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Lecture Notes in Information Systems and Organisation 34
Bo Andersson
Björn Johansson
Chris Barry
Michael Lang
Henry Linger
Christoph Schneider Editors
Advances in
Information
Systems
Development
Designing Digitalization
Lecture Notes in Information Systems
and Organisation
Volume 34
Series Editors
Paolo Spagnoletti, Rome, Italy
Marco De Marco, Rome, Italy
Nancy Pouloudi, Athens, Greece
Dov Te’eni, Tel Aviv, Israel
Jan vom Brocke, Vaduz, Liechtenstein
Robert Winter, St. Gallen, Switzerland
Richard Baskerville, Atlanta, USA
Lecture Notes in Information Systems and Organization—LNISO—is a series of
scientific books that explore the current scenario of information systems, in
particular IS and organization. The focus on the relationship between IT, IS and
organization is the common thread of this collection, which aspires to provide
scholars across the world with a point of reference and comparison in the study and
research of information systems and organization. LNISO is the publication forum
for the community of scholars investigating behavioral and design aspects of IS and
organization. The series offers an integrated publication platform for high-quality
conferences, symposia and workshops in this field. Materials are published upon a
strictly controlled double blind peer review evaluation made by selected reviewers.
LNISO is abstracted/indexed in Scopus
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/11237

Bo Andersson Björn Johansson
• •
Chris Barry Michael Lang

• •
Henry Linger Christoph Schneider

•
Editors
Advances in Information
Systems Development
Designing Digitalization
123
Editors
Bo Andersson Björn Johansson
School of Economics and Management School of Economics and Management
Lund University Lund University
Lund, Sweden Lund, Sweden
Chris Barry Michael Lang

Cairnes School of Business and Economics Cairnes School of Business and Economics
National University of Ireland Galway National University of Ireland Galway
Galway, Ireland Galway, Ireland
Henry Linger Christoph Schneider

Faculty of Information Technology IESE Business School
Monash University University of Navarra
Melbourne, VIC, Australia Barcelona, Spain
ISSN 2195-4968 ISSN 2195-4976 (electronic)

Lecture Notes in Information Systems and Organisation
ISBN 978-3-030-22992-4 ISBN 978-3-030-22993-1 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22993-1
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
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The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
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the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
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The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Conference Organization
Conference Chairs
Bo Andersson
Björn Johansson
Sven Carlsson
International Steering Committee
Chris Barry
Michael Lang
Henry Linger
Christoph Schneider
Track Chairs
Transforming Society with ISD

Ida Asadi Someh
Johan Sandberg
Trevor Clohessy
ISD Education
Arto Lanamäki
Lars Svensson
Peter Bellström
v
vi Conference Organization
Human-Computer Interaction
Azadeh Savoli
John Sören Pettersson
Yukika Awazu
e-Health
Christina Keller
Joseph Wu
Sofie Wass
Information Systems Methodologies and Modelling
Birger Lantow
Darek Haftorn
Kurt Sandkuhl
Managing ISD
Emilio Insfran
Giuseppe Scanniello
Topics in ISD
Mostafa Mesgari
Michael Lang
Reviewers
Parisa Aasi Priscila Cedillo

Silvia Abrahao Luca Cernuzzi
Jan Aidemark Michel Chaudron
Nam Aghaee Witold Chmielarz
Asif Akram Kieran Conboy
Beatrice Alenljung Alena Connolly
Henrik Andersson Björn Cronquist
Nour Ali Subhasish Dasgupta
Vasco Amaral Denis Dennehy
Joao Araujo Lina Eklund
Rogerio Atem De Carvalho Fausto Fasano
Eduard Babkin Davide Fucci
Per Backlund Jesus Garcia-Molina
Rehema Baguma Martin Gellerstedt
Chris Barry Ahmad Ghazawneh
Dominique Blouin Guido Giunti
Etienne Borde Abel Gomez
Conference Organization vii
Janis Grabis Jyrki Nimmenmaa

Carmine Gravino Daniel Nylén
Casandra Grundstrom Lena Pareto
Bengt Göransson Nearchos Paspallis
Amir Haj-Bolouri Raphael Pereira De Oliveira
Darek Haftor Claudia Pons
G. Harindranath Natallia Pshkevich
Hugo Hedlund Thuy Duong Oesterreich
Hans Hedbom David Olson
Mairéad Hogan Anders D. Olofsson
Tomas Horvath Christian Ostlund
Miroslav Hudec Natallia Pshkevich
Amin Jalali Iman Raeesi Vanani
William Jobe Dorina Rajanen
Katrin Jonsson Mikko Rajanen
Gustaf Juell-Skielse Marios Raspopoulos
Bridget Kane Vaclav Repa
Dimitris Karagiannis Simone Romano
Mari Karjalainen Sana Rouis
Pasi Karppinen Boubker Sbihi
Grace Kenny Betty Saenyi
Andreas Koczkas Kurt Sandkuhl
Erdelina Kurti Christoph Schneider
Michael Lang Di Shang
Birger Lantow Ulf Seigerroth
Jouni Lappalainen Maria Spante
Ola J. Lindberg Janis Stirna
Henry Linger Karen Stendal
Michael Le Duc Frantisek Sudzina
Juhani Iivari Lars Svensson
Ulrika Lundh Snis Ann Svensson
Monika Magnusson Fredrik Söderström
Osama Mansour Torben Tambo
Jabier Martinez Tecnalia Lars Taxén
Raimundas Matulevicius Claes Thorén
Santiago Melia Felix Timm
Mostafa Mesgari Justas Trinkunas
Amir Mohagheghzadeh Tero Vartiainen
Tonja Molin-Juustila Benkt Wangler
Charles Møller William Wei Song
Makoto Nakayama Juan-Manuel Vara
Peter Axel Nielsen Christoper Vendome
Ovidiu Noran Ulrika H. Westergren
Jacob Nørbjerg Anna Wingkvist
Stefan Nilsson Thomas Winman
viii Conference Organization
Stanislaw Wrycza Henrik Åhman

Liisa Von Hellens Lena-Maria Öberg
Dijana Vukovac
Alfred Zimmermann
Miguel Angel Zúñiga Prieto
Preface
The International Conference on Information Systems Development (ISD) is an

academic conference where researchers and practitioners share their knowledge and
expertise in the field of information systems development. As an Affiliated
Conference of the Association for Information Systems (AIS), the ISD conference
complements the international network of general IS conferences (ICIS, ECIS,
AMCIS, PACIS, HICSS). The ISD conference continues the tradition started with
the first Polish-Scandinavian Seminar on Current Trends in Information Systems
Development Methodologies, held in Gdansk, Poland, in 1988. This seminar has
evolved into the International Conference on Information Systems Development.
Throughout its history, the conference has focused on different aspects, ranging
from methodological, infrastructural, and educational challenges in the ISD field to
bridging the gaps between industry, academia, and society. Advancements in
information systems foster technological developments. The deployment of the
resulting technologies in all areas of society, including public and private sector, the
community, and in the home is greatly beneficial. ISD has always promoted a close
interaction between theory and practice that has set a human-centered agenda
focused on advancing the methods, tools, and management of IS.
This volume is a selection of papers from ISD2018, the 27th Information Systems
Development conference hosted by the Department of Informatics, School of
Economics and Management, Lund University, Sweden, and held in Lund, Sweden,
on August 22–24, 2018. All presented papers have been published in the AIS
eLibrary, which is accessible at http://aisel.aisnet.org/isd2014/proceedings2018.
This volume contains extended versions of the best papers, as selected by the
ISD2018 Proceedings Editors.
The theme of the conference was Designing Digitalization. It focused on mutual
influences between information systems and organizational structures, processes,
and people to promote research of methodological issues and ways in which IS
designers and developers are transforming organizations and society through
information systems. The conference provided a forum for discussing research and
developments in this field. The ISD2018 conference attracted contributions in the
general area of information systems development, as well as in more specialized
ix
x Preface
topics including Transforming Society with ISD, ISD Education, Human-Computer

Interaction, e-Health, Information Systems Methodology and Modelling,
Managing ISD, and Topics in ISD. ISD2018 focused on these and associated topics
in order to promote research into theoretical and methodological issues and ways in
which these advances enable better synergies between theory and practice. We
believe that the innovative papers assembled in these lecture notes will inform the
reader of important contributions in this regard.
Lund, Sweden Bo Andersson

Lund, Sweden Björn Johansson
Melbourne, Australia Henry Linger
Galway, Ireland Chris Barry
Galway, Ireland Michael Lang
Barcelona, Spain Christoph Schneider
Contents
Advancing ISD Education Research with Bioecological Systems

Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Niamh O. Riordan and Simon Warren
Australian Undergraduate Information Systems Curricula:
A Comparative Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
J. Richardson, F. Burstein, A. Hol, R. J. Clarke and J. McGovern
Cargo Cults in Information Systems Development: A Definition
and an Analytical Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Tanja Elina Mäki-Runsas, Kai Wistrand and Fredrik Karlsson
Design and Prototyping of an Interactive Virtual Environment
to Foster Citizen Participation and Creativity in Urban Design . . . . . . . 55
Barnabé Faliu, Alena Siarheyeva, Ruding Lou and Frédéric Merienne
Developing Crisis Training Software for Local Governments—From
User Needs to Generic Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Monika Magnusson, John Sören Pettersson, Peter Bellström
and Henrik Andersson
Digital Services Development and the Dynamics of Transformation
by Service Providers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Ahmad Ghazawneh
How Do Practitioners Understand External Platforms and Services?
A Grounded Theory Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Anar Bazarhanova, Jesse Yli-Huumo and Kari Smolander
How to Design an Interactive System for Data Science:
Learning from a Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Ana Sofia Almeida, Licinio Roque and Paulo Rupino da Cunha
xi
xii Contents
On the Influence of Tools on Collaboration in Participative Enterprise

Modeling—An Experimental Comparison Between Whiteboard
and Multi-touch Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Anne Gutschmidt
Social Position and Gender Perspectives of eLearning Systems:
A Study of Social Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Ahmed D. Alharthi, Tawfeeq Alsanoosy, Maria Spichkova
and Margaret Hamilton
The Process of Co-creation in Information Systems Development:
A Case Study of a Digital Game Development Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Karlheinz Kautz, Gro Bjerknes, Julie Fisher and Tomas Jensen
Towards Model-Driven Infrastructure Provisioning
for Multiple Clouds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
J. Sandobalin, E. Insfran and S. Abrahao
Understanding Individual Differences in Users’ Preferences
and Responses to an Intelligent Virtual Advisor
for Reducing Study Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
H. Ranjbartabar and D. Richards
User-Centered Design for Biomedical Literature Search User
Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Carlos Iñiguez-Jarrín, José Ignacio Panach and Oscar Pastor
Advancing ISD Education Research
with Bioecological Systems Theory
Niamh O. Riordan and Simon Warren
Abstract The Information Systems (IS) community designs and delivers IS curric-
ula in higher education and faces pedagogical challenges in teaching some complex
and technical material. Many of us are involved in the design, implementation, eval-
uation, adoption, and use of IS to support education and training in academia and
in industry. Yet IS research on education is often based on technologically deter-
ministic assumptions about the impact of technology on education outcomes and
involves narrowly focused studies on the use and impact of technology in education.
In this paper, we introduce IS to Bioecological Theory (BET), whose insights have
had a transformative effect in the field of developmental psychology but not well
known in IS. We use BET to map existing literature on IS and Higher Education and
also outline how this theory can be used in IS to inform the design of technological
artifacts to support students’ learning processes.
Keywords ISD education · Bioecological theory · Systematic literature review
1 Introduction
The Information Systems (IS) community has had a sustained interest in education for
many years. IS scholars have written about in the design and delivery of IS curricula
(e.g. [11, 18, 63]). IS scholars have investigated some of the specific challenges in
teaching some of the complex and technical material that comes under the umbrella of
IS (e.g. [20, 43, 61]). IS scholars have engaged in quite a reflexive manner on the role
A prior version of this paper has been published in the ISD2018 Proceedings (http://aisel.aisnet.
org/isd2014/proceedings2018).
N. O. Riordan (B)
National University of Ireland Galway, Galway, Ireland
e-mail: n.oriordan@yahoo.com
S. Warren
Enheden for Akademisk Efteruddannelse, Roskilde Universitet, Roskilde, Denmark
e-mail: warren@ruc.dk
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 1
B. Andersson et al. (eds.), Advances in Information Systems Development,
Lecture Notes in Information Systems and Organisation 34,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22993-1_1
2 N. O. Riordan and S. Warren
of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) in higher education (e.g.

[7, 66]). Finally, IS scholars are involved in the design, implementation, evaluation,
adoption, and use of IS to support education and training both in academia and in
industry (e.g. [69, 72, 74]).
The IS community’s research often borrows from established learning theories in
education and related disciplines. These include the objectivist model, the construc-
tivist model, the cooperative model, the cognitive information processing model, and
the sociocultural model of learning (see [68]). For example, scholars often recog-
nize that different learning models lead to different sorts of learning outcomes and
account for some of the inconsistencies observed across IS education studies [37].
However, the IS community’s main focus is usually on the technologies that can sup-
port different types of learning rather than on the pedagogical theories in themselves.
For example, IS scholars have investigated the potential of the Internet and World
Wide Web (WWW) to support asynchronous learning (e.g. [2]) via web-based virtual
learning environments (e.g. [37]). Later, IS scholars investigated the usefulness of
group support systems in collaborative learning (e.g. [15, 22, 23]) as well as virtual
worlds for immersive education (e.g. [13]). More recently, IS scholars have studied
the useful of gamification (e.g. [42]) and learning analytics (e.g. [3]) in technology-
mediated training and education. As we illustrate in this paper, IS education research
often overlooks many of the contextual factors that have been shown to influence
academic performance.
Against this backdrop, we advocate for IS education research to be undertaken
using Bioecological Theory (BET). BET explains how students develop their own
abilities and skills via ‘proximal processes’ and has be used to explain why students’
engagement in these proximal processes does not always directly correlate with stu-
dents’ ultimate achievements in education. Over the years, a large body of empirical
research supported Bronfenbrenner’s propositions about the kinds of ecological fac-
tors that affect students’ academic performance. Its potential value in IS stems from
the fact that it encourages scholars to take account of both the complex, reciprocal and
subtle interactions among each individual’s biological and personal characteristics
and the significant social and ecological contexts that influence development [71].
We use BET to map existing IS education research and to confirm that IS education
research has paid scant attention to many factors that are known to impact upon
students’ academic performance through BET. IS scholars can use BET to examine
the impact of features of the broader ecological systems within which our students
are embedded on their academic performance.
Advancing ISD Education Research with Bioecological … 3
2 Introduction
2.1 Introducing Bioecological Theory
Urie Bronfenbrenner is regarded as a pioneer who has made outstanding contri-

butions in the study of the ecology of human development [64]. Bronfenbrenner
was among the first theoreticians to underscore the need to take into account both
the complex, reciprocal and subtle interactions among each individual’s biological
and personal characteristics and the significant social and ecological contexts that
influence development [71]. His Bioecological Theory (BET) altered the trajectory of
research in field of developmental psychology; and it led to the conduct of ecological
studies of human development in various disciplines including biology, psychology,
anthropology, sociology, geography and education [73]. His works have been cited
more than 75,000 times according to Google Scholar.
BET holds that individuals develop and actualise their potential by engaging in
their environments in what are known as proximal processes (see [56, 57, 59]; see
also [52]). Bronfenbrenner emphasizes the intentional and goal directed nature of
an individual’s interacting with and acting upon their environment as they move
toward their currently adopted goal. He defines these processes as progressively
more complex reciprocal interaction between an active, evolving biopsychological
human organism and the persons, objects, and symbols in its immediate external
environment. Bronfenbrenner explains that each individual proximal process requires
“space and time and resources; it involves certain enabling structures and disabling
structures; and it will require more or less effort depending on the process stage and
the individual” [57].
Bronfenbrenner [53, 54] argues that a person’s development is not solely a func-
tion of their own individual traits but is the product of a constellation of psychologi-
cal, cultural, social, economic and political forces. His initial work concentrated on
developing a better understanding of the environment itself and he later turned his
attention to the role a person plays in his or her own development. He argued that
to understand an individual’s development, one must examine the entire ecological
system within which growth occurs and one must do so using a systems perspec-
tive [53–55]. Using the analogy of the matrioshka (Russian doll), Bronfenbrenner
argued that the environment consists of a set of nested structures, each inside the next:
microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem and chronosystem. By examin-
ing this nested structure, researchers could better understand not only the proximal
(direct) effects of the immediate social and physical environment but also the distal
(indirect) processes that affect the individual’s development [73].
According to Bronfenbrenner [54]:
• The microsystem is an immediate setting containing the learner (e.g., home, day
care centre, classroom, etc.) A setting is defined as a place in which the occupants
engage in particular activities and in particular roles (e.g., parent, teacher, pupil,
etc.) for particular periods of time. The factors of place, time, activity, and role
constitute the elements of a setting.
• The mesosystem comprises the interrelations among the major settings contain-
ing the learner at a point in his or her life. The mesosystem is the system of
micro-systems.
• The exosystem is an extension of a mesosystem embracing the concrete social
structures, both formal and informal, that impinge upon or encompass the imme-
diate settings containing the learner and, thereby, influence and even determine or
delimit what goes on there. These structures include the major institutions of the
society, both deliberately structured and spontaneously evolving, as they operate
at the local community level.
• The macrosystem is the overarching institution of the culture or subculture, such
as the economic, social, educational, legal and political systems, of which local
micro-, meso-, and exo-systems are the concrete manifestations. Such macro-
systems are conceived and examined not only in structural terms but as carriers
of information and ideology that, both explicitly and implicitly, endow meaning
and motivation to particular agencies, social networks, roles, activities, and their
interrelations.
• Finally, the chronosystem (see [56]) encompasses change or consistency over time
not only in the characteristics of the person but also of the environment in which the
person lives (e.g. changes over the life course in family structure, socioeconomic
status, employment, place of residence, or the degree of hecticness and ability in
everyday life). The nature of the dynamic relation between the organism and its
environment is such that over time, the external becomes internal and becomes
transformed in the process [59]. However, because from the very beginning the
organism begins to change its environment, the internal becomes external and
becomes transformed in the process. Thus, he believed that it is critical for research
designs that permit analysis of the dynamic relation between the process of change
over time within the person and the process of change in the environment [55].
The original contribution of BET was its conception of the developing person,
of the environment, and especially of the dynamic interaction between the two [54,
p. 3]. BET inherited from biology at a time when more mainstream theories of human
development inherit the experimental and reductionist models of the physical sci-
ences [73]. More specifically, it originated in Kurt Lewin’s field theory, which asserts
that an individual’s behaviour is a function of the person and their environment; it is
also influenced by Gestalt Psychology more generally [58, pp. 41–49]. In this view,
the individual as a whole person is different from the sum of their parts, and these
individual parts are interdependent and interact in a dynamic fashion; this means
that looking at individual elements separately from each other and separate from the
person’s perceptual or psychological environment produces a misleading view of the
causes of human behaviour and how it can be changed [60]. It also was, as its name
implies, an ecological theory. This means that it explicitly recognized organism-
environment interrelatedness and that human development occurs in the midst of a
vibrant, complex environment [56]. This family of theories further recognized that
our everyday experience involve, and are influenced by, constant, dynamic, mutually
influential interactions between different conditions and between the person and the
world [70].
2.2 The Potential Value of BET in IS
BET is potentially useful in IS. First, Bronfenbrenner’s conceptualization of proxi-

mal processes offers some explanation of how individuals engage in particular tasks
and can provide guidance as to how IS designers might design educational tasks
for individual learners. Bronfenbrenner’s work underscores the progressive nature
of proximal processes, (i.e. that the complexity of proximal processes can increase
over time), the fact that particular resources must be available to individuals to enter
into these proximal processes, and that in order to understand an individual’s devel-
opment, one must examine the entire ecological system within which growth occurs.
Second, education scholars outside IS have long understood that students’ aca-
demic performance is influenced by a range of contextual factors that are beyond
their own immediate environment. Within IS, however, research on students’ aca-
demic performance tends to overlook these factors. BET can be used in IS to address
this gap. IS scholars can use BET to examine the impact of features of the broader
ecological systems within which our students are embedded on their academic perfor-
mance. BET is especially well suited to this task because it is based on a conception
of not only the developing person or the environment (immediate and distal) within
which they are based but also on the dynamic interaction between the two—this is
its unique and compelling characteristic.
Finally, Bronfenbrenner’s framework is comprehensive and well supported by
multiple empirical studies carried out over decades. As we illustrate in this paper, it
can effectively be used to map IS education research and to identify important gaps
for future research.
3 Research Design
Our aim in this study was to evaluate existing IS education research using the lens of
Bronfenbrenner’s theoretical framework [54]. Our first step was to adapt Bronfen-
brenner’s framework to suit IS research (see Table 1). The framework posits that the
ecological components of human development consist of five nested and interrelated
structures; i.e. microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem and chronosys-
tem. We developed a set of operational definitions of each ecological component of
the framework that we could use to review the IS education literature.
We carried out a systematic literature review (SLR). An SLR is a distinct research
method used to aggregate evidence (see [67]). It addresses a clearly formulated
question and uses systematic and explicit methods to identify publications, select
Table 1 The bioecological model of human development in higher education, derived from [54]
System Operational definition
Individual The individual student who is at the centre of Bronfenbrenner’s theoretical
framework. Various characteristics of this individual are likely to be relevant
to their academic development including their age, gender, ethnicity, social
class, health and wellbeing
Microsystem The institutions and groups that most immediately and directly impact the
individual’s development, e.g. college, college community, local community,
family and friends
Mesosystem Interconnections and interactions between the microsystems; i.e.
interconnections and interactions between friends, college, college
community, local community, family
Exosystem Involves links between a social setting in which the individual does not have
an active role and the individual’s immediate context. For example, a
student’s experience at college may be influenced by their peers’ experience
at home or by their instructors’ experience at work
Macrosystem Describes the culture in which individuals live. Cultural contexts include
developing and industrialized countries, socioeconomic status, poverty, and
ethnicity. Members of a cultural group share a common identity, heritage, and
values. For example, a student, his or her school, his or her peers, are all part
of a large cultural context
Chronosystem The patterning of environmental events and transitions over the life course, as
well as sociohistorical circumstances. For example, leaving the family home
is one transition; the increase in career prospects available to those who have
graduated higher education is an example of a change in sociohistorical
circumstances
publications relevant to the question critically appraise the publications analyse the
data reported in the relevant publications report the combined results from relevant
publications. As such, the method is designed to bring the same level of rigour to
reviewing research evidence as should be used in producing that research evidence
in the first place. The procedure we followed is based on recommendations set out
in [65] and is as follows:
(1) Identify higher education (HE) journals listed in the ABS ranking with three
or more stars in 2010 (i.e. Studies in Higher Education, the British Educational
Research Journal and the Academy of Management Learning and Education)
and identify the top “basket” of IS journals (i.e. Information Systems Research,
MIS Quarterly, Journal of Association of Information Systems, Journal Manage-
ment Information Systems, Journal Strategic Information Systems, European
Journal of Information Systems and Information Systems Journal).
(2) Conduct a keyword search of all articles published in those three journals
between 1996 and 2018 to identify those studies that reported on academic
performance (various keywords were used; specifically, ‘performance’, ‘out-
comes’, ‘achievement’, ‘success’).
(3) Review the titles and abstracts of these studies (n = 86) using pre-specified
inclusion and exclusion criteria to eliminate those studies that either (a) did
not concern higher education, (b) were concerned with retention and comple-
tion rather than achievement, (c) did not present findings regarding the factors
affecting academic performance, or (d) did not provide an adequate account of
the empirical methods used to generate findings.
(4) Analyse the remaining studies (n = 50) using an adaptation of Bronfenbrenner’s
initial research to both map and review the literature [54].
The strength of this systematic approach is that it can be replicated at any stage
in the future to trace the evolution of research in this area over time. At the same
time, whilst time constraints have necessarily limited the scope of this search, the
same procedure can be replicated by future researchers with the capacity to conduct
a broader search across a greater number of databases.
4 Results
Table 2 summarises research published in leading IS and HE journals between 1996

and 2018 regarding the factors known to impact academic performance (see also
Appendix 1). The table summarizes (i) whether each study was carried out in a
qualitative, quantitative or mixed methods mode, (ii) whether each study was student-
centric or faculty-centric, (iii) the scope of the dataset used in the study, and (iv)
which ecological components of achievement in higher education were assessed in
the study.
Students’ academic performance is a topic of enduring importance in both the
IS and HE journals we examined between 1996 and 2018. There has been a steady
stream of publications since 2013. Prior to that, a burst of publications in 2007 was
preceded by an absence of publications in 2004, 2005, and 2006; and a burst of
publications in 2002 was preceded by an absence of publications in 1998, 1999, and
2000. In total, we found thirty-two articles in the three HE journals (twenty-six of
those had been published by Studies in Higher Education) and eighteen articles in
the eight IS journals that met our search criteria. Space limits preclude an in-depth
discussion of the fifty articles. Instead, the remainder of this section summarizes the
results of our analysis of the dataset overall.
Overall, we found that the studies in the sample focus primarily on the individual
and the institution within which that individual is embedded. Most studies focus
specifically on individual student attributes (n = 14) or specifically on features of the
microsystem (n = 10) or on a combination of individual and microsystem attributes
(n = 17). These studies often investigate the impact of individual (i.e. student) factors
on academic performance. These factors include student demographics, such as age
(e.g. [5, 40]) and gender (e.g. [40]), prior academic achievement (e.g. [17, 21]),
subjective experience of the learning environment (e.g. [25, 26, 33]) and supports
(e.g. [35]), as well as behavioural approaches to higher education (e.g. [30, 32,
8
Table 2 Summary of academic performance research published in leading IS and HE journals between 1996 and 2018
Citation Domain Research mode Orientation Dataset Individual Micro Meso- Exo- Macro- Chrono-
[1] Bailey et al. (2014) EDU Quantitative Student-centric *** ✓
[2] Bargeron et al. (2002) IS Quantitative Student-centric * ✓
[3] Bauman and Tuzhilin IS Quantitative Student-centric *** ✓
(2018)
[4] Beenstock and Feldman EDU Quantitative Student-centric *** ✓
(2016)
[5] Cassidy (2012) EDU Quantitative Student-centric *** ✓
[6] Clayton et al. (2012) IS Qualitative Student-centric **** ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
[7] Coppola et al. (2002) IS Qualitative Faculty-centric *** ✓ ✓
[8] Crawford and Wang. EDU Qualitative Student-centric *** ✓ ✓
(2015)
[9] Crawford and Wang. EDU Quantitative Student-centric *** ✓ ✓
(2016)
[10] Dancer et al. (2015) EDU Quantitative Student-centric * ✓
[11] Dhar and Sundararajan IS Qualitative Faculty-centric **** ✓
(2007)
[12] Diseth (2007) EDU Quantitative Student-centric ** ✓
[13] Franceschi et al. (2009) IS Quantitative Student-centric ** ✓ ✓
[14] Galliers and Huang IS Qualitative Faculty-centric ***** ✓
(2012)
(continued)
N. O. Riordan and S. Warren
Table 2 (continued)
[15] Gasson and Waters IS Qualitative Student-centric **** ✓
(2013)
[16] Grayson (2011) EDU Quantitative Student-centric **** ✓
[17] Gropper (2007) EDU Quantitative Student-centric ** ✓
[18] Hatzakis et al. (2007) IS Quantitative Faculty-centric ** ✓
[19] Heinze and Hu (2009) IS Quantitative Student-centric **** ✓
[20] Hustad and IS Qualitative Faculty-centric * ✓
Olsen(2014)
[21] Kuncel et al. (2007) EDU Quantitative Faculty-centric **** ✓
[22] Kwok et al. (2002) IS Quantitative Student-centric ** ✓ ✓
[23] Kwok et al, (2002) IS Quantitative Student-centric ** ✓ ✓
[24] Litmanen et al. (2010) EDU Quantitative Student-centric ** ✓
[25] Lizzio et al. (2002) EDU Quantitative Student-centric *** ✓ ✓
[26] Loyens et al. (2007) EDU Quantitative Student-centric * ✓ ✓
Advancing ISD Education Research with Bioecological …
[27] Malm et al.(2012) EDU Quantitative Student-centric ** ✓ ✓

(continued)
9
Table 2 (continued)
10
[28] Mann and Robinson EDU Quantitative Student-centric *** ✓ ✓
(2009)
[29] Mansfield (2011) EDU Quantitative Student-centric ** ✓ ✓ ✓
[30] Masui et al. (2014) EDU Quantitative Student-centric *** ✓
[31] Mathiassen and Purao IS Qualitative Faculty-centric ***** ✓
(2002)
[32] Newman-Ford et al EDU Quantitative Student-centric ** ✓
(2008)
[33] Nguyen et al. (2016) EDU Quantitative Student-centric * ✓ ✓
[34] Nicholson etal. (2013) EDU Quantitative Student-centric ** ✓
[35] Ning and Downing EDU Quantitative Student-centric *** ✓ ✓
(2010)
[36] Ning and Downing EDU Quantitative Student-centric ** ✓ ✓
(2012)
[37] Piccoli et al. (2001) IS Quantitative Faculty-centric * ✓
[38] Reinig et al. (1997) IS Quantitative Student-centric * ✓
[39] Richardson (2008) EDU Quantitative Student-centric *** ✓
[40] Richardson and EDU Quantitative Student-centric **** ✓
Woodley (2003)
(continued)
N. O. Riordan and S. Warren
Table 2 (continued)
[41] Román et al.(2008) EDU Mixed Student-centric *** ✓ ✓
[42] Santhanam et al. (2016) IS Quantitative Faculty-centric *** ✓
[43] Sheetz et al. (1997) IS Qualitative Student-centric * ✓ ✓
[44] Simonite (2003) EDU Quantitative Student-centric ** ✓ ✓
[45] Smith and White EDU Quantitative Student-centric *** ✓
(2015)
[46] te Wierik et al. (2015) EDU Quantitative Student-centric *** ✓
[47] Thiele et al. (2016) EDU Quantitative Student-centric *** ✓ ✓
[48] Torenbeek et al. (2013) EDU Quantitative Student-centric *** ✓ ✓
[49] Trigwell et al. (2012) EDU Quantitative Student-centric * ✓
[50] Wilkins et al. (2016) EDU Quantitative Student-centric *** ✓ ✓
*Single module, single programme, single university
**Multiple modules, single programme, single university
***Multiple modules, multiple programmes, single university
Advancing ISD Education Research with Bioecological …
****Multiple modules, multiple programmes, multiple universities

*****Multiple modules, multiple programmes, multiple universities, multiple countries
11
48])—especially surface versus deep learning (e.g. [12, 41, 50]). The mesosystem
was examined in two studies [6, 7]. The exosystem was examined in two studies [14,
16]. The macrosystem was examined in one study [6]. This study was interesting
as it investigated the impact of students’ parents’ education on their educational
experiences and achievements. Finally, the chronosystem was examined in just two
studies [9, 29]. These studies both investigated the impact of going on placement on
students’ subsequent academic achievements.
Methodologically, we found that most studies rely on quantitative techniques
applied to large data sets, with very little variation across research methods used—
very rarely to researchers investigate multiple variables and when they did, they
generally failed to investigate any interplay that might take place between these
variables over time. These studies therefore do no reveal any great insight into the
dynamics of academic achievement over time and are not particularly helpful in
seeking to understand the totality of an individual’s situation and its impact on their
development (see [61]).
There were several differences in the IS and HE articles in terms of the topics
covered and also the methods and datasets used. First, the IS articles focused on
two main topics: the design and delivery of the IS curriculum within the broader
context of business education, and the development and use of new types of learning
technologies. The HE articles, on the other hand, were far more specifically focused
on predicting and explaining students’ academic achievement and on issues related
to grading practices within and across disciplines. Second, the IS articles featured
a mix of qualitative and quantitative approaches as well as a mix of faculty-centric
and student-centric studies. However, a significant proportion of the IS articles used
module-specific data which can pose issues related to generalizability (i.e. the data
was unique to individual modules within individual programmes within individual
universities). Our first thought was that perhaps the qualitative IS articles were module
specific but a closer inspection revealed that this was not the case. Instead, it was
those articles that focused on specific learning technologies that tended to rely on
module-specific data gathered during design science and action research studies and
then analysed quantitatively. On the other hand, all of the HE articles in our sample
used quantitative methods and were student-centric in nature. The majority of the
HE articles we sampled used datasets that spanned modules and programmes and
universities.
5 Discussion and Conclusion
Bronfenbrenner has made an enduring contribution to our understanding of the inter-

play between the biological and ecological factors that impact upon human develop-
ment. Bronfenbrenner’s BET provides a powerful lens through which a more holis-
tic understanding of human development can be seen; an understanding of human
development that takes the interrelatedness of individual, physical, sociohistorical
and cultural aspects into account. Indeed, Bronfenbrenner is credited with bring-
ing attention to contextual variation in human development and with increasing the
ecological validity of studies of developing individuals in their natural environment
[62].
Though he has had a substantial impact beyond IS, his work does not appear to
be well known in IS or in HE research. In this short paper, we present the results
of a systematic literature review of IS and HE research published in the past two
decades carried out from a Bronfenbrennerian perspective. The analysis reveals that
a great deal is known about the factors that affect academic achievement in IS and in
HE, particularly regarding the role of the individual’s own characteristics in shaping
academic outcomes. However, when examined through the lens of Bronfenbren-
ner’s work, it becomes clear that the literature has tended to focus primarily on the
individual (or the microsystem) and to analyse one or possibly two factors at most,
relying heavily on quantitative techniques applied to large data sets in doing so,
and demonstrating very little variation across research methods. Many factors that
have been shown to potentially influence academic achievement in other disciplines
where Bronfenbrenner’s work is more well-known have not yet been examined in
IS or in business education, particularly those that exist beyond the confines of the
microsystem.
Going forward, IS researchers can use Bronfenbrenner’s work to better under-
stand our students’ engagement with the IS curriculum and with higher education
more generally. In particular, Bronfenbrenner’s conceptualization of proximal pro-
cesses offers some explanation of how individuals engage in particular tasks and can
provide guidance as to how IS designers might design educational tasks for indi-
vidual learners. In addition, his work on the contextual factors that influence indi-
viduals’ academic performance should inform the design of IT artifacts that support
students’ learning processes in higher education. Emerging learning technologies
afford educators and researchers new opportunities to better understand and opti-
mise the dynamics of academic achievement over time, perhaps to a point of being
able to predict student success [51]. In particular, IS researchers are developing new
learning technologies to enhance students’ engagement with the IS curriculum and
in higher education more generally (e.g. [13, 42]) and are using emerging learning
analytics tools and techniques to monitor and respond to what Bronfenbrenner would
call individual students’ proximal processes (e.g. [3]). These tools and technologies
can afford a fine-grained understanding of students’ proximal processes and deliver
fresh insights into the dynamics of academic achievement over time. But in the mean-
time, IS scholars should ask whether these tools are developmentally disruptive or
developmentally generative. We also want to encourage more IS scholars to follow
in the footsteps of scholars who are investigating the impact of meso-, exo-, macro-
and chronosystems on students’ experiences with IS and with higher education more
generally.
Acknowledgements The authors wish to acknowledge that a portion of this research was carried
out at the Centre of Excellence in Teaching and Learning (CELT), National University of Ireland,
Galway.
Appendix 1: Results of Systematic Literature Review1
1. Bailey, M.A., Rosenthal, J.S., Yoon, A.H.: Grades and incentives: assessing competing grade
point average measures and postgraduate outcomes. Stud. High. Educ. 1–15 (2014)
2. Bargeron, D., et al.: Asynchronous collaboration around multimedia applied to on-demand
education. J. Manag. Inf. Syst. 18(4), 117–145 (2002)
3. Bauman, K., Tuzhilin, A.: Recommending remedial learning materials to students by filling
their knowledge gaps. Manag. Inf. Syst. Q. 42(1), 313–332 (2018)
4. Beenstock, M., Feldman, D.: Decomposing university grades: a longitudinal study of students
and their instructors. Stud. High. Educ. 1–20 (2016)
5. Cassidy, S.: Exploring individual differences as determining factors in student academic
achievement in higher education. Stud. High. Educ. 37(7), 793–810 (2012)
6. Clayton, K., Beekhuyzen, J., Nielsen, S.: Now I know what ICT can do for me! Inf. Syst. J.
22(5), 375–390 (2012)
7. Coppola, N.W., Hiltz, S.R., Rotter, N.G.: Becoming a virtual professor: pedagogical roles and
asynchronous learning networks. J. Manag. Inf. Syst. 18(4), 169–189 (2002)
8. Crawford, I., Wang, Z.: The impact of individual factors on the academic attainment of Chinese
and UK students in higher education. Stud. High. Educ. 40(5), 902–920 (2015)
9. Crawford, I., Wang, Z.: The impact of placements on the academic performance of UK and
international students in higher education. Stud. High. Educ. 1–22 (2016)
10. Dancer, D., Morrison, K., Tarr, G.: Measuring the effects of peer learning on students’ academic
achievement in first-year business statistics. Stud. High. Educ. 40(10), 1808–1828 (2015)
11. Dhar, V., Sundararajan, A.: Information technologies in business: a blueprint for education and
research. Inf. Syst. Res. 18(2), 125–141 (2007)
12. Diseth, Å.: Approaches to learning, course experience and examination grade among under-
graduate psychology students: testing of mediator effects and construct validity. Stud. High.
Educ. 32(3), 373–388 (2007)
13. Franceschi, K., et al.: Engaging group E-learning in virtual worlds. J. Manag. Inf. Syst. 26(1),
73–100 (2009)
14. Galliers, R.D., Huang, J.C.: The teaching of qualitative research methods in information sys-
tems: an explorative study utilizing learning theory. Eur. J. Inf. Syst. 21(2), 119–134 (2012)
15. Gasson, S., Waters, J.: Using a grounded theory approach to study online collaboration behav-
iors. Eur. J. Inf. Syst. 22(1), 95–118 (2013)
16. Grayson, P.J.: Cultural capital and academic achievement of first generation domestic and
international students in Canadian universities. Br. Edu. Res. J. 37(4), 605–630 (2011)
17. Gropper, D.M.: Does the GMAT matter for executive MBA students? Some empirical evidence.
Acad. Manag. Learn. Educ. 6(2), 206–216 (2007)
18. Hatzakis, T., Lycett, M., Serrano, A.: A programme management approach for ensuring cur-
riculum coherence in IS (higher) education. Eur. J. Inf. Syst. 16(5), 643–657 (2007)
19. Heinze, N., Hu, Q.: Why college undergraduates choose IT: a multi-theoretical perspective.
Eur. J. Inf. Syst. 18(5), 462–475 (2009)
20. Hustad, E., Olsen, D.H.: Educating reflective Enterprise Systems practitioners: a design
research study of the iterative building of a teaching framework. Inf. Syst. J. 24(5), 445–473
(2014)
21. Kuncel, N.R., Credé, M., Thomas, L.L.: A meta-analysis of the predictive validity of the
graduate management admission test (GMAT) and undergraduate grade point average (UGPA)
for graduate student academic performance. Acad. Manag. Learn. Educ. 6(1), 51–68 (2007)
22. Kwok, R.C., et al.: Role of GSS on collaborative problem-based learning: a study on knowledge
externalisation. Eur. J. Inf. Syst. 11(2), 98–107 (2002)
23. Kwok, R.C.-W., Ma, J., Vogel, D.R.: Effects of group support systems and content facilitation
on knowledge acquisition. J. Manag. Inf. Syst. 19(3), 185–229 (2002)
1 The 50 papers that were analysed in this study are listed below.
24. Litmanen, T., Hirsto, L., Lonka, K.: Personal goals and academic achievement among theology
students. Stud. High. Educ. 35(2), 195–208 (2010)
25. Lizzio, A., Wilson, K., Simons, R.: University students’ perceptions of the learning environment
and academic outcomes: implications for theory and practice. Stud. High. Educ. 27(1), 27–52
(2002)
26. Loyens, S.M.M., Rikers, R.M.J.P., Schmidt, H.G.: The impact of students’ conceptions of
constructivist assumptions on academic achievement and drop-out. Stud. High. Educ. 32(5),
581–602 (2007)
27. Malm, J., et al.: Supplemental instruction for improving first year results in engineering studies.
Stud. High. Educ. 37(6), 655–666 (2012)
28. Mann, S., Robinson, A.: Boredom in the lecture theatre: an investigation into the contributors,
moderators and outcomes of boredom amongst university students. Br. Edu. Res. J. 35(2),
243–258 (2009)
29. Mansfield, R.: The effect of placement experience upon final-year results for surveying degree
programmes. Stud. High. Educ. 36(8), 939–952 (2011)
30. Masui, C., et al.: Do diligent students perform better? Complex relations between student and
course characteristics, study time, and academic performance in higher education. Stud. High.
Educ. 39(4), 621–643 (2014)
31. Mathiassen, L., Purao, S.: Educating reflective systems developers. Inf. Syst. J. 12(2), 81–102
(2002)
32. Newman-Ford, L., et al.: A large-scale investigation into the relationship between attendance
and attainment: a study using an innovative, electronic attendance monitoring system. Stud.
High. Educ. 33(6), 699–717 (2008)
33. Nguyen, T.H., Charity, I., Robson, A.: Students’ perceptions of computer-based learning envi-
ronments, their attitude towards business statistics, and their academic achievement: implica-
tions from a UK university. Stud. High. Educ. 41(4), 734–755 (2016)
34. Nicholson, L., et al.: The key to successful achievement as an undergraduate student: confidence
and realistic expectations? Stud. High. Educ. 38(2), 285–298 (2013)
35. Ning, H.K., Downing, K.: The impact of supplemental instruction on learning competence and
academic performance. Stud. High. Educ. 35(8), 921–939 (2010)
36. Ning, H.K., Downing, K.: Influence of student learning experience on academic performance:
the mediator and moderator effects of self-regulation and motivation. Br. Edu. Res. J. 38(2),
219–237 (2012)
37. Piccoli, G., Ahmad, R., Ives, B.: Web-based virtual learning environments: a research frame-
work and a preliminary assessment of effectiveness in basic IT skills training. Manag. Inf. Syst.
Q. 25(4), 401–426 (2001)
38. Reinig, B.A., Briggs, R.O., Nunmaker Jr., J.F.: Flaming in the electronic classroom. J. Manag.
Inf. Syst. 14(3), 45–59 (1997)
39. Richardson, J.T.E.: The attainment of ethnic minority students in UK higher education. Stud.
High. Educ. 33(1), 33–48 (2008)
40. Richardson, J.T.E., Woodley, A.: Another look at the role of age, gender and subject as predictors
of academic attainment in higher education. Stud. High. Educ. 28(4), 475–493 (2003)
41. Román, S., Cuestas, P.J., Fenollar, P.: An examination of the interrelationships between self-
esteem, others’ expectations, family support, learning approaches and academic achievement.
Stud. High. Educ. 33(2), 127–138 (2008)
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demographic characteristics. Stud. High. Educ. 41(8), 1424–1446 (2016)
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50. Wilkins, S., et al.: The effects of social identification and organizational identification on
student commitment, achievement and satisfaction in higher education. Stud. High. Educ.
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The favourite amusement of the Californians is dancing, and Santa
Barbara is more celebrated for its fandangos than any other town on the
coast. These occur nearly every evening in the week, it being always easy to
get up an impromptu ball in five minutes, by calling in a guitar or harp
player. At these balls there is no exclusiveness, the high and low, rich and
poor, all meet on perfect equality, and dance away their sorrows, if they
have any, upon the same mud floor. No scented cards of invitation are sent
to the favoured few, but all who choose enter and participate freely. At
church and at fandangos Californians all find a level. It appears as natural
for Californians to dance as to breathe or eat. Often have I seen little girls,
scarce six years of age, flying through a cotillon, or circling in the giddy
waltz, or dancing with great skill their favourite jotah or jarabe. The girls
are all elegant waltzers, and will exhaust the strength of an ordinary
American gentleman, who is content with a few turns round the ball-room
and then a long promenade.
The town of Santa Barbara contains about five hundred inhabitants,
among whom are the Norrigas and Carillos, the two great families of
California. It is a beautiful place of residence, with a mild, springlike
climate, and around it are some of the pleasantest rides in all California.
About four miles distant is the little town of Montecito (little mountain), a
collection of farm-houses, where large quantities of vegetables are grown.
Three miles beyond this, in the heart of the mountains, is a remarkable hot
sulphur spring, to which invalids resort for the purpose of bathing, and six
miles in the opposite direction is an Indian village, containing some forty or
fifty wigwams, whose tenants are an industrious agricultural people, who
raise corn, wheat, and potatoes, and bring them into Santa Barbara for sale.
The mission of Santa Barbara is, at the present time, in a better condition
than any other mission in the country. About fifty of the converted Indians
still remain here and cultivate the soil. Around the old mission building are
several extensive orchards, in which figs, apples, pears, and peaches are
grown, and two or three vineyards, producing a grape from which excellent
wine is made. The Padre Presidente, the presiding priest of California,
resides here, the office at present devolving upon Padre Jesus Maria
Gonzales, one of the kindest and most gentlemanly men I ever met with.
PUEBLO DE LOS ANGELOS.

One hundred and ten miles south of Santa Barbara is the Pueblo de los
Angelos (City of the Angels), the garden spot of California. It is situated at
the end of an immense plain, which extends from San Pedro, the port of the
Pueblo, twenty-five miles distant, to this point. As in all California towns,
the houses are built of adobe and are covered with an asphaltum, which is
found in great quantities, issuing from the ground near the town. The
northern portion of the town is laid out in streets, and appropriated as the
residence of the trading citizens, while the southern part is made up of
gardens, vineyards, and orchards. Through all these a large stream runs,
which is used to irrigate the soil. The vineyards are lovely spots; acres upon
acres of ground are covered with vines, which are trimmed every year, and
thus kept about six feet in height, and in the fall of the year are hanging
thick with clusters of grapes. In addition to these, apples, pears, peaches,
plums, and figs are raised in great abundance. An American, named
Wolfskill, has here a vineyard containing thirty thousand bearing grape-
vines, from which he makes annually a thousand barrels of wine, and two or
three hundred of aguardiente, the brandy of the country. Some of this wine
is a very superior article, resembling in its flavour the best Madeira, while
another kind, the vino tinto, is execrable stuff. With proper care and
apparatus, however, the grape of the Pueblo could be made to yield as good
wine as any in the world; and the whole plain, twenty-five miles in extent,
reaching to the beach at San Pedro, is susceptible of the cultivation of the
vine.
Until the late astonishing growth of San Francisco, the Pueblo was the
largest town in California, containing about two thousand inhabitants, who
are principally wealthy rancheros, and those who reside there to cultivate
the grape. Game of many kinds abounds in the vicinity of the Pueblo.
During the rainy season, the plains in the direction of San Pedro are covered
with millions of geese and ducks, which are shot by the dozen, while the
surrounding hills afford an abundance of quails, deer, elk, and antelope.
The inhabitants of the Pueblo are of the better and wealthier class of
Californians, and have always been strongly disposed towards the
institutions of Mexico, and at the time of the conquest of California, they
fought with a determined resistance against the naval forces of Commodore
Stockton. They have now, however, become reconciled to the institutions of
our country, and will, I doubt not, in a few years make as good a set of
democrats as can be found in Missouri or Arkansas. They are very strongly
attached to the Roman Catholic Church, and are probably the most
“religious,” in their acceptation of the term, of any people in California.
Every morning the solemn toll of the church-bell calls them to mass; at
noon it is rung again, and every Poblano at the sound doffs his sombrero,
and remains reverently uncovered in the hot sun, while the bell reminds him
that he is to mutter over a short prayer. In whatever avocation they may be
engaged, whether fiddling, dancing, singing, slaughtering cattle, or playing
billiards or montè, the custom is invariably followed. I have seen a party in
a tavern in the Pueblo, busily engaged in betting against a montè bank,
when the noonday bell tolled; a fellow, with his last dollar in the world
placed upon a card, immediately doffed his hat and muttered his prayer; the
dealer laid down his cards and did the same, and they continued in their
humble positions till the bell ceased tolling, when the game and the
swearing went on as busily as usual.
About ten miles from Los Angelos, is the mission of San Gabriel,
located upon the river of that name, whose banks for miles are girdled with
grape-vines. This is one of the prettiest spots in California, and affords a
fine opportunity for the raising of fruit. The country around the Pueblo is by
far the most favourable portion of southern California for the settlement of
foreigners. Possessing a climate of unequalled mildness, and a soil of great
fertility, it must inevitably, ere long, be surrounded by a large population.
SAN DIEGO.
The town of San Diego is the southernmost of Upper California, the

boundary line established by the late treaty running one marine league south
of it. The harbour here, next to that at San Francisco, is the best on the
whole coast, perfectly land-locked, protected from the gales at all seasons
of the year, and the entrance is so narrow that but one vessel can pass
through at the same time. A vessel can lie within a cable’s length of the
beach, which is of hard sand, and upon which no surf runs. The town itself
lies three miles from the beach, is about the size of Santa Barbara, and is
overlooked by an old Mexican fortress. San Diego has always been the
greatest depot for hides upon the coast; the facilities for taking them from
the shore to the vessel being greater than at any other point. The climate is
mild and pleasant, and the town is rapidly growing, and bids fair to become
of great commercial importance. An immense inland trade will be carried
on from this place with the settlements that must arise on the Colorado and
Gila rivers, and around the head of the Gulf of California. The country in its
immediate vicinity is well adapted for grazing, and abounds in wild game.
CHAPTER XIV.
THE NEW TOWNS OF CALIFORNIA.
The enormous price of real estate in San Francisco, and the continual
rapid tide of emigration, will ere long cause the settlement of the new towns
seated at various points in the vicinity of the mining region. Many of these
are entirely new, but have grown and are growing with great rapidity. I
propose giving a description of their locations as a guide to those who may
desire to settle in any of them.
BENICIA.
The town or city of Benicia, which in the king’s English means Venice,
is situated in the straits of Carquinez, thirty-five miles from San Francisco,
which it promises yet to rival in point of commercial importance. The
ground upon which it is seated is a gentle slope descending to the water, and
as it reaches it becoming almost a plain. There is sufficient water at its bank
to enable vessels of the first class to lie at anchor there, and discharge their
cargoes, and the harbour is safe and exempt from violent winds. Benicia
contains already about a thousand inhabitants, including a garrison of
soldiers, having been made the head-quarters of the Pacific division of the
United States Army. The large deposits of quartermaster’s stores have been
removed from San Francisco to Benicia, and a site has been selected by
Commodore Jones for a navy-yard at this point. The town was originally
laid out some three years since by Robert Semple and Thomas O. Larkin.
Lots of fifty varas square are selling at from five hundred to two thousand
dollars.
MARTINEZ.
The town of Martinez is also located on the straits of Carquinez, nearly

opposite Benicia. The site of the town is pleasant, being upon a high bank,
while the plain around it is well wooded. The proprietor is William M.
Smith of San Francisco, who is making arrangements for building the town.
NEW YORK OF THE PACIFIC.

At the junction of the river San Joaquin and the bay of Suisun, lies New
York of the Pacific. The town is seated on a broad and well-watered plain,
covered with many groves of magnificent oaks, extending from the waters
of the bay and the river San Joaquin to the hills some three miles back. So
gradual is the slope that it seems a perfect level, viewed from the river’s
bank; but standing at the base of the hills looking toward the water, the
slope will be found to be perfect and regular to the water’s edge, where it
terminates upon a fine sand-beach, from five to ten feet above the level of
the highest tide. New York is beautifully laid out, with large reserves for
churches, a university, and other public edifices, and is perhaps one of the
most healthy points in the country, being free from fever and ague and the
prevailing fevers usual on fresh-water rivers below and between the mining
region and San Francisco. But the great advantage which New York of the
Pacific possesses over other places above San Francisco is, that it is at the
head of ship navigation, as two regular surveys, published by distinguished
military and naval officers of Suisun Bay have demonstrated. Ships of the
largest class can sail direct from the ocean to New York, where they will
find a safe and convenient harbour, and where at this time are lying a
number of merchant ships from differents parts of the Union, directly
alongside the bank upon which they have discharged their cargoes.
New York is surrounded on all sides by the most fertile agricultural
districts of Northern California. The Sacramento, San Joaquin, and San Jose
valleys being tributary to this point which is as the centre of so many radii,
while the entire land travel from San Jose and the Contra Costa, and indeed
of all southern California, flows through this channel. The whole
transportation to the rich placers of the Stanislaus, Mokelumne, Tuolumne,
Merced, and Mariposa, as well as the famous mines of the Middle, North,
and South Forks, Feather and Yuba rivers, must pass the new city. The great
railroad, destined to connect the Pacific Ocean and the Mississippi River,
will undoubtedly terminate at New York, as it is in a direct line with the
only pass in the mountains through which a railroad can reach the waters
which empty into the Bay of San Francisco. This is a fact well established
by the most distinguished engineers. Through the enterprise of Col. J. D.
Stevenson and Dr. William C. Parker, both of the New York regiment of
volunteers, the first survey of the bay of Suisun and the adjacent waters was
made. These gentlemen are the principal owners of New York.
SUISUN.
The city of “Suisun,” alluded to in the first chapter of this narrative

under the cognomen of Hala-chum-muck, is laid out on the west bank of the
Sacramento, at a distance of eighty miles from San Francisco, and is about
half-way between San Francisco and Sacramento City. The town is seated
on high ground, and is entirely free from the tule, a rush that grows upon
the marshy banks of the river. It is beautifully laid out, with large reserves
for churches, a university, and other public edifices, and the beauty of its
climate and surrounding scenery will eventually make it a favourable and
pleasant place of residence. The proprietors are Thomas Douglass and C. V.
Grillespie. Lots are selling at from $250 to $800.
SUTTER.
The city of Sutter is beautifully located on the eastern bank of the

Sacramento River, adjoining Sacramento City, and is perhaps the most
eligible site for a commercial town in all Northern California. It is situated
on the highest and healthiest ground on the whole river, the banks at this
point not being subject to the annual overflow. The largest class of
steamboats and all vessels navigating the Sacramento River, can lie and
discharge their cargoes directly at its banks.
Sutter was originally laid out by Captain J. A. Sutter and others, but has
not until recently been brought forward by its proprietors. It has, however, a
thriving business population, and promises to become a city of the first size
and importance. Excellent roads diverge from this point to the rich placers
of the North, Middle, and South Forks, Bear River, Yuba, and Feather
Rivers, and also to the mines of the San Joaquin. It is surrounded on all
sides by a fine agricultural and well-wooded country, and will soon be the
depot for the great northern mines. Its present proprietors are the Hon. John
M’Dougal, Lieutenant-Governor of the State of California, and Captain J.
A. Sutter.
VERNON.
Vernon is situated on the east bank of Feather River at the point of its
confluence with the Sacramento, one of the most eligible positions for a
town in the whole northern region of California. The banks of the river are
high and not subject to overflow, and this point is said to be at the head of
ship navigation on the Sacramento. The ground is a gentle slope,
surrounded by a beautiful country. From the town of Vernon, good and well
travelled roads diverge to the rich mineral regions of the North and Middle
Forks, Bear Creek, Yuba and Feather Rivers, rendering the distance much
less than by any other route. The town is growing rapidly, and promises to
become a great depot for the trade of the above-mentioned mines. The
proprietors are Franklin Bates, Elisha O. Crosby, and Samuel Norriss.
BOSTON.
The city of Boston is located on the northern bank of the American Fork,
at its junction with the Sacramento River, about one hundred yards above
the old Embarcadero, the site upon which Sacramento City now stands. It
extends upon the banks of both rivers for several miles, and is destined to
become a flourishing town. The banks of the Sacramento at this point are
not subject to overflow, being more than twelve feet in many places above
high water mark. The town is situated upon a broad and well-watered plain,
covered with many groves of magnificent oaks, and the largest class of
steamers, and all vessels navigating the Sacramento River can lie and
discharge directly at its banks.
Boston has been surveyed by J. Halls, Esq., and Lieut. Ringgold, U. S.
N., and is laid out in squares of two hundred and forty feet by three hundred
and twenty feet, subdivided each into eight building lots eighty feet by one
hundred and twenty feet, with large public squares, and reservations for
school-houses, churches, and public buildings. One of the peculiar
advantages of Boston is that, being located on the northern bank of the
American Fork, it is not necessary in proceeding to the gold mines to cross
that river, which is exceedingly high and rapid at some seasons of the year.
The direct and most travelled road proceeds from this point to the rich
placers of the Yuba, Feather River, Bear Creek, and the North, Middle, and
South Forks of the American. The soil is of the richest description, the
surrounding scenery highly picturesque, and the plains in the immediate
vicinity are covered with wild game of every variety which California
affords. The title to the land is indisputable, coming by warranty deed from
Captain J. A. Sutter to Eleab Grimes, Hiram Grimes, and John Sinclair,
bearing date August 10th, 1843. The present owner is Hiram Grimes, Esq.
Lots are selling rapidly at from $200 to $1000 each, and before many
months the city of Boston on the golden banks of the Rio Sacramento will
rival its New England namesake in business and importance.
STOCKTON.
The town of Stockton is the great mart through which flows the whole
transportation and travel to the placers of the Stanislaus, Mokelumne,
Mariposa, Mercedes, Tuolumne, and King’s River, and the various dry
diggings lying between them. Stockton is to the southern mines what
Sacramento is to the northern. The town is located upon a slough, or rather
a succession of sloughs, which contain the back waters formed by the
junction of the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers. It is about fifty miles
from the mouth of the San Joaquin, and one hundred from San Francisco.
The ground is high and does not overflow, and is the centre of the two great
tracts of arable land which constitute the valleys of the rivers above named.
Vessels drawing from nine to ten feet of water can proceed up the San
Joaquin to Stockton, and discharge their cargoes on the bank.
The town of Stockton was laid out in the latter part of 1848 by Charles
M. Weber, and has been growing rapidly since. Eight months ago there
were but one frame building and a few tents, and now it is a town
containing a population of nearly two thousand permanent residents, and a
movable population of about a thousand more, on their way to and from the
southern mines. Several large brigs and schooners are constantly lying at
the banks, and two steamboats and a large number of launches are
constantly running from San Francisco. Real estate has risen greatly in
value within the past six months,—lots, which could have been purchased
at that time for $300, being now worth from $3000 to $6000. A theatre has
been established at Stockton, and the town promises ere long to be a large
and populous city.
STANISLAUS.
This town is laid out on the north bank of the Stanislaus River, at its
junction with the San Joaquin. The Stanislaus River is the first and largest
tributary of the San Joaquin, and the river is navigable for ordinary-sized
schooners and launches to this point, which, being nearer the southern
mining region than Stockton, will doubtless become a great resort for
miners and traders in that vicinity. The town was originally laid out by
Samuel Brannan & Co.
SOUTH SAN FRANCISCO.
The city of South San Francisco is located on the bay, about two miles
south of San Francisco, which it promises to rival at no very distant day.
The depth of water at this point is the same as that in the harbour of San
Francisco, and it is said that vessels are more securely protected from the
wind. At many points in front of the town, vessels of the largest class can
lie within a boat’s length of the shore. The land rises in a gentle slope, and
is of a rich clayey soil, which effectually prevents dust during the
prevalence of the customary winds on the bay. The surrounding scenery is
delightful, and near the town is the rich and beautiful valley in which is
located the old mission of Dolores. A stream of fine water, sufficient to
supply all the shipping in the harbour, runs through the town, and the only
practicable road from San Francisco to San Josè, Monterey, and the whole
lower country, passes directly by it. South San Francisco, though it may
never equal its northern namesake, will at least become, at no very distant
day, what Brooklyn is to New York. The proprietors of South San Francisco
are John Townsend and Corneille De Boom.
ALVESO.
The want of a great commercial town at the head of the great bay of San
Francisco has been supplied by the location of Alveso. It is situated at the
head of the bay, on the Guadalupe River, a stream running directly through
the centre of the town, and navigable at all seasons of the year to vessels
drawing twelve feet of water. The depot and business headquarters of the
two finest valleys in California, the Santa Clara and the Pueblo, where
everything required for their already numerous population must be
received; convenient of access to the gold mines, and directly on the route
between them and San Francisco; with a climate unequalled, even in Upper
California; with pure water; free from inundations at all seasons; with mills
which even now furnish lumber at one-third its price in San Francisco,—the
town of Alveso must inevitably grow into importance. It has been carefully
surveyed and laid out into lots; contracts have been made for the immediate
erection of warehouses and dwellings, and a bridge is now being built
across the Guadalupe River, connecting the two portions of the town. The
proprietors are J. D. Koppe, Peter H. Burnett, and Charles B. Marvin, who
will doubtless reap a rich harvest, the fruits of their judicious enterprise.
CHAPTER XV.
LOWER CALIFORNIA.
The territory of Lower California (California Baja) has been so much

misrepresented, that although partially foreign to the object of this work, I
consider it may not be uninteresting to learn something of a country which,
I am satisfied, will one day create almost as much excitement in the old
world as her northern sister has already done. A residence of six months
upon the gulf of California entirely changed the opinion I had previously
entertained of the country, which had been based upon reports of those who
had merely sailed up or down its rugged coast. It has been described as the
“tail end of an earthquake,”—as possessing a soil upon which nothing could
be grown, a hot and sickly climate, and containing no internal resources of
value.
Lower California extends from Cape St. Lucas to a line running one
marine league south of San Diego, being bounded on the west by the
Pacific Ocean, and on the east by the gulf of California. I went to Lower
California in the full anticipation of living a miserable life for the time it
would be necessary for me to remain there. But how much was I surprised,
on landing in La Paz, on the afternoon of July 21st, 1847, to find the
prettiest town I had then seen in California. The streets were lined with
willow trees, which, meeting overhead, formed an arch, affording a
delicious shade at midday. The houses were all of adobe, plastered white,
and thatched with the leaves of the palm-tree, and were most delightfully
cool. The whole beach was lined with palms, date, fig, tamarind, and
cocoanut trees, their delicious fruits hanging upon them in clusters.
The detachment of the 7th regiment of New York Volunteers, which was
ordered to La Paz, consisted of two companies, “A” and “B,” under
command of Lieut. Col. Henry S. Burton. When we arrived, we found that
country in a quiet state; and although no American force had ever been
stationed there, the inhabitants appeared very much pleased at our arrival,
and manifested no hostility toward us. Our orders were to take possession
of, and hold the country; and in accordance with these we landed, and
pitched our camp in the plaza, previous to removing into a large barrack,
which was not then quite completed. When our men were fairly barracked,
the officers were allowed to live in rooms in the town, and select such
places as they chose. I found a room in the house of Don Francisco Silva, a
Portuguese, who had lived long in the country, and owned the finest
vineyard and fruit-garden in the town. Here I lived in a style of Eastern
luxuriance. Never before did I, and never shall I desire to enjoy life in
greater perfection than I did there. My room was in the rear of the house,
and fronting upon a garden filled with grape-vines, fig, orange, lime,
banana, and pomegranate trees, loaded with fruit. I slept in a swinging cot,
surrounded by a silken canopy, as a protection from mosquitoes; and often
have I taken my cot, swung it before the limbs of a large fig-tree, and slept
beneath that clear, unclouded sky, rocked to slumber by the delightful
evening land-breeze. In the morning, before breakfast, I would pick from
the limbs and eat a few dozens of ripe, fresh figs, by way of giving me an
appetite. But the most delicious portion of this delicious life was the
bathing. In the centre of the garden was a large stone reservoir, kept
continually filled with water, and used for the purpose of irrigation. Into this
I would jump at noon, and, standing upon the stony bottom, could gather
big clusters of grapes, hanging upon an arbour that overspread the whole
bath. Our military duties were so light that they never interfered with this
pleasant mode of life, particularly as our commanding officer was not very
strict in his enforcement of them, and the reveillé drum seldom disturbed
my morning slumbers.
If an epicure wishes to enjoy life at a low rate, I advise him to go to
Lower California. The Gulf affords every variety of fish, and all the tropical
fruits grow in the greatest profusion. For several months we lived upon
green turtle, caught directly in front of the town,—some of them weighed
one hundred and fifty pounds, and were sold to us at twenty-five cents
apiece. In addition to this, the shores afforded mussels and oysters in great
plenty, and the soil produces every variety of vegetables. Among the fruits
of Lower California is one which grows wild, and is peculiar to the country,
called the petalla, the most delicious fruit I ever ate. It grows upon a kind of
cactus tree, and somewhat resembles a prickly pear, being covered with a
thorny rind, which, being taken off, exhibits a pulp of a rich red colour. The
great peculiarity of this fruit is, that out of a hundred no two have the same
flavour. One resembles in taste a strawberry; another, seems flavoured with
winter-green; the next with peach, and so on through the whole range of
cultivated fruits.
The climate of Lower California is equal to that of Italy or Persia.
During the whole year, the thermometer never varies ten degrees, usually
ranging from eighty to ninety degrees, except at noon, when it sometimes
reaches one hundred. In the winter, no other than thin clothing is worn, and
an overcoat is never needed. It is an eternal summer. Such gorgeous sunsets
and clear star-lit skies, can be found in no other portion of the world.
During my whole residence there, I never saw a cloud as large as my hand
upon the sky, and a drop of rain never fell. There is no rainy season in
Lower California; rain usually falls three or four times in the course of a
year, but the necessity of it is almost superseded by the heavy dews which
fall every night.
The healthiness of the country is remarkable. During our sojourn there of
more than a year, no death from sickness occurred in our detachment of
more than a hundred men, and but two deaths during the whole time in the
town, which consisted of fifteen hundred inhabitants. An officer of our
regiment who was stationed in Upper California, and who had been
pronounced by his physicians to be in the last stage of pulmonary
consumption, as a last resort went to Lower California. The result was, that
in three months he completely regained his health, and I saw him a few
days since a stout, hearty man.
The people of Lower California are a curious race of beings; isolated
from their mother country and neglected by her, they have assumed a sort of
independence of thought and action which I never found in Upper
California; but a kinder-hearted, more hospitable class of people never
lived. Their thatched houses are ever open for the reception of visiters, and
a glass of wine and a paper cigar are always offered to any one who chooses
to enter. The manner in which the people of La Paz live is peculiar. In the
main street, the houses are built of adobe, whitewashed, with roofs
principally of cane and palm-tree, laid flat and covered with the shell of the
pearl oyster. Some of them are of more than one story in height. Some of
the floors are laid with large square bricks, but by far the greater portion of
them are of the native mud. In the interior arrangement, little attention is
paid to decoration. A few camp-stools covered with leather, or a drum-
shaped seat with a piece of raw hide drawn over it, a table, a bed, and an
earthen jar filled with water, usually compose the furniture. The bed is
usually very neat, with clean linen sheets and curtains, with red satin
covered pillows. In the other parts of the town and on the outskirts, the
houses are very small, some of them of adobe, others of reeds, plastered
with mud, and others are nothing more than a parcel of dried bushes
intertwined. These generally contain but one room, with no more furniture
than a few seats, and sometimes a bed made of a dried hide tightly drawn
across four posts. Here father, mother, daughters, and sons, all lie down
promiscuously on a hide stretched upon the floor, or, more commonly still,
outside in the open air, and sleep heads and points in most admirable
confusion. Indeed, this sleeping out of doors is not confined to any
particular class, but is practised by all during the summer months, and is
really a delightful mode of passing the night. The men are generally tall and
well-formed, and dress in the manner of Mexicans of the same class.
But the women, “Heaven’s last, best work,” how shall I describe them?
They are found in Lower California of all shades, from the blackest ebony
to the whitest lily. Where such a variety of colour could have arisen, I
cannot imagine. Their dress is usually a skirt, merely reaching to the waist,
while above this, is a white bodice which does not reach quite so high in the
neck as is required by the strict rules of feminine modesty. They wear no
hats or bonnets, but in lieu of them a reboso is thrown around their heads,
and falls in graceful folds over their shoulders. Many of them go barefoot,
and very few wear stockings, considering them an unnecessary luxury.
Simple as are these articles of dress, the La Paz girls delight as much as
their more refined sisters in our northern cities in exhibiting themselves to
advantage. I have seen a fair señorita on her way to church, as barefooted as
the day she first trod the earth, carrying on her shoulders a beautiful silk
reboso, which must have cost a hundred dollars. The ladies all indulge in
the “amiable weakness” of smoking cigaritos, and the blue wreaths are
curling about their dark faces from morning to night. The state of morals
amongst them is as loose as their dress, and the poorer classes are sunk in
the lowest state of prostitution. Cases have often occurred where the bargain
for the daughter’s dishonour has previously been made with the mother.
Strange as this may appear in a country upon which the light of Christianity
has shone, and among a people professing to be Christian, it is,
nevertheless, strictly true.
In fact the morals of the whole community, male and female, need
improving. An old priest named Gabriel, who, at the time I was there, was
Padre Presidente of Lower California, in open violation of his vows of
chastity, was living in the family relation, and had been the means of
bringing into the world no less than eleven children. One of these had taken
his name, always travelled with him, and was himself studying for the
priesthood. I witnessed a very amusing incident once with Gabriel, in which
I bore a part, and which exhibits the peculiar state of morals among some of
the priesthood of Mexican territory. Gabriel was a most inveterate gambler,
and often amused himself, when on his parochial tours, by opening a game
of montè for any of his parishioners who chose to bet against him, although
he often found difficulty in obtaining a game, because, as the “knowing
ones” said, “El padre sabe mucho.”
Soon after our arrival at La Paz, Gabriel, who resided in Todos Santos,
came over to visit his flock in La Paz, and as we were then the lions of the
place, he invited the officers to visit him at his temporary residence in the
town. Soon after we entered, when he had brought out a bottle of good old
wine, he very quietly took from a pocket in his cassock a pack of montè
cards, and asked us if we had any objection to a quiet game. Out of courtesy
we told him that we had no objection, and the padre commenced dealing
and we betting.
After our amusement had been in progress about half an hour, during
which time the padre had beaten us to the amount of a few dollars, the bell
of the church tolled. The padre laid down his cards and said with perfect
nonchalance: “Dispensarne Señores, tengo que bautizar un niño.” (Excuse
me, gentlemen, I have a child to baptize.) He invited us to proceed to the
church with him, and when we arrived, we found a woman with a child
anxiously waiting in the doorway. When, however, the padre was ready to
commence operations, it was found that there was no one present to stand in
the capacity of compadre (godfather). Gabriel invited me to perform this
service. I told him I was not a Catholic. “No le hace,” was his reply; and I
accordingly stood at the baptismal font while the padre sprinkled the
youngster and muttered over some Latin, after which, he turned to my
companions and myself, and said, “Ahora, Señores, vamos a jugar otra
verz.” (Now, gentlemen, we will go and play again); and we accordingly
returned to the house and resumed the game. Gabriel was afterwards taken
prisoner by our forces and sent to Mazatlan. He was one of the leading
spirits in the revolution that afterwards occurred, and I doubt not that he
came to La Paz, at the time of which I have spoken, to learn our force, and
the probabilities of our being taken.
Among such a people, ignorant but kind, and in such a glorious climate,
I passed my days in happiness and pleasure. When the shades of evening
gathered around us, a little knot of us used to assemble beneath a spreading
tamarind tree, and listen to songs in the enchanting Spanish, sung by a
beautiful creature who had undertaken the task of teaching me her
language, and in which, I flatter myself, she found an apt scholar. A ramble
then upon the broad, hard beach, beneath that beautiful starlight, would
close our evening’s pleasures, or a dance upon a greensward in a grove of
fig-trees, prepare us for a sweet slumber.
Sometimes we took little excursions upon the broad and placid bay, and
one of these, which extended to a visit to the Pearl Fishery, I will relate:
On a clear, beautiful, moonlit night, in the latter part of October, a party
of three of us, in a little fishing-boat, stood out from the Bay of La Paz, to
proceed to the Pearl Fishery of San Lorenzo, about twenty miles distant. We
chose the night, for its coolness, and for the delicious land breeze which
blew our little boat so rapidly over the water, and afforded so pleasing a
contrast in feeling to the burning sun and stirless atmosphere of a tropical
climate.
To one who has never been buoyed on the waters of the Gulf of
California, no description can convey an accurate idea of its stillness and
beauty, when, at the close of the long, sunny day, it is resting beneath the
smile of the unclouded, starry sky, which is ever above it. Like a little
inland lake in summer-time, unrippled and mirror-like, its waters were so
clear that, even by moonlight, its shell-paved bottom was plainly
discernible. Millions of little emerald-coloured gems of phosphorescent
light, were floating over its bosom; and the track of the leaping porpoises
and golden dolphins was followed by a stream of liquid fire.
As we neared “Pichelingo,” the entrance to the harbour, we observed on
the beach, about a mile distant, a bright light, and as the land breeze was
dying away, we made for it, thinking that probably a party of divers were
there, on their way to the fishery. We stood in, and soon reached the light,
which we found to be a fire built on shore. We landed, hauled up our boat,
and found two tall, naked Indians, engaged in cooking their evening meal of
pozzoli, or boiled corn: they were tortoise-shell fishers, and had with them a
large quantity of these most beautiful shells. They invited us to participate
in their frugal meal, but we had provisions of our own, and, roasting some
salt pork on their fire and brewing a steaming hot punch, we ate and drank
sufficiently, spread our blankets on the sand and lay down to sleep by the
side of our Indian friends. At daylight a good breeze sprang up, and,
thanking our Indians for their hospitality and presenting each with a small
sum of money, we again made sail.
About 11 o’clock we rounded the low, sandy point, which forms one side
of the entrance to the pretty little bay of San Lorenzo. We were received on
the beach by about three hundred tall, black-looking Indians, prepared to
start on their daily occupation of diving. Through the politeness of one of
the “armadores,” or owners, six of the busos (divers) were placed in our
boat, and we pushed off for the fishing-ground, near the shore of the huge
rocky island of Espiritu Santo. Thirty canoes, filled with divers, started with
us, and in half an hour we were on the ground. Here the water was the most
beautifully clear I ever saw. It was some four or five fathoms in depth, but
so transparent that the pearly treasures in its bed were as plain to our sight
as though air only separated them from us. The divers divested themselves
of every particle of clothing, with the exception of a girdle tightly bound
round their loins, and armed with nothing but a sharp-pointed stick, about a
foot in length, used for the double purpose of fighting sharks and digging
up the shell, they commenced their labours. Starting up suddenly on the
gunwale of the boat, and giving a shrill whistle, to expel the air from their
lungs, with a dive as graceful as a dolphin’s leap, they plunged into the
water, and made a straight course for the bottom. The dive itself carried
them about two fathoms downward, and every subsequent stroke one
fathom. Arrived at the bottom, they commenced digging up the shell, and
each one soon returned to the surface with an armful, which he threw into
the boat, and then would dive again for a fresh load, and so they continued
for nearly three hours, with scarcely a moment’s intermission. Some
brought up fish and sea-weed, others beautiful shells, and one fellow
captured a small shark, which he threw into the boat, very much to the
annoyance of us landsmen.
These divers are Indians from the Slake River, in the province of Sonora,
who come every season to the coast of California to pursue their avocation.
About three o’clock the whole fleet started for the shore, and, arrived there,
each buso carried his pile of shell on the beach, and the crew of each boat,
forming a circle, threw into its centre one-half of their shells. These were
the property of the armador, and were first opened, and the pearls given to
him. The old fellow stood by, watching the divers very closely, as some of
them are exceedingly expert in suddenly swallowing any valuable pearl
they may chance to find in the owner’s pile. The pearls are found in the
body of the oyster, of all sizes, from that of a pin’s head to that of a walnut.
Sometimes a hundred oysters are opened without finding a single pearl,
while in others many are found. When the owner’s oysters are all opened,
each diver commences on his own pile; and any valuable pearl he may find
is usually sold to the armador on the spot, at about one-half its real value.
The pearl fisheries of Lower California have been carried on since the
earliest discovery of the country, and immense fortunes have been made in
them. There are at present about one hundred vessels yearly engaged in this
business during the fishing season, which continues from May to
November. The oysters are all taken by diving, no scientific apparatus
having yet been successfully introduced. A diving-bell was tried by an
English company some years ago, but this mode was soon abandoned, from
some cause which I could never learn. The shells of the oysters are piled up
on the beach, and sold to whalers and trading vessels that visit the coast.
The oysters being all opened, the divers take their first meal in the day,
which consists of nothing more than a bowl of atole, a kind of water-gruel,
with a little dried meat thrown into it. This, and the use of the boats, is all
that is furnished by the armador, for which he receives one-half the pearls.
It was the last day of the fishing season, and before we left, as was
always the custom, the little brush houses, temporarily thrown up on the
beach, were fired by the divers, and a general jubilee held. We left them in
the most glorious state of intoxication, and setting sail once more, after
spending another night on the beach of Pichelingo, we arrived safely in La
Paz the next day at noon.
The great resources of Lower California are its mines of silver, gold,
copper, and iron, the former metal being most abundant. The whole
mountain range, which extends along the coast, is one immense silver mine,
equal in richness to those of Mexico or Peru. At the present time only three
or four mines are wrought, owing to the lack of energy in the inhabitants,
and the entire absence of scientific mining apparatus,—all the necessary
labour being performed by men and mules. In making inquiries for a place
to search for silver in Lower California, the old settlers in reply merely
point their fingers to the mountain range, and say, “Por hay” (that way,
anywhere there); and it is a fact, that a shaft may be sunk in any part of the
mountains, and silver ore always extracted, varying in richness from fifteen
to seventy per cent. of pure silver. The principal silver mines at present
wrought are in San Antonio, half-way from La Paz to Cape St. Lucas. These
are owned by the Hidalgos, who send annually out of the country about two
hundred thousand dollars worth of plata pina.
Near Loretto are large and extensive copper mines; lead and iron are
found everywhere, and gold-washings have always been wrought in the
country with considerable success. If this territory ever becomes settled by
an energetic population, millions of wealth will be annually gathered in its
borders, and it will stand side by side in point of riches with the countries
that have already made themselves famous by the wealth lying in their
bosoms.
As an agricultural country Lower California is rather deficient, although
there are many watered valleys which produce in great profusion all the
common culinary vegetables, and wherever the soil can be irrigated, it
produces all the tropical fruits and the vegetables of the temperate zones in
great luxuriance. Cotton of the finest staple grows wild upon the plains
around La Paz, and cane, from which a very good article of sugar is made,
grows all over the land. Wine is made from the grape of the country, which
is of the most delicious kind.
When we went to Lower California, our orders were to assure the
inhabitants that their country was to be retained as a portion of the territory
of the United States. The message of President Polk and the proclamation of
Commodore Shubrick supported this idea, and upon the representations
thus made, the most influential inhabitants committed themselves to the
American cause, and were exceedingly gratified with the expected result. In
the month of November, we were attacked by a Mexican force of six
hundred, under command of Don Manuel Pineda, a captain in the Mexican
army, who published a long proclamation threatening death and destruction
to the Californians who supported our cause. Notwithstanding this, during a
severe and trying siege, which lasted six weeks, many of the rancheros
from the interior came in and joined us, and for this whole time a company
of native Californians, under the command of the former governor of the
territory, Don Francisco Palacèo, fought bravely with us and rendered us

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Advances in Information Systems

Development Designing Digitalization

Advances in Information Systems Development Information

Advances in Information Systems Development Nearchos

Sustainable Growth and Development of Economic Systems

Advances in Information and Communication Technology

New Advances in Information Systems and Technologies

Diverse development paths and structural transformation

Collaboration in Designing a Pedagogical Approach in

Transforming Healthcare Through Information Systems

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/11237

Chris Barry Michael Lang

Henry Linger Christoph Schneider

Chris Barry Michael Lang

Henry Linger Christoph Schneider

ISSN 2195-4968 ISSN 2195-4976 (electronic)

International Steering Committee

Transforming Society with ISD

Parisa Aasi Priscila Cedillo

Janis Grabis Jyrki Nimmenmaa

Stanislaw Wrycza Henrik Åhman

The International Conference on Information Systems Development (ISD) is an

topics including Transforming Society with ISD, ISD Education, Human-Computer

Lund, Sweden Bo Andersson

Advancing ISD Education Research with Bioecological Systems

On the Inﬂuence of Tools on Collaboration in Participative Enterprise

Niamh O. Riordan and Simon Warren

Keywords ISD education · Bioecological theory · Systematic literature review

of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) in higher education (e.g.

2.1 Introducing Bioecological Theory

Urie Bronfenbrenner is regarded as a pioneer who has made outstanding contri-

2.2 The Potential Value of BET in IS

BET is potentially useful in IS. First, Bronfenbrenner’s conceptualization of proxi-

Table 2 summarises research published in leading IS and HE journals between 1996

[27] Malm et al.(2012) EDU Quantitative Student-centric ** ✓ ✓

****Multiple modules, multiple programmes, multiple universities

5 Discussion and Conclusion

Bronfenbrenner has made an enduring contribution to our understanding of the inter-

Appendix 1: Results of Systematic Literature Review1

PUEBLO DE LOS ANGELOS.

The town of San Diego is the southernmost of Upper California, the

THE NEW TOWNS OF CALIFORNIA.

The town of Martinez is also located on the straits of Carquinez, nearly

NEW YORK OF THE PACIFIC.

The city of “Suisun,” alluded to in the first chapter of this narrative

The city of Sutter is beautifully located on the eastern bank of the

SOUTH SAN FRANCISCO.

The territory of Lower California (California Baja) has been so much

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