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Training manual

2022
 Basic concepts of mechanics

Motion and force

Laws of motion
Bodies cannot change their rest or motion status by themselves. This is called inertia. Bodies
of greater weight have greater inertia as well.

Law of inertia
Every body continues in its state of rest, or of uniform motion in a straight line, unless
it is compelled to change that state by forces impressed upon it.
In a vehicle suddenly starting we lean back, we move forward when braking or to the
side in a curve.
Law of force
It is concluded from the law of inertia that if a force is applied on a body, its resting
status or speed of uniform motion changes.
If a ball is moved, its acceleration will be greater by the greater force it is pushed.
The force (F) and the acceleration (a) generated by it are in proportionality. The
arithmetic quotient of force and acceleration expresses a constant of the weight (m) of
the moved body.

[kgm/s2 = N]

Law of action and reaction

Force means the effect of two bodies on each other. The mutual actions of two bodies
upon each other are always equal, and directed to contrary parts. Accordingly, forces
always appear in pairs (force-counterforce) and they are applied on the bodies in
opposing directions. For example a gun kicks back (recoil) at the moment of shooting.

Interpretation and illustration of force

Characteristics of force (F)
Centre of buoyancy,
magnitude,
direction,
sense,
)n/)
1 N is the force that can move a body weighing 1 kg by 1 m/s2 acceleration.
For example: If the force of F = 25 N is illustrated by a 5 cm straight vector if 1 cm represents
5 N.

In practice, more than one forces affect the structural components of machines at the same
time. It means that the forces of different magnitudes in the force system apply their joint effect
in alignment along a resultant vector. The resultant force (R) results in the same effect in the
given plane as the sum of forces affecting the structural component.

Forces of joint line of action and equivalent sense:

Their resultant: R = F1 + F2

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 Forces of joint line of action and opposite sense:
Their resultant: R = F1 - F2

Forces of equivalent centre of buoyancy and different line of action

(parallelogram):

Torque
The distance of the line of action of force from the axis of revolution is called the lever arm (k).
The rotating effect is the greater if the lever arm and the magnitude of force applied is greater.
The rotating effect is called torque (M).

Friction
Force is needed to move two contacting bodies. The force of friction is the force hindering
motion between the contacting surfaces. Its sense is opposite direction to the sense of the
moving force.
Friction is reduced by improving the quality (smoothness) of the contacting surfaces and the
quality of the lubricant between the surfaces (lubricity) Nevertheless, the magnitude of friction
is independent from the size of facing surfaces.
Friction may be useful (e.g. shear strength of connecting components) or adverse (e.g. wear
of rotating parts).
Friction factor is a feature of the material quality

Friction between rolling surfaces is called rolling resistance which is much lower than the
friction factor in friction. Both are values without unit of measurement.
In terms of lubrication, friction may be:
dry friction, when there is no lubricant between the surfaces,
semi-fluid friction, when there is dry friction on part of the surface and fluid friction when the
contact between surfaces is completely prevented by the lubricant.

Work
Work is performed when motion is achieved by overcoming the effect of another force. If there
is no motion, there is no work either in terms of mechanics. As many times the greater force
is applied, as many times the greater work is performed.
So the greater load is lifted to the same height or the higher the same load is lifted, the greater
the magnitude of work is.
The magnitude of work (W) is the product of the force applied and the magnitude of movement:
[Nm = J (joule = /d 1 Nm = 1 J
In other words: The magnitude of 1 J work is if the 1 N force is applied to the body in motion

3
on the length of 1 m.

Power
In practice, it is not enough to know the magnitude of work. We also need to know in how
much time a certain work is performed.
Power is the work performed within a unit of time (P). It is a physical quantity, the magnitude
of which is proportional to the magnitude of work and is inversely proportional to the time of
performing work.

In other words:

that is, the power can be expressed by the product of the force performing work and the
velocity achieved.

Energy
Energy is the capacity of work. If this capacity of work arises from the favourable position of
the body (elevated, compressed, etc.), then it is called potential energy.
The working capacity of a moving body is called kinetic energy. Potential and kinetic energy
jointly called mechanical energy are mutually transformed into each other. The velocity of a
stone thrown vertically upward and accordingly its kinetic energy gradually decreases on the
rising section of its path. The velocity of the stone is zero on the highest point so its kinetic
energy is also zero. The velocity as well as the kinetic energy of the stone increases while
falling down but its potential energy decreases due to the decreasing height. Reaching the
ground, the potential energy of the stone is zero and its kinetic energy is the highest.
In the process of transforming energies however the total amount of energy remains
unchanged. This is the law of conservation of energy: energy can neither be destroyed
nor created from anything.
This comprehensive law of physics applies to any transformation of energy. The operation of
the internal combustion engine is characterised by multiple transformations of energy as well
as the working functions of mechanisms moved by it.

Energy conversion efficiency

The power of an internal combustion engine or an electric motor is given by its sizing and
construction but is always less than the power of energies used for the operation of the
engines. In case of proper maintenance, the source of energy gives over this power to the
mechanism or machine part it drives but the power of the driven part will be lesser due to its
own losses (friction, rolling resistance, etc.) Any change of motion or transmission shall result
in the loss of energy. Therefore, we call the value showing what percentage of the power used
for operations becomes useful power is called the energy conversion efficiency of the
machine.

The energy conversion efficiency is a ratio, always lower than one (e.g. the diesel engine
works with 30-40 percent, while the electric motor works with 80-90 percent energy conversion
efficiency. One of the major scope of developing machines is to improve the energy conversion
efficiency of the machine, that is to reduce loss.

4
 Basic concepts of hydraulics

Benefits of hydraulic energy transmission

Great forces and torques can be transmitted with small structural size and weight so POWER
DENSITY is high.
Further advantages:
motions can be started from resting status with full load,
the velocity of motions, the torque and force applied can be controlled continuously,
fast and special, slow movements can be reliably implemented with it,
protection against operating overload is technically ensured.

Theoretical relationships of hydraulic power transmission

Force, surface, pressure
If external force is applied on a fluid in a closed space (in this case by the piston), then pressure
is generated in the fluid. The pressure generated depends on: the magnitude of force (F) and
the surface of the transmitting piston (A).

where
p - pressure [Pa]
F - force [N]
A - surface [m2]
1 bar = 100000Pa

Volume flow rate, specific volume flow rate

In addition to the pressure of fluid, the amount of fluid flowing is also highly significant in
hydraulic power transmission. The fluid must flow in the work spaces for the consumers (work
pistons, hydraulic motors) to perform motion. The flow of the fluid is provided by a pump.
Fluid volume flows through a section of the pressure pipe on figure 39. The transmission time
of the fluid is important in terms of the operation of the system. If a large volume flows through
in short time, then the amount of fluid, that is the volume flow rate is high.

volume flow rate volume

figure 1 - Volume flow rate

All this is described by the following:

where
qv - volume flow rate [cm3/min.; dm3/min]

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 V - volume [cm3; dm3]
T - flowing time [s; min.]
Specific volume flow rate
Vg = the amount of fluid pressed out by one revolution of the pump. Unit:
[cm3/rev.].

Hydraulic capacity
So the hydraulic capacity generated appears in the volume flow rate under pressure, it is
created at the pump and used at the consumer operating different functions of the machine.

v ; [W; kW]
where
p - pressure [Pa; bar]
qv - volume flow rate [cm3/min.; dm3/min]

Hydraulic capacity therefore is the product of fluid pressure and volume flow rate. Pressure
determines the force applied and volume flow rate determines the velocity of motion.
Hydraulic efficiency
Flow losses appear in hydraulic systems due to fluid friction and this loss appears in the form
of thermal energy. Efficiency is expressed by the arithmetic quotient of invested power and
useful power.

Basic concepts of electronics

Electronics may be represented in several ways. Specifying concepts related are the following:
electric charge: basic characteristic of particles in the atom which determines their
electromagnetic interactions. The electrically charged material is affected by
electromagnetic space and itself creates electromagnetic space as well;
electric potential: potential energy of electric space created by static electric charge;
voltage: electric potential difference;
electric current: flow of electrically charged particles;
electric space (or field) effect of electric charge on other electric charges in its
environment;
electric energy: energy of the flow of electric charges in electrically conducting material;
electric capacity: working capacity of electric energy obtained from other forms of
energy (e.g.: water, thermal, etc.) by conversion.

Electric current
Connect one output of an electric bulb to the positive terminal of a voltage source. Electrons
will flow through the filament of the bulb from the negative terminal to the positive terminal
because the charge carriers are to be equalised. Electrons flowing through a wire is called
electric current.
Electric current is not necessarily a flow of electrons. Other electric charge carriers may also
create current. The following charge carrier motions - currents - exist:
Flowing direction of negative ions is from the negative terminal to the positive terminal.
Positive ions flow from the positive terminal to the negative terminal.
The direction of flow was determined as the direction of flow of the positive ions in the previous
century. The relationships were not precisely known. It was assumed that electric current flows

6
from the positive terminal to the negative terminal.
The direction of current determined this way is called conventional current or technical
direction of current.
The direction of flow of electrons from the negative terminal to the positive terminal is
called electron current or physical current.

Description of direct and alternating current

Direct current:
Current is direct current if the charge carriers flow in one direction with constant or changing
current.

Alternating current:
Alternating current is a flow of charge carriers, the direction and current of which periodically
(regularly repeated) changes in the tested time interval.
If the current shows change by time, it is alternating current.
Within alternating currents, alternating currents in which charges move back and forth in the
conductor and the same amount of charge flows through the cross section of the conductor
upon forward motion and upon backward motion are differentiated. In such case the average
motion of charge is zero.
There is a group of alternating currents with a distinct name, these are sine wave alternating
currents. In sine wave alternating currents the change of current by time can be described by
a special factor (sine).

Alternating voltage (current) is periodic if the sections of the curve describing its flow in time
are regularly repeated. Such signal forms are illustrated in the figure. The section of the curve
repeated identically
one after the other is called cycle. The time of one cycle is called period time and indicated by
T. The number of cycles completed in one second is frequency, indicated by f. This value is
calculated by examining the number of cycle times in 1 second, i.e. hertz.
Three-phase alternating current
The power of alternating current (AC) fluctuates. In homes for example in case of light bulbs
it does not pose any problems because the filament still remains hot in the short periods when
power falls down. In case of other consumers, like motors, constant power is required.
In order to get constant power form an alternating current system, three insulated alternating
current, parallel wires must be used so that the phases of the currents flowing in them are
shifted by 1/3 of the cycle time from each other.

7
 Voltage

Time

figure 1 Change of voltage in three-phase alternating currents

This is well demonstrated on figure 1 where the red curve is 1/3 of the cycle time ahead of the
blue curve and falls 1/3 of the cycle time behind the yellow curve. If the cycle is 50 Hz (i.e. 20
ms), then each of the three phases will differ from each other by 20/3 = 6 2/3 ms.
The sum of the voltage of the three phases is zero at any point of the horizontal time axis, the
difference of voltages results in alternating voltage between any two phases.
Concept and unit of voltage
The force moving free electrons causing electric current is called voltage (U) and this voltage
is the mover of charges. The unit of voltage is volt [V].
There is charge or potential difference between two points of an electric circuit which is
expressed and measured in volts.
Concept and unit of current
The number of free electrons flowing through unit of cross section of the conductor under a
unit of time. One characteristic of electric current is the intensity of current (I), the unit of which
is amper [A].
Current (I) is the amount of charge (Q) flowing through the cross section of a wire in a unit of
time (t):
I = Q/t
If 1Q of charge flows through the cross section of the conductor in 1 second, then the current
is 1 amper.
Concept and unit of resistance
Electrons moved by electric space hit fixed atoms in their motion while they transmit part of
their energy to these (the electron slows down, the energy of crystal increases and its
temperature increases).
The obstacle of wires against electric current depending on material quality and size (cross
section and length) is called the resistance (R) of the wire; its unit is ohm [ ].
Resistivity
If voltage is connected on two points of an object, then the amount of current flowing through
characterises the material of the given object. The electric resistance measured on a solid,
uncontaminated, 1 metre long and 1 mm2 cross section material at room temperature is called
resistivity. Sign:
=R A/L R= L/A
where is resistivity,
L is the length of conductor,
A is the cross section of conductor
R is the resistance of conductor

8
In simple circuits, the consumer is supplied by a power supply of variable voltage. There is
proportionality between the voltage on the consumer and the current flowing through it.
Nevertheless, the resistance of consumers are inversely proportional to the current. Here is a
brief description of the relationship between the three quantities:

Electric field work:

The magnitude of work (W) performed by electric current depends on the voltage on the
consumer, the current as well as the time of work:
[Wh = Watthour]

Electrical power
Power is the work performed within a unit of time here as well:
[Watt]

Induction in resting and motion:

Induction in motion

If the conductor placed in magnetic field is resting and no current is flowing through it, but the
magnitude of the external magnetic field is changed, then a voltage difference arises between
the two ends of the wire. Current is induced in the wire called resting induction. Transformers
work like this. However, current may be induced in the wire by not changing the value of the
external field of force but moving the wire in a perpendicular direction to the direction of the
field (2). In such case, voltage will also be measured between the ends of the wire (1). Current
induced this way is called induction in motion.
The voltage generated by induction in motion depends on the magnitude of the external
magnetic field, the length of conductor and the velocity of movement. The characteristics listed
are in proportionality. The magnetic field of the induced current works against the movement
of F direction force. It practically means that if the number of consumers connected to the wire
with I current is increased, then the force of motion (i.e. the kinetic energy invested) must also
be increased.
The induction in motion briefly described above is the operating principle of the dynamo. If
however the induction wire is in rest and the field of force rotates, we arrive to the operating
principle of the generator.

9
 Machine components

Fasteners
The connection between the structural components of machines is provided by fasteners.
Depending on whether the connection between two or more machine components can be
uninstalled without damaging material and the connection can be installed again, it is
detachable joint or an undetachable joint. Undetachable joints may only be uninstalled by
damage.
Depending on how the fastener providing the joint functions, the following are differentiated:
joint (e.g. welding)
friction lock bound (e.g. keyed joint) forced locked joint (e.g. rivet joint),
material locking).
For better understanding, most important joining methods, fasteners and the types of joints
are summarised in the table below:

Fasteners and nature of joints

Joining method Fastener Joint type

element
Rivet joint rivet undetachable
Welding (soldering) - undetachable
Shrinking joint - undetachable and
detachable
Bolt joint bolt detachable
Keyed joint, latch joint key and latch detachable
Glued joint - undetachable

Bolt joints
Components of most frequently applied detachable joint: screw body, nut, washer, fastener
There are several ways to secure bolt joints against loosening.

10
 c - thread thickness a - counter nut, b - crown nut
h - pitch c - two-tongue washer, d - spring washer
d - nominal diameter e - axle pin before installation
d1 - core diameter
figure 3 - Bolt fastening
d2 - centre diameter
figure 2 - Typical dimensions of
thread

In structures exposed to strong dynamic effects, friction joints are not sufficient. Different bolt
fasteners are used to prevent loosening of bolts (figure 3).
Keyed joints and latch joints
Types of keyed joints
The joint can be quickly detached if necessary and adjusted. In these machine components,
a slot is made in the bore of the centre for the purpose of fitting on the axle and the key of
approx. 1 percent slope is placed in it, the tension effect of which creates the joint. This type
of joint is applicable for the transmission of high torques. (figure 4)
Types of latch joints
Latch joints are special keyed joints as they have no slope. There is a gap between the upper
plate of the latch and the centre. Torque is transmitted by the side of the latch. (figure 5)

a) saddle key, b) slotted key, a) slotted latch, b) arched latch,

c) laid-in key, d) Lewis key c) laid-in latch
figure 4 - Types of keyed joints figure 5 - Types of latch joints

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Glued joints
Among undetachable joints, glued joints have an increasing role providing seamless surfaces.
Gluing takes place along a strict technology.
Advantages: cheap process, low weight of joint, external surface is smooth, provides even
transmission of force, resists chemical and corrosion effects, easily galvanised.
Disadvantages: relatively strict technology, potentially arising heat degrades joint. In case of
metals, this technology is recommended with parts exposed to shear.
Shafts
Shafts are usually machine components with circular cross section on which rotating parts are
mounted and transmit torque depending on their purpose.
Structural solution grouped according to exposedness:
shaft standing, mounted rotating part is loosely fitted, exposedness is bending.
the fitting of the shaft and the rotating part is close, exposedness is bending and
torsion. If different parts are mounted
on the shaft, the diameter varies on the
entire length of the shaft in sections.
The changes of cross section are
always the starting points of breaks
(figure 6).
Material may be: cold-rolled, cold-formed, high 1 shaft pin, 2 centre, 3 shoulder, 4 shaft body,
resistance, special production steel. They may 5 shaft end (stub) stepped shaft
be produced by blacksmithing or special
casting technology.
The manufacturing of shafts is important from
the perspective of their function so they require
some finishing and shell-hardening (figure 7)

a) cylindrical shaft end, b) conical shaft end, c) belt end pin, d) ball pin, Shaft end types

Couplings
Couplings as the name suggests are power transmission assemblies serving to couple
shafts or to ensure some function (e.g. adaptor drive) so that the machine components are
saved from sudden, extensive load. They may have various types.
Common types
Non-detachable couplings
moving couplings (pinned, grooved, etc.)
elastic couplings (Hardy-disc, cardan shaft, etc.),

12
 flexible couplings (rubber plug, rubber block, etc.).
The type also allowing for the angle deflection of shafts during transmission of power is
the cardan joint coupling (figure 8).

1 - driving shaft, 2 - hub spider, 3 - driven shaft, - angle deflection

figure 6 - Non-detachable couplings

Detachable couplings
forced locked couplings (e.g. pinned, grooved, knurled)
friction lock (friction) couplings:
coned-dry friction couplings,
plate-oil friction couplings,
plate-dry friction couplings (figure 9)
In addition to the above, hydraulic and electromagnetic couplings are also used.

1 - balance wheel
2 - fork
3 - coupling box
4 - driven wheel
5 - cover plate
6 - clutch spring and plate
7 - friction disc

figure 7 - Dry single-disc coupling

Bearings
Bearings are used to support the shaft pins of machines to ensure the rotation of shafts.
Bearings must meet the following requirements:
they must be able to take the force on that they are exposed to
their size must meet the fittings of the shaft pin and the centre mounted on the shafts,
they must pose the lowest resistance to rotation.
Bearings may be the following according to the load on them:
radial: can be loaded radially,
axial: can be loaded axially,
radiax: can be loaded in both directions.
Bearings may be the following according to the type of friction between the moving surfaces:
sliding bearing: sliding friction is generated,

13
 rolling-element bearing: rolling friction is generated.
Sliding bearings
The structure of the sliding bearing may be:
undivided bushing or bush bearing,
divided rigid bushing bearing.
Bush bearings are suitable of lower load and rotational speed shafts (figure 10).
The essence of divided sliding bearings is that both the bearing block and the bushing consist
of two pieces making installation easier. Suitable for great loads (figure 11).

figure 8 - Bush bearing figure 9 - Sliding bearing

The above sliding bearings can be loaded radially since the shaft goes through the bearing.
Axially loadable sliding bearings are called disc bearings or crown bearings.

Rolling-element bearings

a) radial deep-groove ball bearing

b/1, b/2 slanting line of action
radiax, single and double line
rolling-element bearing
c) self-adjusting radial rolling-
element bearing

d) self-adjusting radial rolling-

element bearing
(high load bearing capacity);
e/1, e/2) radial cylindrical roller
bearing
f) radial conical roller bearings
(used in pairs)
g) radial needle roller bearings
(small space demand)
h) axial deep-groove ball bearing

figure 10 - Structural types of rolling-element bearings

14
Sealing ring solutions serve for the protection of rolling-element bearings against
contamination (figure 13).

a) single sealing ring b) double sealing ring c) labyrinth sealing d) simmering sealing
figure 11 - Sealing ring solutions

Belts
Belts are common components of endless
chain friction drives. The belt is placed in the
similar profile slot in the disc and it is always
seated on the side of the belt.

In addition to sizes l0 and h0 the length of belt

is also given in the standard.
In modern technology, maintenance-
sensitive belt drives of limited life cycle are
often replaced by toothed belts where power
transmission is ensured by the teeth of the
drive belt fitting into the grooves of the shaft.

1 - canvas cover, 2 - textile insert,

3 - rubber bed, 4 - side panel angle ( )
figure 12 - Structure of the belt

Chains
The other machine component of endless drives is chain drive which is practical in case of
greater shaft distances.
Properties:
no slip occurs,
must be pre-tensioned,
limited flexibility,
relatively noisy and expensive solution.
Types:
roller chain (figure 16)
chain (figure 17)

15
 t) link opening, b) link width, d) link diameter

figure 13 - Roller chain figure 14 - Chain

Crank mechanism
It converts reciprocating (up and down) motion to circular motion. The conversion mechanism
in internal combustion engines is called crank drive. The typical major parts of such drive are
drafted on figure 28 (there are other supplementary parts in internal combustion engines as
well).

1 - balance wheel
2 - cylinder
3 - piston
4 - connecting rod
5 - crank shaft
6 - crank house

figure 15 - Crank drive

Gears
Gears are machine components where connection is made on the circular pitch of the cog
profile which is also called pitch circle.
The direction of rotation of two meshing gears is opposite. Their rotational speed depends on
their diameter which also determines the transmission of the drive. The axle direction
projection of the tooth side is the tooth profile. The length of the circle on one tooth is called
circular pitch. The most important property of gears is module which is the diameter of the
circle on one tooth. Shaft distance is determined by the radius of the rolling circle. The above
geometric sizes are standardised so their number of teeth is also determined.
The tooth profile may be:
straight,
slanted,
arched,
hypoid.
Characteristic sizes of gears are presented on figure 14.

16
1 - addendum diameter, 2 - pitch-circle diameter,
3 - root diameter, 4 - tooth width,
5 - top land
6 - tooth profile, 7 - pitch
figure 16 - Characteristic sizes of gears

Gears are usually placed in closed housing which is called gear housing. The house is also
an oil tank which is not only practical for lubrication but also to reduce noise.

Operation of gear drives (transmission)

The torque (thrust) generated with relatively constant power by the internal combustion engine
may be increased by reducing the rotational speed with an appropriate reducer, to increase
the thrust of the vehicle.
The lower the rotational speed, the greater the torque is.
In case of friction drives we saw that the rotational speed and the disc radiuses are in inverse
proportionality.
The same is experienced in gear drives so that if a larger gear is driven by a smaller one, then
the rotational speed of the driven gear decreases and its torque increases because the
diameter of the driven gear is greater, that is the lever arm of the force through which drive is
applied is greater. (M=F * k).
In the event that the above modification is further increased by another pair of gears, we can
see that further decrease in rotational speed and increase in torque is achieved. Composition
in this case:
i = i1 2

All this is also seen on the operation diagram of an unsynchronised sliding gear (figure 27)

17
 0. Idling
Fluted shaft Gearbox-driving
shaft
Cardan shaft Engine

Cluster gear
Back-shaft

Gear I. Gear II.

Gear III. Gear IV.

figure 17 Operation diagram of an unsynchronised sliding gear

There are reducers in gears I., II., and III. while the rotational speed of the driving and the
driven shafts is equal in gear IV. where the transmission i = 1.
Power transmission system (drivetrain)

Driven wheel

Transmission

Cardan shaft

Engine

Coupling
Differential

Driven wheel

18
 General operations and technology

1. List what information material is available for the operator related to the
plant machinery. What regulations are applicable to these documentations?
What are the duties of the operator regarding these?

Machine operators need various documents to operate machines safely, to calculate machine
performance data, and to indicate machine defects. These documents: operating manual,
machine logbook and an additional lifting logbook in case of lifting machines.

Operating manual
No machine can be operated without a manual. If the manual or certificate of conformity is
missing, health and safety commissioning cannot be performed either.
So the manual is an accessory of the machine which must be kept at an available place for
the operator.
The manual must contain:
the declaration of conformity for the machine and the certificate of conformity
operating and maintenance instructions.

Operating instructions
All operating manuals should possibly contain at least the following information:
company name and full address of the manufacturer and its authorised representative;
Description of the specifications, structure and technical details of the product,
name of the machine as indicated on the machine itself
general description of the machine,
drawings, diagrams, descriptions and explanations required for the use, maintenance
and repair of the machine and for the revision of proper operation;
description of the proper use of the machine;
description of the proper use of the machine;
warning for uses how the machine must not be used, but which may occur according
to experiences;
instruction for assembly, installation and interconnection, including the drawings,
diagrams and means of connection of the frame or structure on which the machine is
mounted;
commissioning and operating instructions of the machine if necessary, instructions on
the training of the operator;
safety measures to be taken by the user, including personal protective equipment to
be provided;
) the conditions under which the machine meets the requirements of stability during
use, transport, assembly, disassembly, out-of-use period, inspection and foreseeable
defect;
instructions making shipping, handling and storage safe, including the weight of the
machine and its parts if those are usually shipped separately;
procedures to be followed in case of accident or failure; procedures to be followed in
case of stalling in order to safely eliminate such stalling;
Operation, operating equipment and indicator instruments of the machine
Sources of hazard of the machine
Safety devices of the machine
Accident prevention regulations

Maintenance instructions
description of setting and maintenance operations to be performed by the user as well as the

19
preventive maintenance measures to be observed;
Daily maintenance tasks (air filter, oil filter, oil change cycles, V-belt replacement, etc.)
Periodical maintenance tasks

20
 Information for inspection of lifting machine by shift

The shift inspection (which must be performed by the operator of the lifting machine before using the lifting
machine) may only be performed in the out of order, turned off state of the lifting machine. Only such operations
may be performed during the inspection, which can be performed from the ramp, cockpit of the lifting machine or
other place suitable for safe stay. The inspection consists of visual inspection and idle inspection and also includes
cleaning in order to preserve the condition of the lifting machine. (Cleaning the interior of electric equipment
unprotected in terms of shock prevention is forbidden! It is forbidden to use petrol or lower flash point solvent for
cleaning!)

Scope of inspection:

The lifting machine is turned off:

condition of crane hook

load lifting tools (drum lifter, grab, lifting magnet, etc.);
leading the rope in the slots of the rope hoist and in the rope guide discs;
condition of lifting rope;
fixing the rope ends on the rope drum;
wedges, wedge fasteners, latches, bolts, nuts and their fastening, securing suspended parts or equipment in
the entire lifting and moving structure;
presence and securing of safety covers;
presence of terminal covers at the connections of engines, brake hydraulics and brake magnet;
supply of lubricant in lubricator boxes and lubrication points;
securing and continuity of protective (earthing or neutral) wires of electric equipment, integrity of double
(earthing or neutral) collectors;
condition of steel structure parts, running wheels and bearings (no obvious deformation);
presence and integrity of signs and devices indicating loading capacity and lighting of the operating area;
in case of mobile lifting machine, the load bearing capacity of the ground (the load bearing capacity of the
ground must be increased by load distributors if necessary);
the lifting machine does not stand on the rupture line of the soil; it must be moved to a save position if it does;
the path of the lifted load (it must not get stuck in any protruding building parts);
availability of overload protection and wind speed meter;
is there a technological instruction for special lifting and derrick lifting;
presence and installation of fire extinguishers;
regular position of rail clamp during operation, 0 position of lifting controllers and master switches.

After putting the track wire system and the crane bridge under voltage (putting under voltage must only be
performed according to regulations).

phase monitor lights;

all main motions (e.g. lifting, machine tilting motion of overhead trolley or bridge);
effectiveness of brake;
availability of limit switches;
operability of horn;
sufficiency of bridge lighting;
condition and usability of cockpit;
heating (in winter);
operability of load-holding magnet, gripper;
operation of the phase monitor lights along the route.

21
 Information for shift inspection of machine driven forklift trucks

Lifting machine logbook

Deformation, distortion and corrosion of frame structure. Availability, condition and safety colour of safety covers,
protective cover, fork rail, cover rail, cockpit, etc.

Signs and safety warnings (identification plate, loading diagram, safety signs and warnings, diagrams and signs
presenting the functions and operating diagrams of controls, etc.).

Securing of wheels.

Conditions of tires (air pressure, tread, etc.)

Operability and effectiveness of operating and parking brake.

Condition of brake fluid and brake cylinders.

Operability of steering equipment, slack of steering wheel under operating conditions (maximum 20").

Controls, operating levers and pedals: lubrication, jam, binding, detectable slack, operating directions, return to
neutral (except for the gear direction and pushbutton functions), correspondence of the control valve opening and
pump starting of electric forklifts. In case of controls returning to neutral, the termination of controlled motion.

Hydraulic equipment of lifting machine: controllability, operating gears, smooth operation without skipping, end-
position limit and synchronous motion of lifting hydraulics and hydraulic support; seal of connections and work
cylinders, leakage, oil level and checking possibility of hydraulics, condition and route of piping, protection against
external damage, load limiter, protection against unauthorised intervention; protection against fault of load lifting
device (e.g. protective valve of hydraulic clamps operating in case of broken pipes).

Mechanical elements of the lifting machine: lifting chain, rollers, bearing play, security elements, lubrication;
condition, crack-free status and wear of load-handling device (fork, grippers) and the steel structure of the hoist
mechanism.

Operability of sound and light indicator equipment.

Batteries and connecting wires, terminals and charging connections.

Switches and connectors.

Cleanliness of engine, ventilation of electric motor, bearings, condition of collector, brush holder, carbon brushes,
coiling.

Condition, cleanliness of battery presence of cell plugs, charge.

Instruments, operating condition.

Other protective and auxiliary equipment.

22
Name and address of operator:________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Operating place of lifting machine (hall, warehouse, etc.): ___________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Type of lifting machine: ______________________________________________________________________
type: ______________________________________________________________________
serial number: _______________________________________________________________
inventory number: ____________________________________________________________
load capacity: _______________________________________________________________
plant group number: __________________________________________________________
date of commissioning: ________________________________________________________
name of operator(s): __________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
Name and phone of lifting machine manager: _____________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

Date of logbook: _______________________________ , 200 ____ year _______ month _______ day.

name and position of issuer

Separate lifting machine logbooks must be used for every lifting machine (e.g. cranes and warehouse loaders,
etc.) and those must be recorded daily during operation.
The crane book does not substitute the lifting machine logbook.
Most important duties of the operators of the lifting machine related to the lifting machine logbook:
The lifting machine logbook must always be kept at the place of operation and the shift inspection result must
be recorded in it at the start of each shift. Upon detecting defects (during shift inspection or operation) the direct
manager at the workplace or the maintenance technician must be notified in addition to the logbook entry. The
lifting machine must not be operated until the defect is repaired.
After maintenance, the maintenance technician must record the work performed in the logbook and sign it.
In addition to defects, other extraordinary events must also be recorded in the lifting machine logbook.

23
2. Talk about maintenance and repairs to be performed on the machines. Who
can perform these activities? What materials and tools can be used for
maintenance and repair operations: Characterise cooling agents and
lubricants. Talk about the revision and replacement of these.

Machine cleaning and maintenance tasks before starting work.

The operator can only perform daily maintenance level repairs. Other repairs must only be
performed in professional workshops.
Repair work may only be performed by a qualified maintenance technician (assembly
personnel).
Maintenance works must be performed by the operator. Cleaning, washing, lubricating,
refilling, revision tasks to be performed at relatively short intervals belong to the maintenance
tasks.
Performs the maintenance tasks explored during the shift inspection (oil refills, etc.)
Repair work may only be performed by a qualified maintenance technician (assembly
personnel).

Tasks to be performed at the end of the work:

Parking the machine at a safe place, securing against moving, resetting and securing
work equipment.
Enabling protection against restart or accidental or unauthorised start.
Closing the documents related to the operation of the machine.

Tools, materials and auxiliary materials used for the care and maintenance of
machinery:
Employees taking part in maintenance tasks must have appropriate tools and equipment
which may differ from the ones they normally use. Considering that they may also work in
areas which are not designed for working and that they may be exposed to several hazards,
they must have proper personal protective equipment as well. In terms of equipment and tools
to be used, the employer must ensure that:
the proper tools and equipment for the work are available (together with their
instruction manuals if necessary)
and are in proper condition
they must be appropriate for the working environment (e.g. no tools causing sparks in
flammable atmosphere)
they must be ergonomic
Materials, cleaning agents and lubricants used for maintenance. Regulations on hazardous
materials must be observed when using these.

Health and safety, fire protection and accident prevention rules to be adhered to
maintenance itself is a highly hazardous activity and it must be performed safely,
providing proper protection for maintenance technicians and other persons attending
the workplace.
It is necessary to designate a suitable place for maintenance and repair, where work
can be carried out safely and in full adherence with the fire safety regulations.
The motor must be switched off before maintenance work on the machine can
commence. The possibility of accidental start-up must be excluded.

Characteristics of lubricants (drip point, viscosity, sulphate content, etc.)

Lubricating oils are fluid materials, from some of which we expect to have easily flowing
characteristics so that they can enter closely fitted surfaces in a short time, thus limiting wear
to the least possible extent. Other oils however are required to remain on the lubricated surface
for a long time, to be dense and to be able to leak out from the lubricated place as little as

24
possible. This characteristic of the lubricants is viscosity.

Motor oils
Motor oils are some of the most stressed oils which do not only have to endure high
temperatures from the engine, but must also be resistant to forces applied on them. In order
to achieve different, favourable wearing processes and reliable operation we have the
following requirements to motor oils:
reduced wear
prevention of residues
protection against corrosion
good sealing effect
proper cooling
compatibility with sealants
In order that the motor oil should have these characteristics, different additives are used, which
may be:
viscosity determiners:
viscosity modifiers,
flow point reducers.
materials improving performance characteristics:
anti-oxidants,
dispersers,
anti-corrosives,
wear inhibitors,
antifoam agents.
Such materials are found in oils in a delicate balance and consequently mixing them with other
oils must be avoided, otherwise undesirable damage may occur in the structure of the oil which
may negatively affect the quality of lubrication too.

Drive oils
Drive oils are used in gears, angle drives, differentials and other power transmission drives.
The load in drives is different from that of engines, consequently we need an oil with
completely different characteristics. Steering equipment and their servo systems are classified
as drives.
Drive oils have two major groups:
mechanical drive oils
automatic gear and steering equipment oils.
Manual drives, differentials, wheel drives and mechanical steering gears are in this group.
Their shared feature is that the teeth of the gears are exposed to very high forces and the
continuity of the oil film must be ensured in such cases. This is difficult to achieve completely
but still, dense consistency oils are appropriate for such purposes.

Lubricating greases
Lubricating greases differ from lubricating oils discussed above that while lubricating oils are
fluid at room temperature, consistent lubricating materials are butter-like and keep their form.
Lubricating greases are the mixture of soap and lubricating oil. They can be spread like butter,
and the soap mesh closing different lubricating oils into its small gaps. Due to the heat of the
parts rubbed against each other, the solidity of the soap mesh decreases and the oil gets out
of it to perform its lubricating effect. In order to improve chemical stability and adhesive
capacity, additives (formic acid, acetic acid) and for differentiation paints are added to
lubricating greases.
The lubricating oil in the grease is of decisive significance in terms of lubricating technology
but the soap mesh is also very important in keeping the lubricating oil. High chill point and very
clean animal fats or vegetable oils are used as the base material of soap.

25
The importance of lubricating greases has greatly increased in the past decades. This is
reasoned by their favourable parameters or even their irreplaceability in some places. The use
of lubricating greases is favourable in places where:
the lubricating place is free and the lubricating oil may drip away,
in addition to lubrication, the lubricated surface must be protected from the penetration
of mechanical contamination and water,
the lubricating oil may be easily pushed out from the place of lubrication and
contaminate the product.
Drip point: The temperature where the lubricating grease starts to become fluid due to the
decomposition of the soap mesh. The drip point of honey-based lubricating greases is the
lowest (70- - and lithium-based greases is higher (100-
The drip point determines the upper temperature limit of the application of the lubricating
grease. The number in the standard sign of lubricating greases represent their drip point
temperature.
Reversibility (capacity to reconvert) It means that the soap mesh of the lubricating grease
regains its original structure cooling down from temperatures above drip point or in other words
it becomes suitable for lubrication again. This is the fundamental characteristics of heat-
resistant greases. Sodium-based lubricating greases have this property. If a honey-based
lubricating grease is heated above its drip point, it must be removed from the place of
lubrication because it has no capacity to regain its original structure and has lost its lubricating
capacity.
Water-resistance: It shows that the lubricating grease is insensitive to the chemical effects of
water. Honey-based lubricating greases are more favourable from this perspective. Parts
requiring lubrication at low temperatures but exposed to water or humidity must be lubricated
with honey-based grease.
Ash content: It expresses the sulphate residue produced upon heating the lubricating grease
in percentages.
Chill point: It is the temperature at which the lubricating oil in the soap chills. As a result, the
lubricating grease becomes fragile and unsuitable for lubrication. Lubricating greases can be
used between their chill point and their drip point.

Rules of using lubricants

Additives improving the performance of motor oils are found in oils in a delicate balance and
consequently mixing them with other oils must be avoided, or undesirable damage may occur
in the structure of the oil which may negatively affect the quality of lubrication too.

Safety regulations related to lubricants

The provisions set out in the instruction manuals must be strictly observed upon replacing or
refilling oil as well as the health and fire protection regulations applicable to the maintenance
of the machine.

Properties of cooling fluid

Air- and water cooling systems are used to remove the excess heat produced in the engine,
however in the latter case, mostly not pure water is used for this purpose. If our cars were only
used in summer, water would perfectly meet the requirements. Due to the changes of seasons
however, the temperature falls below zero degree Celsius in winter when water freezes.
Because of this characteristic, water is suitable as a cooling fluid to a limited extent only.
Ethylene glycol is used in most frost-resistant cooling fluids which ensures a proper chill point.
Ethylene glycol however is highly corrosive so corrosion inhibitors are also used in addition to
other additives. This special mixture of ethylene glycol, water and additives is called frost
resistant cooling fluid which has good heat conductivity and chill point and it lubricates the
water pump and prevents corrosion.

26
Inspection of fluid levels
Inspection of fluid levels in machines is a daily task. Even more attention must be paid to this
in case of worn combustion engines because they have higher oil consumption.
The decrease of hydraulic oil level is always a result of leakage. In addition to refilling it is
absolutely essential to identify the point of leakage and restore sealing.
The increase of oil level may also be experienced upon inspection. In the vast majority of
cases this is caused by the condensation of humidity from the air in the tank and getting into
the oil in the form of water.
There are different forms of inspection of fluid levels as follows:
dipstick,
inspection port,
tube,
Battery fluid or electrolyte is a mixture of sulphuric acid and distilled water. Its level is correct
if it just covers the battery plates which can be checked through the filling caps on the top of
the battery.

Replacing fluids
Preparation of site
Choosing the place for replacing oil and preparation of machine:
A horizontal area free from dust and other pollution is required for the machine. Prepare the
appropriate size of oil catcher tank, cleaning clothes and sand to absorb potentially spilled oil
and tools.
Preparation of machine
Make sure that the inlet of the tank has a filter. If not, use a funnel with a filter.
Clean the area of the inlet to avoid any contamination getting into the tank during the operation.
In case of new machines, take care of pieces of paint dropping off. Do not use cleaning cloths
that easily get threadbare or tattered for cleaning.
Oil may be replaced partly or completely. Partial oil replacement means that only the oil in the
tank is replaced. In a complete oil replacement, the used hydraulic oil is removed from all
major parts of the system (pump, work cylinders, hydraulic motors, control components,
pipelines, filters, cooler) in addition to the tank.
In practice, typically partial oil replacement is performed. Complete oil replacement is
performed by rinsing run.
Type and amount of oil required for oil replacement:
The types and required amount of oil used for the machine is found in the maintenance chapter
of the instruction manual.
Process of oil replacement
Loosen the bleeder screw of the tank and drain the settled oil sludge, then close the
screw.
Start the drive engine and turn on the pump drive.
Run the unloaded system and thus preheat the hydraulic oil to make it easily flowing.
Stop the engine and the pump.
Open the lid of the inlet, unscrew the bleeding screw and let the oil drain.
Clean the magnet of the bleeding screw, the ventilation and the inlet filter and clean or
replace filters.
Close the bleeding screw, fill the tank with the selected oil up to the middle of the level
indicator.
Close the inlet lid.
Start the machine and run it for a few minutes.
Stop the system, check the oil level and refill if necessary.
Documentation:
Write the date of oil replacement, the operating hours of the machine, the type and amount of
oil used in the service manual and the machine logbook.

27
Tasks with the used oil:
Used oil is hazardous waste so it must be stored in compliance with the rules on hazardous
waste until it is deposited by a licensed organisation.
Other hazardous waste produced during the oil replacement, e.g. oily clothes, oily sand, etc.
must be placed in the designated waste containers.

28
3. What types of brakes do you know? Talk about brakes of plant machinery.
Present the parts and operating principle of a brake system. What may cause
the defective operation or failure of brakes?

On the basis of use, the following brakes are differentiated:

Operating brake: must decrease the speed of vehicle if necessary event until it is
stopped under certain conditions. The vehicle must not change its path during this. The
operating brake is used with the foot of the driver, it must be continuously variable and
slow all wheels.
Emergency brake: in case of defects of the operating brake system, this must replace
it and fulfil its functions. It does not have to be an independent third brake system but
an operable brake circuit of a double-circuit operating brake or a continuously variable
parking brake is sufficient.
Parking brake: it must prevent stopping or parked vehicle from rolling down on sloping
road in absence of the driver as well.
Permanent slowing brake: it keeps the speed of the vehicle at a specific constant
value when driving on a slope for a longer period of time.

Operating brake
Operation of hydraulic brake
In hydraulic brake systems, pushing on the pedal generates pressure in the brake
master cylinder which is transmitted to the wheels by brake pipes. Work cylinders
convert pressure back to force and press the brake pads or brake block of high
coefficient of friction to the surface of the brake disc or brake drum. Friction converts
the kinetic energy of the vehicle into heat.

Brake hose Working cylinder

Brake block

Brake
pedal
Brake servo

Drum brake

Brake
saddle
Double-circuit brake master-
cylinder
Brake drum
Brake disc

Double-circuit hydraulically operated brake mechanism

29
Parts of braking system

Brake block Brake pad Floating saddle

Brake drum Mounting plate
Brake fluid

Brake cylinder
Pull-back
springs Piston Piston

Holding Brake
spring holder
Brake disc

Wheel
working Rigid saddle brake Floating saddle
Span lever cylinder brake

If the weight of the vehicle is increased, greater pedal force is required for braking. Pedal force
may only have a specified value. If the allowable pedal force cannot generate braking force in
the wheel brake system, then external energy must be used.
Possibilities:
Using lower pressure generated in the vacuum pipes of the engine (vacuum brake
booster)
increasing the internal transmission of the hydraulic brake (too long pedal path!)
High pressure air must be used for breaking as external energy.

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF AIR BRAKE SYSTEM

pressure regulator protective valve

with filter

air compressor air drier air tanks

30
Structure and assembly units
The air compressor generates the air pressure required for the braking force.
Pressure regulator with filter Oil and water can be removed with them and pressure
can be controlled.
The air drier completely divides water from air.
The four-circuit protective valve distributes air between tanks.
Tanks store the compressed air for the braking system.

Operating and parking brake system

It leads braking air to the operating units of the wheel brake system, the brake chambers and
secures the vehicle.

parking
brake valve
control valve combined
brake
chamber

brake chamber

Units of operating brake system

Pedal valve, brake master valve, (pedal valve if built together with brake pedal and
brake master valve if it is a separate unit). Function:
Load-dependent braking force limiter
Brake chambers on the front wheels
Spring force storage brake chambers on the rear wheels (Braking force is provided by
a spring with great compressing force)

Operating phases of pedal valve

The driver applies compressed air of proportional pressure to the force on the brake pedal
from the air tanks to the brake chambers of the operating brake circuits.
Default position: the high pressure air stored in the air tanks of the container system
is directly connected to the pedal valve. Due to the closed valve bodies in the default
position of the pedal valve air cannot get through to the brake chambers close to the
wheel brake assemblies or the air brake cylinders depending on the structure of the
brake system.
Partial braking position: The brake pedal is pressed to start letting out and
transmitting braking air in both brake circuit. This pressure is higher than the pressure
in the environment but lower than the pressure in the air tanks. Consequence: the air
entering the brake chambers moves the brake pads of the wheel brake assembly which
contact the brake drums or the brake discs, the braking process starts and the speed
of the vehicle decreases (the vehicle is braked by a braking force lower than the highest
possible braking force).
Complete braking position: Upon completely pressing the pedal valve, the valves
are completely opened so the pressure in the brake chambers equals the pressure in
the air tanks. The braking force generated by the operating brake cannot be further

31
 increased during the braking process.
Brake release: By releasing the brake pedal to default position, the pneumatic
connection between the air tanks and the air chambers is eliminated. The braking air
is let out from the brake chambers mostly through the brake valve.

Function of load-dependent brake force regulator

It has a double function. On the one hand it constantly detects the load status of the given
shaft or shafts (this may change while the vehicle is running or even during braking at all times)
and on the other hand it automatically interferes taking this into account by appropriately
changing the outlet pressure of the braking valve in order to prevent it from slipping.

Brake chambers
Function: it converts the air pressure of individual brake circuits to pressing force and
mechanical work and thus generated braking force.
Types:
brake chamber
spring force storing brake chamber
Connection of the brake chamber and the wheel brake unit

first brake chamber

from pedal valve

brake lever

brake block
brake key

Parking brake system

It is an important safety principle for brake systems that the service brake and parking brake
should be operated independently.
In the case of hydraulic brake systems the most typical design is that the internal
service drum brake is activated mechanically using a Bowden cable or a rod and fixed
using a pawl mechanism structure on the operating lever or pedal.
In air brake systems it has a special safety function in addition to parking the vehicle.
The vehicle cannot be started until the brake system is completely filled by the
compressor. After several days of parking, the air may leak and an accident may occur
due to the lack of compressed air. In such case it keeps the brake system of the rear
wheels braked and allows starting only after reaching the required pressure.
Combined brake system: Essence: Part of the brake system contains the filling,
storing and control unit of the air brake system, while the master brake cylinder of the
hydraulic brake system and thus the wheel brake units are operated by the brake
chambers.

32
Causes of defective operation of brakes
The defect
The brake works
asymmetrically.
Braking effect occurs only
after activating the brake
pedal several times.
Brake pedal can be
completely pressed in after
bleeding the brake.
The brake becomes
irregularly hot when running.
Cause
Unevenly worn or oily brake
pads.
The brake drum is oval.
The piston of the wheel
brake cylinder is stuck.
There is air in the brake
system.
The rubber flange of the
master brake cylinder of the
wheel brake cylinder is
damaged, the pipe
connections are unsealed or
the brake pipes are
damaged.
Automatic adjusting device is Dismount, clean or
defective.
No slack of brake pedal.
The handbrake was
Adjusting hole of the master
brake cylinder is stuck.
The piston of the master
brake cylinder is stuck.
The piston of the wheel
brake cylinder is stuck.
Repair method
Replace brake pads. In case
of oily brake pads, check the
wheel brake cylinder and the
sealing ring of the wheel
bearing.
Repair the defect.
Repair the brake drum by
regulating or replace it.
Replace the wheel brake
cylinder and make the piston
move.
Bleed the brake system.
Inspect the master brake
cylinder, the wheel brake
cylinders and pipes and
replace defective parts if
necessary.
potentially replace the
adjusting device.
Adjust slack.
Adjust handbrake again.
Replace master brake
cylinder.
Uninstall the piston and
make it movable again.
Uninstall, take apart, clean
and install the wheel brake
cylinder. Potentially replace
33
 the wheel brake cylinder.

Pull-back springs of the Replace pull-back springs.

brake pad are worn or
broken.

Automatic brake pad Replace the adjuster.

adjuster stuck.

No braking effect in spite of
great pedal force.
Brake pads are
contaminated or greasy.
Replace brake pads. In case
of oily brake pads, check the
wheel brake cylinder and the
sealing ring of the wheel
bearing.

Brake pad hardened. Replace brake pads.

Brake creaks. The brake pad hardened or Replace brake pads.

became coarse.

Brake pad loose or broken. Replace brake pads.

Dust or other contamination Pull off the brake drum and

got in the brake drum. clean the brake unit.

In case of parking outdoors, Eliminate by braking several

early in the morning, due to times
humidity from the
temperature difference

Inspection of brake equipment

Considering that the brake equipment is one of the most important safety element of plant
machinery, their perfect operability must be regularly inspected.
Daily inspections:
slack of brake pedal
brake oil level
in air brakes (bleeding air tank)
sealing of brake circuits
brake test
The extent of wear of brake blocks, brake discs, brake pads must be periodically checked.

34
4. Talk about the running gear of plant machinery. Through what structural
units is drive transmitted to the wheels?

General structure of the running gear.

Running gears (carrier chassis) of plant machinery in the construction industry have
construction differences practically by machine types or even models but they all originate
from one basic structure.

Drivetrain
completely mechanical
hydraulic with mechanical drives
direct hydraulic drive

Carrier chassis
With tires
Continuous track

Mechanical drive
With tires on carrier chassis
Motor vehicle-based (usually rear wheel drive), i.e. engine, clutch, gearbox, cardan
shaft, differential Mobile vehicle cranes usually have this drive.
In mobile excavators, the drive engine is on the rotating upper frame therefore the
driving force must be transmitted down to the drives of the carrier chassis. This requires
quite complex and costly structural solutions since power transmission is only possible
through the central bearing. It is used on older machines.
According to the technology of excavating, the cutting tool moves from the soil to be
worked on and if the basic machine has taken off the soil at a given area, it must move
a bit forward. The primary function of its carrier chassis is not (road) transport between
workplaces but to perform shorter movements. Since this is usually performed on
uneven terrain, it is important to have good off-road capability 1:4 climbing power. A
continuous track carrier chassis meets these requirements best.
In continuous track carrier chassis
Open power transmission

Central bearing

Idler wheel
Drive wheel

35
Closed power transmission

Central bearing

Idler wheel Drive wheel

In the normal running position of a continuous track carrier chassis suitable for forward
and reverse movement as well, the driving chain wheel is always in the back so that
the lower side of the track is always pulled. Factories produce uniform continuous
tracks of somewhat different width so several sizes of continuous tracks can be
installed on the same type of excavator.

Depending on soil conditions is practical to select the following track widths:

dry material, stone, strong load-bearing terrain 400-600 mm

gravel, soil 600-700 mm
wet soil, sand 700-900 mm
wet sludge, damp soil 1000-1500 mm
The external surface of tractor carrier chassis track is made with low cross-pieces for
better grip in the soil.

Parts of continuous track carrier chassis

Drive wheel
Idler wheel
Loading systems (roller systems)
Continuous track
Loading systems:

Roller line
Bogey
Wheel line

Roller line

36
 Bogey

Wheel line

Hydraulic with mechanical drives

With rubber wheel carrier chassis
The drive of carrier chassis with rubber wheels becomes much more simple by
transmitting drive power to the chassis hydraulically where the hydraulic motor and the
gear drive the wheel with the usual mechanical differential transmission.
Forward and reverse gears are easy to change by supplying the hydraulic motor in the
opposite direction and its rotational speed can be controlled without steps by the
amount of supply between the two extreme values.
In continuous track carrier chassis
By perfecting the hydrostatic drive the opportunity was opened to modernise and
simplify the continuous track drive of the excavator. The individual drive of the two
continuous tracks became widely available allowing for turning without moving by
driving the two tracks in opposite directions.
The high-torque hydrostatic motor of the hydrostatic continuous track drive makes the
use of multigrade rotational speed reducer gear unnecessary and due to its high-torque
gear it immediately works as a brake when drive is power is cut off.

Direct hydraulic drive

Small excavators used to be based on agricultural continuous track and rubber wheel tractors,
since they were suitable to operate hydraulic installation.

The chassis of the excavator loader developed from tractors fundamentally differs from that of
a tractor, it is reinforced and developed expressly for earthworks.

The carrier chassis of the most modern earthwork machines is closed hydrostatic gear. This
gear shows great flexibility in addition to solving continuous regulation and simple change of
directions.

37
38
5. Who can be the controller during work? How can the controller and the
operator of the machine communicate? Please demonstrate the standard
hand signals to be used by the controller!

Controller
Rules for assignment
Load binder is the person who is authorized and instructed in writing to bind the load.
In case of using automatic load grabbing and releasing devices or a grabbing device
controlled by the crane operator, the operator of the lifting machine shall be the binder
in one person - provided that the load is well visible from the place of operation.
Suspension, attachment of a load to the load lifting device as well as controlling a lifting
machine can individually performed by a person or skilled worker over 18 years of age,
previously deemed suitable for performing the task in the regular medical examination
and has the required qualification.
The person has to complete the necessary professional and health and safety training
in a justifiable manner.
Tasks
The binder has to select and apply the suitable load lifting device, safely attach
the load and control the crane operator, unless stated otherwise by the
operator.
The binder shall visually inspect the load lifting device before use to identify
individual marks, check whether the load test is valid as per the imprinted
information, whether it is suitable for lifting the load and check for any damages
or deformations.
The binder or the controller shall stay in a position during attaching and
releasing the load, during any movement of the crane as well as controlling the
crane operator so that he/she can continuously monitor the load and keep in
touch (by oral communication or signs) with the crane operator.

The controller must always control the crane operator

binding, lifting loads that are not picked up with an automatic load lifting device or a

making movements where the safe movement process cannot be continuously

monitored from the crane opera
to prevent unauthorized approach of live air cable or working cable.
Before the lifting operation is started, the crane operator must be informed about whose
signals are to follow. If more than one person is assigned with load binding tasks, one of them
must be instructed to control the crane operator. This person will be responsible for the
selection and use of the suitable load lifting device as well as safe attachment and binding of
loads.
If the crane operator is not able to monitor the movement of load from its operator stand, then
as many controller or signalling person must be provided as needed to safely perform the
lifting operation.
The binder and controller must be provided with personal protective equipment determined by
the health and safety assessment performed for the employer (safety boots, safety gloves,
safety helmet), and these must be worn during working.

Ways of communication
Hand signals
Talking is the simplest way of communication.
Radio connection

39
SIGNALS OF THE BINDER, CONTROLLER
meaning description signal meaning description signal

A. Basic signals C. Horizontal movement

CAUTION FORWARD both arms are bent,

caution, arm horizontally palms are facing
reference to the extended, palms upwards and lower
next signal facing forwards arms make slow
movements toward
the body

STOP BACKWARD both arms are bent,

stopping or the right arm is palms are facing
finishing the pointing upwards, down and lower
movement the palm is facing arms make slow
forward movements away
from the body

END RIGHT TO the right arm is

end of the work the two hands are THE extended
process put together at chest SIGNALLER horizontally, the
height palm is facing down,
the hand is making
slow movements to
the right
B. Vertical movement
LEFT TO THE the left arm is
UP the right arm is SIGNALLER extended
pointing upwards, horizontally, the
the palm is facing palm is facing down,
forward, slowly the hand is making
making circles slow movements to
the left

DOWN the right arm is HORIZONTAL hands show the

pointing downwards, DISTANCE distance
the palm is facing
inward, slowly
making circles

D. Hazards
VERTICAL hands show the BEWARE!
DISTANCE distance stop both arms are
immediately! pointing upwards
with palms facing
forward

QUICKLY the given signal

performed more
quickly

SLOWLY the given signal

performed more
slowly

40
6. List the metallic and non-metallic materials used in engineering industry.
Name their characteristics and major fields of use.

Alloys
Pure metals do not satisfy the demands of industry in spite of their large number and varying
properties. The metallic materials with the desired properties sufficiently solid and hard,
resistant to corrosion, etc. are produced by alloying.
Alloys are the concreted solutions of metals.
It is a prerequisite that the metals used for the alloy must be solved into each other in fluid
state.
The alloying materials favourably affect the properties of the basic metal according to our
objectives. The material present in the alloy in small amounts and not influencing properties
is called escort substance.
Materials negatively affect the properties of the allow are called contaminants. Naturally, these
must be reduced in production. The original properties of pure metals change by alloying. The
extent of change depends on what elements the alloy consists of and what their proportion is.

Ferrous metals

Iron (Fe)
It is one of the most important metals in industry. Iron is produced from iron ores (magnetite,
hematite, limonite, siderite) by metallurgic processes. The major product of the blast furnace
is crude iron which not suitable for shaping either cold or hot, it is rigid and fragile due to its
high carbon content. If you wish to produce casting or materials suitable for the production of
machine components, the crude iron must be refine. The so called grey crude iron is
processed by foundries and white crude iron is the base material for steel production. The
pure iron cleared from colour content and contaminants is a silver colour metal. Its melting

to humid air. Its solidity is low, properties are improved by alloying.

Iron-carbon alloys
Iron alloys of maximum 1.7% carbon content produced by metallurgy are called steel.
Based on their chemical composition, steels may be unalloyed steels (ordinary carbon steels)
and alloyed steels.
In unalloyed steels, there are small amounts of escort materials and contaminants in addition
to sulphur. Their properties are determined by their carbon content.
Alloyed steels may contain different materials (Cr, Mn, Mo, Ni, V) in addition to carbon in order
to purposefully change the technological and mechanical properties of steel. Steels grouped
by use
The carbon content of structural steels is < 0.6 % used in machine production, vehicle
construction, etc. They are characterised by tenacity, solidity, easy processing. Below
5% alloying addition they are called unalloyed structural steels while above that they
are called alloyed structural steels.
The carbon content of tool steels is 0.6-1.5% and they are used in chipping tool
production. They must be easy to anneal, edge retention and abrasion resistance are
important.
Special steels are usually alloyed and the demand is some special property (resistance
to corrosion, magnetizability, heat resistance).
Cast iron is produced by melting crude iron and it always contains alloying materials (Si, Mn)
and contaminants (P, S). The broken surface of quickly cooled cast iron is whiteish in colour
so they are called white cast iron. The slowly cooled graphite crystal cast iron is called grey
cast iron. Cast irons are mainly used in machine production and the automotive industry.
Globular graphite cast irons are produced by a special process and alloying materials. They

41
are suitable for higher solidity uses. Annealed cast iron is used due to its better tenacity and
strain.

Heat treatment of steels

Heat treatments aim to change the structure of steel parts in order to modify their properties
(hardness, abrasion resistance) and reduce internal stress. Annealing is a heat treatment
process aiming to increase the hardness of steel. Steel is heated and then cooled to achieve
a hard texture in its entire cross section. Stresses generated in annealing are eliminated by
tempering. Tempering is heating up to a lower temperature and cooling is applied right after
annealing. The annealing medium is oil, water, air or a special salt bath. Double heat treatment
aims to refine the texture of steel and to achieve greater tenacity.
Surface hardening process is applied when the objective is to produce a part with high surface
hardness and tenacity inside (e.g. main shaft). Such cementation is when the external layer
of the workpiece is enriched with carbon (carburised) to the depth of 1-2 mm and afterwards
it is quenched by heating with flame and water cooling to modify the structure; the surface is
enriched with nitrogen (nitridation) ins gas or fluid medium (salt bath).

Non iron metals and their alloys

Non iron metals used in industry have two groups:
non-ferrous metals and
light metals.
Non-ferrous metals include metals not used for alloying iron.
Mos common ones: copper, tin, lead, zinc.
The density of light metals is below 4*103 kg/m3 (4 kg/dm3), e.g. aluminium, magnesium.

Non-ferrous metals

Properties and use of copper

3
Copper (Cu) is one of the oldest known metals. Its melting poin
3 3
kg/m (8.9 kg/dm ). Copper is usually produced from ore by metallurgical operation. It is found
in pure condition in nature as well. Pure copper is produced from crude metal by electrolysis.
Copper conducts electricity and heat well. It is the best industrial conductor. It is resistant to
atmospheric corrosion because a thin oxide layer is produced on its surface. Copper is a low
solidity material, ductile, easy to form, rollable, drawable, forgeable. It is hard to cast. The
solidity characteristics and technological properties of copper are improved by alloying.
Important copper alloys:
Major alloying materials of copper:
zinc,
tin,
aluminium.
These materials are independently used to alloy copper

Copper alloys:
Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. Sheets, pipes, ribbons and wires are made of it,
used in the electricity industry. It is a base material in the production of taps, valves,
fittings in the fitting industry. It is very useful for the hard soldering of steels. Its solidity
can be further improved if iron, magnesium and silicon alloying materials are added in
addition to zinc.
Tin bronze is an alloy of copper and tin. Alloys with 6-10% tin content are called
machine bronzes. Their solidity property is favourable: Sheets, wires and rods are
produced from tin bronze by rolling or drawing (breaking strength: 500 N/mm2).Alloys
with 10-14% tin content are called bearing bronzes. Material of sliding bearings. By
adding phosphor (0.1-0.2%), their breaking strength can be improved up to 700

42
 N/mm2. They are used to produce hob gears and sliding surfaces.
Aluminium bronze is an alloy of copper and aluminium. Breaking strength may be close
to that of steels. They are used in places where steels are not suitable due to corrosion
(chemical industry, food industry).
Lead bronze is an alloy of special physical and mechanical properties. It is used in high
stress areas, e.g. for the material of bearings in diesel engines.
Cadmium bronze is a high solidity, electric conductor. Higher nickel and manganese
bronzes are materials for electrical resistors (manganin, constantan, nickeline).

Tin and its alloys

3
(7,3 kg/dm3).
Tin is resistant against atmospheric impacts, weak acids and the chemical effects of foodstuff.
Its compounds are not toxic and it can be rolled to foil. Iron sheets coated with tin are called
white tin sheet. Its major alloys are tin solder and tin-based bearing metals.

Lead and its alloys

Lead (Pb) is a grey metal, density 11.34*103 kg/m3 (11.34 kg/dm3
oxide layer develops on the surface of lead objects protecting them from further oxidation.
Lead and its compounds are strongly toxic. It is the most resistant of metals against sulphuric
acid. Lead is an easy to cast, ductile material It can be rolled, pressed or drawn into wire. It is
the material of the melting wire of fuses in the electrical industry. The largest amounts of lead
is used in battery production. Lead sheets are used for protection against X-ray and
radioactive radiation. Its important industrial compound is red lead (minium).

Light metals

Properties and use of aluminium (Al)

2.7*103 kg/m3 (2.7 kg/dm3).
It is found in the form of bauxite in large quantities in Hungary as well. Aluminium is produced
in two stages. First pure aluminium-oxide is produced from bauxite. In the second stage, the
aluminium-oxide is decomposed to aluminium and oxygen by electrolysis. Aluminium is a good
heat end electronic conductor, a layer of oxide develops on its surface that protects it from
corrosion. Aluminium is a low strength, ductile, easy-to-form, hard-to-cast and hard-to-
machine metal. Pure aluminium is used as an electronic conductor.
Important aluminium alloys:
The five major alloying materials (Si, Cu, Mg, Zn, Mn) of aluminium significantly influence the
solidity properties of aluminium and are found in high amounts in alloys. Aluminium alloys are
grouped according to major alloying components:
aluminium-copper alloys (duralumin group)
aluminium-magnesium alloys (hydronalium group)
aluminium-silicon alloys (silicon group)
Major additional alloy components of aluminium are nickel and manganese.
The nickel improves the hot strength and manganese improves the corrosion resistance of
alloys. Most common alloy of the Al-Cu-Mg alloy group is dural. It is a high strength and low
weight material. It is not resistant to corrosion. It is one of the most important material in the
aviation industry. The alloys of the Al-Mg-Si alloy group are good conductors (aludur), and by
increasing alloying, its resistance to corrosion improves. Al-Si castable aluminium alloy
(silumin), is easy to weld and has good strength. It is mainly used in the automotive industry.

Plastics
Plastics are synthetically produced or transformed, organic high polymers. They are present
in almost all important areas in life, in households, vehicles, health care, electronics, space
science, etc.

43
Plastics basically have three major groups based on their processing technology (although
there are interim plastics today):
thermoset,
thermoplastics,
and flexible plastics.

Thermoplastic materials
Structure Thermoplastic materials are amorphous or semi-crystalline in structure and consists
of linear, branching, long or string-shaped molecule chains which are bound by physical force
(not first-grade chemical bond). Major types:
Polyethylene (PE)
used for tent foils, plastic bags, bottles, insulation for conductors, water pipes, barrels,
pipes, conduits, household products.
Polypropylene (PP)
used for foodstuff packaging, household products, vehicle parts (e.g. bumpers), ropes,
strings, rugs, adhesive tapes, tanks, packaging foils.
Polystyrene (PS)
packaging materials, foodstuff packaging, disposable glasses, plates and cutlery, CD
and DVD cases.
Polyamide (PA)
thread production, bearing ball, fishing line, covers in automotive industry.
Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA)
to replace glass

Thermoset materials
Structure: Most thermoplastics (resins) may be slightly or strongly cross-lined depending on
the number of function groups of the initial monomers. Thermostatic duroplasts (e.g. Bakelite)
are strongly cross-linked.[6]
Major types:
Unsaturated polyesters.
Polyurethanes (PUR)
Plyurea (PU)
Silicone resins

Flexible plastics
Flexible plastics are elastomers in which there are shaggy macromolecules. Upon drawing
they are straightened, extended and regain their original shape when the external force is
terminated.
Production in Hungary
BorsodChem Rt.
Internationally known PVC, MDI and TDI manufacturer.

44
7. How is plant machinery controlled? Talk about different steering methods.
How is the steering gear inspected? Discuss the concept of steering wheel
slack and determine its typical value.

Steering gear: all equipment the purpose of which is to determine the direction of motion of
the vehicle.
Requirements of steering gears of plant machinery:
the machine must keep direction and be stable, i.e. the turned wheels mist return to
the straight direction while moving and when the steering wheel is let loose,
small force must be enough for steering (max 70N),
dynamic forces arising from the unevenness of the road surface must not be
transmitted to the steering wheel,
its operation shall be reliable and safe even when the engine is stopped.
Steering gear: all components of the steering equipment through which the force needed for
steering is transmitted between the steering wheel and the steered wheels; including all parts
from the point where the power controlling the steering wheel is converted by mechanical,
aulic or electronic means;
The steering equipment includes the following:
steering wheel,
steering gear,
steered wheels,
power source, in certain cases;
Mechanical steering gears
gear rack,
worm and sector,
recirculating ball
In mechanical steering, the steering wheel and the steered wheels are exclusively
mechanically connected. The relatively great force required for steering is applied by the

In case of servo steering, the mechanical connection between the steering wheel and the
steered wheels still exists. At a practical place of the connection however an open hydraulic
cycle is installed the router of which is operated by turning the steering wheel. The cycle is
connected to the steering arm with a hydraulic cylinder and performs steering by replacing the
muscle power.

Structure and operation of hydraulic steering gear.

Hydraulic (hydrostatic) steering is when there is only hydraulic connection between the
steering wheel and the steered wheels. The components of the system are interconnected by
pipes, the steering wheel has a control role and the steered wheels are turned by hydraulics.
The solution must be so that the manual steering force must be transmitted when the internal
combustion engine is not working. The latter is generally called emergency steering.

45
 Pressure limiter
Tank
Steering wheel

Steering rod

ORBITROL
Filter steering gear
Pump

Double operation piston working cylinder

In steering rod equipment the wheels do not turn according to the direction of turning. The
left and right steering rods brake or stop the rolling of the left and right wheels. For example if
the left steering rod is pulled back by the driver, then the left wheels are braked or stopped.
Since the right wheels keep rolling, the machine will turn left.
Continuous track machines are steered by the different speed of the two continuous tracks. It
can be achieved by braking one track or in case of hydraulic drive on each continuous track
by operating the tracks at different speeds. In case of hydraulic drive, turning in one place is
also possible by operating the continuous tracks in opposite direction.
Continuous track machines are steered by the different speed of the two continuous tracks.
It can be achieved by braking one track or in case of hydraulic drive on each continuous track
by operating the tracks at different speeds. In case of hydraulic drive, turning in one place is
also possible by operating the continuous tracks in opposite direction.

Steering rubber wheeled machines

Steering methods:
rear wheel
front wheel
all wheel
articulated
As opposed to earlier rubber wheeled excavators, the steering gear of most newer models
meet stricter road regulations. The Orbitrol hydraulic steering system installed in excavators
completely meets road and safety requirements because the steering wheel can be manually
turned in case of a failure of the hydraulic system. The Orbitrol steering system is independent
from the hydraulic power transmission system; it is practically a combined control system
operated as a control valve and supply pump as well.
The basic four-wheel-drive machine can be operated forth and back in favourable gears and
the modern hydrostatic four-wheel-steering allows for four steering modes. On figure a) and
b) the front and rear wheel steering is shown respectively where the other two wheels are not
steered. Four-wheel-steering presented of figure c) allows the vehicle of 2500 mm shaft
distance to turn in a circle radius of 3.15 m. Figure d) shows the so called crab-walk steering.

46
 steering of loader

The manoeuvring of the machine may be better as the steering wheel can be easily set for
forward or reverse direction within minutes.

Description and advantages of articulated steering

The articulated frame introduced in the mid-70s in loaders, improved road-holding, the
accessibility of targets and the manoeuvrability of machines.
The most important difference between articulated and other loaders is that while the engine
is usually in the front of rigid-frame machines, in certain articulated loader models it is found
in the centre, under the cockpit which results in lower centre of mass and thus even greater
stability.
There are work areas where an articulated frame which better adopts to soil, moreover the
rear shaft of articulated machines is an oscillating system, balancing the unevenness of the
surface hydraulically up to 20 degrees is directly recommended due to the uneven surfaces.
All in all it can be concluded that the articulated structure is still considered modern and
progressive, its reason for existence is undisputable and the benefits of the solution usually
compensate for the relatively higher price.

47
 Figure 3.4.3.: Operating principle of an articulated frame
1) front part, 2) rear part, 3) articulation, 4) steering cylinders

Inspection of the steering is inevitable before starting safe driving.

This is inspected as follows:
Slack check:
Turn off steering lock on the stopped vehicle by turning the ignition key.

Reaching in through the open window, turn the steering wheel in one direction until the
wheel of the vehicle starts moving.
The greatest turn of the steering wheel not yet followed by the motion of the wheels is
called slack.
The slack may be maximum 15 degrees, maximum 2-3 cm depending on the size of
the steering wheel.
Operation check:
The steering wheel must not emit strange noises, it must not crack or skip.
Moving the steering wheel must not be heavier than usual. Take care because the
steering wheel of cars equipped with servo steering is more difficult to turn when the
engine is stopped and even with a running engine it is more difficult to turn when
stopped than in case of moving.

48
8. Describe the types of batteries. Talk about the structure of acidic batteries.
What values characterise batteries? How are batteries charged? What
maintenance tasks does the operator have regarding batteries?

Types and areas of application of batteries

Acidic batteries
So called acidic lead batteries are used in motor vehicles, the nominal cell voltage of
which is 2V. Generally used 12V batteries have 6 serially connected cells.
Alkaline batteries
Most common ones are nickel-cadmium, nickel-iron and zinc-silver batteries but there
are batteries with other electrode systems.
The voltage of alkaline cells is 1.2 V, lower than that of lead batteries so more serially
connected cells are needed for a battery of certain open-circuit voltage.
Their advantage against lead batteries: for example they have higher specific energy
storing capacity, longer life, they are easier to put in operation, overcharging,
insufficient charging or fatigue damages them less and their mechanical strength is
greater.
Their disadvantage is that their production cost is 3-4 times higher than lead batteries.
The electrolyte must be replaced at least annually depending on operating conditions
because the carbon dioxide content of the air destroys the electrolyte. In application
on motor vehicles, it is a disadvantage that there is greater difference between the
charging and the fatigue voltage than in case of lead batteries.

Based of application, they may be:

starting battery,
or cyclic batteries with the following categories:
battery for traction or vehicle drive,
fixed or industrial battery,
battery for wireless devices.
Starting batteries are designed to generate high current for a short time (e.g. starter engine).
These batteries have thinner lead plates and their composition also differs from cyclic
batteries.
Cyclic batteries are less capable of generating high currents for short times but they are much
better in longer discharge/charge. The plates of cyclic batteries are thicker and the batteries
can survive several fatigue discharges. Starting batteries cannot be used for purposes of cyclic
batteries.

Parts and structure of the battery

The objective in the development of batteries is to achieve the greater capacity with the smaller
size and weight or more scientifically: the greater energy density.
Grouped by structure:
Lead or acidic battery
Oxygen recombination, closed lead battery
Nickel-cadmium battery
Nickel metal-hybrid (NiMH) battery
Lithium-ion battery (Li-ion)
Lithium-polymer (Li-polymer) battery

Lead or acidic battery

The starting battery in vehicles is always a lead battery containing sulphuric acid with no
exception. Three active agents take part in the operation of a lead battery:
lead metal (Pb) which is the negative electrode in operation in the form of spongy metal
lead plate spread on the lead grid,

49
 lead oxide (PbO2) which is the positive electrode in operation in the form of spongy
plate spread on the electronically conducting lead grid,
sulphuric acid (H2SO4) serving as the so called electrolyte surrounding the plates and
filling their pores.
The basic unit of batteries is the so called battery cell in which two different electrode materials
are dipped in a liquid of specific composition (electrolyte).
In charged status, there is electric voltage between the electrodes. In lead batteries, the
material of the positive electrode is lead-oxide (PbO2) and the material of the negative
electrode is pure lead (Pb) while the electrolyte is sulphuric acid diluted with distilled water.
So two electrodes are sunk in the electrolyte but in this condition the battery cannot yet work
as a source of voltage. Therefore a source of voltage is connected to the electrodes, as a
result of which current flows through the battery (current does not flow into, but through the
battery). This process is called battery charging.
The nominal voltage of an operating cell is 2V. The battery is built from these cells connected
serially. The most common batteries consist of 3 or 6 serially connected sells with nominal
voltages of 6V and 12V respectively. The density of sulphuric acid in the charged condition of
a battery operating in Hungarian temperature conditions is 1.28 kg/litre. The density of the
electrolyte of a totally discharged lead battery may decrease below 1.1 kg/litre, the freezing
point of which is -12, -

The structure of batteries has been unchanged for over a hundred years. The lead and lead-
oxide plates in the water solution of sulphuric acid were used in the first automobiles. The
principle has only changed that the electrolyte of the most modern batteries is absorbed in
fibre and put on the plates so the acidic substance cannot leak out and even a broken battery

structure.
Oxygen recombination, closed lead battery
The greatest construction change of the late 1990s in acidic lead batteries is the introduction
and wide spread closed operating construction. Oxygen recombination batteries are used in
cars, uninterrupted power supplies of computers and power supplies of alarm systems in
Hungary.

Concept and values of voltage, capacity and cranking amps.

50
 Operating conditions of battery

The battery may be seen as an UT battery voltage and a serial Rb internal resistor. The
potential difference measured at the terminals of the battery is the Uk open-circuit voltage.
When a consumer is connected, it is loaded by RT load resistance, and then I current flows.
The battery looses some of its goodness while charging-discharging which is represented in
the increase of the internal resistance value. Unproper use of the battery accelerates this
process.

Starting current
CCA, CA, AH and RC - what are these? Well these are the standard values used by every
battery producer to specify the parameters of any battery type.
Cold cranking amps CCA or EN) is the current value that the battery can produce without
problems for 30 seconds at -18C so that its voltage does not fall below 7.2V Therefore a high
CCA value is particularly useful in cold weather.
Cranking amp or CA) is the value measured under similar conditions at 0 degrees Celsius.
This value is also known as marine cranking amps (MCA). The name hot cranking amps
(HCA) is hardly ever used. It is understood at 27 degrees Celsius.

Capacity of battery:
The storage capacity of batteries is called capacity. The capacity of the battery represents
what current it can produce in 20 hours discharge.
E.g.: 55 Ah 55/20 = 2.75 A
210 Ah 210/20 = 10.5 A

Charging process and safety regulations of batteries

During discharge, lead-sulphate is produced from the mixture of sulphuric-acid and water
between the + and - plates of the battery while electric power is released. Water is produced
in the electrolyte while energy is released.
While charging, electric power is led into the battery as a result of which the lead sulphate on
the + plate is converted into lead oxide while the lead sulphate on the - plate is converted into
pure lead. The water in the electrolyte is converted into sulphuric acid due to the materials
released.

Battery charging methods:

Normal charging: Normal charging means charging the battery with current corresponding
to one 10th of its capacity. Capacity / 10 = charging current E.g.: 160/10h = Ah 16 A
Fast charging: The charging at 5-10 times the charging current applied in normal charging of
the battery. Capacity / 10 x 5 = fast charging current. It can be charged in approx. half an hour,
take care of developing gas (it may damage the battery)
Trickle charging: charging to 0.1 times the normal current. Regeneration of stored batteries.

51
Safety regulations
Hydrogen is developed during charging and a flammable and explosive medium may be
created. No smoking or open flame.

Maintenance tasks
Maintenance of batteries is an important task. The external plastic cover of the battery should
be periodically wiped with the mixture of sodium bicarbonate and water (a few spoonful in half
a litre of water). Cable connections must be clean and tight. The electrolyte level must be
checked in the battery requiring maintenance more often in the hot summer season. The
electrolyte must cover the top of the plates by 1-1.5 cm. If it needs to be refilled, use distilled
water (concentrated sulphuric acid or tap water must not be used). Many people do not know
that gases released from the battery cause corrosion on the metal parts of the cable and the
terminal. Therefore it is practical to coat these metal parts with silicon grease or acid-free
grease.

52
9. How can rotating motion be transmitted? Talk about the characteristics and
structure of individual drives (belt, chain, gear, etc.)

Power transmission mechanisms

The connection between the drive engine and the work equipment, i.e. the working organ of
the machine is provided by practical devices, power transmission mechanisms which may
change its technical parameters in addition to power transmission.

The concept of gear

A significant parameter of power transmission mechanisms is the modification of the drive
(gear), indicated by i. In case of friction drives, i is the ratio showing the rotational speed of the
driving disc (n1) how much it must be changed so that the driven disc rotates at the desired
rotational speed (n2). In case of friction drives, the gear is expressed by the rate of the radiuses
of the discs.

Apparently, the rotational speeds are in inverse proportionality to the disc radiuses so the
larger discs rotates more slowly.

Belt drive
Endless element friction drive Elements: belt and V-belt
disc. The belt is placed in the similar profile slot in the disc
and it is always seated on the side of the belt. In addition
to sizes l0 and h0 the length of belt is also given in the
standard.
In modern technology, maintenance-sensitive belt drives
of limited life cycle are often replaced by toothed belts
where power transmission is ensured by the teeth of the
drive belt fitting into the grooves of the shaft.
Properties:
silent operation
no maintenance demand
slip occurs
shafts bear extra load due to tensioning 1 - canvas cover, 2 - textile insert,
3 - rubber bed, 4 - side panel angle ( )
Chain drive Structure of the belt
Another form of endless drives is chain drive which is
practical in case of large shaft distances.
Properties:
no slip, it must be pre-tensioned
limited flexibility,
relatively noisy and expensive solution.
maintenance tasks occur
Types:
roller chain
chain

53
 t) chain link opening, b) link width,
d) link diameter

Roller chain Chain

Gear drive
In case of short shaft distances or great forces, it is practical to use gear drives. No slip is
possible in this drive since the cog profiles of the connecting gears transmit torque by contact
on their circular pitch.
For example no slip or difference from the set position is possible between the gear
connections of the valve control shaft of an internal combustion engine and the ignition control
distributor drive shaft and the main shaft of the rotating mechanism since the operation of the
motor would then be impossible.

a - spur gear drive, b - bevel gear drive, c - worm gear

Classification of gear drives depending on the position of shafts

Operation of gear drives (transmission)

The torque (thrust) generated with relatively constant power by the internal combustion engine
may be increased by reducing the rotational speed with an appropriate reducer, to increase
the thrust of the vehicle. The lower the rotational speed, the greater the torque is. In case of
friction drives we saw that the rotational speed and the disc radiuses are in inverse
proportionality.
The same is experienced in gear drives so that if a larger gear is driven by a smaller one, then
the rotational speed of the driven gear decreases and its torque increases because the
diameter of the driven gear is greater, that is the lever arm of the force through which drive is
applied is greater. (M=F * k). In the event that the above modification is further increased by
another pair of gears, we can see that further decrease in rotational speed and increase in
torque is achieved. Composition in this case:

i = i1 2

All this is also seen on the operation diagram of an unsynchronised sliding gear.

54
Gears
Gears are machine components where connection is made on the circular pitch of the cog
profile which is also called pitch circle.
The direction of rotation of two meshing gears is opposite. Their rotational speed depends on
their diameter which also determines the transmission of the drive. The axle direction
projection of the tooth side is the tooth profile. The length of the circle on one tooth is called
circular pitch. The most important property of gears is module which is the diameter of the
circle on one tooth. Shaft distance is determined by the radius of the rolling circle. The above
geometric sizes are standardised so their number of teeth is also determined.
The profile may be:
straight,
slanted,
arched,
hypoid.

Characteristic sizes of gears are presented on the figure

1 - addendum diameter, 2 - pitch-circle diameter,

3 - root diameter, 4 - tooth width,
5 - top land, 6 - tooth profile, 7 - pitch
Characteristic sizes of gears

Gears are usually placed in closed housing which is called gear housing. The house is also
an oil tank which is not only practical for lubrication but also to reduce noise.

55
 0. Idling
Gearbox-driving
Fluted shaft shaft
Cardan shaft Engine

Cluster gear
Back-shaft

Gear I. Gear II.

Gear III. Gear IV.

Operation diagram of an unsynchronised sliding gear

There are reducers in gears I., II., and III. while the rotational speed of the driving and the
driven shafts is equal in gear IV. where the transmission i = 1.

Driven wheel

Transmission

Cardan shaft
Engine

Coupling
Differential

Driven wheel

Schematic of classic motor vehicle power transmission

56
10. Categorise the internal combustion engines. Talk about their general
structure. What fuel supply system do you know in case of diesel oil
powered engines?

According to operating principle:

Four-cycle engine (i=4) It performs one work cycle in four cycles while the main shaft turns
around twice.
Two-cycle engine (i=2) It performs one work cycle in two cycles while the main shaft turns
around once.

According to the inlet of fresh feed:

Suction engine. Fresh feed (air, air-fuel mixture) enters the engine work space (or the crank
house) from the environment only be the vacuum generated by the motion of the piston.
Charged engine. An engine is charged if the density of the fresh feed is increased in
comparison to the density of the gas entering the work space of the suction engine. An
engine is called charged up to 0.16 MPa charging pressure. Above that pressure it is
called overcharged.

According to the means of carburetion:

External carburetion engine. Engines where carburetion takes place mostly outside the
working space (in carburettor, suction pipe).
In case of internal carburetion engines, the fuel-air mix is produced in the working space.
Internal carburetion engines are the diesel engines.

According to the fuel used:

diesel engine,
gas engine (irrespective of the aggregate state of matter of the fuel in the tank but it is
normally gaseous.),
variable engine (engine that operates with two kinds of fuels which can be turned from
one fuel to the other without interruption).
dual (mixed) fuel engine (in which two different aggregate state of matter (e.g. gas and
fluid) fuels are used at the same time.
According to the type of ignition:
Compression ignition engine if the temperature increased above the ignition temperature due
to compression and autoignition took place.
External ignition (spark ignition) engine if the energy required to start burning is provided by
an external device (e.g. electric ignition).
According to opening and closing the working space and the its control:
Engine with valves where the channels serving for the exchange of gas feed are opened and
closed by valves. Closing generally takes place by springs.
Inlet port design An engine in which the work opening and closing of the inlet and outlet of the
work medium is performed by the piston of the engine or a separate rotating part (e.g.
rotating disc)

According to means of cooling:

air cooling
liquid cooling, thermosiphon, pump

Major engine parts, structures and materials

Three units of the major structural elements of the engine
engine block,
crank drive, and

57
 timing gear
Other units required for operation:
cooling system,
lubrication system,
fuel supply system and
electrical system.

1 cylinder head
2 block
3 water space
4 piston
5 piston gudgeon
pin
6 piston rod
7 crank shaft
8 timing shaft
9 hydraulic tappet
10 lever
11 balance
12 tappet adjuster
13 valve
14 rocker cover
15 oil sump
16 ignition plug
(Otto), burner (Diesel)

Major structural parts of the internal combustion engine

Materials of engines:
The crankshaft mechanism apart from the piston is made of steel alloys, the block, cylinder
head and piston are made from aluminium alloys and sliding bearings are made of tin and
lead bronzes.

Description of four cycles (piston and valve positions and description of processes in
each cycle).
Cycles in the space of the pistons: (engine stopped)

Movement of piston intake valve exhaust valve

intake downwards open closed

compression upwards closed closed
power downwards closed closed
exhaustion. Upwards closed open

Theory and methods of valve timing

Another important question of operation is precisely determining the opening and closing of

58
valves and the time of keeping them open. In classic engines there is one intake and one
exhaust valve built in the cylinder head for each piston which are moved by the timing
mechanism directly driven from the main shaft.
During one cycle, each valve by pistons must open and close once, consequently the camshaft
must turn once while the main shaft turns twice. So the drive mechanism between the main
shaft and the camshaft has a slowing gear. The mechanism applied may be a cogwheel, chain
or cogged belt drive.
There is an eccentric cam on the camshaft for each
valve, the geometry of which ensures the opening of
the valve and its size can be adjusted by the Power
component serving this purpose.
The valves are kept closed by a properly pre-tensioned
spring by pressing the valve stems to the eccentric
Intake
cam.
Valves must be opened and closed at the beginning Compression
and at the end of intake and exhaustion. Nevertheless
both valves must be closed during compression. The
fulfilment of the above conditions may be ensured on
the one hand by the construction of the camshaft Exhaustion

(sized angle deflection of the eccentric cam) and on

the other hand by the precise installation of the drive
mechanism between the camshaft and the main shaft. 20
The requirements of the valve timing is well presented
by the timing diagram of the Otto engine. This diagram 0
expresses the movement of valves by the angle of
rotation of the main shaft. Data on the diagram only
serve demonstration.
-
- ring
compression.
-
-
The intake valve opens somewhat before the exhaust valve is closed and this condition is
called rinsing or valve change.
Furthermore it can be seen on the pie chart that the spark appears at the end of compression,
before the piston arrives to the uppermost point. The difference of angles of the appearance
of the ignition spark and the completion of the compression cycle is called preignition angle.
A similar process works in diesel engines too, with the difference that a greater pre-injection
angle is calculated due to the longer delay of ignition.
The method of valve timing and the angles of valve movements depend on the construction
of the combustion chamber and the structure of the engine.

59
 a) sidevalve engine, b) overhead valve,
c) overhead camshaft.
Groups of valve timing solutions

Importance of valve gap

1. there is valve gap (gap closes) 2. there is no valve gap (valve does not close due to
expansion by heat)

Operation of diesel engines

The fuel of diesel oil is diesel oil. The rate of compression is higher in diesel engines since the
mixture is compressed to the upper limit of the compression tolerance of the fuel, until
autoignition.
If the autoignition takes place at an incorrect time (not at the uppermost position of the piston),
then the diesel engine is inoperable. This is the reason why diesel engines are more difficult
to start when cold.
This is why diesel engines are very sensitive to the start of injection (intake) and the quality
(homogeneity) of carburetion.
Due to operation at constant autoignition temperature, diesel engines require more intense
cooling and better heat release.
Due to the time demand of autoignition and the greater mass force, diesel engines can achieve
lower rotational speeds, but their efficiency (energy conversion capacity) and therefore their
specific fuel consumption is better. So in this aspect they are more economical but their fuel
supply and injection system is more complex and expensive.
Diesel engines are internal carburetion engines since the diesel engine takes in clear air to
the cylinder space and the fuel is injected afterwards. So the mixture capable of autoignition
must be formed inside the cylinder. The diesel engine is also characterised by excess heat.
The better the excess heat factor is, the more perfect the combustion is process in the cylinder.
The excess heat factor is the temperature value representing the difference between the
temperature of the compressed air and the autoignition temperature of the injected fuel.

60
 -35 bar, then the autoignition temperature of the fuel
decreases to 200, but the temperature of the compressed air i

If the diesel engine runs with great excess heat, not only combustion will be more perfect but
the autoignition delay is also reduced, thus the injection position (pre-injection) of the diesel
engine must only be adjusted at optimal operating temperature.
In order that perfect combustion takes place in the cylinder space, the injection must take
place a few cycle percentages before the piston arrives to the uppermost position. Equivalent
adjustment in each cylinder is only possible in a professional workshop with the appropriate
tools.

Fuel supply system of diesel engines (conventional)

low pressure system (2 bar)
fuel tank
fuel filters
pipes
fuel pump
high pressure system (110-250 bar)
dosage pump
head valve
high pressure pipes
injector

Comprehensive diagram of the fuel system of diesel engines

1. fuel tank, 2.4.6. low pressure fuel pipe, 3. fuel pump, 5. fuel filter, 7. head valve, 8. feeder,
9. high pressure fuel pipe, 10. injector, 11. leak-off pipe

Piston fuel pumps are used in diesel engines which is driven by the camshaft of the dosage
pump.
The dosage pump is responsible to deliver the amount of fuel proportionate to the load of the
engine to the high pressure air in the cylinder of the engine. Furthermore, it ensures the
pressure required for injection and the time of injection and properly controls the rotational
speed (idle running, prevention of excess rotational speed).
Fuel (usually diesel oil) must be injected to the combustion space of diesel engines at very
high pressure. The classic injector (dosage) pumps produced the required pressure of 80-200

61
bar by finely adjusted steel pistons. The figure shows the gear rack
mechanism with which the dosage piston may be turned in order to

the figure on the right. The gear rack mechanism is naturally in

connection with the accelerator pedal via different rods.

Geometrical
cycle

Fuel supply of modern diesel engines

CR Common Rail system (CDI)
The fuel supply system of modern diesel engines allows for electronically controlled injection.
The most frequently used electronic diesel injection systems are the common rail and the PO
injection (dosage injector). In these the injection pressure of diesel oil may reach 1600-2100
bar.

1. first pump, 2. high pressure pump, 3. pressure regulator, 4. injector (by cylinder)

ECU electronic control unit

62
Charged engine: TD = Turbodiesel
Exhaust gases leave the cylinder at pressures higher than atmospheric pressure, driving the
gas turbine connected to the exhaust pipe. The compressor mounted on the gas turbine shaft
compresses the air so higher air mass is delivered to the same cylinder volume: more fuel can
be added to it. The capacity of the engine increases on the same revolution per minute: the
torque of the engine increases.

Necessity of rotational speed control and solutions

If the load of the engine becomes smaller for some reason (e.g. driving down a slope)
than the performance of the engine delivered, the excess will accelerate the engine:
the revolution of the engine increases and this would increase fuel injection too which
further accelerates the engine. Moreover, the increased amount of fuel cannot be

Rotational speed control may be:

mechanical (centrifugal/fly-ball) using the centrifugal force on rotating masses.
pneumatic (vacuum) using the change of pressure in the intake pipe of the engine
hydraulic: by oil pressure changed according to the revolutions per minute
modern engines: electronic control

Mechanical (centrifugal/fly-ball) control:

Manual or foot pedal

Dosing for the gear rack

Fly-balls

Motor
shaft

If the load changes during the operation of the engine, the rotational speed would exceed the
idle or the maximum value and it is balanced by the regulator by changing the amount of
injected fuel automatically. If the change of rotational speed occurs between the two
tolerances, it can be balanced by the driver with the accelerator.

63
11. What fuel supply systems do you know in case of petrol engines? Talk about
gas fuelled engines.

Describe the Otto engine

The Otto engine is fuelled by petrol. The Otto engine is characterised by external carburetion
i.e. the proper fuel-air mix is produced outside the cylinder space by increasing the velocity of
the air in the suction pipe (so called drag force) and installing the injector. The mixture with
lower compression tolerance due to the chemical property of the fuel is compressed by the
piston in a relatively larger compression chamber. Consequently, the mechanical and heat
loads upon combustion are lower.
Another important difference between the operation of the Otto and the diesel engine is that
there is no autoignition, combustion is generated by n electric ignition spark. So shorter ignition
delay (shorter preignition) must be calculated than in diesel engines. Therefore, Otto engines
work at higher rotational speeds.
The Otto engine is also characterised by air excess factor. The current performance of the
Otto engine is determined by the mixture the composition of which can be changed. A specific
amount of air is needed for the economically combustible amount of petrol.
Theoretically approx. 15 litres of pure air is needed to burn 1 litre of fuel (petrol). The rate of
fuel and air in this case is 1:15. The air excess factor of such theoretical mixture is = 1 ( -
lambda).
In reality, however the amount of the mixture taken in is constantly changing according to the
operating conditions of the engine. In case of higher performance demand, a richer mixture
= 0.9 (mixture rate is 1:13.5), while in case of lower performance, a poorer mixture = 1.1
(1:16.5) is needed.

Fuel supply systems of petrol engines

pedal signal
accelerator
air air
from
carburettor injector
accelerator
pedal
petrol-air mix
electronic control
unit

petrol petrol
fuel pump

air
spark plug

injectors

electronic control
unit
injector

petrol
piston

Structure and elements of the carburettor system:

fuel tank,
pipes,
fuel filter,
fuel pump,
carburettor (injector).

64
The fuel pump delivers the amount of fuel to the float chamber of the carburettor that is
consumed by the engine. Usually membrane pumps driven by the cam mounted on the
camshaft of the engine.
The carburettor mixes the finely carburetted, evenly distributed fuel to the air taken into the
engine in the appropriate rate and constantly produce the mixture for perfect combustion.

Structure of the injection system

1 - tank, 2 - sediment filter, 3 - fuel pump, 4 - float chamber, 5 - cam,
6 nozzle, 7 air intake, 8 throttle

Suction channel injection (central injection)

Early, or conventional injection systems had two groups based on throttle house or suction
pipe type. In case of a central injector placed in the throttle house, fuel is carburetted into the
intake cast like in case of carburettors. These systems were relatively cheap to produce but
they did not lack some of the negative features of the carburettor solution. Fuel had to travel
together with air through the entire suction piece so it had to have a very simple design. Only
a few curve in the intake channels and some of the fuel was immediately condensed on its
wall and precipitated from the petrol/air mix. The petrol/air rate of the mix in the individual
cylinders could be different due to the differently shaped channels by each cylinder. Injection
pressure 3, 5 bar.
Suction pipe injection (injection by cylinders)
The injectors in the suction pipe inject fuel in the suction pipe section just before the intake
valves in the cylinder head. This allowed engineers to design the air intake pipe in any length
and form. And this allowed to improve the charging efficiency of the cylinders, i.e. the
performance and fuel saving figures are better. Injection pressure 15 bar.
Direct injection
In case of direct injection, the injectors inject fuel directly into the cylinders instead of the intake
pipe like in the more traditional intake pipe injection systems. This means only a little change
in the position of injectors but this step greatly reduces the surfaces which may be contacted
by fuel before ignition. Injection pressure 40, 50 bar.

65
 Direct injection

Fuel supply system of gas engines

The fuel of gas fuelled engines is propane or butane gas or the mixture of these two.
A significant advantage of gas fuel is that it is cheaper and increases the life of the engine.
The lower combustion speed of liquidised gas to that of petrol ensures perfect combustion so
there is no soot residue on the parts of the engine (pistons, spark plugs, etc.). The exhaust
gases of gas fuelled engines contain hardly any harmful pollutants.

special equipment of gas fuelled engines

1 - gas tank, 2 - safety valve, 3 - level gauge, 4 - safety valve, 5 - start button, 6 -
magnetic switch, 7 - evaporator, 8 - carburettor, 9 - engine, 10 - ignition switch

There is a safety valve on the 30-35 bar pressure gas tank, which automatically opens and
releases the gas in case the pressure in the tank increases (e.g. due to heat). The level gauge
shows the amount of gas in the tank. The safety valve closes the discharge pipe in case of
increasing amount of gas escaping due to defective sealing.
The engine starts by pressing the start button which controls the start magnetic switch which
released gas from the evaporator to the special carburettor. This amount is sufficient to start
the engine. After starting, the vacuum generated in the cylinders starts the continuous supply
of gas.

66
21. Talk about the cooling, lubrication and filter systems of internal combustion
engines. What materials are used in these systems? What tasks does the
operator have in relation with the individual systems?

Cooling of engines
During the operation of engines, the excessive heat may be harmful because the lubricating
oil burns and parts get stuck because of heat expansion. However, low temperature may also
damage the engine. The fuel in the cold engine condenses on the cylinder wall and less of the
heat generated can be used for mechanical work.
Cooling transmits the excess heat of parts (piston, cylinder, cylinder head, turbo charger
working with exhaust gas) and the motor oil heated by the combustion process to the
environment.
Due to the limited heat resistance of structural material and the lubricating oil, the heat must
be released. 25-30% of the heat energy released upon burning fuel is lost by this in terms of
the drive of the vehicle.

Cooling methods and coolants

and economic for the operation of the engine by releasing the excess heat damaging the
engine. Cooling methods used on engines:
air cooling
liquid cooling.

Air cooling
In air cooling, the parts of the engine transmit the excess heat directly to the surrounding air
flowing around them. Cylinders and cylinder heads are usually cast from light metal alloys due
to their good heat conduction. The effective cooling surface is increased by cooling fins to
achieve better heat loss. The radiation of black cooling fins is greater.
Air cooling methods used:
wind cooling
fan cooling
Wind cooling
It is the most simple way of air cooling which is usually used on motorbikes because the
uncovered motors are in direct contact with the air. For the best possible cooling there are
cooling fins on the cylinder, the cylinder head and often even on the bonnet. Wind heating
however in uneven because it greatly depends on moving speed and air temperature.
Fan cooling
This cooling method allows for the sufficient forced cooling of covered engines. So these can
be installed in plant machinery, cars or vans. In turbine (air blast) cooling, the cooling air
delivered by the turbine is directed on the cylinders by plates and pipes. It is particularly
important in case of engines with more than one cylinder that the cylinder in the back should
also get sufficient cooling air.

Liquid cooling (water cooling)

The cylinder block and cylinder head of engines with liquid cooling are double-walled. The
space between the two walls is filled with a coolant, e.g. water and there is a coolant-circle
during operation by design.
Based on this, the heating systems may be:
thermosyphon and
pump systems.
Thermosyphon cooling
The cooling liquid of the engine is connected to the cooler in two points - one at the bottom
and one at the top. The cooling liquid gets hot in the water space of the engine and cools down

67
in the cooler. The fan driven by the engine, which draws air through the cooler, facilitates
cooling. The circulation between the cooler and the cooling space of the engine is based on
the physical phenomenon that a warmer liquid is lighter than a colder liquid. This difference of
density is the driving force keeping the coolant in constant circulation.
The circulation of the coolant is only possible if the cooling space is completely filled.
Otherwise there is no circulation, the liquid boils and the engine becomes overheated soon.
Pumped liquid (water) cooling
Pumped cooling liquid differs from thermosyphon cooling so that the cooling liquid is circulated
by a pump. The cooling water is kept constantly circulating by a water pump. Its advantage to
thermosyphon cooling is that the circulating speed of water is higher, therefore it provides
more effective cooling. Another advantage is that the cooler is smaller, it requires less water
and narrower pipes are sufficient. The coolant circulates even if the water level is somewhat
lower than the mouth of the upper connecting pipe because the pump can get the water
through.
The water pump is usually a centrifugal pump. Its blades may be straight, bent forward or
backward in the direction of rotation. The water flows into the pump housing in the centre at
the shaft and leaves at the boundary tangentially.

thermostat

pump

Principle of pump water cooling

temperature-display

capacity tank
thermostat heating
temperature switch and
sensor

electric
motor

cooling liquid pump

cooling air

fan

68
The pump is usually on the same shaft with the fan and is driven by a belt. The tension of the
belt must be taken care of. The pump housing and the shaft in particular must be sealed
carefully. Sealing may be felt or a sealing ring (simmering). Good sealing is very important
because leaking water may ruin the bearings sooner.
The fan makes the appropriate amount of cooling air flow through the cooler and the engine.
If the airflow is not sufficient when the vehicle is moving slowly or is stopped. So an electric
motor driven fan is used.
The cooling liquid is a mixture of low hardness, deionized (distilled) water, antifreeze
compound, anticorrosion agent and lubricant (for the heating valve). The cooling liquid should
be free of contaminants if possible because lime, dust and grease reduce heat conducting
capacity and the pipes and channels may become clogged too. Before the beginning of the
old season the antifreeze compound must be set so that the water does not freeze and does
not damage the engine block, the cylinder head, the water pump and the cooler. The rate
determining freezing point may be different in different, usually glycol-baaed antifreeze
compounds: e.g. 5 parts water and 4 pars antifreeze compound results in -
point.
The mixing rate and the freezing point may be determined by an aerometer. The basis of
measurement is density, which depends on the mixing rate. Since density also depends on
the temperature of the liquid, there is also a thermometer on the measurement device. The
antifreeze compound may be left in the heating system in the hot season.
The thermostat ensures in the heating liquid circuit that the engine quickly reaches its
operating temperature and maintains it with little deviation. The thermostat is installed in the
coolant connection of the engine or the upper cooling water pipe.

Maintenance of cooler systems

The irregular operation of the cooling system may be caused by:
loose or torn belt,
defective fan,
leaking thermostat or stuck thermostat valve,
low coolant level,
defective water pump,
elastic pipes are defective,
cooler got clogged or too much scale,
cooler cover is let closed.

The cooler covers are always placed in front of the radiators on plant machinery and the
operator can open and close them depending on the temperature of the coolant.
Not a defect of the cooler but may cause irregular cooling:
cylinder head sealing defective,
cylinder head cracked,
engine permanently overloaded.
If the belt is loose, it must be tensioned by the tensioner. Replace the torn belt. Check the
evenness of belt discs when replacing the belt.
The fan blade may be made as one piece with the centre or riveted on it. In case of broken
blade either replace the whole unit or rivet a new blade on the centre.
The fastening of blades must be regularly checked. When installing the shaft bearing of the
fan (in case of shared shaft with the water pump), do not forget to replace the simmerings
either.
The inspection of the thermostat includes dissolving scale and checking its operation. This is
usually performed when the scale is dissolved from the cooler. If the coolant level is low, fill it
up.
The most common defect of the water pump is the wear of the sealing and the bearings. The
problem is most simply repaired by replacing them. Packing box must be fastened regularly.

69
After installing the elastic hoses, there must be no leakage or dripping.
Its external surface can be cleaned from contamination by high-pressure water and then blown
by compressed air.
The cover of the cooler must not be removed if the water has boiled because the escaping
water may cause an accident.
Air cooling systems are easy to handle. Oil, dust, dirt accumulating between the cooling fins
must be removed by high pressure water.
A loose belt slips, the air fan does not deliver enough air due to the low rotational speed, the
engine gets overheated and the belt goes wrong. Take care of observing tension of the belt.

Major functions of the lubricating system of engines

Engines are complex major structural units of tactors, plant machinery and cars. Under
operating conditions, event the simplest components are under complex stress. In addition to
strength stress, they are usually exposed wear, heat and chemical impacts.
The sliding and rolling surfaces of the engines produced by the most careful manufacturing
technology are not perfectly smooth. The micro-roughness on them grasp into each other,
hindering motion. This is the phenomenon of friction between machine components.
Friction may be reduced: by use of better quality materials, finer-machined surfaces, use of
sliding or rolling bearings and the lubrication of surfaces. The following are differentiated:
dry friction,
fluid friction and
semi-liquid friction, constituting a transition between the two.
many points of few points of
contact contact

shaft
shaft

bearing oil film oil film

bearing

oil film

shaft

bearing

fluid friction

Forms of friction

Dry friction (friction between solid bodies) is when the parts sliding on each other are in direct
contact. Due to the deformation of protrusions, there is great increase of temperature; parts
are bound to each other friction welding) and then they break apart again. This constantly
repeating process is called binding. It causes significant wear and strong warming.
There are materials that slide well on each other with little friction and others that slide bad
with great friction. Therefore the sliding bearings of steel shafts are made from copper or
aluminium alloys or tin and lead alloys (white metals). Cast iron bearings (e.g. timing shaft
bearings, valve guide) also have good sliding features. Sufficient lubrication must be provided
to avoid the consequences of dry friction.
Mixed friction occurs when there is occasional metal contact in spite of lubrication because
the continuous oil film has not been formed yet, e.g. when starting, or in case of periodically
changing movement direction.

70
Fluid friction occurs when e.g. the oil film on the bearing metal and the shaft perfectly separate
the two sliding surfaces from each other. In such case, friction only occurs in the liquid. This
friction however is very little and the wear and warming of the bearing is also little. The
continuous layer of oil is called an oil film.
During the rotation of the shaft it takes the oil in the direction of rotation. Consequently an oil
wedge is created under the shaft which lifts the shaft.
Oils and greases are used to lubricate parts.
Requirements of lubricants are the following:
Lubricating oils
good viscosity
low chill point
no foaming
must contain few solid products
must not cause corrosion

Lubricating greases
adequate drip point
good adhesion
must endure operating temperature
water resistance
decomposition strength
reversibility

Impacts on lubricating oils

Lubricating oils used in the engine are exposed to extremely high thermal, chemical and
mechanical impacts. As a result of aging arising from this and by increasing contamination,
the lubricity of the oil gradually decreases.

Major functions of engine lubricating systems

lubrication, reducing the friction between parts sliding on each other causing loss of
energy and wear;
cooling, protection of parts of the engine against overheating which cannot transmit
their heat directly to the coolant or the cooling air;
sealing, providing fine sealing between parts sliding on each other (e.g. piston ring and
cylinder wall);
cleaning, taking residues and combustion remains or binding these not damaging the
engine;
protection against corrosion
reducing engine noise, since the lubricating film also works as noise and vibration
reducer.

Structure of the lubricating system of engine

Oil is transmitted by a pump from the tank usually from the oil sump through the oil filter to
the large number of points of lubrication in the engine. Dangerous increase of oil pressure
(particularly upon cold start due to densely flowing oil) is prevented by the overpressure limiter
valve. Oil drips back to the oil sump from the points of lubrication. Most important points of
lubrication: crank shaft bearings, piston rod bearings, piston pin beds, cam followers, timing
shaft bearings, cam follower rods, lifters, timing chain, chain tensioner, timer shaft drive,
cylinders.
The amount of oil in the oil tank is measured by a dipstick.

Pump pressure lubrication

71
 valve lever shaft
fine filter

timing shaft

filter
crank shaft

main channel

filter by-
pass valve
manometer
safety valve
pressure adjuster
valve
first filter

Lubrication system of modern tractors and car engines. The essence of its operation is that
the pump delivers oil from the oil sump installed at the bottom of the crank house through the
filter and presses it through the pipe and boreholes to the lubricating points. Filters and in
some cases an oil cooler in the returning branch are installed in the flow of oil.

Valves of pressure lubrication

The function of valves is to regulate pressure and to make it possible to by-pass the filter and
the oil cooler.
by-pass valve
engine
manometer

filter

by-pass valve

pump

oil cooler oil sump

Valve positions of pressure lubrication

The safety valve is in the pressure branch of the pump, close to the pump. In case of a clogged
pressure pipe, it opens at approx. 8-10 bar pressure and lets the lubricating oil return to the
oil sump.
The oil cooler by-pass valve usually opens at 1.5-2.5 bar pressure difference. Upon cold start
of engine or when the resistance of the cooler is great, the lubricating oil flows to the main
filter through the by-pass valve.
The oil filter by-pass valve at the main oil circuit filters are installed in the filter housing or on
the filter element. Before the filter is clogged, the valve opens at 2.5-3.0 bar pressure
difference and lets lubricating oil to the lubricating points.
The oil pressure regulator valve maintains nearly constant pressure in the system (3-5 bar).
When the oil pressure reaches the set value of the valve, the valve opens and the excess oil
is released back to the oil sump. Oil pressure can be limited by setting the valve.

72
The oil filter
Oil filters are installed to prevent untimely deterioration caused by the mechanical
contamination (soot, metal particles, dust). The usually also improve the cooling of the engine.
The filter may be connected to the lubrication system:
in the main circuit (serial),
in a side circuit (parallel)
Main circuit filters are used most frequently because the entire amount of oil flows through the
filter in such systems ant thus it arrives to the points of lubrication after filtration. The by-pass
valve installed before the main circuit filter ensures that in case of a clogged filter, the oil can
get to the points of lubrication without filtration through the oil by-pass pipe. This by-pass valve
is often installed in the oil filter.
In auxiliary circuit filters, only part of the forwarded amount of oil gets through because the
filter is in a parallel branch to the main circuit (in a side circuit). Thus, contaminated oil may
get to the points of lubrication. The fineness of the filter may be increased however. The
cleaning of the oil is slower but stronger. Since only part of the oil flows through the side
branch, no by-pass valve is needed. A clogged filter cannot cause lack of oil in the points of
lubrication. The entire amount of oil is driven through the side branch filter by the pump 6-8
times in one hour of operation. Side circuit filters are usually made from star-like folded filter
paper (great surface).
Using combined main circuit and side circuit filters, the oil can be filtrated quickly and
thoroughly. In such case, a by-pass filter is still needed in the main circuit filter.
Filter types used for the filtration of lubricating oil:
comb filter,
screen insert filter,
fine filter,
disposable filter,
centrifugal jet filter

The disposable filter is a lubricating oil fine filter. It is made of a pressure resistant steel case
where the filtrating element is made of impregnated paper or a special fibre structure material
folded in a star-like shape. For safety, a by-pass valve is also installed, opening at 2 bar.

Pressure gauges
The oil pressure can be read on the pressure gauge at all times. The oil pressure indicator
light usually turns on only if the oil pressure is too low. The overpressure valve installed after
the oil pump prevents too high (5 bar) pressure. High oil pressure does not always mean good
lubrication. Too high oil pressure endangers sealings, oil pipes and the hoses leading to the
oil cooler and the oil filter. E.g. in case of cold engine, lubrication is worse in spite of the high
oil pressure than with the lower pressure of a hot engine.
Oil pressure is also high in case of a clogged oil pipe or filter but lubrication is still bad. Oil
pressure is usually satisfactory if the oil pressure gauge shows 1 bar pressure in case of an
idle running engine at operating temperature or the oil pressure indicator light turns off at

73
medium rotational speed the latest. If the oil gauge does not show any pressure with a running
engine, or the indicator light is continuously on, then the engine must be stopped immediately
to prevent damage to it.

Maintenance of the lubrication system

The most basic maintenance of the system consists of checking the oil level and replacement
of oil after the prescribed number of operating hours.
In case of sudden decrease of oil level, one must suspect the defect of the lubrication system.
Oil leakage can be detected visually and must be stopped immediately. The most frequent
reason for it is the worn seal of the oil drain screw. This must be replaced and the screw must
be carefully fastened.
Another defect may be the loosened fastening screws of the oil sump. They must be fastened
diagonally.
Special care must be taken to the screws next to the balance wheel which may only be
fastened to the prescribed torque by a torque wrench. Failing to do so, the simmering gets
damaged and sealing goes wrong.
Cracks of copper or drawn steel pipes may cause leakage, they must be replaced.
Wear of the engine (e.g. defect of piston rings or valve guides) causes decrease of oil level.
The engine must always be filled with the quality of oil prescribed by the manufacturer.
Operating conditions and permanent overloading also influence oil consumption.

74
12. What tasks does the operator have before starting work in connection with
the working area? Talk about making records in the machine logbook.

Rules of surveying the work area

Surveying and identifying the public utility system of the work area according to maps,
indicating the locations of these in order to prevent damaging public utilities.
Surveying the soil conditions of the work area, required abutments and construction of
appropriate road surface taking weather conditions into account.
Obtaining information and discussions about the tasks to be performed and the
conditions. What local conditions must be observed for safe work?

Securing work area

The borders of the operating area must be signed.
In public spaces: the area must be closed from traffic and fenced or indicated by rails
or tapes if necessary. Providing signalling tools to traffic control personnel.
The following must be determined:
traffic signs and control equipment to be installed;
supplemental safety equipment and measures (e.g. drive cut out or locking),
traffic control or diversion,
use of protective cover.
If t is justified, the movement area and protrusion of the lifting machine must be limited
or electrically locked in the opposite direction to exclude the possibility of endangering
public areas.
In workplaces where the nature of risks justify, health and safety signs must be used
to protect employees and persons attending the impact area of work. The detailed
rules of this is set out by the minister in charge for employment.

Determining and preparing the place of load and putting load down.
the load-bearing capacity of the accommodating surface meets the unit load or stack
of loads to be put thereon.
No load shall be placed on banned areas (transport roads, in front of door exists,
staircases and fire hydrants, etc.)
the area is prepared for accommodating the load and is suitable for unloading;
After the load is put down, the fire protection regulations relevant to the given storage
area must be adhered to.

Assigning transport and material handling routes

Transport routes must be clearly indicated on the work site according to the relevant
provisions set out by legal regulations, taking the work equipment into account as well.
Roads leading to the work site and transport roads open for vehicle traffic must be set
so that they have sufficient load-bearing capacity and are wide enough for the traffic
and transport conducted on them and are free from potholes.
The width of traffic roads and the ground clearance shall allow the safe traffic of
vehicles and pedestrians as well as safe working in the vicinity of traffic roads and
tracks.
Access to the work site must be solved if it can only be ensured by bridging difference
of levels so that it fulfils the requirements of safe transportation.
Transport routes must be smooth and non-slipping, no object may protrude into it so
that it would threaten the safety of material handling. Widths and heights of material
handling routes are determined by the dimensions of the object to be transported.
Working areas and transport roads must be free from litter, debris and remaining
building materials.

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 Transport routes may not be used for storing materials even temporarily and it must
be clearly indicated by rails, tapes, painting, etc.

Description of plant machinery logbook, making records

The result of the shift inspection conducted, the maintenance performed and the daily work
performance data must be recorded in the machine logbook.

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13. What pressure fluids can be used in hydraulic equipment? Talk about the
power supply part of hydraulic systems.

Advantageous and disadvantageous properties of water, emulsion and hydraulic oils:

The essence of hydraulic power transmission is that the performance generated is delivered
to the working components by a fluid. There are innumerable fluids with the appropriate
properties, they are incompressible and fill the available space, etc. Nevertheless, we can say
-based hydraulic oil.
Hydraulic oil is a mineral oil derivative obtained from crude oil through distillation. It is the
pressure medium of the vast majority of hydraulic machines.
The production cost of synthetic fluids (artificially manufactured fluid) is very high, so it is used
in exceptional cases for its special properties.

Requirements of hydraulic fluids are the following:

energy transmission,
lubrication of moving parts,
heat conduction,
chemically neutral effect,
water repellency,
no air absorption,
no health threatening impact,
free from mechanical contaminants,
lowest possible chill point,
lowest possible viscosity factor.

Components of hydraulic fluid

Hydraulic oil consists of a base oil (refined mineral oil) and additives.
The small amounts of additives added to the base oil provide the preferrable properties of the
oil, e.g.
antifoam agent reducing the foaming of the oil,
anti-wear additive improving lubrication properties,
anti-oxidant reducing the wear (ageing) of the oil, or
anti-corrosive additive improving chemical property against metals.
Hydraulic oils arc categorised according to the additives of the base oil which categorisation
is called the performance level referring to the oil.
Viscosity is the most characteristic property of the oil which must always be taken into account
when selecting the oil.
What does viscosity mean? There are several definitions, but the most expressive one is:
the internal friction of a fluid, to put it more simply, the fluidity of the fluid.
If there is little friction between the oil particles, it flows more easily, because it has low
viscosity. Lower performance is needed to keep it circulating so it seems to be more favourable
at first sight.
Viscosity however does not only influence flowing properties but also greatly affects the
lubrication and internal sealing of the system. lubrication problems might occur. Using higher
viscosity oil results in better internal sealing.
All these show, that choosing the correct viscosity of the oil is an extremely important issue.

It is important to pay attention to the following during operation:

in low temperatures, after starting the system, the hydraulic oil must be preheated by
circulating in the unloaded status of the machine. Chilled, hardly flowing oil cannot
access the gaps between parts and lubrication fails.
Overheated oil always indicates a defect of the system. In such case the machine and

77
 its drive must be stopped immediately. Otherwise the fast abrasion of the oil is
expectable and damage to sealing. Low-viscosity oil is not applicable for durable
lubricating films.

Environment protection
Hydraulic oils are hazardous materials, and used oil is also categorised as hazardous waste.
Accordingly, the legal regulations relevant to these materials must be strictly observed.

Benefits of hydraulic energy transmission

Great forces and torques can be transmitted with small structural size and weight so
power density is high.
Speed of movement and the magnitude of force can be controlled continuously.
Fast and special, slow movements can be reliably implemented with it.

General structure and components of hydrostatic systems:

Power supply:
pump, oil cooler control units
oil tank, oil tank working cylinders

oil cooler,
oil filter,
pipes,
hydroaccumulator.
Control (valves):
determining flow route,
adjusting quantity,
adjusting pressure.
Execution:
working cylinder,
hydrostatic motor, pump pipes

angular rotation consumers. Hydrostatic system

The power supply part ensures the supply of
properly prepared (proper temperature, clarity
and energy content) pressure fluid required for the operation of the system.
The control part sets the pressure and quantity values according to the operating parameters
and delivers the flowing fluid to the executing unit depending on the operation. The elements
of overload protection also belong here.
The executive part converts the energy of the torque to moving force, i.e. straight, rotating or
angular rotation motion, executing the working (lifting, dumper, turning, moving) functions of
the machine.

Components of the power supply unit:

Material, design and parts of tanks.
The primary function of the tank in the hydraulic system is to provide the availability of the
appropriate amount of hydraulic fluid at all times, closed from contaminants. Its secondary
function is to conduct waste heat when no cooler is installed in the system.

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 1. oil inlet, 2. return pipe, 3. cleaning hole, 4. intake pipe, 5. oil gauge, 6. oil drain screw.

Types, structure and operation of pumps.

The pump of the hydraulic equipment converts the mechanical energy of the driving engine to
hydraulic energy. The pump delivers the oil it takes in to the pipe system. The function of
hydraulic pumps is to convert mechanical energy to hydraulic energy, torque to pressure and
rotational speed to volume flow.

Classification of pumps according to operating principle:

constant and variable volume,
one or two flow direction

Classification according to structure

rotating energy converter
gear,
worm and sector,
rotary-vane.
piston energy converters

serial piston,
radial piston,
axial piston.
Hydraulic energy converters work by the principle of displacement without exception but they
have different parameters.

79
 figure 4 Operation of external cog gear pump

external cog gear pump internal cog gear pump annular gear pump

rotary-vane pump radial piston pump axial piston pump (slanted

shaft)

figure 5: Pump designs

Properties of pipes and hoses

Components of the hydraulic system are interconnected by pipes. These may be rigid or
flexible. The hydraulic connection between the moving units of the machine is ensured by
hoses. Automatically closing quick connectors are used to connect these. In connected
position, the lines of balls elevate each other from the nest and let the fluid flow. After
disconnecting, the balls are tensioned on the nest by spring force, preventing the leakage of

80
the fluid and contaminants entering the hydraulic system.
Structure of hose:
the internal hose is synthetic rubber
the lining is metal mesh and textile
wear resistant external rubber layer for mechanical protection

Sizes and position of filters.

Filters play an important role in the safe operability and life cycle of
function is to clean the fluid during operation from potential mechanical contaminants. The
filter can be installed in the pressure and the return pipe as well. It is usually connected to the
return pipe. It causes resistance and decrease of pressure in the flow of the fluid. Filters need
to be replaced or cleaned after a specific number of operating hours. Replacement or cleaning
the filters conducted untimely or carelessly may cause severe technical problems or material
damage.
According to operating principle, filters may be:
surface filters (membranes)
absorber filters (edge filters)
magnetic filters (centrifugal)
The filter can be characterised by the following parameters:
pressure difference allowed on the filter
rate of filtration and
nominal size - delivery of the filter
Different values may serve to indicate rate of filtration, mainly the absolute rate is given.
RETURN BRANCH FILTER

1. flange
2. filter housing
3. cover
4. catch pan
5. filter cartridge
6. sealing components

Operation of coolers
Cooling ensures the operating temperature of the fluid since the waste heat generated by fluid
friction must be released. The hydraulic cooler is installed in the return pipe but it may also be
placed in a pipe parallel to the pressure pipe. The cooler transmits the heat to the air in the
environment. The cooling surface can be reduced if a greater airflow is generated by a fan on
the surface of the cooler fins.

81
14. What extreme weather conditions do you know? Please talk about operating
machines under extreme weather conditions!

Operation under extreme temperature conditions:

In severe cold weather, it takes longer for internal combustion engines to reach and maintain
the operating temperature. This results in increased wear, because lubrication is imperfect in
a cold engine. These negative effects can be mitigated in several ways.
An oil heater is built in the lubricating system, and the oil is heated up to operating
temperature before the engine is started.
A pre-heater is built in the water cooling system.
Radiator cover is applied.

Operation of machines in heavy rainfall or snowfall:

If, due to heavy snowfall, fog or other weather or environmental conditions, the load cannot be
monitored over the entire transportation process, or the control signals cannot be clearly
identified, then the machine has to be stopped.

Negative and hazardous impacts of wind:

When a machine is operated outdoors, it can be exposed to a wind speed of up to 18
m/s, unless the manufacturer specifies otherwise in the user manual, operation manual
of the machine, or the installation technology prescribes a lower limit.
When the plant or regional wind forecast makes it necessary, the lifting machine shall
be stopped so that the required safety measures can be taken before the wind speed
reaches the allowable top limit.
For lifting machines exposed to wind, it shall be ensured that the machine is fastened
and secured against the moving or damaging effects of a potentially rising wind when
the machine is out of order.

Storage of machines under such circumstances:

When conditions permit, store the machines in a garage or indoor space. If storing normally
outdoors, effective anti-corrosion measures shall be taken.
When storing outdoors, the pre-heating described above is of higher importance.

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15. Talk about the control units of hydraulic systems. What safety elements are
found in a hydraulic system?

The control part in the hydraulic system sets the pressure and quantity values according to
the operating parameters and delivers the flowing fluid to the executing unit depending on the
operation. The elements of overload protection also belong here.

Types and operation of path determining elements

The different types of routers are used to determine the direction of flow. There are two widely
known types, the router valves and the non-return valves: Router valves help direct or change
the flow of fluid according to the target (e.g. direction of motion or rotation). Their switching
element is a flanged slide-valve or a turning bore-cylinder The bidirectional router lets the fluid
through in one position and closes the route of the fluid in the other. The third position of three-
position routers is usually a neutral position. In spite of the precise fitting, there is leakage and
pressure loss in routers. The non-return valve makes the flow of fluid possible in one direction
while preventing the flow in the other direction. According to the closing piece, ball, cone and
thimble non-return valves are differentiated.
Routers are indicated irrespectively of their design by the number of flow routes (channel,
connection point) and operating positions. Accordingly a four-channel, two-position router
tching positions: 2, 3,
(4 - position four is usually the floating position). The router valves may be sliding or ball types
according to the moving component. The most common type is the sliding valve which may
be proportional or discrete in terms of operation. In discrete operation no control is possible
between the different switching positions. In proportional valves, the changing can almost
always be continuous 3/2 router

Elements determining amounts, their design and function:

The flow controllers in the hydraulic system control the amount of fluid flowing through the
system in a given period of time therefore they are also called flow control valves. Flow control
is required in the hydraulic system if the operating speed of a working unit (hydraulic motor or
working cylinder) must be reduced or kept at a constant rate or the speed of several working
units must be harmonised.

Major types of flow controllers

The simplest choking is a narrow opening insert built in a hydraulic system. It is suitable for
constant choking. In an adjustable choking valve, the size of the opening can be changed with
a screw spindle and thus the speed of the working unit through changing the flow rate. The
closing body may have different forms: cone, needle, cylinder, sliding, etc. The choker cannot
precisely control the flow rate because the flowing amount does not evenly change together
with the drop of pressure at the choking.

83
 The choker depends on constant viscosity. The diaphragm valve is independent from
viscosity.

Choker adjustable Diaphragm adjustable

The check valve is used where the operating speed of the working unit must be kept constant.
Therefore it is also called a feed control valves. The check valve is the combination of a choker
and a pressure reducer. It can be prepared for constant or adjustable output flow rate. There
are two- and three-way check valves.

Flow distributors are used if the operating speed of two or more working units must be kept at
the same level or in a specific ratio. In case of parallel connection of working units, they can
only operate through flow distributors, otherwise the differential effect occurs and the engine
under greater load will stop.

Choker non-return valve

Types and operation of pressure control elements

Pressure controllers are suitable to control the pressure of the hydraulic system. They may

84
have the following function:
pressure limiter,
order controller,
pressure reducer,
differential pressure regulator valve,
pressure ratio regulator valve,
The pressure limiter sets the greatest pressure of the hydraulic system. It protects the system
from harmful overload so it is also used as a safety valve. In such case it is directly connected
to the pressure pipe behind the pump. The pressure limiter may be direct or unloaded, i.e.
piloted valve. The direct operation pressure limiter is usually a simple ball or cone valve, the
load of which can be adjusted by a screw. The unloaded or piloted pressure limiter valve is a
combination of two valves which turns off the system in case of overload.

Pressure limiter valve Installation of a pressure limiter valve

The structural design of an order controller is similar to the pressure limiter valve. It switches
the working units into the operation of the system one after the other without external
intervention. An order of importance may be set between the working units with this valve. If
you wish to provide priority for a working unit, then it must be designed for a lower pressure
demand and the valve will switch this unit into the hydraulic circle first.
Pressure reducer valve is installed in a hydraulic system if lower pressure is to be achieved
in a part of the system compared to the main system. A constant pressure value in a side
branch can be achieved with the pressure reducer independently of the pressure in the main
system.
The differential pressure regulator valve is a special pressure reducer. It is installed in the
system if the regulatory effect of the main branch must be enforced in the lower pressure side
branch. It practically works so that the reduction of the pressure in the main branch results in
the same pressure reduction in the side branch too.
The pressure ratio regulator valve ensures that the regulatory effect of the main branch is
enforced in the lower pressure side branch too. The pressure of the side branch changes
according to the ratio of the pressure in the main branch.

Safety elements
Elements preventing the fall of load:
The choke valve on the figure is installed in the pipe connected to the lifting cylinder and is

85
enabled upon break of the pipeline. When the pipe breaks, pressure decreases behind
opening 3, slider 1 moves against spring 4 and choking occurs.

Connection to
working cylinder.

In case of stopping the engine working as power source (outage, stalling), the non-return
valve prevents the fall of the load.

Non-return valve

There is a closing element in the non-return valve housing which is pressed on the device by
a spring. The valve is closed. It has two fluid connections (A and B) so the pressure fluid flow
may occur on both points.
If it occurs at B, the oil pressure affects the surface of the closing element and lifts it and the
fluid flows through the open B-A channel. Arriving from A, the closing element is pressed to
the valve seat and the valve closes without leakage.

Overload prevention elements:

The pressure of hydraulic oil determines the magnitude of the force applied. This is
represented in some typical parameter of the machine, e.g. lifting capacity, i.e. load-bearing
capacity, thrust. So the highest operating pressure is desired but it is not allowable that it
increases above the limit value because it would result in damage (crack, break and
consequent danger of accident) of the structural elements. So an element is needed which

value to prevent further increase of pressure. This function is fulfilled by the pressure limiter
valve.

Rollover protection of machines.

In cranes, telescope loaders, excavators, special safety functions are important, for example:
torque limiter according to position and load

86
overturning detection
function limiting
rejection of extending telescope, etc.

87
16. Talk about the necessity of placing signs on machines. What safety colour
and shape signs are seen during work?

Important health and safety signs: texts, icons.

The following data must be indicated on every machine in a readable and permanent form:
a) name and complete address of manufacturer and the same data of the authorised
representative if justified,
b) name of machine,
c) CE sign,
d) series or type name,
e) serial number if necessary,
f) year of production in which the manufacturing process was completed.
In addition to the foregoing, the appropriate sign must be placed on machines designed to
operate in explosive atmosphere.
All information related to its type and safe operation must be indicated on the machine,
Information and warnings relevant to the machine:
Information and warnings relevant to the machine must be provided in the form of widely
understood symbols or icons. All written or verbal information and warnings must be indicated
on the official community language(s) determined by the member state where the machine is
marketed and/or commissioned.
Information related to the control of the machine must be clear and easily understandable.
Such information must not be so extensive to overload the operator.
The requirements of the community directives relevant to safety colours and signs must be
observed.

Examples!
The safety signs, warnings and texts to be applied on machines and
equipment

The operating instructions

contain all necessary
information for the safe
operation of the machine. All
regulations must be read and
observed.

Before leaving the tractor

cockpit or changing the settings
of the machine, or performing
repair on it, switch off the PTO
drive, stop the engine and wait
until all moving parts stop
completely.

88
 The moving parts of the
machine may throw out stones
or other objects even to long
distances. Always keep safe
distance from the machine.

Lifting points (points of inserting

lift hook)

Performance shaft: PTO

rotational speed and rotating
direction or
Power take-off shaft: Input shaft
rotational speed and rotating
direction.

Indication of maximum
permitted transport and hauling
speed.

Required safety sign. It is

ATTENTION! beneficial if the users of the
machine are persons from the
INSERT THE STAY PIECE TO
THE WORKING CYLINDER same language area. Otherwise
BEFORE REPAIR TO PREVENT texts must be indicated in all the
THE MACHINE FROM FALLING. languages where the machine is
planned to be used.

89
Indicator lights:
They provide information for the operator about the operating functions, set parameters of the
machine and warn dangers.

Safety colour and shape signs

Safety colour Meaning Example

Red Prohibition
Do not
extinguish with
water!

Yellow Warning
Plant machine
traffic

Blue Regulation

Use hearing protection!

Green Information

Escape route or Escape route or

emergency exit emergency exit

Prohibitory signs
Red diagonal line in a red circle, meaning: DO NOT DO SOMETHING! For example:

No smoking No smoking or open No pedestrians Do not extinguish No drinking water

flame with water!

No entry for No entry for Do not touch No cell phones

unauthorised transport
persons vehicles

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Warning signs
Yellow triangular sign warns about danger to physical integrity and health. The icon on the
sign and its potential text refers to the specific danger.

For example:

Explosive substance
Toxic substance Caustic substance Radioactive
substance

Suspended load Plant machine Hazard of electric General hazard Fall hazard
traffic shock

Regulation signs
An icon in a blue circle indicates the use of special occupational health and safety equipment
or device.
For example:

Use protective Use helmet Use hearing protection! Use breathing Use protective
goggles apparatus footwear

Use protective Use protective Use face mask General instructions For pedestrians
gloves clothing (with supplementary
sign)

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Signs indicating first aid or escape route

For example:

Escape route or Escape route or emergency Direction (as a Direction

emergency exit exit supplementary sign) (as a supplementary
sign)

First Aid Stretcher Safety shower Eye rinsing device Emergency phone Medical

Tasks of machine operator related to safety signs:

Checking the presence and cleanliness of signs and operating the machine according to the
warnings.

92
17. Talk about the execution elements of hydraulic systems. How can
installations be connected to plant machinery?

Types and parts of working cylinders.

Groups:
1. single-action operation,
2. double-action, (differential piston or synchronous piston)
3. angular rotation (rotating cylinder).
Their use is determined by the demand for the direction of force. Hydraulic working cylinders
as energy converters are essentially a special type of hydraulic motors which is applicable for
generating straight motion. The pressure of the fluid is converted into force in the direction of
the piston and mainly used for load lifting. The working cylinder may be single-action or double-
action operation type. Single-action working cylinders lift with the help of fluid pressure,
however they descend due to the weight of the plant machinery. Double-action working
cylinders apply force in both directions, i.e. they lift and descend.
The double-action differential piston cylinder can apply greater force in the direction of pushing
out and smaller in the direction of pulling in. The piston must be braked 20-50 mm from its end
position, otherwise the cylinder heads deform. Different solutions are known to slow the piston
(choke valves, non-return valves, etc.)

a - mass or force return, 1 - cylinder cover, 2 - cylinder pipe, 3 - piston, 4 -

b - spring return, piston rod, 5 - upper cover, 6 - cylinder-box
c - plunger cylinder, Double-action working cylinder
d - telescopic cylinder.
Single-action working cylinders

Installation of K714 piston sealing

Type K714 is designed for particularly heavy hydraulic systems (e.g. construction and
earthwork machinery). The double-action sealing can be used up to 500 bar pressure.

A K720 piston sealing is a complete piston including the metal piston which the sealing and
the guiding elements are mounted on by a special process. It is delivered in different sizes
and sealings according to demand.
The complete K720 piston offers the following advantages:

93
 small piston size in case of little space or small cycle
no need to manufacture piston
long life due to design
achieving more precise tolerances
taking up great forces
closed metal-metal binding due to design
cost-effective

Wiper seals

Installation of A116 wiper seal

Description of hydraulic motors

The structure of pumps and hydraulic motors is almost completely identical, i.e. any pump can
be used as a hydraulic motor, they only differ in construction. The flowing direction is not fix in
hydraulic motors.
Their classification is the same as that of pumps according to operating principle:
constant and variable volume,
one or two flow direction

Their structure may change depending on the type of displacement element, which are most

94
frequently gear, rotary-vane, piston or orbit system.

Types and operation of angular rotation devices

Rotating cylinder
Double-action hydraulics working cylinder the piston of which is designed as a gear rack. The
gear rack side of the piston rod is connected to the gear which turns it between the adjusted
angle limits. Action may take place from one or two side.

1. cylinder 3. gear
2. gear rack 4. cycle limiter

Pulsating motor

A pulsating motor is a double-

action rotary-vane consumer.
A rotary vane /1/ is connected to
the shaft /3/ with bearing in the
house /2/, dividing the internal
space of the house into two oil
chambers and turns together with
the shaft. Part of the house is the
sector lock /6/, in which a spring-
loaded /5/ seal /4/ is placed and
leans against the shaft. There are
oil inlet and outlet channels /7/ in
the house.

Technical solutions of pipe connections and quick terminals

Drybreak terminal
Drybreak: a sliding pin hydraulic quick terminal in which there is practically no air pocket upon
connection and there is only insignificant spill upon disconnection. This terminal is often called
Non-spill, Flat face or Clean Break.

Non-return valve (poppet-style) terminal

Poppet: The expression refers to the type of valve which is designed so that it stops the flow
of the fluid when the male and female parts of the terminal is disconnected. This terminal type

95
is the most frequently used among the available technical solutions due to its usability and
easy production.

Nominal diameters: 2.5, 4, 6, 10, 16, 20, 32 and 50 mm

Pressure range: Up to 2000 bar depending on nominal diameter and structural material and
partially vacuum-resistant too

96
18. Talk about the stabilisation process and technical solution of plant
machinery What influences the stability of plant machinery? In what cases
is plant machinery not operated?

Steps of stabilising plant machinery

Put the machine in a horizontal position by using the supports of the machine before starting
to work. The chassis with tires only contacts the ground on a relatively small surface even in
case of twin wheels. In case of excavating heavy soils, the tires flexibly take on the reaction
forces and thus reduce the dynamic effect applied on the teeth of the bucket. To prevent this,
one or two pairs of hydraulic supports (support legs) or support plates are mounted on the
chassis of modern excavators. Single pair of supports are mounted behind the rear wheels so
this only lifts the more loaded rear part of the machine during excavation. The four-support
system completely lifts the excavator and it stands in a stable position. The rear support legs
of certain excavators do can be placed longitudinally, next to the wheels, not only in cross
direction.

Technical solutions of support legs

Solutions for hydraulic supports

a, b supports mounted in front of the rear wheels, c four-leg support, d support
plate, e turning supports
I turned in basic position, II side position, III rear support in heavy soil for
excavation in longitudinal direction

97
Materials used for stabilisation
When the load capacity of the soil is insufficient (loose, wet soil), the surface of the support
must be increased to the necessary extent. These materials must be sized in terms of load.
Applicable rules: constant attention must be paid for the operation and warnings of the safety
equipment.
The safety equipment has the following tasks:
protect the machine against rollover
prevent loads applied on the machine greater than the designed load
does not allow movements outside the safe area
prevent motion of the machinery that would cause danger of accident
give different warning signals to prevent accidents

End position switches

The machines have several structural units the movement of which must be prevented beyond
a certain limit, otherwise it may cause an accident.

Overload prevention elements:

Overload: the greatest hazard source of accident Different structural parts of the machine are
overloaded by often not precisely calculable by load. Due to repeated loads, manufacturing
defects and geometrical shape, different cross sections do not wear to equivalent extent.
Overload may cause break in an unpredictable structural element. Break usually occur due to
repeated overload.
Overload may not only cause excessive use of structural parts but may endanger the stability
of the machine as well (this leads to the rollover of the loading machine).

Elements preventing overload by their function

maximum load limiter (on machines without crane arm)
maximum torque limiter (on machines with vertically moving or hydraulic cranes)
Loading machines only allow work when and in the zone where the torque applied on
the crane (partially from the load) does not threaten the stability of the machine.
This is a typical situation in machines (e.g. mobile cranes) the loading capacity of which
depends on the boom-out. Such machine may lose stability even if the load does not
exceed the capacity of the crane but the torque arm of the load and thus its torque
becomes greater than allowed by lowering the boom (or by extending the length of a
telescopic boom).

Prohibitions of operating plant machinery

No work must be performed if
The operator cannot oversee the entire work area
The wind speed exceeds 18 m/s
Any safety equipment is defective
At the edges of pits
On swampy soil

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19. What is called waste? What is the definition of hazardous waste? What
hazardous properties do these substances have? Talk about waste
collection, storing, management and disposal.

Wastes and description of wastes produced during work:

Typically, wastes are produced during the maintenance and operation of the machines by the
operator. Most of these are classified as hazardous wastes. These are: cleaning and
maintenance substances, maintenance agents, fuels, used oils, etc.

Classification of wastes (e.g. according to place of production, state of matter, etc.)

Wastes are not uniformly classified today. Aspects of classification essentially overlap and a
certain waste is often named by using several names.

Taking development into account it seems that the conventional and the classification based
on new scientific information although with overlaps are essentially used together in a
mixture and will be used for a longer time.

There are several efforts to standardise the classification of wastes. A form of this is the so
- principle described
above, i.e. one type of waste is identified by several aspects of classification at the same time.
These are mostly as follows:

waste identification code (due to uniform IT processing),

material features,
manageability.

By origin: Wastes have several classifications, the most common of which, being the most
simple one is by production or origin. There are two major groups in most countries:

settlement (or communal) and

production (or industrial, including services and agriculture) and within these the
-

Waste generated by different production activities, i.e. in industry, agriculture and services
belong to the second group. According to main activities (excavation, processing and services,
maintenance, shipping, etc.) these may be:

technological wastes,
amortisation wastes.

Based on state of matter: solid, fluid, slump, paste wastes.

According to Hungarian regulations, there are now gaseous wastes but air polluting
substances.

It must be mentioned, that in Hungarian practice, communal wastes are grouped according to
state of matter as follows:

solid communal waste (household waste),

fluid communal waste (i.e. vacuumed sewages not let in the sewage system) which
are not directly discharged due to the existence of water supply but the lack of sewage

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 system).

Based on environmental effects: In addition to gradually learn the harmful environmental

effects of wastes, their corresponding classification has also occurred.

hazardous to the environment,

not hazardous to the environment (according to our current knowledge).

Tasks related to wastes:

According to law, national, regional and local waste management plans must be prepared. In
order to ensure implementation, certain business organisations, significantly affecting waste
management tasks must prepare their individual waste management plan, discuss it with the
local municipality and send it to the environmental protection inspectorate for approval. The
range of business organisations obliged to prepare such plan is set out by legal regulations
based on the quantity, quality of wastes and potential special management obligations. These
organisations or their interest organisations must be involved in preparing the national,
regional or local plans.

Waste management plans must include in particular:

types, quantity and origin of wastes generated, to be reused or disposed of;

fundamental technical requirements of waste management;
special measures relevant to individual types of waste;
management sites and facilities suitable for the management of wastes and the
companies licensed to manage them.
Detailed requirements of content of waste management plans are set out in a separate
legal regulation.
The producer, owner and manager of waste must record the quantity and composition
of wastes by types produced during its activity, taken over from other owner or handed
over to third party in the way and with the content set out in the relevant legal
regulation; take records of the waste management activity conducted and the wastes
arising as a result of such waste management as well as the operation of the waste
management facilities and report these to the authorities.

Elimination and disposal of wastes:

Annex 3. to Act XLIII of 2000 sets out the operations serving waste disposal.

The objective of this annex is to list the operations aiming at the disposal of waists as they
occur in practice. According to Section 5 of the Act, disposal may be performed only excluding
threats to human health, the built and the natural environment, observing the conditions set
out in the relevant legal regulations and only procedures meeting these may be applied. (e.g.
Disposal with technical protection: disposal in covered, insulated cells separated from each
other as well as the environment, elimination: by burning.)

Recycling:

Annex 4. to Act XLIII of 2000 sets out the operations serving waste recycling.

The objective of this annex is to list the operations aiming at the recycling of waists as they
occur in practice. According to Section 5 of the Act, recycling may be performed only excluding
threats to human health, the built and the natural environment, observing the conditions set

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out in the relevant legal regulations and only procedures meeting these may be applied (e.g.
wood briquette, used oil regeneration, etc.)

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20. What are your tasks if your machine unexpectedly stops due to breakdown?
What may cause breakdown? How do you ensure that the defective machine
cannot be used? What documentation duties do you have in such case?

Warning the environment:

Stopping and safe parking of the machine

Breakdowns usually occur unexpectedly. In such case the work process is interrupted and a
dangerous situation occurs. Although the safety equipment of the machine locks further
movement, but the unloading of the machine must also be solved. The machine must be safely
unloaded as specified in the manual.
Stop the machine as specified in the instruction manual, lock the parking brake, use a block if
required by terrain and put working tools in default position.

Prevention of accidental or unauthorised starting:

Failure of power supply
Any break or volatility in any power supply of the machine or the restoration of power supply
after outage may not lead to dangerous situations. In such event, special attention must be
paid to prevent the unexpected start of the machine.
Unexpected start is not possible on machines meeting the provisions set out above. Lock the
cockpit, take the key and activate the alarm system if the machine is equipped with these.

Notification and documentation duties:

Upon detecting defects (during shift inspection or operation the direct manager at the
workplace or the maintenance technician must be notified in addition to the logbook
entry.
The machine must not be operated until the defect is repaired.
After maintenance, the maintenance technician must record the work performed in the
logbook and sign it.

Description of breakdown of machine for reasons dependent on and independent from

human activity:
Human causes of machine breakdown:
Omission of shift inspection
Not conscientious shift inspection
Defects explored during shift inspection were not completely repaired
Periodical maintenance tasks were not performed
Unprofessional operation of machine
Causes of machine breakdown independent from human activity:
Extreme weather conditions
Wear of part

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21. How is the machine regularly stopped at the end of shift? What are the task
related to preserving the condition of the machine?

Regular stopping and securing of the machine:

Stop the machine as specified in the instruction manual, lock the parking brake, use a block if
required by terrain and put working tools in default position.

Preventing unauthorised use:

Lock the cockpit, take the key and activate the alarm system if the machine is equipped with
these.

Protection of machine against environmental impacts:

When conditions permit, store the machines in a garage or indoor space. If storing normally
outdoors, effective anti-corrosion measures shall be taken.

Maintenance of machine at the end of shift:

The Operation and maintenance manual of the machine details the daily maintenance tasks.
These must be conducted. These are typically inspection, oiling, greasing, cleaning, fluid
refilling tasks.

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Table of Contents
Basic concepts of mechanics ................................................................................................ 2
Basic concepts of hydraulics ................................................................................................. 5
Basic concepts of electronics ................................................................................................ 6
Machine components .......................................................................................................... 10
General operations and technology..................................................................................... 19
1.List what information material is available for the operator related to the plant machinery.
What regulations are applicable to these documentations? What are the duties of the operator
regarding these? ................................................................................................................. 19
2.Talk about maintenance and repairs to be performed on the machines. Who can perform
these activities? What materials and tools can be used for maintenance and repair operations:
Characterise cooling agents and lubricants. Talk about the revision and replacement of these.
........................................................................................................................................... 24
3.What types of brakes do you know? Talk about brakes of plant machinery. Present the parts
and operating principle of a brake system. What may cause the defective operation or failure
of brakes? ........................................................................................................................... 29
4.Talk about the running gear of plant machinery. Through what structural units is drive
transmitted to the wheels? .................................................................................................. 35
5.Who can be the controller during work? How can the controller and the operator of the
machine communicate? Please demonstrate the standard hand signals to be used by the
controller! ............................................................................................................................ 39
6.List the metallic and non-metallic materials used in engineering industry. Name their
characteristics and major fields of use. ............................................................................... 41
7.How is plant machinery controlled? Talk about different steering methods. How is the
steering gear inspected? Discuss the concept of steering wheel slack and determine its typical
value. .................................................................................................................................. 45
8.Describe the types of batteries. Talk about the structure of acidic batteries. What values
characterise batteries? How are batteries charged? What maintenance tasks does the
operator have regarding batteries? ..................................................................................... 49
9.How can rotating motion be transmitted? Talk about the characteristics and structure of
individual drives (belt, chain, gear, etc.) .............................................................................. 53
10.Categorise the internal combustion engines. Talk about their general structure. What fuel
supply system do you know in case of diesel oil powered engines? .................................... 57
11.What fuel supply systems do you know in case of petrol engines? Talk about gas fuelled
engines. .............................................................................................................................. 64
21.Talk about the cooling, lubrication and filter systems of internal combustion engines. What
materials are used in these systems? What tasks does the operator have in relation with the
individual systems? ............................................................................................................. 67
12.What tasks does the operator have before starting work in connection with the working
area? Talk about making records in the machine logbook. .................................................. 75
13.What pressure fluids can be used in hydraulic equipment? Talk about the power supply
part of hydraulic systems. ................................................................................................... 77
14.What extreme weather conditions do you know? Please talk about operating machines
under extreme weather conditions! ..................................................................................... 82

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15.Talk about the control units of hydraulic systems. What safety elements are found in a
hydraulic system? ............................................................................................................... 83
16.Talk about the necessity of placing signs on machines. What safety colour and shape signs
are seen during work?......................................................................................................... 88
17.Talk about the execution elements of hydraulic systems. How can installations be
connected to plant machinery? ........................................................................................... 93
18.Talk about the stabilisation process and technical solution of plant machinery What
influences the stability of plant machinery? In what cases is plant machinery not operated?...
........................................................................................................................................... 97
19.What is called waste? What is the definition of hazardous waste? What hazardous
properties do these substances have? Talk about waste collection, storing, management and
disposal............................................................................................................................... 99
20.What are your tasks if your machine unexpectedly stops due to breakdown? What may
cause breakdown? How do you ensure that the defective machine cannot be used? What
documentation duties do you have in such case? ............................................................. 102
21.How is the machine regularly stopped at the end of shift? What are the task related to
preserving the condition of the machine? .......................................................................... 103

105