SOIL TEST AND SURVEY

4-1 Test for Particle Size

The sieve analysis is the process used to determine the particle size for gravels and for
coarse and fine sands. A sample of the materials is thoroughly dried and then shaken through a
series of sieves ranging from coarse to fine and the amount on each sieve is weighed and
recorded. The AASHTO standard sieve sizes for soil aggregate are as follows:

Sieve
Designatio 2 1 1/2 1 3/4 3/8 4 10 40 200
n in inches
By
Number 50 37.5 25.0 19.0 9.50 4.75 2.00 .425 .075
Opening in
Millimeter
Source: AASHTO Designation T-27; M92 and ASTM Desig. E-11
Materials that are finer than the No. 200 sieve (.075mm) is not feasible for determining
the particles size.

Soil Test and Survey

Under the Stoke's Law, "The rate of settlement of solid
through a given liquid or gas is proportional to the square of
the diameters of the solid." The AASHTO method as specified is called Hydrometer Test
AASHTO designation T-88.

Hydrometer Test
1. Sample of the material passing No.10 sieve is mixed thoroughly with water and dispersing
agent that dissipate any electrolytic bonds in the sample that might cause flocculation and
accelerate settlement.
2. After 12 hours, the mixture is agitated making all particles suspended in water.
3. The mixture is then placed in a graduated flask, allowing
the solid to settle under the pull of gravity.
4. The bigger particles settle first, followed by the smaller
then the smallest one. The specific gravity of the liquid
decreases. The changes are recorded by special hydrometer and read at prescribed intervals.
5. Change in specific gravity is related to the grain size of
the material by Stoke's law.
6. Careful control of temperature and other possible variable is strictly observed to obtain
satisfactory test results.
4-2 TEST TO EVALUATE THE EEFECTS OF MOISTURE

1. The Liquid Limit Test - The AASHTO Designation T 89 on LIQUID LIMIT signifies the
percentage of moisture at which the sample changes by decreasing the water from liquid to a
plastic state.

2. The Plastic Limit - AASHTO Designation T-90 signifies the percentage of moisture wherein
the sample changes with lowering wetness from a plastic to semi-solid condition.

3. The Plastic Index - AASHTO Designation T-91 is defined as the numerical difference
between its liquid limit and its plastic limit. It is also referred to as a percentage of dry weight. It
is also referred to as the percentage of dry weight. In some combination, it measures:
a.) The fineness and shapes of the soil particles.
b.) The interplay of the attractive forces tending to hold the clay mineral flakes together.
c.) The thickness and velocity of the water film and,
d.) The quantity and electrical charges of the cations.

4. Shrinkage Test - AASHTO Designation T-92 the test measures the changes in volume and
weight that occur as a party mixture of soil (except sieve no. 40) and the water.

5. Hand Feel Test -experienced soil engineers employ the “hand feel test” to approximately
predict the plasticity index of the soils. These tests may include:
1. Thread toughness at a moisture content approximating the plastic limit.
2. The air-dried strength
3. Dilatancy
Clean sand with some rocks and certain other materials are classified as non-plastic
materials because they cannot be rolled into threads as required in determining the plastic limit.
As a rule:
1. Non-plastic soils are excellent type of road materials when properly confined under wearing
course.
2. A well graded rock dust form hard durable surface when wet and compacted.
3. Clean sand displace easily under load and their use as fill or base course create problems, but
they may have other desirable feature such as facilitating sub-surface drainage.

6. Sand Equivalent Test - AASHTO Designation T-176 the sand equivalent is the ratio between
the height of the sand column (laboratory experiment test) and the combined height of the sand
and the expanded saturated clay which are expressed in percentage.
4-3 Density Test Soil
The density of soil or weight per cubic foot varies with the peculiarities of the soil itself,
the moisture content, and the compacted device, plus the method of their use.
The Main Variables in the Soil Proper are:
1. The Specific Gravity of the Soil Particles - which may vary from 2.0 to 3.3 but usually is
between 2.5 and 2.8.
2. The particle size of the distribution of the soil - a mass composed entirely of spheres of one
size in the densest possible condition will contain 75% solid and 25% voids. The smaller the
sphere in the mass the higher the percentage of the solid, hence, particle size distribution may
greatly affect density.
3. The grain shapes of soils particles - sharp angular will resist shifting from a loose to a
compacted state. Flaky particles in soil will decrease its density because they are difficult to
compact.

4-4 Laboratory Test for Soil Density

Test for density may be divided into two:
1. Laboratory test to set standard for density.
2. Field test to measure the density of soil in-placed on the roadway.

Laboratory tests may be subdivided into three, according to the basis of compaction procedures.
1. Static test.
2. Dynamic or impact test.
3. Tamping foot or kneading compaction test.

Static Test is determining the maximum density of soil sample in the laboratory. A sample of
about 5000 grams of soil containing a specified percentage of water is placed in a cylinder mold
6 inches diameter and 8 inches high.

The sample is then compressed under a load of 2000 pounds per square inch applied at
the speed of 0.05 inch per minute. When the maximum load is reached, it is held for a period of 1
minute and then, gradually released from the known dry weight of the soul. The mold diameter
and the height dry density of the sample are computed. Several samples are compressed to
delineate the peak of the moisture density. This peak value represents the standard.

Dynamic or Impact Test. Samples of soils each containing a designated percentage of water are
compacted in layers into molds of specified size. The sample is compacted by applying a number
of blows from a free-falling hammer of prescribed dimension and weight with flat circular face.
The peak of moisture density value represents the standard density. The AASHTO tests may be
applied on that portion of the soil which will pass No. 4 sieve or all that passes ¾” sieve.

NUMBER OF TESTS
AASHTO **Modified Califoria
Text Details Standard AASHTO Impact
Diameter of Mold 4 to 6 4 to 6 2.86
 (inches)
Height of Sample 5 cut to 4.58 5 cut to 4. 58 10-12
(inches)
Number of Lifts 3 5 5
Blows per Lift 25 to 26 25 to 26 20
Weight of Hammer lbs. 5.5 10 10
Diameter of compacting 2 2 2
Surface (inches)
Free fall distance 12 18 18
(inches)
Volume, net in cubic ft. 1/30 or 1/13.33 1/30 or 1/13.33 Varies
*AASHTO Designation T-99 **AASHTO Designation T-180
Tamping Foot or Kneading Compact Test
The material is fed into a rotating mold and compacted by several repetitive loads applied
through tamping shoe shaped like a sector of the circle. About 25% of the specimen is covered in
each application. Compaction is through kneading action in contrast with the static pressure or
impact test.

4-5 Field Density Test of Soil in Place

Field density test is the means of comparing the density with the laboratory results. The
comparison is performed on the basis of relative compaction defined as follows:

Dry wt ./cu . ft . of soil ∈theroadway structur

Relative Compaction=
Dry wt . /cu . ft . of soil sample at optimum moisture content compacted
¿ standard manner

Relative compaction is the only measure by which the acceptability of a completed

roadway structure is measured.

Field Density and Moisture Content by Sampling

The manners of determining relative compaction by sampling are as follows:

1. Obtain samples of the compacted materials to be tested at full depth.
2. Find the wet and dry weight of the sample, then, deter- mine its moisture content.
3. Determine the volume of sample in the fill by finding the weight of materials required to
fill the space.
4. From the dry weight of the sample and the volume that it occupies in the fill, find the dry
weight per cubic foot.
5. Find the relative compaction of the soil in fill by dividing its dry weight per cubic foot by
the laboratory standard density.

There are four factors that affect the accuracy of measuring relative density, they are:
1. Change in the soil itself.
2. The sampling methods.
3. The accuracy of laboratory testing for standard density.
4. The accuracy of testing field density.

4-6 The Strength Test

Soil tests to determine the strength of soil is classified into:
1. Test for load carrying capacity, rate, and amount of consolidation in soils that support the
foundation. (This is applicable to bridge foundation).
2. Test to measure the supporting power of disturbed soils as compacted under standard
procedures.
California Bearing Ratio Method (CBR)
The California Bearing Ratio Method (CBR) combines a load deformation test performed in the
laboratory with an empirical design chart to determine the thickness of pavement base and other
layers. The tests are briefly conducted as follows:

1. The disturbed soil samples at different moisture content are compacted in 3 layers by
static loading or impact hammer into a cylinder mold 6 inches diameter by 8 inches high.
The specimen depth is about 5 inches. The 5.5 pounds hammer AASHTO standard
density test is used in the impact method.
2. The moisture density curve is plotted. The sample with greatest dry density is chosen.
3. The specimen in the mold is immersed in water for four days to allow saturation.
Expansion of the specimen is recorded.
4. A small piston of 3 inches diameter is forced into the con- fined specimen. Load
deformation data is recorded. The California Bearing Ratio is computed as follows:

Loa d of test specimenat 0.1∈ piston penetration

CBR=
Loa d carried by standard crushed rocks based on 0.1 inch piston penetration

The HVEEM Stabilometer Method

This method measures the horizontal pressure developed in a short cylinder sample
loaded vertically on its end.

Stabilometer Operating Procedures:

1. Four different samples are prepared on a short cylinder about 4 inches diameter by 2½
inches high of different known moisture contents.
2. Compaction is done using tamping foot or kneading compactor.
3. Each compacted specimen inside the mold is compressed until water exudes from it and
pass several electric cir- cuits wired in parallel through the base plate of the exuda tion
measuring devices.

FIGURE 4-2 DIAGRAM OF THE HVEEM STABILOMETER

It was found out after several tests that soils in underlying pavements exceeded moisture
under pressure of about 300 psi. It appears that soaking did not produce a condition of certain
fine grain materials. In effect, the exudation pressure is a different means in determining the
moisture contents of the soil on the roadway. Moisture content in stabilometer test samples is set
to bracket the 300 psi. value on which design was based.

Test for Expansion Pressure

After exudation test while sample is still in the mold, it is tested for expansion pressure.
A perforated brass plate is placed on the sample and covered with water for 16-20 hours.
Expansion during this period is prevented, and the pressure that pre vents it is measured. As
mentioned earlier, soils that expanded due to the presence of water should be placed under
sufficient weight of fill to prevent swelling.

Stabilometer Test
After the expansion test, the specimen is enclosed in a flexible sleeve and placed inside
the stabilometer. Vertical pressure is applied slowly at speed of 0.05 inch per minute until it
reaches 160 psi. The developed horizontal pressure is reduced to 5 psi using the displacement
pump. The turns of displacement pump needed to bring the horizontal pressure to 100 psi is
determined. This displacement procedure is intended to measure the penetration of the flexible
diaphragm into the intersection of the sample.

FIGURE 4-3 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF DYNAMIC MODULUS TESTS

The resistance value R of the soil is computed by the following formula:

100
R=100−
Pv
2.5 −1+1
Ph
Where:
R = Resistance value
Pv = Vertical pressure (160 psi)
D = Tums displacement reading (approx. from 2 to 5)
Ph = Horizontal pressure in psi at Pv of 160 psi

Tri-Axial Design Method

This method is used by some agencies for compression test (see AASHTO Designation T-234).
In open system tri-axial test, lateral pressure is held constant releasing from the con- tainer as
increased load causes the sample to expand laterally.
Dynamic Modulus
Re-compacted or undisturbed samples are tested to deter mine the influence of temperature,
degree of saturation, density. and age on the dynamic response of pavement materials. It was
found that the modulus of asphalt concrete ranger from 100,000 to 1,000,000 psi, depending
upon the temperature. For cement treated base, from 500,000 to 3,000,000 pm For aggregate
base and sub base from 10,000 to 50,000 psi, and for fine grain aggregate soil, 1,500 to 50,000
psi, depending upon the water content.

Nuclear Devices Test

Recently, Nuclear Devices for determining in-place densities and moisture contents are used.
The gauge readings are easily converted to density and prevent moisture using calibration curves
or microprocessors. The portable device is either the transmission, or back scatter type.

The transmission type measures density and moisture content for any depth up to 25 centimeters.
The back scatter device is placed directly on top of the soil layer or slightly above it to provide
an air gap between the instrument and soil surface. It measures density and moisture content to a
depth of 3 to 4 inches. Nuclear device overcomes construction delay where samples could be
taken while construction equipment is operating. The Nuclear device travels over the fill at about
4.5 kilometers per hour and continuously recording the density and moisture content.

4-7 Soil Survey

The preliminary soil investigation is an integral part of highway reconnaissance and
preliminary location survey. In fixing the position of the roadway, the following should be taken
into accounts:

1. Soil conditions.
2. Directness of the route
3. Topography.
4. Right of way
5. Neighborhood disruption.
6. Environmental consideration

The early phase of soil survey is the collection of information gathered from the following:
1. Identification of soil types from: geological and agricultural soil maps, aerial
photographs, and other sources.
2. Investigation of ground water conditions, examining existing roadway cuts and other
excavations.
3. Review of the design and construction procedures, and present condition of roads that
traverse the area.
4. Soil exploration along the right of way using auger boring and test pile. Sampling should
be at frequent intervals to fix the boundaries of each soil types.
5. Test holes should extend to a significant depth below the sub-grade elevation with
recommended minimum depth.
6. The location, nature of the ground, origin of parent mate- rials, landform and agricultural
soil name, should be re- corded.
7. Each soil layer is described according to thickness, fixture structure, organic content,
relation contents and cementation. The depth of seepage zones of free water table and
bedrocks are also recorded.
8. The soil profile along the roadway centerline showing lo cation or test hole range of soil
profile characteristics for each district soil type is plotted.

Along with the first reconnaissance and preliminary location survey. The highway agencies
make a detailed study of the following data:

1. The vertical and horizontal location of the proposed construction

2. Location and evaluation of suitable borrow and construction materials.
3. Need for the type of sub-grade or embankment foundation treatment and drainage
4. Need for special excavation and dewatering techniques.
5. Development of detailed sub-surface investigations for specific structures.
6. Investigation of slope stability in both outs and embankment.

Refraction Seismic Method

A geophysical method used for sub-surface exploration called refraction seismic method
relies on the principle that, the spood of shock travelling through the earth surface varies, de-
pending upon the kind of materials. Shock waves travel through light loose soils at
approximately 180 meters per second, and 6,000 meter per second on dense and solid rock.

If the earth's crust is of uniform material for some depth, these time intervals are proportional
to the distance from the origin of explosion. If the surface layer is of harder denser material,
the time interval to a distant point is shortened. The shock waves travel beneath the denser
material along its upper margin, and then returned to the recording instrument.

The records for the time of wave travel against the shooting distance, the number and
thickness of the different underlying layers, including the depth to bedrock can be predicted.
This test is useful in determining the depth of the rock but could be deceiving on roughly
tilted stratified materials.

The refraction method was developed for exploration of underground conditions of roadway
cuts. The shock wave is obtained by striking a 6 inches square steel plate with 4 kilo- grams
sledged hammer. The test is done by applying direct cur- rent to flow through the soil
between two other supply electrodes placed immediately at the third points. The resistivity
changes where depth is produced, recording the results at various electrode spacing.

This method is somewhat reliable although sometimes it cannot be totally depended on

regarding the information as to the presence of solid rock. It is useful in area exploration
when it is used to find localized sand and gravel deposits.