Electric Vehicles Part 1

Prof. Amit Kumar Jain

Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi

Lecture – 11
Vehicle_Dynamics_intro_and_tractive_effort
Vehicle Dynamics: Modeling and Simulation

(Refer Slide Time: 00:18)

Hello everyone, welcome to NPTEL MOOC course on Electric Vehicles. So let us start
the next topic under this course which is Vehicle Dynamics Modeling and Simulation.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:39)

So today we will cover the topic; introduction to vehicle dynamics and tractive effort.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:44)

So vehicle is a movable system and therefore, many forces act on it and the resultant
force will decide the motion as per Newton’s second law. The main motive force which
most of the vehicle is obtained from traction unit or propulsion unit.

And there are various forces which oppose the motion such as gravitational force, air
friction, the resistance offered by tire etcetera. So the total acceleration will finally
depending on the rating of the traction unit as well as the mass of all the components.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:43)

So vehicle dynamics is very important and integral part of vehicle design. So when we
are designing a electric vehicle or any vehicle for that sake, we have to go in a two level
approach. Since, it is a complex system and it is a huge system, we generally do a system
level design followed by component level design. So what we mean by system level
design? In this design, the designer try to understand the requirements the vehicle need to
deliver and it will try to obtain and understand the specifications of the system in a broad
way.

So what are the typical requirements of a vehicle is. What is the acceleration, speed,
range. So these are the system’s requirements which needs to be understood at first
place. So until this is clear, the vehicle design cannot start. Once the requirements is
understood we know broadly the ratings of the propulsion system, such as the
specifications of power rating and energy requirements. Once this is done, the designer
has to go for more final design known as component level design.

So since we all know this, a electric vehicle is a multidisciplinary domain therefore,

when we do component level design, we have to understand the rating of motor which is
generally done by electrical engineers, the rating of IC engine which is done by
mechanical engineers, the energy source which is domain of chemical engineers, power
converters, the rating and the design, a subject of power electronics engineers and the
control system which is subject of control engineers.
So this all component level design has to be done by individual discipline experts and
they have to come out with suitable models. So once this component level modeling is
done followed by a system level modeling. So this requires integration of the system,
then we go for the total simulation. The system is run using different iterations such that
the original design goals are met or satisfied.

So it’s a iterative process and so when we do the modeling of vehicle dynamics, there are
two ways of doing it; one is longitudinal vehicle dynamics, the another is lateral vehicle
dynamics.

(Refer Slide Time: 05:17)

So when the vehicle is moving in a one-dimension, the dynamics required to be known is

only longitudinal, but when you have more than one dimension to control, the dynamics
required to be known as lateral dynamics.

So a normal vehicle, let’s say a IC engine based vehicle works on longitudinal vehicle
dynamics. So the vehicle has to move in one direction and when the vehicle needs to be
turned, that job is done by differential. So the control person do not need to understand
the lateral dynamics of the system a lot. On the other hand, when we are going for dual
motor system of electric vehicle or in-wheel type of electric vehicle, both the
longitudinal and lateral dynamics has to be controlled by the individual electric drive
trains.
There the understanding of lateral vehicle dynamics is very important. So it’s a
multidimensional way of modeling. So generally when we go for a low speed vehicle,
the first or the longitudinal vehicle dynamics is enough to be understood. But when we
are going for very high speed operation, we have to understand the lateral vehicle
dynamics as well, for good control of the vehicle and road handling.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:44)

So what is tractive effort? The effort that is required to move the vehicle or propel the
vehicle. So this effort or force is generally transmitted to the ground for moving the
vehicle through the driving axle and the wheels. So let us consider a vehicle having a
mass, M which is moving at velocity, v and going at a slope of angle, theta. Then, the
typical electric tractive effort that is required to be accomplished is equal to the force
required to overcome the rolling resistance; that is the resistance offered due to tire
resistance and the road resistance.

The vehicle also has to overcome the aerodynamic drag. So this is the opposing force
due to air pressure. Thirdly, we all know that when we are going on a slope, let’s say on
a flyover or on a hill, the vehicle mass itself will act against the driving force. So this is
kind of a gradient force which opposes the motion and it has to be also overcome.
Secondly, if the vehicle needs to be accelerated, those forces also needs to be delivered
by the tractive effort. So this force is absent when vehicle is running at constant speed.
(Refer Slide Time: 09:38)

So let us try to understand these forces by means of a diagram. So let us consider a

vehicle moving on a slope which is at angle theta, the mass of the vehicle is m and the
velocity is v. So let us see that the velocity is v and it’s the vehicle is moving up the
slope. So if we take this as the center of gravity, then the force due to the weight of the
vehicle is mg which is acting downwards.

So the total tractive effort which we will denote as FTE is equal to the gradient force
because of the weight of the vehicle which is Fg.

Fg = mg sin θ

The opposing force due to air which is coming from a the front of the vehicle because of
the velocity of the vehicle that is moving up is known as force due to air drag or
aerodynamic drag.

Also the vehicle has to provide force due to tire friction or road friction which is
generally termed as Frr or F rolling resistance. So this tractive effort FTE has to support all
these forces that is Fg which is forced to gradient, Frr which is force due to rolling
resistance, FAD which is force due to aerodynamic drag and also acceleration if there is a
change in vehicle speed. So this will be:

dv
m
dt
which is basically force due to linear acceleration.

So let us try to understand these forces slightly in more detail.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:39)

So let us try to understand the basic power, energy and speed relationship which will be
very handy for quick calculations of different forces and performance parameters. So if
we assume that the vehicle is travelling at constant speed of v meter per second, then the
power = force × speed

F .s
P F=
= .v
t

Similarly, we all know that energy is equal to power into time and for a constant speed
application, the energy can be written as

energy = power × time

P.s
E P=
= .t
v

Also,

E.v
s=
P
So this relationship is important because, we can find the distance travelled for a known
energy input at a constant velocity with a power rating of P. So these are some basic
relationships which will be very handy in calculations.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:18)

So let us try to understand the first type of resistive force which is known as
aerodynamic drag or we term it as FAD. So this is the force which the vehicle body
encounters when the vehicle is moving at certain speed through the air. So this is the
friction due to air.

So the air drag is because of two types of drive forces; first is known as shape drag,
second is known as a skin friction. So what is this shape drag? So let us assume that a
vehicle is moving in forward direction with some velocity v. So when the front air is
hitting against a vehicle front face, not all the air will be able to go behind the vehicle
and some of the air will be trapped in these regions.

So because of this trapping of air, a high pressure area will be created in the front portion
of the vehicle. Similarly, the wind which is coming towards the back side will also not
able to fill all the gaps behind the vehicle and there will be some regions of low pressure
air. So this pressure difference creates a drag which is known as shape drag. So high
pressure generally pushes the vehicle in the forward direction while the low pressure area
resists the motion of the vehicle.
So what is this skin friction? So the air which is touching the vehicle body is also moving
at the speed of the vehicle, but the air which is slightly farther from the vehicle is at zero
speed or standstill. So the friction due to these two speeds of different airs which are
close to each other creates a friction of air molecules and therefore, is one of the reasons
for aerodynamic drag.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:30)

So the aerodynamic drag is a function of the frontal area of the vehicle, the shape of the
vehicle and the different protrusions such as side mirrors, air ducts, air passages, spoilers
etcetera. So these all will create drag forces.

Air density; so when the air density is high the pressure due to air will be higher. The
velocity of the vehicle; so when the vehicle is moving at higher speed, the drag forces
opposing it will be higher. Similarly the velocity of air; so if the velocity of air is high
which is opposing the vehicle, the drag will be higher. But in cases when the air velocity
is supporting the vehicle, it will rather help in decreasing the drag.
(Refer Slide Time: 18:34)

So if we try to put the force due to aerodynamic drag in a form of equation, it will be like
this,

So this rho is density of air in Kg meter cubes, CD is a coefficient which depends on lot
of vehicle design parameters which is known as aerodynamic drag coefficient, v is
forward velocity of the vehicle in meter per second and vair is the opposing air velocity in
meter per second, that’s why it is added here, but if the air velocity is supporting the
forward velocity of the vehicle it will be negative. So it will be positive for opposing air
velocity and it will be negative for supporting air velocity and A is the frontal area of the
vehicle in meter square.
(Refer Slide Time: 19:54)

So as we have seen, the coefficient known as CD which is aerodynamic drag coefficient

is a vehicle design parameter. So it depends on the type of vehicle design and the
streamlining which is done to reduce the air drag. So typical values or rather reasonable
values are 0.3 for a good design, but it was as low as 0.19 for GM-EV 1. So this is the
first electric vehicle which was commercially available by 1995. So it was very good
design in terms of the drag coefficient.

So the effort should be done in vehicle design for electric vehicle such that this
coefficient can be reduced. So it is possible in EV, because now the location of major
components is more flexible in EV. So it is not rigid as in IC engine based vehicle which
are connected by mechanical means. So we don’t have requirements of cooling ducts,
because in a IC engine based vehicle there is a lot of heat loss and we require cooling
ducts, but in a typical electric vehicle such kind of heat losses are not there.

Similarly, the under vehicle pipe work is not needed in electric vehicle because there is
no need to exhaust the heat energy coming out of the IC engine which was required in a
IC engine based vehicle. Other transmission or design parameters which can be
improved or you know you can have a tapered body or aerodynamic tail cone for
reducing the low pressure in the back side, removal of side view mirrors, lowering the
ground clearance and having a smooth disk on the wheel and there can be many ways
this can be done, but these are some of the indicative parameters.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:26)

So let us see what are the typical values of this a drag coefficient for different types of
vehicle shapes. So if you are considering open vehicle like this, it will have a high drag
coefficient in the range of 0.5 to 0.7. Similarly also for a van, the range will be similar.
For a regular vehicle which has a shape similar to this has slightly lesser drag coefficient
which is in the range of 0.4 to 0.5.

In a wedge shaped vehicle, the drag coefficient can be further though in the range of 0.3
to 0.4. So this is much better design compared to the regular vehicle. A very good
streamline design similar to this can have very low drag coefficient in the range of 0.15
to 0.2. So in this design, the wheels are inside the vehicle body. Another very good shape
design is K shaped design just similar to these kind of vehicles.

So this drag coefficient is very high for a trains, truck in the range of 0.8 to 1.5. It is
slightly lower for a bus of 0.6, but design of the bus can be improved by streamlining the
design and lowering the CD by around 0.3 so that it is in the range of 0.3 to 0.4. For
motorcycles, it is high in the range of 0.6 to 0.7. So the design of electric vehicle is very
important for reducing the aerodynamic drag.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:35)

So we have seen that the aerodynamic drag coefficient is a function of air density which
is rho kg per meter cube. So we know that air density is a function of temperature,
humidity and altitude. Therefore, the typical values of air density will vary from 1.5 at
minus 40 degrees to 1.29 at zero degrees to a much lower value of 1.12 at 40 degree
centigrade. So we can see that there is a variation with temperature and the values of this
also varies with altitude.

So we can say that if you are operating at cold weather, the more power and more energy
will be required from the traction unit compared to normal weather. For general
calculations, we take a reasonable value of 1.25 kg per meter cube for performance
calculation.
(Refer Slide Time: 25:59)

So if we try to understand the power required due to aerodynamic drag force. So it will
be:

So this power requirement is very strong function of velocity. This relation is very
similar to the power requirement in a typical wind turbine application. So we can see that
this force or this power requirement will be extremely high when we are working at very
high speed or cruising speeds. So this force will become dominant and there should be
every effort to reduce this power requirement.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:07)

Similarly, the energy required due to aerodynamic drag force will be a function of
velocity square.

So we all know that;

P.s
Eα
v
Therefore, the energy is a function of square of the vehicle velocity. Similarly, if we
assume a constant energy source or a limited energy source, we can say that the distance
traveled or the range obtained is inversely proportional to the square of the velocity.

So higher the velocity of the vehicle, the distance will be lower.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:20)

So let us have a quick look at the effect of wind on range. So if you want to understand
the effect of wind velocity on the range obtained by electric vehicle. So let us assume a
EV which is operating at a vehicle speed of 100 kilometer per hour with the drag
coefficient of 0.2, frontal area of 3 meter square, air density of 1.2 kg per meter cube and
the energy available in the batteries is 10 kilo Watt hour.

So what will be range if we having this kind of system parameters with no wind and with
a opposing wind at 10 kilometer per hour. So when there is no wind, the range can be
calculated as 125 kilometer. So how we calculate this? We have to calculate the
aerodynamic force first .... with all parameters.

1
FAD = ρ CD Av 2
2

So velocity we have to take in meter per second square. So this is given in 100 kilometer
per hour. So 100 kilometer per hour will be equal to 100 into 1000 by this meter per
second. The rest of parameter are in SI units anyway.

So it will give the force in Newtons, thereafter we have to calculate the power due to
aerodynamic drag, which is FAD into velocity.

PAD = FAD .v
Then, we can calculate the range as energy by power into velocity.

E
s= .v
P

So this calculation has given a range of 125 kilometers for no wind. And, we want to find
the range for a opposing wind velocity at 10 kilometer per hour. This formula has to be
slightly modified and instead of v of 100 kilometer per second, kilometer per hour, we
have to take 110 kilometer per hour because the wind velocity will now be added to the
vehicle velocity.

So if we increase the together velocity from 100 to 110, the power will be higher and
therefore, the distance will be lower to a value of 103 kilometer per hour. So we get a
less range if there is opposing wind velocity.

(Refer Slide Time: 31:50)

Similarly, if we want to understand the effect of vehicle speed on the power rating of the
electric motor and the fuel consumption; fuel consumption means the energy
requirements from the battery. So let’s say if we have a vehicle which is normally
driving at 100 kilometers per hour and if we increase the speed to 120 kilometer per
hour, what will be its effect on the power rating of the machine and the energy
requirement from the battery?
So we know that power is a function of velocity cube and energy is a function of velocity
square.

So the power required or the power rating of the electric motor when we drive at 120
kilometer per hour in comparison to the power rating at when we drive the vehicle at 100
kilometer per hour is

3
 120 
  = 1.728
 100 

So this comes to 1.728 which means that the rating of the electric motor should be 72
percent more, if you just want to operate at a higher speed of 20 kilometer per hour. So
this is very significant.

Similarly, when we talk about energy so it will be

2
 120 
  = 1.44
 100 

So the rating of the electrical battery capacity will be around 44 percent more. So the
effect of vehicle velocity on power and energy rating is very dominant and significant
and it can be seen from these calculations.
(Refer Slide Time: 34:00)

Now, let us see the effect of the tire resistance and the road resistance on electric vehicle
or vehicle performance. So this force is known as rolling resistance force which is FRR.
So all the friction forces or friction load forces which act on the vehicle movement are
clubbed under rolling resistance force. So this force is due to the deformation of the tire
on the road surface when the vehicle is moving. So this creates a resistance to motion.
Secondly, all kind of frictions which is there in a drive trains such as bearings, gears are
part of this rolling resistance. So this all has to be supported by the propulsion unit.

So we can say that this FRR or force due to rolling resistance is a function of weight of
the vehicle, tire material in structure and tire pressure. So we all know that when the tire
pressure is good, the resistance is lesser. Similarly, the quality of road such as road
roughness and the material of the road. So sometimes the material can be tar or it can be
concrete or it can be a normal mud type of road. So all this will affect the rolling
resistance forces.

Secondly, whether there is a presence of liquid on the road. So when there is a rain the
friction offered by road becomes very less and this is also a important parameter which
has to be looked into.
(Refer Slide Time: 36:04)

So let us take a typical wheel of a vehicle. So when it tries to move ahead with let’s say
velocity, v and this is the road surface, the front portion of the wheel which see a higher
pressure compared to the back portion of the wheel. And therefore, the weight of the
vehicle which is denoted as P will be shifted from the center to the front portion of the
wheel. So the pressure is higher on the front side.

So the opposing force which is overcoming this P will be shifted by a distance known as
a. And we can see that normally the vehicle radius is r, but now it is compared to this
road surface now it is reduced from r to rd. So when we want to calculate the force due
to this pressure shift or the force shift, it can be done using following way. So the rolling
resistance moment because of the shifting can be calculated as,

Rolling resistance moment, Tr = P.a

So this resistive moment has to be compared with the force due to rolling resistance into
rd.

To keep the wheel moving,

FRR r=
d T=
r P.a

P is basically the weight of the vehicle. So FRR can be calculated as

  a 
=   Pµrr
Frr P=
 rd 

So the ratio of this a by rd is the coefficient of rolling resistance which is known as mu

rr. So if you are going on a slope of angle theta then P is

P = mg sin θ

So FRR can be written as

Frr = µrr .mg cosθ

(Refer Slide Time: 39:05)

So again this is a put in a proper form.

(Refer Slide Time: 39:12)

So what are the typical values of rolling resistance coefficient mu rr for different types of
vehicle in the road material? So car tires on a concrete or asphalt road will have mu rr of
0.013. Similarly, the same vehicle on a rolled gravel will have a higher mu rr of 0.07. Tar
road will have still higher mu rr of 0.025. Fields or a mud kind of roads will have still
higher mu rr of 0.1 to 0.35. But, if we take the wheels on rails similar to trains and all
that, they have very low mu rr of 0.001 to 0.002.

Similarly, the truck tires are generally designed such that they have a lower mu rr, they
are moving on a concrete or asphalt road.
(Refer Slide Time: 40:30)

Typically mu rr is independent of speed, but it has very weak relation to vehicle speed
which can be equated as

So this empirical formula can be used for simple vehicle performance calculations. So
we have also discussed that the tire pressure is important.

So tire pressure as you might have seen is not the same for all vehicles. So all; So
different vehicle manufacturers give different pressure to be filled in their tires. So why it
is so? Because a good vehicle design generally looks for a low center of gravity of the
vehicle and if somehow in the design, the center of gravity is higher, then it will create
problems during turning and road handling at higher speeds.
(Refer Slide Time: 41:52)

So therefore, those kind of vehicles suggest a low tire pressure such that the center of
gravity can be lowered. So let us see the third kind of force which opposes the vehicle
moment which is known as gradient or hill climbing force, it can be also known as
gradient resistance force; So which is generally denoted as F of g.

So we have discussed that because of the vehicle weight and the slope of the vehicle
movement, the force due to gradient will be mg sin theta. So this force will be 0 when
the vehicle is moving on a flat road.

(Refer Slide Time: 42:36)

So when we are climbing flyover or a hill, this force is positive. So in this case the
electric machine will be operating as a motor and here undergoing a motoring operation.
But, when we are coming down a flyover or we are coming down a hill, this force is
negative.

So if this force is negative, it means it can be absorbed. So the electrical machine can
now work as a generator and the energy can be recovered from the wheels such that you
know a safe speed can be maintained and this energy regenerated can be used to charge
the battery.

(Refer Slide Time: 43:34)

So all these forces can also be put in terms of equation which is known as vehicle road
load forces. So there is a equation which is known as

So it gives a empirical formula such that the total force is a function of velocity, square
of the velocity and independent of velocity. So in this way it covers all the forces we
discussed.

So generally the A is rolling resistance which is a very weak function of speed. So it

takes care of basically rolling resistance force. Secondly, there are force due to spinning
of and rotational losses so this is very low in any vehicle. Similarly, the constant C
denotes the force due to aerodynamic drag resistance. So this we know that force due to
aerodynamic drag is a function of square of the speed. So this kind of the C coefficient
denotes the aerodynamic drag force.

(Refer Slide Time: 45:00)

So ABC parameters are or A, B, C coefficients are generally measured by a test known

as coast road test which is done by driving a vehicle at 120 kilometer per hour speed and
then bring the vehicle to neutral. So the vehicle will move from the speed of 120
kilometer per hour speed and it will slowly come to stop. So these parameters will be
obtained by measurements.

So this is a necessity in some of the regulated agencies in United States, where the
vehicle manufacture has to give these parameters for any vehicle they want to launch in
US. So these parameters or coefficient , is a simple way of a putting the forces due to air
drag, due to gravitational force or due to rolling resistance in terms of simple coefficient.

So if you want to estimate the range of EV, let’s say we have a EV and we know the A,
B, C coefficient of that EV and we want to estimate the range when the vehicle is driven
at let’s say at a constant speed of 100 kilometer per hour for a known battery energy
capacity let’s say it is E.

So we will take this coefficient and calculates the power which is

Then since we know the energy capacity of the battery, we can calculate the time
required such that the total energy capacity will be exhausted. So it will be

E
t=
P

And, since we know the velocity we can calculate the distance as

s= v × t

So this simple calculation will enable us to estimate range for any EV with known
battery capacity, speed and the A, B, C coefficient. So lot of data is available at this
website which is

https://www.epa.gov/compliance-and-fuel-economy-data

And select: /data-cars-used-testing-fuel-economy

where all the A, B, C parameters and all emission and fuel consumption data is available
for each electric vehicle and hybrid electric vehicle. So this is very handy data for any
performance calculation. So EPA stands for Environmental Protection Agency.

(Refer Slide Time: 48:14)

So gradability is one of the very important parameter which the vehicle manufacturer has
to give in the data sheet of the vehicle. So what is this gradability? So it is the maximum
slope or the grade which the vehicle can go from the maximum force that is available
from the traction unit is known as gradability. So when we want to calculate the
gradability, basically we are calculating the maximum slope the vehicle can go safely.

So in calculating the gradability, we generally assume few things that we are assuming
that the vehicle is moving very slowly almost 0 speed. So the force due to aerodynamic
drag and rolling resistance is neglected, acceleration is zero because velocity is almost
zero. And we are applying the maximum tractive force that is available from the
propulsion unit.

(Refer Slide Time: 49:34)

So at these conditions, So basically if we see this is center of gravity. So the tractive

force is supporting only the gradient force which is mg sin theta. So gradability is
calculated as a ratio of rise to run or tangent of the slope angle.

Gradability = tan θ

If you want to give this data as percentage data then it will be,

Maximum percentage grade = 100 × tan θ

So how to calculate this data from this equation is, let’s say once we know sin theta.
 FTE
sin θ =
mg

So we can say that this is FTE and this is mg. So in that case this will be (mg) 2 − (FTE ) 2 .

So we can write this maximum percentage grade as

FTE
100 ×
(mg) 2 − (FTE ) 2

(Refer Slide Time: 51:06)

So generally the percentage grade is 100 percent for a slope of 45 degrees. So for 6
degrees which is quite standard gradability factor, the percentage grade is around 10.5
percent.
(Refer Slide Time: 51:24)

So we have seen the opposing or resisting forces which oppose the vehicle movement
that is aerodynamic drag, rolling resistance and gradient forces. But, if we want to
accelerate the vehicle or change the vehicle speed, we need to also provide the force
required for acceleration. So let’s see the force which is required for linear acceleration.
We all know that if we are want to accelerate the vehicle and provide dv by dt, we have
to provide force which is we can say as F force due to linear acceleration is
(Refer Slide Time: 52:16)

For acceleration, we have to also support angular acceleration which is we generally says
F into AA. So this force is required to support the torque that is needed to spin the
rotating parts within the drivetrain. So the electric motor is rotating or the gears are
rotating. So they also needs to be covered and under the force required for acceleration.
So we all know that if we have a let’s say the moment of inertia because of the machines
or any drivetrain transmission system, we can say the torque required is

But we want to convert this torque into corresponding linear force; it has to be divided
by radius and then this formula becomes
(Refer Slide Time: 53:25)

So let us summarize the total tractive effort which is required to support the vehicle and
accelerate the vehicle and by providing you know the force due to resistive forces and
due to acceleration. So this is opposing forces and this is aiding forces. So if we write
these things in terms of formulae, it will be like this.
(Refer Slide Time: 54:00)

So this total tractive effort can be also be written in terms of A,B,C coefficient and then
it will be like this.

(Refer Slide Time: 54:18)

So when the vehicle is operating as motor for forward motion of the vehicle, let’s say we
require a tractive effort of FTE moving at velocity v. So for this to be obtained we require
a torque known as T axle and omega which is omega axle. So this linear forces and
velocity has to be converted to torque and omega which is angular mechanical forces. So
this T axle omega axle has to be obtained from the electric motor, and the power will go
from battery, electrical motor to the wheels.

So we can see that the direction of force, velocity are in the same direction and also the
direction of T axle and omega axle are in the same direction. Similarly, the Tm and
omega m also is in the same direction, because, the power is flowing from the battery to
the wheels. But, when we are doing the braking operation and trying to recover the
energy from the wheels, the torque axle and omega axle will become opposite. The
vehicle will continue to move in the same direction so the omega axle still retains the
original direction. But the torque applied to the axle will reverse now, similarly in the
motor side.

So the power is transferred from the wheels to the battery from the electric drivetrain. So
the power is negative here. So the power is flowing from here to the battery. So that is all
in today’s discussion under the topic of tractive effort within vehicle dynamics.

So in our next interaction, we will try to do some simulations using basic programs and
try to understand the effect of various forces and try to calculate the power, energy
requirement for let’s say different slope conditions, different vehicle speed conditions,
wind velocity conditions and different mass of the vehicle and all these type of different
parameter variations can be checked and simulated by simple programs. So we will
discuss and these things in the next interaction.