
people are unique and are an independent part of the society. Therefore, the individual’s own
perspective is more significant over what the rest of the society thinks and that this would
sometimes lead to disobeying the law to follow personal principles.
At this level, a person does not see rules and laws as absolute or beyond question, but a
changeable mechanism. Kohlberg asserted that post conventional individuals view rules and
laws to be important in maintaining peace and order but it only serves as a guide that needs to
be weighed against personal principles and beliefs to uphold one’s human rights.
 Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation
This stage means the individual is aware that much of what is considered to be moral or
good is mainly based on personal beliefs as well as on the social group they belong to
and that only a very few of the known fundamental values are actually universal.
 Stage 6: Ethical – Principle Orientation
At this point, social contract takes a clear back seat and a person makes a personal
commitment to uphold universal principles of equal rights and respect. At this stage, an
individual already has a principle conscience; and with follow universal, ethical principles
regardless of what the laws or the rules say. Judgment here is based on abstract
reasoning such as being able to put oneself on other people’s shoes. (Gallinero et.al,
2015)
 Chapter Summary

 Culture is a complex phenomenon which contains nearly all aspects of shared human
experiences.
 The five (5) basic elements of culture are: symbols, language, beliefs,values, and norms.
 Plato implied that if a person’s cultural surroundings reward conformity to agreeable
norms it would lead the person to behave much better and quell undesirable conduct.
 Plato pointed out three (3) elements that influence human perso’s moral development
such as: native traits (genetic character), early childhood experience and one’s cultural
surroundings.
 Cultural relativism explains why one behavior or practice is completely acceptable by a
particular group of people, while it is taboo in another. It refers to the idea that values,
knowledge, and behavior of people must be understood within its own cultural context,
and not by the standards of other cultures.
 Cultural relativism warns us from assuming that our preferences are the absolute
rational standard and reaches us to keep an open mind and to be more amenable in
discovering the truth.
 The dangers of cultural relativism are: We cannot call out societal practices that promote
harm, we cannot justifiably criticize our own culture’s harmful practices and the idea of
social progress becomes doubtful.
 There are three universal values shared by all cultures which are: caring for the young,
murder is wrong and tell the truth.
 The Filipino culture is a mix of both Eastern and Western cultures which influence their
moral identity.
 Like any other, Filipino character has strengths and weaknesses.
 Contrary to Western understanding of personality as a given human conditions,
personality in Confucian perception meant – “an achieved state of moral excellence”
 The three levels of moral development of Kohlberg are: Pre-conventional morality which
includes punishment-obedience orientation and reward orientation, Conventional
Morality which includes good boy-good girl orientation and authority orientation and the
last level is Post conventional which includes social contract orientation and ethical-
principle orientation.