Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM coupler):

Basic 2×2 Mach-Zehnder interferometer based

WDM coupler
 Assignment : Design a Four-channel wavelength
multiplexer using 2×2 Mach-Zehnder interferometer
based WDM coupler

Ref: Optical Fiber Communication by Gerd Keiser

PLASMONIC WAVEGUIDES
 What is Plasmon???
• A plasmon is a density wave in an electron
gas.
• Analogous to sound wave.
• Exist in metals, where electrons are weakly
bound and free to move.
• Plasmonics is the study of plasmons and oscillation of
plasmons in solids such as metals,semi-metals,metal
oxides,nitrides,doped semiconductors etc.
• Electrons oscillates at the surface of a metal due to strong
interactions with the electric field of incident light.
• Due to high scattering rate of electrons, ohmic(heating)
losses in plasmonic signals are generally large ,which limits
the signal transfer distances to the cm range.
• Solution-Optimal plasmonic waveguide designs to maximize
ptopagation length of surface plasmons within a plasmonic
circuit.
• Plasmon gain amplification or Hybrid plasmonic waveguide
networks are used to increase the distance of propagation.
 Why plasmonics???
• Optoelectronics is much faster than regular
electronics(waveguides, optical fibers).
• With long wavelength of light (cm) creates a
problem for applying in nm domain.
• Solution – converting light to plasmons (small
wavelengths than light).
Converting light into plasmons
• To combine optoelectronics with plasmonics one
has to convert light (photons) into plasmons.
This is not as simple as it sounds.

• Bulk plasmons are longitudinal oscillations

(parallel to the propagation direction), while
photons are transverse (perpendicular to the
propagation). They don’t match.

• Surface plasmons are transverse, but they are

mismatched to photons in their momentum. The
two E(k) curves only coincide at k=0. It is
possible to provide the necessary momentum ħ
by a grating
 The surface plasmon band joins the photon band
at very small k and .

Photon

Bulk Plasmon

Surface Plasmon

Static: 0
0
 The Plasmon Resonance
• The electron gas has a resonance right
at the plasma frequency p . This
resonance frequency increases with the
electron density n , since the electric
restoring force is proportional to the
displaced charge (analogous to the force
constant f of a spring): p  n
 Surface plasmon polariton
• Polariton=photon + phonon
• Explains charge motion in metals(surface
plasmon=phonon) and electromagnetic waves in
the air or dielctric (photon)
• Spps are shorter in wavelength than incident light
(photons)
• An spp will propagate along the interface until its
energy is lost either due to absorption in the
metal or scattering into other directions(free
space)
• Optical systems with metallic waveguides can allow
miniaturizing optical components through excitation of
surface plasmon polaritons.
• Due to losses in metal, an excited plasmon can
propagate for only a very short distance.
• Introducing a heterostructure such as a three-layer
system helps to increase the propagation distance due
to the coupling of plasmons at the neighboring
interfaces and the field localization in dielectric rather
than metal.
• Dielectric-metal-dielectric and metal-dielectric-metal
structures
• Surface plasmon-polaritons (SPPs) are
electromagnetic modes occurring due to
coupling of incident radiation and collective
electron oscillations at the interface of a
medium with negative permittivity such as a
metal and a dielectric.
• These modes are bound to the interface
between the metal and the dielectric.
• SPP propagate along this interface.
• SPPs can be excited by an optical input so that
the light can be converted to plasmons of
much shorter wavelengths, which can then be
used to transmit data over a short distance.
• Above plasma frequency metal loses
reflectivity.
• The corresponding photon energy is the
plasmon energy
 Advantage of SPP over conventional
dielectric waveguide.
• Ease of fabrication.
• Ability to carry optical and electrical signals.
• SPPs are of TM type, light guided within the
dielectric region will suffer attenuation only in
its TM mode, while the TE mode remains
essentially unaffected- for polarisation
sensitive coherent systems.
Plasmonic materials

• Silver, n = 0.15016
• Gold, n= 0.27049
 Application in Nanophotonics

• Suface plasmons-
• Electrons and photons can coexist as a single entity !!

• An elementary excitation found at the interface between a conductor and an

insulator.
• Hybrid electric and photonic nature, plasmons allow photons to be precisely
controlled on the nanoscale.

• The electrons oscillate with an amplitude and phase reminiscent of light

waves, but are bound to a conducting surface.

© 2012 Materials Research Society-VOLUME 37-AUGUST 2012-www.mrs.org/bulletin

 Modes of propagation

▪ Single conducting interface,

▪ Also propagate within narrow dielectric channels.
▪ (For example, a shallow groove in a metallic film
supports “channel” plasmon polariton modes that
propagate along the dielectric region with minimal
decay into the surrounding metal ).
▪ Similarly, metal-insulator-metal or semiconducting-
insulator- metal multilayers can support “gap”or
“hybrid” plasmon polariton modes.
Waveguiding with one interface
Channel plasmon subwavelength
components
Plasmonic gap waveguides
 Major applications..

• Integrated plasmonic circuits for nanophotonic

computation.
• nanoscale optical modulators,
• high-efficiency solar cells,
• photocatalysts,
• They also provide the basis for color-changing
biosensors (such as home pregnancy tests),
photothermal cancer treatments, improved
photovoltaic cell efficiencies, and nanoscale lasers.
• nanoscale lasers,
• and electromagnetic meta-materials
• for invisibility and sub-diffraction-
• limited optical microscopy.
Plasmon nanoparticles serve as efficient
receiving and transmitting “nanoantennas”
for optical signals.
• Conducting nanoparticle with dimensions much smaller
than the wavelength of light exhibits a purely localized
plasmon resonance, similar to an electric dipole.
• Its scattering spectrum depends sensitively on the particle
size, shape, charge, and the surrounding dielectric media.
• The strong local resonances - utilized in biological and
catalytic sensing, as well as in ‘spasing’
“Spasing”—Surface Plasmon Amplification by
Stimulated emission of radiation.
Colour depends on particle size
Broadband high efficiency plasmonic
silicon waveguide coupler
Coupling of plasmonic and photonic nanowires
for hybrid nano photonic circuits
Extraordinary optical transmission through
sub-wavelength hole arrays
Photonic Materials &Applications
 Content

➢ Introduction

➢ Semiconductor waveguides material

➢ Substrate Materials for PIC’s

➢ Glass Waveguides material

➢ Electro-Optic Waveguides material

➢ Polymer materials and its properties

➢ Material comparisons for optical circuits

2
In 1880 ‘s

3
Photo phone

4
 Early and late 1960’s

➢ Signals carried by optical beams rather than by electrical

currents or radio waves

➢ Laser beams can be transmitted through the air

➢ Late 1960s, the concept of “integrated optics” emerged

➢ Wires and radio links are replaced by light-waveguiding

optical fibers

➢ Optical integrated circuits (OIC’s), also known 5as PIC’s

Monolithic integrated optic system for optical
communications

6
Advantages

➢ Increased bandwidth

➢ Expanded frequency (wavelength) division multiplexing

➢ Low-loss couplers

➢ Expanded multipole switching (number of poles, switching

speed)

➢ Smaller size, weight, lower power consumption

7
Energy band

8
Direct and Indirect Band gap Semiconductors

➢ Those materials for which maximum of valence band and

minimum of conductio band lie for same value of k, called
direct bandgap materials

➢ For example: GaAs, InP,.etc

➢ Those materials for which maximum of valence band and

minimum of conduction band do not occur at same value of k,
called indirect bandgap materials

➢ For example: Si and Ge 9

 Band gap structure

Direct Band gap Indirect Band gap

10
Contd.,

Indirect Band gap

Direct Band gap

11
 Bandgap Wavelength

➢ Photon energy

➢ If the band gap energy is given in eV (rather than joules)

12
Semiconducting Materials

13
 Ternary and Quaternary Compounds
➢ A fraction of the lattice sites in a binary semiconductor (GaAs,
InP, etc.) is replaced by other elements

➢ Ternary compound AlxGa1-xAs is made by replacing a

fraction x of Ga atoms by Al atoms

➢ Band gap varies with x as

Eg = 1.424+1.266x+0.266x2

➢ Quaternary compound In1-xGaxAsyP1-y useful in the

wavelength range 1.1 to 1.6 mm
14
➢ Selected Elemental and Ill-V Binary Semiconductors and Their Bandgap
Energies Eg at T = 300K ,Bandgap Wavelength = hco, /Eg, and Type of Gap (I
= Indirect, D = Direct)

15
Fig. Lattice constants, bandgap energies, and bandgap wavelengths for Si, Ge,
and nine III-V binary compounds

16
 Bandgap structure

Silicon

GaAs

Germanium
➢ Indirect bandgap materials are not suitable for optical devices (LEDs
and Laser diodes)
17
➢ The bandgap wavelength, can be adjusted over a substantial
range (from the infrared to the visible) by using III-V ternary and
quaternary semiconductors of different composition

➢ The shaded regions represent compositions for which the

materials are direct-gap semiconductors 18
 Materials and its application

➢ Al , Ga, In and P, As, Sb are used for making photo detector

and sources

➢ Si and Ge are used for making photo detector

➢ LiNbO3 used commonly for making optical modulators

➢ Polymer materials used for making optical coupler/splitter

20
Passive materials (Incapable Active materials (Capable of light
of light generation) generation)

➢ Quartz ➢ Gallium arsenide (GaAs)

➢ Lithium niobate ➢ Gallium aluminum arsenide
➢ Lithium tantalate (GaAlAs)
➢ Tantalum pentoxide ➢ Gallium arsenide phosphide
➢ Niobium pentoxide (GaAsP)
➢ Silicon ➢ Gallium indium arsenide (GaInAs)
➢ Polymers ➢ Other III-V & II-VI semiconductors
materials

21
 Properties of GaAs, GaAlAs and GaInAsP

0.6–12 μm
Transparency

0.65–1.7 μm
Emitted wavelength

Negligible lattice mismatch results in

Lattice matching
minimal strain
Large electro-optic and acusto-optic
Switching
figures of merit
Epitaxy, doping, ohmic, contacts,
Technology masking, etching all are well developed

Less than other III–V or II–VI

Cost
materials
22
Epitaxial growth of multiple layers on a base substrate
(GaAs or InP)

23
 Lithium Niobate Waveguides

➢ LiNbO3 waveguides do not require an epitaxial growth

➢ A popular technique employs diffusion of metals into a LiNbO3

substrate, resulting in a low-loss waveguide

➢ The most commonly used element: Titanium (Ti)

➢ Diffusion of Ti atoms within LiNbO3 crystal increases

refractive index and forms the core region

➢ Out-diffusion of Li atoms from substrate should be avoided

24
 Properties of LiNbO3

0.2–12 μm low loss

Transparency

none
Emitted wavelength

Negligible lattice mismatch results in

Lattice matching
minimal strain
Large electro-optic and acusto-optic
Switching
figures of merit
Waveguide fabrication, masking,
Technology etching, polishing all are well
developed
Cost More than GaAs
Application Light signal modulators
25
 Polymer materials

➢ Polymer materials has grown rapidly

➢ Lithium Niobate are relatively expensive

➢ The processes used to fabricate devices in those materials are

very complex

➢ Cost saving depends on

❖ Reduced materials expense

❖ Simple processing of polymers

26
Contd.,
Two category

➢ Passive polymer device

➢ Properties of the devices are constant

❖ Operation depends on coupling, reflection,

diffraction, refraction, absorption, etc

❖ Active polymer device

❖ Properties of the devices are not constant.

27
 Passive polymer device
❖ Coupler/splitter
❖ Grating/filter
❖ Delay line
❖ Mode converter
❖ Attenuator
❖ Array Waveguide Grating
(AWG)
Active polymer device
❖ Light emitter
❖ LASER
❖ Light detector
❖ Optical modulator/switch
❖ Accelerometer
❖Chemical detector
28
 Material comparisons for optical circuits
Property LiNbO3 GaAs/AlGaAs Thin film on Silica
Thin-film evaporation or
Form Single crystal Epitaxially grown
sputtering
Refractive index 2.2 3.5 Depend on the materials
Attenuation 0.5 dB/cm 1-2 dB/cm 0.1 dB/cm
Birefringence Very high Low High
Electro optic
High Medium Medium
coefficient

Materials depend-yes for

Piezoelectric Good No
ZnO

Electronic
No Yes Yes
compatibility

Laser compatibility No Yes No

29
Main Non-Semiconducting Optical
Waveguides

30
 Challenges

❖ Absorption loss

❖ Scattering loss

❖ Leakage

❖ Polarization dependence loss

❖ Waveguide losses

❖ Refractive index changes

31
32
 Summary

Materials for waveguides

➢ Semiconductor Waveguides: GaAs, InP, etc.

➢ Electro-Optic Waveguides: mostly LiNbO3

➢ Glass Waveguides: Silica (SiO2), SiON

❖ Silica-on-silicon technology

❖ Laser-written waveguides

➢ Silicon-on-Insulator Technology 33
 Optical Waveguides

➢ Planar waveguides guide light only in the vertical direction,

where as channel waveguides guide in two dimensions
➢ Solar applications
Material processing
solar plant lighting system
Mach-Zender Interferometer

➢ 2x2 MZI
➢ 3 sections
3 dB combiner
Phase shifter
3 dB divider
➢ phase shift can either be due to refractive index or different
path length

∆L=c/(2neff ∆ϒ)
NxN Star Coupler
➢ Various ranges from 8x8 to 256x256
➢ Useful in high speed multiple access optical networks
➢ Distributes input signal evenly among all receivers

Schematic configuration of N ×N star coupler.

 References
• Robert G. Hunsperger, “Integrated Optics Theory and Technology,” Springer
publication, Sixth Edition, 2009.

• S. Martellucci and A. N. Chester, “Integrated Optics Physics and Applications,”

Plenum Press New York and London, 1983.

• Robert J. Dei and Eli Kapon, “Low-Loss III-V Semiconductor Optical

Waveguides,” IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics, vol. 21, no. 3, 1991.

• Lynn D.Hutcheson, “Integrated optical circuits and components design and

applications,” Marcel Dekker, INC. 1987.

• Kentarou Tamki, Hideaki Takase, Eriyama and Ukachi, “Recent progress on

42
polymer waveguide materials,” Journal of photo polymer science and
Thank you

43
SILICON
COMPOUND
SEMICONDUCTORS
BY:

PREM SATHAN L -108120097

SANDEEP MUTHU - 108120109

SRIPADMANABHAN S - 108120126
OVERVIEW

● Introduction
● Why Compound semiconductors?
● Silicon compound semiconductors and its applications

○ Si3N4

○ Si-Ge

○ SiC
INTRODUCTION
● Semiconductor

○ Eg of Si = 1.1eV

○ Eg of Ge = 0.7eV

● Classification of semiconductors

○ Intrinsic and Extrinsic

○ Elemental and Compound

Why are compound semiconductors used in
Optical Devices?

● Tunable Bandgap
● Direct Bandgap materials
● High electron mobility
● Optical gain
● Temperature stability
Direct and Indirect Bandgap
semiconductors
Direct Indirect

● The energy difference is most important in optical devices.

● Direct: Only Photon. Indirect: Phonon+Photon.
Examples:
➢ Direct: Si3N4,SiC,Si-Ge,GaAs
➢ Indirect: Si,Ge
Silicon Nitride - Si3N4

Preparation Methods:
1. Silicon nitride is prepared by heating powdered silicon between 1300 °C and
1400 °C in a nitrogen atmosphere: 3 Si + 2 N2 → Si3N4
2. Carbothermal Reduction at 1450oC. 3 SiO2 + 6 C + 2 N2 → Si3N4 + 6 CO
3. Diimide route:
SiCl4 + 6 NH3 → Si(NH)2 + 4 NH4Cl(s) at 0 °C
3 Si(NH)2 → Si3N4 + N2 + 3 H2(g) at 1000 °C
4. Film Deposition:

❑ LPCVD – Low Pressure Chemical Vapor deposition

❑ PECVD – Plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition

 Si3N4 in the Industry

❖ LioniX International,
LioniX International is global provider of customized microsystems specializing
in photonic integrated circuit modules and custom MEMS.
LioniX International has been pioneering the use of silicon nitride in integrated photonics
since 2001 and has an extensive library of building blocks for both photonic integrated
circuit design and module development.
Silicon Nitride waveguide technology: TripleX
❖ Silicon nitride waveguides are suitable for a wide range of photonic
integrated circuit applications, operating in a broad wavelength band
from 405 nm to 2350 nm.
❖ On chip actuation: Electro – Optic and Stress – Optic actuation.

https://www.lionix-international.com/photonics/pic-technology/triplex-
waveguide-technology/
Other Applications

1. Waveguides and Interconnects

2. Photonic Sensing
3. Optical Filters
4. Optical Resonators
5. Frequency comb generators
6. Si3N4 – Graphene Photodetector

https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2018/
nr/c8nr03345e
 Silicon Germanium (SiGe)

● Silicon-germanium is a general term used for Si1-xGex alloys

that consist of any molar ratio of germanium and silicon.

● It is manufactured on silicon wafers by using conventional

silicon processing toolsets.

● Silicon-germanium enables faster and more efficient

manufacturing of devices using smaller, less noisy circuits. It
also extends the battery life of hand-held devices by
consuming less power.
 Electrical Properties

● Breakdown Field = <3x105 V/cm

● Electron Mobility (@300 K, 0≤x≤0.3) ≈(1396-4315x) cm2/Vs
● Hole Mobility (@300 K, 0≤x≤0.3) ≈(450-865x) cm2/Vs
 SiGe in Optoelectronics

● Infrared Photodetectors: SiGe can detect a broader range of

the IR spectrum than silicon alone.

● Optical Modulators: Leveraging strain and quantum

confinement effects.

● Integrated Photonics: Potential for monolithic integration of

electronic and photonic devices on a single SiGe platform.
 Synthesis of Silicon-Germanium (SiGe)

1. Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE):

○ Ultra-pure Si and Ge beams under ultra-high vacuum.

○ Excellent control over composition and doping.

○ Slower growth rates, higher equipment costs.

2. Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD):

○ Decomposition of gaseous precursors on heated substrate.

○ Suitable for industrial scale, higher growth rates.

○ Challenging control over ultra-thin layers.

 Synthesis of Silicon-Germanium (SiGe) Cont.

3. Ultra-High Vacuum CVD (UHV-CVD):

○ Combines CVD under ultra-high vacuum conditions.

○ Fewer impurities, excellent control over growth.

○ Slower growth than standard CVD.

4. Rapid Thermal CVD (RTCVD):

○ Rapid thermal cycles under CVD conditions.

○ High-quality films, controlled strain, and defects.

○ Complexity in temperature management.

Future Prospects

● Emerging Technologies: Quantum computing, integrated photonics, etc.

● Challenges: Material quality, integration with other platforms, achieving higher Ge

concentrations.

● Research Direction: Focus on enhancing light emission efficiency, improving material

quality, and expanding applications.
 Silicon Carbide (SiC)

● Belongs to the wide-bandgap family of materials. Its physical

bond is very strong, giving the semiconductor a high
mechanical, chemical, and thermal stability.
● Low-loss semiconductors due to its low ON resistance and
superior high-temperature, high-frequency, and high-voltage
performance when compared to silicon.
● In its pure form, silicon carbide behaves like an electrical
insulator. With the controlled addition of impurities or
dopants, SiC can behave like a semiconductor.
● For P-Type, use Al, B, Ga.
● For N-Type use N, P.
 SiC Properties

The combination of silicon with carbon provides this material with

excellent mechanical, chemical and thermal properties, including:

● high thermal conductivity

● low thermal expansion and excellent thermal shock resistance
● low power and switching losses
● high energy efficiency
● high operating frequency and temperature (operating up to
200°C junction)
SiC Manufacturing process
 Acheson Process

● The process consists of heating a mixture of silicon dioxide (SiO2), in the form of silica or quartz
sand, and carbon in its elemental form as powdered coke, in an iron bowl.
● In the furnace, the silicon dioxide, which sometimes also contains other additives along with ferric
oxide and saw dust is melted surrounding a graphite rod, which serves as a core. These rods are
inserted in such a way that they are held in contact with each other through the particles of coke,
which is commonly called coke bed. An electric current is passed through the graphite rods. which
heats the mixture to 1700–2500 °C. The result of the carbothermic reaction, is a layer of silicon
carbide (especially in its alpha and beta phases) forming around the rod and emission of carbon
monooxide (CO). There are four chemical reactions in the production of silicon carbide:
● 1.C + SiO2 → SiO + CO
● 2.SiO2 + CO → SiO + CO2
● 3.C + CO2 → 2CO
● 4.SiO + 2 C → SiC + CO
● This overall process is highly endothermic, with a net reaction
Acheson Process
 SiC Si

• Despite being the most widely used semiconductor in electronics, silicon is beginning to show
some limitations, especially in high-power applications.
• A relevant factor in these applications is the bandgap, or energy gap, offered by the
semiconductor.

• When the bandgap is high, the electronics it uses can be smaller, run faster, and more reliably.
• It can also operate at higher temperatures, voltages, and frequencies than other semiconductors.

• While silicon has a bandgap of around 1.12eV, silicon carbide has a nearly three times greater
value of around 3.26eV.
• dielectric breakdown intensity of the electric field about ten times higher than that of silicon, SiC
can reach a very high breakdown voltage, from 600V to a few thousand volts.
• SiC can use higher doping concentrations than silicon.
 Application of SiC on Electro-Optics

• As a non-centrosymmetric crystal, silicon carbide (3C-SiC) exhibits the Pockels effect.

● This effect allows the refractive index to vary linearly and rapidly in proportion to an
applied electric field.
• In Integrated photonics, an electro-optic modulator, a device which encodes electrical signals
onto light plays crucial role.
• So, we can realise an pockels modulator in SiC, which operates using CMOS level voltages.

Overview of ring modulator, compatible with CMOS Voltage levels. (Digital Modulation).
 Structure

The modulator is fabricated with a CMOS foundry compatible process and operates at
a transmission rate of up to 15 Gbit/s using CMOS-level drive voltages.
 Different Drive Voltages

Time-domain waveforms measured at the output of the modulator at 5 Gb/s for drive
voltages of 2 Vpp and 1.2 Vpp, respectively.
Drive-voltage-dependent eye diagram quality factors (QE) for increasing bit
rate. The bar plot shows the modulation bandwidth with QE > 2.7.
Thank you