July 2023

ENERGY HARVESTING
 Table of Contents

04 CHAPTER - 1 Introduction

04 CHAPTER - 2 Basic Concepts

07 CHAPTER - 3 Energy Harvesting Solutions

08 CHAPTER - 4 Example Applications and

Emerging Trends

10 CHAPTER - 5 Conclusion

11 CHAPTER - 6 Related Products

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 Energy Harvesting

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Ambient energy is in the environment all around us, whether it’s light, vibrations and heat
from machinery, or even the kinetic energy that we generate by just walking around. The
goal of energy harvesting is to convert this typically wasted energy into usable power. Many
applications are already being powered via energy harvesting, with more to follow as the
technology improves. In this eBook, we’ll discuss the different types of energy harvesting,
the technologies underlying them, and some of the energy harvesting applications that are
currently in development.

element14 Community Team

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CHAPTER - 1 Introduction
Electronic devices of all kinds are experiencing
exponential growth and there is one thing they all
have in common: they need power. Some of today’s
most talked about technologies, the Internet of
Things (IoT) and edge computing devices, are
no exception. These often come in the form of a
network of small electronic devices that can include
processors, sensors, power management circuitry,
and wireless communication circuitry. Furthermore,
these devices are often used in locations that may
be inconvenient or impracticable to service regularly.
As a result, wireless circuitry is generally included to
relay information back to a base station, which may
process the data locally or upload it to the cloud
for further analysis. Utilizing low-power consuming
devices and high-capacity batteries is critical in
keeping the system powered and running reliably.
Although this may suffice for many systems, there are
still applications in which an additional power source
is needed to occasionally charge the batteries.
This is where energy harvesting comes into play.
Energy harvesting is a method of providing power to
a system through unconventional means. Typically,
batteries are recharged via connected wires or
CHAPTER - 2 Basic Concepts
Energy is all around us in various forms that largely
go unused. These forms include heat, vibration,
light, and electromagnetic energy. This is generally
referred to as ambient energy. Ambient energy can
come from natural sources, such as heat and light
from the sun or movement from the Earth. Ambient
energy can also come from human-made sources
in the form of wasted energy. For example, many
mechanical devices waste energy in the form of
heat or vibration. This energy escapes into the
environment constantly.
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manually replaced. Using energy harvesting, a
system can collect energy from the surrounding
environment, for example, from light sources or
vibrations, to provide charge to a battery. While the
energy provided to the system may cost nothing, the
real motivations for implementing energy harvesting
are convenience and the ability to eliminate wires
that would be needed to run the system. Energy
harvesting also allows for a truly remote system.
Wireless sensors and devices could be placed in
sensitive ecological locations and require virtually no
regular maintenance. In addition, they can be placed
in locations that are inconvenient to reach, such as
atop buildings or remote areas.
This eBook will walk you through the following:
• Basic concepts and types of energy harvesting
currently being used
• Example circuits used in energy harvesting
systems
• Example applications
• Emerging trends in energy harvesting systems
Energy harvesting systems generally consist of three
main parts. The first is a transducer that converts
the form of ambient energy into electrical energy.
Second, is the interfacing circuitry, which may
convert the electrical energy into a more suitable
form for usage. Finally, there’s the load circuitry,
which may include circuits that consume and use
the energy and/or devices which store the energy.
Energy storage devices can come in the form of
batteries, supercapacitors, and micro-energy cells.
Currently, there are four common forms of ambient
energy that can be used for energy harvesting: solar
energy, kinetic energy, thermal energy, and radio
frequency (RF) energy. These four methods of energy
harvesting will be described in greater detail in the
following paragraphs.
Solar Energy
Solar energy is one of the most widely used forms
of ambient energy and the most well-known. Solar
energy harvesting utilizes a photovoltaic (PV) cell to
convert light into electrical current. It achieves this by
using a special semiconductor material that passes
current when exposed to light. The amount of current
passed depends on various factors, such as the
intensity of light, the type of light (wavelength), and
the characteristics of the semiconductor material.
The effectiveness at which a PV cell converts light
to electrical energy is measured by a PV cell’s
efficiency. Various forms of PV cells exist today,
each with their own advantages and disadvantages,
such as efficiency and cost.
Silicon PV cells are currently the most common form
of solar cells available, with approximately 95%
of current PV cells sold being made from silicon.
They also have the advantages of yielding high
efficiencies, offering long lifetimes, and being less
expensive than their counterparts.
Thin film PV cells are the second most common
solution available. They are made by depositing a
thin layer of PV material on plastic, glass, or metal.
Examples of thin film PV cells include cadmium
telluride (CdTe) and copper iridium gallium diselenide
(CIGS). Thin film PV cells have low manufacturing
costs but sacrifice efficiency and lifetime.
Other technologies that exist and are currently being
researched further include perovskite cells, organic
PV cells, and quantum dot solar cells. Perovskite cells
are a type of thin film structure that is printed onto a
substrate. They offer simple assembly and have also
shown to have promising efficiencies. Organic PV
cells are created using organic compounds and can
be used to enhance specific characteristics of a PV
cell, such as the optimal wavelength for light capture
and conversion. In addition, they are inexpensive to
manufacture and can be applied to various materials,
such as flexible plastics. Lastly, quantum dot PV cells
offer a simple way to create solar cells that can work
to enhance current PV technologies. Unfortunately,
they are very inefficient and need more research
before they become a viable option.
Kinetic Energy
Kinetic energy harvesting is the capture of ambient
energy through mechanical motion. Examples
of ambient kinetic energy in an environment can
include wind, waves, vibration from vehicles and
machines, and even human motion. In fact, ambient
kinetic energy is one of the most common and easily
accessible forms of wasted energy. The transducer
used to convert kinetic energy into electrical energy
is usually based on electromagnetic, piezoelectric,
and electrostatic effects.
The process of capturing kinetic energy from the
electromagnetic effect is a well-understood concept.
According to Faraday’s Law, a changing magnetic
field generates an electric current in a conductor.In
fact, almost all cars keep their batteries charged using
an alternator that operates off this exact principle;
kinetic energy is converted into electric energy.
The piezoelectric effect is also a well-understood
phenomenon. Electrical energy can be generated
through the deformation of piezoelectric materials.
The deformation needed to induce this effect is very
minimal. Vibration can easily induce piezoelectricity.
Under such stress, a piezoelectric material creates
a voltage through electrical polarization, which
can provide electrical energy to a load. Lastly, the
electrostatic effect for energy harvesting works by
building up energy using two parallel plates. Through
the movement of the plates, a charge is built up.
With one plate more negatively charged and one
plate more positively charged, a voltage is induced.
Essentially, the two plates act as a capacitor that
stores charge, and this charge gets directed to an
energy storage device within the system.
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Thermal Energy

Thermal energy harvesting is the process of capturing heat and converting that energy into electrical
energy. Traditionally, heat was used to create mechanical energy, such as in steam engines. However, there
exists a class of semiconductor devices known as thermoelectric materials, which are able to convert heat
to electrical energy. Thermoelectric materials are used to create Seebeck generators or thermoelectric
generators (TEGs). A temperature gradient created across the device results in the flow of electrons between
the hot and cold parts. As a result, a voltage potential is created, which can be applied to external circuitry.

TEGs are already being used in certain applications. Specifically, they are applied to systems that burn
fossil fuels in order to capture some of the wasted heat. However, at this time, the systems are relatively
expensive and yield low conversion efficiency. Current work is being done to develop new materials which
can yield higher efficiencies and lower costs.

Radio Frequency (RF) Energy

Due to the exponential increase in wireless technologies such as WiFi and 5G, RF energy harvesting is
becoming increasingly attractive. Never has there been such an abundance of wireless energy in the
air surrounding us. RF energy harvesting works by capturing wireless signals using high gain and high-
efficiency antennas. The RF signals are then converted into a DC voltage using rectifier circuits and power
management circuitry. The energy is stored in a battery or capacitor until it can be used by the system.

Various RF frequency ranges have been identified as suitable sources for RF energy harvesting. Examples
include DVB-T signals in the UHF spectrum (500MHz – 600MHz), GSM signals at 900MHz and 1800MHz,
WiFi signals at 2.4GHz, and 3G signals at 2.2GHz. Efficiencies for RF energy harvesting have been shown
to be anywhere from 20% to 40%, although this is dependent on the distance the harvesting device is from
the transmitting source. For example, an RF energy harvesting system in a city environment where DVB-T
signals are being broadcast would pick up much more ambient energy than the same system in the suburbs.

Overall, the most common forms of energy harvesting currently being utilized come from solar energy,
kinetic energy, thermal energy, and RF energy. These currently offer the best methods of converting ambient
energy into electrical energy, but at the same time, there is still room for improvement in each one of
these technologies. Furthermore, the end application will largely dictate which method is best for use.
For instance, a sensor node in a biological habitat would probably be better served using solar energy
harvesting to power the system, while a similar node in an urban environment may find better results with
RF energy harvesting.

Figure 1. RF Energy Harvesting block diagram

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CHAPTER - 3 Energy Harvesting Solutions
Since many of the energy harvesting methods
discussed thus far provide intermittent or inconsistent
sources of energy, power management solutions must
be implemented to store energy when it is available,
as well as provide energy for the system when it is
not. Common circuitry used for energy harvesting
includes rectification circuits, switching circuits,
power management circuitry, and energy storage
devices such as supercapacitors and batteries.
In addition, the transducers used to implement
energy harvesting systems tend to have high output
impedances, which makes them less than ideal as an
energy source. Consequently, specialized circuitry is
sometimes used to interface with the transducers.
This section covers example components used in
modern energy harvesting systems.
Let us first consider the LTC3588 nano power energy
harvesting supply. The device has been designed
specifically for applications such as piezoelectric
energy harvesting and electro-mechanical energy
Figure 2. Block diagram of the LTC3588
harvesting. In addition, it is meant to interface
directly to the transducer device. The input is a full-
wave bridge rectifier that converts the AC input (such
as from a piezoelectric device) to a DC output. Inside
the part is a high-efficiency buck converter that can
provide user-selectable output voltages of 1.8V,
2.5V, 3.3V, and 3.6V. The buck converter works to
charge an internal or external capacitor and will turn
itself on and off as needed to maintain regulation.
The LTC3588 can be configured to support dual
rail voltages, as well as input sources such as solar
harvesting devices and thermoelectric harvesters.
Next, let us consider the LTC3459. It is a high-
efficiency synchronous boost converter that can
support input voltages from 1.5V to 5.5V, outputting
a voltage between 2.5V and 10V. Additionally, it
offers a burst mode with peak current control which
makes it an ideal candidate for supercapacitor
charging applications. Current control helps prevent
any damage due to inrush to the supercapacitor,
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and once charged, the device will regulate itself.
The input current will be decreased to the amount
necessary to support the load and any leakage
current from the supercapacitor.
The LTC3105 is a DC/DC converter that can operate
from input voltages as low as 225mV. Furthermore, it
includes circuitry known as a maximum power point
controller (MPPC) that allows it to operate directly
from high-impedance sources such as photovoltaic
cells and thermoelectric generators. A burst mode
is included to help optimize efficiency in low-power
applications, while automatic current limiting helps
maximize power extraction from the source. The
device is suitable for solar-powered applications,
supercapacitor charging applications, and energy
harvesting applications.
An additional circuit worth mentioning is a voltage
monitoring device. Voltage monitoring can be used to
monitor battery voltages, regulator voltages, or any
critical voltage within a system. It allows a method
of managing power such that a system can function
as expected. For instance, if a voltage is fluctuating
around a critical threshold voltage, it can cause all
CHAPTER - 4 Example Applications and Emerging Trends
Energy harvesting continues to be a promising
solution in providing power to IoT and edge computing
devices. Many times, these applications have
minimal power requirements. This makes them ideal
candidates for energy harvesting-powered solutions.
However, there are also additional applications in
which the use of energy harvesting may come as
a surprise. We will explore some applications, and
emerging trends of energy harvesting solutions in
the section below.
Piezoelectric energy harvesting has found widespread
use in high-vibration applications. One such
application is in the railway industry. The movement
of a train creates a constant source of vibration.
Furthermore, it has been shown that 1 – 50mA of
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sorts of unexpected and unpredictable behavior
for digital circuitry, such as a microcontroller. An
example device that is suitable for energy harvesting
applications is the LTC2935. It offers a very low
quiescent current of 500nA and user-adjustable
threshold settings. In addition, built-in filtering and
hysteresis keep the outputs stable when the input is
subjected to voltage fluctuations and variations.
In energy harvesting, energy storage is typically
handled by either batteries or supercapacitors.
Supercapacitors cannot hold as much charge as a
battery can. However, they do have the advantage of
discharging much faster than batteries, in addition
to offering a much longer lifespan. Some of the
materials used to manufacture supercapacitors are
also more environmentally friendly when compared
to their lithium-ion battery counterparts. Still, for
some applications, the best solution available may
be a combination of battery and supercapacitors. If
a cap is placed across a battery, it can help protect
it and provide short bursts of energy where needed.
On the other hand, when larger loads of energy are
needed, the battery can provide the required energy.
current at 3V – 5V can be generated steadily through
energy harvesting devices. This can allow sensors
and monitoring systems to operate without batteries
and provide railway companies with much-needed
data for predictive maintenance analysis. Similar
applications include heavy construction operating
equipment, helicopters, and rotating machinery.
Another unrelated energy harvesting application for
piezoelectric materials that is being studied is in the
medical field. Research has been done to create a
thin, biocompatible, and flexible film that can be
implanted inside humans. This can potentially act as
a power source for devices such as pacemakers and
eliminate the need for a risky surgery that may be
needed to change batteries.
In addition, before the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, PaveGen tiles were installed in some of London’s
underground walkways. Other than a logo and plastic piece in the middle of the tile, the device looks like
any other tile you would walk on. However, the tiles actually flex very slightly and convert the mechanical
energy from the flexing into electrical energy. That energy was then stored locally and used to power lights
in the walkways. According to PaveGen, the floor tiles were able to capture an estimated 70 million joules
of energy. Enough to fully charge around 10,000 phones.

The California Energy Commission’s (CEC) Energy Research and Development Division recently completed a
study that explored harvesting the energy generated through vibration from vehicles and pedestrians using
highways, streets, and sidewalks. It covered many different fields of study, including electrical, mechanical
and civil engineering, material science, physics, and automobiles, with the goal of designing a piezoelectric
energy harvesting system.

Figure 3. Design of piezoelectric energy harvester (PEH) (Source: University of California, Merced)

The team developed proprietary high density piezoelectric energy harvesters (PEH), which convert the
ambient mechanical energy in roadways into electricity. The PEH comprises a lead zirconate titanate (PZT)
stack sandwiched between two metal blocks connected by two elastic beams on the top and bottom.
Mathematical models were developed to optimize the extension and deflection of the elastic beams.

To improve energy density, the team developed a

tower structure called the PEH Tower (PEHT) to house
the PEHs. In each PEHT, the PEHs are stacked in a
cylinder formation and behave like multiple nonlinear
springs connected in series. The tower structure also
protects the PEHs from the elements, so the system
works in all weather conditions. If traffic is present,
energy can be generated. Additionally, the project
included increasing the density of the electricity

Figure 4. PEH Tower (PEHT). The image on the right shows

a bright spark generated when half the weight of a Toyota
Camry was applied (Source: University of California, Merced)

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harvested and developing pavement designs that optimize load transfer to the PEHs. After rigorous lab
testing, 48 PEHTs were installed in 1.32 meters of pavement for real-world testing. The energy generated
from the 48 PEHTs with a car passing over them once was 15.37 J. Energy generated over one year with one
lane of a mile long roadway was estimated to be 72,811.4 kWh.

Figure 5. Road test layout, with PEHTs installed under the pavement (Source: University of California, Merced)

In the automotive space, regenerative braking has become a widely accepted and almost expected feature
in new cars. Regenerative braking charges a car’s batteries and electronics by converting the heat created
from braking into electrical energy. In addition, vibrational energy harvesting is being investigated as a
potential method of integrating energy harvesting into a vehicle’s suspension system.

On the other hand, some unconventional methods of energy harvesting are currently being explored. One
such method is through rust. Through a chemical reaction from a special kind of rust and salty water, electrical
energy is created. The method is known as the electrokinetic effect and is similar to the demonstration
showing that a potato can be used as a battery. Furthermore, researchers at the University of Maryland
demonstrated a method of using wood to generate electricity. The team separated a material known as
lignin from the wood, leaving only cellulose nanofibers behind. The material was then infused with sodium
hydroxide and placed in between two platinum electrodes. The resulting structure was then able to create a
temperature gradient capable of generating a voltage. Although these methods may sound farfetched, they
are some of many techniques being explored. The possibilities for energy harvesting are showing increasing
potential, regardless of the method used for capturing energy.

CHAPTER - 5 Conclusion

Overall, this eBook has offered a basic overview
of energy harvesting. Motivations for using energy
harvesting were discussed, as well as the concepts
surrounding energy harvesting. This includes the
different methods used for energy harvesting as
well as details on how each method works. Various
components that can be used in energy harvesting
systems were described and discussed. Lastly, some
example applications and emerging trends were
covered involving use cases for energy harvesting. To
sum up, energy harvesting holds a lot of promise for
powering future applications. Although already being
used in many modern systems, energy harvesting
will continue to power new and future technologies.

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CHAPTER - 6 Related Products

LTC3588EMSE-1#PBF LTC3459ES6#TRMPBF
Energy Harvesting DC-DC Switching Synchronous
Power Supply Boost Regulator

LTC3105EMS#PBF LTC2935ITS8-2#TRMPBF
DC-DC Switching Synchronous Voltage Detector
Boost Regulator

References

• Energy Harvesting Systems Power the Powerless | Analog Devices

• ONiO | What is Energy Harvesting?

• Solar Photovoltaic Cell Basics | Department of Energy

• Frontiers | Kinetic energy harvesting based sensing and IoT systems: A review (frontiersin.org)

• ONiO | How do RF ambient energy harvesters work?

• Three Technologies for Harvesting Ambient Energy

• Ultra-High Power Density Roadway Piezoelectric Energy Harvesting System

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