Chapter – 1

Fiber Optics Communication System

Dr. Deepak Kumar Rout

Terminology:
• Numerical Aperture: Numerical aperture (N.A) of the fiber is the light
collecting efficiency of the fiber and is the measure of the amount of light
rays that can be accepted by the fiber. The light gathering or light collecting
ability of an optical fiber.
• Acceptance Angle: The maximum angle with which a ray of light can enter
through the entrance end of the fiber and still be totally internally reflected
is called acceptance angle of the fiber.
• Relative Refractive Index Difference: Relative refractive index difference is
the ratio between the refractive index difference (of core and cladding) and
refractive index of core.
• Meridional Rays: Meridional rays are the rays following Zig Zag path when
they travel through fiber and for every reflection it will cross the fiber axis.
Terminology:
• Skew Rays: Skew rays are the rays following the helical path around the fiber axis
when they travel through the fiber and they would not cross the fiber axis at any
time.
• Intra Modal Dispersion: Intra Modal dispersion is pulse spreading that occurs
within a single mode. The spreading arises from finite spectral emission width of
an optical source. This phenomenon is also called as group velocity dispersion.
• Splices: The splices are generally permanent fiber joints, whereas connectors are
temporary fiber joints. Splicing is a sort of soldering.
• Modes: The number of paths for the light rays in the fiber
• Step index: Refractive index of core is uniform throughout & undergoes an abrupt
change at cladding is called step-index fiber.
• Graded index: The core of refractive index is made to vary as a function of radial
distance from the center of fiber.
Advantages of Fiber Optics Communication
• High Bandwidth: Optical fibers can carry a significantly higher amount of data compared to
copper wires. This enables faster data transmission rates and supports the growing demand for
high-speed internet and data-intensive applications.

• Low Attenuation: Optical fibers experience minimal signal loss over long distances compared to
copper cables. This allows signals to travel longer distances without requiring signal boosters,
making it ideal for long-haul communication networks.

• Immunity to Electromagnetic Interference: Unlike copper wires, optical fibers are not affected by
electromagnetic interference from nearby power lines or machinery. This makes them more
reliable in environments where electromagnetic interference is a concern.

• Security: Fiber optics are difficult to tap into without being detected, providing a higher level of
security for transmitted data. They are less susceptible to hacking or data interception compared
to traditional copper cables.
Advantages of Fiber Optics Communication
• Lightweight and Small Size: Optical fibers are thinner and lighter than copper cables,
making them easier to install and handle. This also means they occupy less space,
allowing for more fibers to be bundled together in the same conduit.

• Durability: Optical fibers are less susceptible to damage from environmental factors like
moisture and temperature fluctuations compared to copper wires. They have a longer
lifespan and require less maintenance.

• Flexibility and Versatility: Optical fibers can be used in various applications, including
telecommunications, internet connectivity, medical imaging, and sensing technologies.
They can transmit data, light, or images with precision.

• Cost-Efficiency: While the initial setup costs might be higher than traditional copper
cables, the long-term maintenance and operational costs of optical fibers tend to be
lower due to their durability and higher data carrying capacity.
Limitations of Fiber Optics Communication
• Installation Cost: The initial cost of installing fiber optic cables can be higher than
traditional copper cables. This includes the cost of the cables themselves and the
specialized equipment needed for installation, termination, and testing.

• Fragility: While optical fibers are durable, they can still be more fragile than copper
cables. They are prone to damage from excessive bending or stretching, which can affect
signal transmission.

• Transmission Loss due to Bending: When fibers are bent beyond their minimum bend
radius, it can cause signal loss or attenuation. This can be a limitation in certain
installation scenarios where tight bends are required.

• Sensitivity to Contamination: Even a small amount of dust, dirt, or other contaminants

on the surface of the fiber can degrade signal quality. This requires careful handling and
regular maintenance to prevent such issues.
Limitations of Fiber Optics Communication
• Limited Power Transmission: Unlike electrical cables, optical fibers cannot carry
electrical power. This limits their use in applications where both data and power
transmission are required.

• Complexity in Repairs: If an optical fiber cable is damaged, repairing it can be more

complex than fixing a copper cable. Specialized equipment and expertise are often
required to locate and mend the break accurately.

• Dependency on Light Source: Fiber optics rely on light sources for transmission.
Interruptions in the light source or power failures can disrupt communication,
necessitating backup systems or redundant pathways.

• Security Concerns: While difficult to tap into without detection, fiber optic cables are not
immune to security breaches. Advanced techniques and equipment can intercept signals
by tapping into the fiber itself.
Chapter – 2
Optical Fiber

Dr. Deepak Kumar Rout

Ray Theory of Transmission
• Total Internal Reflection: Total Internal Reflection (TIR) is a phenomenon that
occurs when light traveling within a medium strikes the boundary with another
medium at an angle greater than the critical angle, resulting in the complete
reflection of the light back into the original medium. This phenomenon is
particularly significant at the interface between two materials with different
refractive indices.
Derivation of Numerical Aperture
Problem-2.1
Problem – 2.2
Skew Rays
Problem – 2.3
Modes in a Planar Guide
The planar guide is the simplest form of optical waveguide.
Modes in a Planar Guide
Modes in a Planar Guide
The evanescent field refers to the
electromagnetic field that extends beyond
the core of an optical fiber into the
surrounding cladding. This field, though
diminishing rapidly, carries some energy.

Physical model showing the ray propagation

and the corresponding transverse electric
(TE) field patterns of three lower order
models (m=1, 2, 3) in the planar dielectric
guide.

light is described as an electromagnetic wave

it consists of a periodically varying electric
field E and magnetic field H which are
orientated at right angles to each other.
• TE (Transverse Electric) Mode: The electric field is perpendicular to the
direction of propagation and hence Ez= 0, but a corresponding component
of the magnetic field H is in the direction of propagation.
• TM (Transverse Magnetic) Mode: component of the E field is in the
direction of propagation, but Hz= 0, the modes formed are called
transverse magnetic.
• TEM (Transverse Electromagnetic) Mode: When the total field lies in the
transverse plane, transverse electromagnetic (TEM) waves exist where both
Ez and Hz are zero.
• Although, TEM waves occur in metallic conductors (e.g. coaxial cables) they
are seldom found in optical waveguides.
 Goos–Haenchen shift

d=0.06 to 0.10 μm for a silvered glass interface at a wavelength of 0.55 μm

 Phase and Group Velocity
Phase velocity: The speed at which a specific phase
of an optical signal propagates through an optical fiber.

Group Velocity: The speed at which the envelope or

the overall shape of a group of optical waves
propagates through an optical fiber. Unlike phase
velocity, which focuses on the speed of a specific
phase of the wave, group velocity considers the
velocity of the signal as a whole.
c The formation of a wave packet from the combination of two waves
vg  with nearly equal frequencies.
Ng
The envelope of the wave package or group of waves travels at a
group velocity.
Cladding: Requirements
The penetration of energy into the cladding underlines the importance of the
choice of cladding material.

• The cladding should be transparent to light at the wavelengths over which

the guide is to operate.
• Ideally, the cladding should consist of a solid material in order to avoid
both damage to the guide and the accumulation of foreign matter on the
guide walls.
• The cladding thickness must be sufficient to allow the evanescent field to
decay to a low value or losses from the penetrating energy may be
encountered.
Polarization
• Linear Polarization: In linearly polarized light, the electric field oscillates in
a specific direction along a straight line. If you imagine the direction of the
wave's propagation as an arrow, linear polarization means the electric field
vector oscillates along a line perpendicular to this arrow.
• Circular Polarization: In circularly polarized light, the electric field vector
rotates in a circular pattern as the wave progresses. There are two types of
circular polarization: right-handed circular polarization (clockwise rotation)
and left-handed circular polarization (counterclockwise rotation).
• Elliptical Polarization: Elliptically polarized light is a combination of linear
and circular polarizations. The electric field vector traces an elliptical path
as the wave travels.
Cylindrical Fiber
• The cylindrical waveguide is bounded in two dimensions.
Cylindrical Fiber
• The cylindrical waveguide is bounded in two dimensions.
Cylindrical Fiber
• The cylindrical waveguide is bounded in two dimensions.
Here, “l" and “m" represent the number of half-wavelength variations of the electric field/ Magnetic
Field along the two perpendicular directions in the cross-section of the waveguide.

Example: HElm mode: l half-wavelength along the radial direction, and m half-wavelength along the
azimuthal direction
• ‘U’ is the radial phase parameter or the radial propagation constant
(eigenvalue in the core)
‘k’, and ‘β’ are the propagation constant for
light in a vacuum and in the waveguide,
respectively. ‘a’ is the radius of the fiber core.

• ‘W’ is known as the cladding decay parameter (eigenvalues in the clad)

• ‘V’ is known as the normalized frequency

‘V’ Number
• The normalized frequency is a dimensionless parameter and hence is
also sometimes simply called the V number or value of the fiber.

• The normalized propagation constant ‘b’ for a fiber:

Mode Coupling
The interaction or exchange of power between different modes (propagation
paths) of light within an optical fiber.

• Geometric Imperfections: Any irregularities or imperfections in the geometry of the

optical fiber can lead to mode coupling. This can include variations in the core
diameter, refractive index profile, or concentricity of the core and cladding.
• Bending or Curvature: When an optical fiber is bent or curved, it can lead to mode
coupling between different modes. This is known as bend-induced mode coupling.
The curvature of the fiber causes coupling between modes with different
propagation constants.
• External Perturbations: Changes in temperature, strain, or external forces applied to
the fiber can also lead to mode coupling. These perturbations affect the refractive
index profile of the fiber, causing modes to couple.
Step Index Fiber
Multi-mode and Single-mode Step index fiber
Multi-mode and Single-mode Step index fiber
• The single-mode step index fiber has the distinct advantage of low
intermodal dispersion (broadening of transmitted light pulses), as
only one mode is transmitted.
• Whereas with multimode step index fiber considerable dispersion
may occur due to the differing group velocities of the propagating
modes.
• This in turn restricts the maximum bandwidth attainable with
multimode step index fibers, especially when compared with single-
mode fibers.
• However, for lower bandwidth applications multimode fibers have
several advantages over single-mode fibers.
Advantages of Multimode over single mode
fiber
• The use of spatially incoherent optical sources (e.g. most light-
emitting diodes) which cannot be efficiently coupled to single-mode
fibers.
• larger numerical apertures, as well as core diameters, facilitating
easier coupling to optical sources.
• lower tolerance requirements on fiber connectors.
• Total number of guided modes or mode volume Ms for a step index
fiber is related to the V value for the fiber by the approximate
expression:
Example: 2.4
Graded Indexed Fiber
Modes:
• Total number of guided modes or mode volume Mg for a graded index
fiber is related to the V value for the fiber by the approximate
expression:
Example 2.5
Single Mode Fibers
• For the single mode fibers, the V number lies between 0 to 2.405
• Graded index fibers may also be designed for single-mode operation
and some specialist fiber designs do adopt such non step index
profiles. However, it may be shown that the cutoff value of
normalized frequency V to support a single mode in a graded index
fiber is given by:
Example 2.6
Example 2.7
Cut-off Wavelength
Single-mode operation only occurs above a theoretical cutoff wavelength λc,
known as the cut-off wavelength, and it is given by;

Vc is the normalized cut-off frequency.

Example 2.8
Effective Refractive Index
• The rate of change of phase of the fundamental LP01 mode
propagating along a straight fiber is determined by the phase
propagation constant β

• Also known as phase index or normalized phase change coefficient

 Chapter – 3
Transmission Characteristics of
Optical Fibers

Dr. Deepak Kumar Rout

Introduction
• The transmission characteristics of most interest: attenuation (loss) and bandwidth.

• Now, silica-based glass fibers have losses about 0.2 dB/km (i.e. 95% launched
power remains after 1 km of fiber transmission).

• This is essentially the fundamental lower limit for attenuation in silica- based glass
fibers.

• Fiber bandwidth is limited by the signal dispersion within the fiber. Bandwidth
determines the number of bits of information transmitted in a given time period. Now,
fiber bandwidth has reached many 10’s Gbit/s over many km’s per wavelength
channel.
Introduction
The transmission characteristics of optical fibers are crucial for determining their
performance in various applications. Here are some key aspects of the transmission
characteristics of optical fibers:
• Attenuation (Loss): Attenuation refers to the reduction in the intensity of the light
signal as it travels through the fiber. It is typically measured in decibels per
kilometer (dB/km). Lower attenuation values indicate better signal transmission
over longer distances.
• Dispersion:
• Modal Dispersion: In multimode fibers, different modes of light can travel different paths,
arriving at the end of the fiber at different times. This dispersion can limit the bandwidth and
distance capabilities of multimode fibers.
• Chromatic Dispersion: This occurs because different wavelengths of light travel at different
speeds through the fiber, causing them to spread out over distance. It is a significant concern
for single-mode fibers, and dispersion compensating techniques may be employed to
mitigate its effects.
Introduction
• Bandwidth:
• Modal Bandwidth: In multimode fibers, modal bandwidth represents the
range of frequencies (or modes) that can be effectively transmitted. Higher
modal bandwidth allows for higher data transmission rates.
• Effective Modal Bandwidth (EMB): EMB is a measure of the modal
bandwidth that considers the actual light source used in the system.

• Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD): PMD is an effect where

different polarization modes of light travel at slightly different speeds
through the fiber, causing pulse spreading. It is a concern in high-
data-rate systems, and compensation techniques may be applied.
Introduction
• Bend Loss: Optical fibers can experience additional loss when bent,
particularly in tight bends or curves. This is more pronounced in
single-mode fibers.
• Connector Loss: The quality of connectors used to join optical fibers
can impact signal loss. Well-designed and properly installed
connectors are essential for minimizing connector-related losses.
• Environmental Sensitivity: Optical fibers can be sensitive to
environmental factors such as temperature and humidity, which can
affect their performance.
Attenuation
• Signal attenuation within optical fibers, as with metallic conductors, is
usually expressed in the logarithmic unit of the decibel. The decibel,
which is used for comparing two power levels, may be defined for a
particular optical wavelength as the ratio of the input (transmitted)
optical power Pi into a fiber to the output (received) optical power Po
from the fiber as;
dB, dBm, and dBw:
• In optical fiber communications the attenuation is usually expressed
in decibels per unit length (i.e. dB km-1) following;
Example 3.1
 fiber attenuation mechanisms:
1. Material absorption
2. Scattering loss
3. Bending loss
4. Radiation loss (due to mode coupling)
5. Leaky modes

1. Material absorption losses in silica glass fibers

• Material absorption is a loss mechanism related to both the material composition
and the fabrication process for the fiber. The optical power is lost as heat in the
fiber.

• The light absorption can be intrinsic (due to the material components of the glass)
or extrinsic (due to impurities introduced into the glass during fabrication).
Intrinsic Absorption
• The sharp increase in attenuation in optical fibers after a wavelength of
approximately 1.5 micrometers is primarily due to the presence of the
water absorption peak in the infrared spectrum. This phenomenon is
known as the "water absorption window."
• Water molecules exhibit strong absorption around 1.4 to 1.5 micrometers.
This absorption is caused by the vibrational modes of water molecules that
resonate at specific wavelengths.
• The attenuation in optical fibers is generally low in the visible and near-
infrared spectrum, making them suitable for transmitting signals in these
ranges. However, as the wavelength increases beyond the water absorption
peak, the water molecules in the glass fiber become more effective at
absorbing the optical signal, leading to a rapid increase in attenuation.
Intrinsic Absorption
Pure silica-based glass has two major intrinsic absorption mechanisms at
optical wavelengths:

(1) a fundamental UV absorption edge, the peaks are centered in the ultraviolet
wavelength region. This is due to the electron transitions within the glass
molecules. The tail of this peak may extend into the the shorter wavelengths of the
fiber transmission spectral window.

(2) A fundamental infrared and far-infrared absorption edge,

due to molecular vibrations (such as Si-O). The tail of these absorption peaks may
extend into the longer wavelengths of the fiber transmission spectral window.
Intrinsic Absorption
• Intrinsic absorption caused
by the interaction with one
or more of the major
components of the glass

The attenuation spectra for the intrinsic

loss mechanisms in pure GeO2-SiO2
 Extrinsic absorption
• Major extrinsic loss mechanism is caused by absorption due to water (as the hydroxyl or
OH- ions) introduced in the glass fiber during fiber pulling by means of oxyhydrogen
flame.

• These OH- ions are bonded into the glass structure and have absorption peaks
(due to molecular vibrations) at 1.38 m.

• Since these OH- absorption peaks are sharply peaked, narrow spectral windows exist
around 1.3 m and 1.55 m which are essentially unaffected by OH- absorption.

• The lowest attenuation for typical silica-based fibers occur at wavelength 1.55 m at
about 0.2 dB/km, approaching the minimum possible attenuation at this wavelength.
Extrinsic absorption
• Caused by impurities within the glass
Absorption Losses of Impurities
The absorption spectrum for the
hydroxyl (OH) group in silica.
1400 nm OH- absorption peak and spectral windows

OH- absorption (1400 nm)

(Lucent 1998)

OFS AllWave fiber: example of a “low-water-peak” or “full spectrum” fiber.

Prior to 2000 the fiber transmission bands were referred to as “windows.”
Three major spectral windows where fiber attenuation is low
The 1st window: 850 nm, attenuation 2 dB/km

The 2nd window: 1300 nm, attenuation 0.5 dB/km

The 3rd window: 1550 nm, attenuation 0.3 dB/km

1550 nm window is today’s standard long-haul communication

wavelengths.
Short Conventional Long Ultra-long
S band C band L band U band

1460 1530 1565 1625 1675 λ (nm)

1500 1600
2. Scattering Loss
Scattering results in attenuation (in the form of radiation) as the scattered light may
not continue to satisfy the total internal reflection in the fiber core.

One major type of scattering is known as Rayleigh scattering.

The scattered ray can escape by refraction according to Snell’s Law.

• Rayleigh scattering results from random inhomogeneities that are small
in size compared with the wavelength.

<< λ

• These inhomogeneities exist in the form of refractive index fluctuations

which are frozen into the amorphous glass fiber upon fiber pulling. Such
fluctuations always exist and cannot be avoided !

Rayleigh scattering results in an attenuation (dB/km)  1/λ4

Where else do we see Rayleigh scattering?

Rayleigh scattering is the dominant loss in today’s fibers

Rayleigh
Scattering (1/4)
0.2 dB/km
Rayleigh scattering
• Rayleigh scattering is the dominant intrinsic loss mechanism in the
low-absorption window between the ultraviolet and infrared
absorption tails.
• It results from inhomogeneities of a random nature occurring on a
small scale compared with the wavelength of the light. These
inhomogeneities manifest themselves as refractive index fluctuations
and arise from density and compositional variations which are frozen
into the glass lattice on cooling.
• The compositional variations may be reduced by improved
fabrication, but the index fluctuations caused by the freezing-in of
density inhomogeneities are fundamental and cannot be avoided.
• The subsequent scattering due to the density fluctuations, which is in
almost all directions, produces an attenuation proportional to 1/λ4
following the Rayleigh scattering.
• For a single-component glass this is given by:
• The fictive temperature is defined as the temperature at which the
glass can reach a state of thermal equilibrium and is closely related to
the anneal temperature.
• Rayleigh scattering coefficient is related to the transmission loss factor
(transmissivity) of the fiber following the relation:

• The fundamental component of Rayleigh scattering is strongly reduced

by operating at the longest possible wavelength.
Example 3.2
Mie scattering
• Linear scattering may also occur at inhomogeneities which are
comparable in size with the guided wavelength.
• These result from the imperfect cylindrical structure of the waveguide
and may be caused by fiber imperfections such as irregularities in the
core–cladding interface, core–cladding refractive index differences
along the fiber length, diameter fluctuations, strains and bubbles.
• When the scattering inhomogeneity size is greater than λ/10, the
scattered intensity which has an angular dependence can be very
large.
Scattering…!!!
Scattering
Rayleigh scattering and Mie scattering are both types of elastic scattering,
where the incident radiation is scattered without any change in its frequency
(wavelength). However, these phenomena differ in several key aspects:
Particle Size:
• Rayleigh Scattering: Occurs when the size of the scattering particles is
much smaller than the wavelength of the incident radiation. Examples
include molecules and small particles in the atmosphere.
• Mie Scattering: Occurs when the size of the scattering particles is
comparable to or larger than the wavelength of the incident radiation. This
is often the case for larger atmospheric particles such as water droplets, ice
crystals, and dust.
Mie scattering
• The scattering created by such inhomogeneities is mainly in the
forward direction and is called Mie scattering. Depending upon the
fiber material, design and manufacture, Mie scattering can cause
significant losses.

• The inhomogeneities may be reduced by:

• removing imperfections due to the glass manufacturing process;
• carefully controlled extrusion and coating of the fiber;
• increasing the fiber guidance by increasing the relative refractive index
difference.
Rayleigh Scattering:
• Dominant Factor: Rayleigh scattering is the primary scattering mechanism
in optical fibers.
• Particle Size: It occurs due to the interaction of light with small,
microscopic inhomogeneities or fluctuations in the refractive index of the
core material. These fluctuations are much smaller than the wavelength of
the transmitted light.
• Wavelength Dependence: The amount of Rayleigh scattering is inversely
proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength. This means that
shorter wavelengths (blue light) are scattered more than longer
wavelengths (red light).
• Effect on Fiber Loss: Rayleigh scattering contributes to the intrinsic
material attenuation in the optical fiber and is a major factor limiting the
transmission distance.
Mie Scattering:
• Limited Influence: Mie scattering, associated with larger particles, is
generally not a significant factor in standard optical fibers.
• Particle Size: Mie scattering typically occurs with particles that are
comparable to or larger than the wavelength of the incident light.
• Wavelength Dependence: Mie scattering is less dependent on the
wavelength compared to Rayleigh scattering.
• Effect on Fiber Loss: The core of optical fibers is designed to be highly
homogeneous, minimizing the presence of large particles that could
cause Mie scattering.
3. Bending Loss
Fiber bending loss and mode-coupling to higher-order modes

“macrobending” “microbending” – power

(how do we measure bending loss?) coupling to higher-order
modes that are more lossy.
• Optical fibers suffer radiation losses at bends or curves on their paths.
• This is due to the energy in the evanescent field at the bend
exceeding the velocity of light in the cladding and hence the guidance
mechanism is inhibited, which causes light energy to be radiated from
the fiber.
• The part of the mode which is on the outside of the bend is required to
travel faster than that on the inside so that a wavefront perpendicular to
the direction of propagation is maintained.
• Hence, part of the mode in the cladding needs to travel faster than the
velocity of light in that medium. As this is not possible, the energy
associated with this part of the mode is lost through radiation.
• The loss can generally be represented by a radiation attenuation coefficient
which has the form

• Furthermore, large bending losses tend to occur in multimode fibers at a

critical radius of curvature
The potential macrobending losses may be reduced by:
• designing fibers with large relative refractive index differences;
• operating at the shortest wavelength possible.

• The expression from which the critical radius of curvature for a single-
mode fiber Rcs can be estimated as:
Example 3.4
Bending Losses in Fibers
• Optical power escapes from tightly bent fibers
• Bending loss increases at longer wavelengths
– Typical losses in 3 loops of standard 9-m single-mode R
fiber (from: Lightwave; Feb 2001; p. 156):
– 2.6 dB at 1310 nm and 23.6 dB at 1550 nm for R = 1.15 cm
– 0.1 dB at 1310 nm and 2.60 dB at 1550 nm for R = 1.80 cm
• Progressively tighter bends produce higher losses
Test setup for
• Bend-loss insensitive fibers have been developed
and now are recommended checking bend loss:
N fiber loops on a
• Improper routing of fibers and incorrect storage of
slack fiber can result in violations of bend radius
rod of radius R
rules
 4. Fiber dispersion
• Fiber dispersion results in optical pulse broadening and hence
digital signal degradation.

Optical pulse broadened pulse

Optical fiber
input output

Dispersion mechanisms: 1. Modal (or intermodal) dispersion

2. Chromatic dispersion (CD)
3. Polarization mode dispersion (PMD)
Pulse broadening limits fiber bandwidth (data rate)

Detection
1 0 1 threshold

Intersymbol interference
(ISI)

Signal distorted
Fiber length (km)

• An increasing number of errors may be encountered on the digital

optical channel as the ISI becomes more pronounced.
 1. Modal dispersion
• When numerous waveguide modes are propagating, they all travel with different
net velocities with respect to the waveguide axis.

• An input waveform distorts during propagation because its energy is distributed

among several modes, each traveling at a different speed.

• Parts of the wave arrive at the output before other parts, spreading out the waveform.
This is thus known as multimode (modal) dispersion.

• Multimode dispersion does not depend on the source linewidth (even a single
wavelength can be simultaneously carried by multiple modes in a waveguide).

• Multimode dispersion would not occur if the waveguide allows only one mode to
propagate - the advantage of single-mode waveguides!
Modal dispersion as shown from the mode chart of a symmetric slab
waveguide
(neff = n1) 1
0.9
m=0
Normalized guide index b

0.8 1
0.7
2
0.6 TE
0.5

0.4
3
0.3
TM

4
0.2

0.1
5
(neff = n2) 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

V ( 1/λ)
• For no overlapping of light pulses down on an optical fiber link the
digital bit rate BT must be less than the reciprocal of the broadened
(through dispersion) pulse duration (2τ).
• Hence:

• A more accurate estimate of the maximum bit rate for an optical

channel with dispersion may be obtained by considering the light
pulses at the output to have a Gaussian shape with an rms width of σ
Example 3.5
 Modal dispersion in multimode waveguides
m=2 2

m=1 1

m=0 0

The carrier wave can propagate along all these different “zig-zag”
ray paths of different path lengths.
 e.g. How much will a light pulse spread after traveling along
1 km of a step-index fiber whose NA = 0.275 and ncore = 1.487?

How does modal dispersion restricts fiber bit rate?

Suppose we transmit at a low bit rate of 10 Mb/s

=> Pulse duration = 1 / 107 s = 100 ns

Using the above e.g., each pulse will spread up to  100 ns (i.e. 
pulse duration !) every km

The broadened pulses overlap! (Intersymbol interference (ISI))

*Modal dispersion limits the bit rate of a fiber-optic link to ~ 10 Mb/s.

(a coaxial cable supports this bit rate easily!)
Single-mode fiber eliminates modal dispersion

cladding
core 

• The main advantage of single-mode fibers is to propagate only one

mode so that modal dispersion is absent.

• However, pulse broadening does not disappear altogether. The group

velocity associated with the fundamental mode is frequency dependent
within the pulse spectral linewidth because of chromatic dispersion.
Chromatic Dispersion
• Chromatic or intramodal dispersion may occur in all types of optical
fiber and results from the finite spectral linewidth of the optical
source.
• Since optical sources do not emit just a single frequency but a band of
frequencies, then there may be propagation delay differences
between the different spectral components of the transmitted signal.
• This causes broadening of each transmitted mode and hence
intramodal dispersion.
• The delay differences may be caused by the dispersive properties of
the waveguide material (material dispersion) and also guidance
effects within the fiber structure (waveguide dispersion).
 Spectral linewidth
• Real sources emit over a range of wavelengths. This range is the
source linewidth or spectral width.

• The smaller is the linewidth, the smaller is the spread in wavelengths

or frequencies, the more coherent is the source.

• An ideal perfectly coherent source emits light at a single wavelength.

It has zero linewidth and is perfectly monochromatic.

Light sources Linewidth (nm)

Light-emitting diodes 20 nm – 100 nm
Semiconductor laser diodes 1 nm – 5 nm
Nd:YAG solid-state lasers 0.1 nm
HeNe gas lasers 0.002 nm 35
 • Pulse broadening occurs because there may be propagation delay
differences among the spectral components of the transmitted signal.

time time

Chromatic dispersion (CD): Different spectral components of a pulse

travel at different group velocities. This is known as group velocity
dispersion (GVD). 36
In fact there are two mechanisms for chromatic dispersion in a fiber:

(a) Silica refractive index n is wavelength dependent (i.e. n = n(λ))

=> different wavelength components travel at different speeds in silica

This is known as material dispersion.

(b) Light energy of a mode propagates partly in the core and partly in
the cladding of a fiber. The mode power distribution between the core
and the cladding depends on λ (Recall the mode field diameter)

This is known as waveguide dispersion.

=> D(λ) = Dmat(λ) + Dwg(λ)

Material Dispersion
• The group delay is given by:

• where n1 is the refractive index of the core material. The pulse delay
τm due to material dispersion in a fiber of length L is therefore:
 Waveguide dispersion in a single-mode fiber
input pulse
core pulse
slower

MFD
ncore
nclad cladding pulse
faster
Single mode fiber
time

=>
broadened pulse !

Waveguide dispersion depends on the mode field distribution

in the core and the cladding. (given by the fiber V number)
Chromatic dispersion accumulates linearly over distance
 Positive dispersion
transmission fiber Negative dispersion element

-D’ -D’ -D’

Accumulated dispersion (ps/nm)

+D -D’ +D -D’ +D -D’

Distance (km)
• In a dispersion-managed system, positive dispersion transmission
fiber alternates with negative dispersion compensation elements,
such that the total dispersion is zero end-to-end.
 3. Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD)
• In a single-mode optical fiber, the optical signal is carried by the linearly polarized
“fundamental mode” LP01, which has two polarization components that are
orthogonal.

(note that x and y

are chosen arbitrarily)

• In a real fiber (i.e. ngx  ngy), the two orthogonal polarization modes propagate at
different group velocities, resulting in pulse broadening – polarization mode
dispersion.
 Ey Ey ΔT

vgy = c/ngy
Ex vgx = c/ngx  vgy Ex
t t
Single-mode fiber L km

*1. Pulse broadening due to the orthogonal polarization modes (The time delay between
the two polarization components is characterized as the differential group delay (DGD).)

2. Polarization varies along the fiber length

 • The refractive index difference is known as birefringence.

B = nx - ny (~ 10-6 - 10-5 for

single-mode fibers)
assuming nx > ny => y is the fast axis, x is the slow axis.

*B varies randomly because of thermal and mechanical stresses over

time (due to randomly varying environmental factors in submarine,
terrestrial, aerial, and buried fiber cables).

=> PMD is a statistical process !

• The polarization state of light propagating in fibers with randomly
varying birefringence will generally be elliptical and would quickly
reach a state of arbitrary polarization.

*However, the final polarization state is not of concern for most

lightwave systems as photodetectors are insensitive to the state of
polarization.
(Note: recent technology developments in “Coherent Optical
Communications” do require polarization state to be analyzed.)

• A simple model of PMD divides the fiber into a large number of

segments. Both the magnitude of birefringence B and the orientation
of the principal axes remain constant in each section but changes
randomly from section to section.
 A simple model of PMD
B0 B1 B2 B3

Lo L1 L2 L3

Ex

Ey
t

Randomly changing differential group delay (DGD)

124
e.g. Calculate the pulse broadening caused by PMD for a singlemode
fiber with a PMD parameter DPMD ~ 0.5 ps/km and a fiber length of
100 km. (i.e. ΔTPMD = 5 ps)

Recall that pulse broadening due to chromatic dispersion for a 1 nm

linewidth light source was ~ 15 ps/km, which resulted in 1500 ps for
100 km of fiber length.

=> PMD pulse broadening is orders of magnitude less than

chromatic dispersion !

*PMD is relatively small compared with chromatic dispersion. But

when one operates at zero-dispersion wavelength (or dispersion
compensated wavelengths) with narrow spectral width, PMD can
become a significant component of the total dispersion.
125
 So why do we care about PMD?

Recall that chromatic dispersion can be compensated to ~ 0,

(at least for single wavelengths, namely, by designing proper
-ve waveguide dispersion)

but there is no simple way to eliminate PMD completely.

=> It is PMD that limits the fiber bandwidth after chromatic

dispersion is compensated!

126
• PMD is of lesser concern in lower data rate systems. At lower
transmission speeds (up to and including 10 Gb/s), networks have
higher tolerances to all types of dispersion, including PMD.

As data rate increases, the dispersion tolerance reduces significantly,

creating a need to control PMD as much as possible at the current
40 Gb/s system.

e.g. The pulse broadening caused by PMD for a singlemode

fiber with a PMD parameter of 0.5 ps/km and a fiber length of
100 km => 5 ps.

However, this is comparable to the 40G bit period = 25 ps !

127