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Springer Proceedings in Physics 237
Bassano Vacchini
Heinz-Peter Breuer
Angelo Bassi Editors
Advances in Open
Systems and
Fundamental
Tests of Quantum
Mechanics
Proceedings of the 684. WE-Heraeus-
Seminar, Bad Honnef, Germany,
2–5 December 2018
Springer Proceedings in Physics
Volume 237
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Bassano Vacchini Heinz-Peter Breuer
• •
Angelo Bassi
Editors
Advances in Open Systems

and Fundamental Tests
of Quantum Mechanics
Proceedings of the 684.
WE-Heraeus-Seminar, Bad Honnef, Germany,
2–5 December 2018
123
Editors
Bassano Vacchini Heinz-Peter Breuer
Dipartimento di Fisica Physikalisches Institut
Università degli Studi di Milano Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg
Milan, Italy Freiburg im Breisgau, Baden-Württemberg, Germany
Angelo Bassi
Department of Physics
University of Trieste
Trieste, Italy
ISSN 0930-8989 ISSN 1867-4941 (electronic)

Springer Proceedings in Physics
ISBN 978-3-030-31145-2 ISBN 978-3-030-31146-9 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-31146-9
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Preface
Quantum mechanics has shown unprecedented success as a physical theory,

providing astonishing accurate predictions, but at the same time, it has forced upon
us a new perspective on the description of physical reality.
While Schrödinger’s equation applies to the dynamics of an isolated closed
system, the treatment of an open system setting appeared as an essential ingredient
in the very formulation and understanding of the theory since its very beginning.
Indeed, the very formulation of a measurement process, allowing to extract infor-
mation on the state of the system of interest, depends on the analysis of its inter-
action with an external system, typically with very different features, such as being
macroscopic or in a specially prepared initial state. The search for a more realistic
treatment of the measurement process as the result of the interaction between two
systems, ultimately to be both described by quantum mechanics, has lead to
important improvements in the formulation of quantum theory. A basic motivation
for the consideration of open quantum systems rests on the conceptually unfeasible,
and experimentally often too inaccurate, idealization of a perfect shielding of the
system of interest from the external environment. The development of the for-
malism of open quantum systems has also led to a deeper understanding of the very
structure and features of quantum mechanics. In particular, it sets the framework in
which any experiment testing the foundations of quantum mechanics or willing to
discriminate between quantum mechanics and alternative theories has to be con-
sidered. More recently also the notion of non-Markovian quantum stochastic pro-
cess has been the object of intense investigations. This seminar aims at reporting
about recent results in the foundations of open quantum systems and its connection
with the most advanced experiments testing the basic features of quantum
mechanics, from the microscopic to the macroscopic regime.
In recent years, important progress has been achieved both in the theory of open
quantum systems and in the experimental realization and control of such systems.
A great deal of the new results is concerned with the characterization and quan-
tification of quantum memory effects and with the extension of the standard
methods to the treatment of non-Markovian quantum processes. To this end, novel
mathematical methods and physical concepts have been developed. Examples
v
vi Preface
include the idea to quantify the exchange of information between the open system
and its environment in terms of the distinguishability of quantum states and to
interpret the backflow of information from the environment to the open system as
characteristic feature of quantum non-Markovianity. Another example is the idea to
characterize memory effects of quantum processes in open systems through the
concept of the divisibility of the corresponding quantum dynamical map. Both ideas
also lead to a quantification of the degree of memory effects in open quantum
systems. Experimental realization of non-Markovian quantum systems and mea-
surements of the degree of memory effects have been carried out in both photonic
and trapped ion systems. A further important research topic is the study of the
impact of classical or quantum system-environment correlations. Several general
schemes have been developed theoretically and implemented experimentally which
enable the detection of such correlations by means of only local operations acting
on the open system. Examples of applications are the experimental determination of
initial correlations in photonic systems and the local detection of quantum phase
transitions in trapped ion systems. In addition to these advances in the general
characterisation and classification as well as in the experimental detection and
control of quantum processes in open systems, there has been important conceptual
and technical progress in the analytical and numerical treatment of strongly coupled
non-Markovian systems. Relevant developments have also been put forward in the
microscopic modelling of such systems employing, for example, collision models
to derive large classes of physically admissible quantum master equations.
This volume collects some recent developments in the field of open quantum
systems and foundations of quantum mechanics that were the subject of the 684.
WE-Heraeus-Seminar on Advances in Open Systems and Fundamental Tests of
Quantum Mechanics. The event was generously funded by the Wilhelm und Else
Heraeus-Stiftung and took place in the beautiful environment of the Physikzentrum
in Bad Honnef, Germany, on December 2018.
Milan, Italy Bassano Vacchini

Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany Heinz-Peter Breuer
Trieste, Italy Angelo Bassi
Contents
1 Collapse Models: Main Properties and the State of Art

of the Experimental Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Matteo Carlesso and Sandro Donadi
2 Information Flow Versus Divisibility for Non-invertible
Dynamical Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Dariusz Chruściński, Ángel Rivas and Sagnik Chakraborty
3 Quantum Non-Markovian Collision Models from Colored-Noise
Baths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Dario Cilluffo and Francesco Ciccarello
4 Non-monotonic Population and Coherence Evolution
in Markovian Open-System Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
J. F. Haase, A. Smirne and S. F. Huelga
5 Revealing Correlations Between a System and an Inaccessible
Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Manuel Gessner and Heinz-Peter Breuer
6 Transient Synchronization in Open Quantum Systems . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Gian Luca Giorgi, Albert Cabot and Roberta Zambrini
7 Creation and Detection of Molecular Schrödinger Cat States:
Iodine in Cryogenic Krypton Observed via Four-Wave-Mixing
Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
David Picconi and Irene Burghardt
Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
vii
Contributors
Heinz-Peter Breuer Physikalisches Institut, Universität Freiburg, Freiburg,

Germany
Irene Burghardt Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, Goethe
University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
Albert Cabot IFISC (UIB-CSIC), Instituto de Fisica Interdisciplinar y Sistemas
Complejos Universitat de les Illes Balears-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones
Cientificas, Palma, Spain
Matteo Carlesso Department of Physics, University of Trieste, Trieste, Italy;
Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare, Trieste, Italy
Sagnik Chakraborty Optics and Quantum Information Group, The Institute of
Mathematical Sciences, Taramani, Chennai, India
Dariusz Chruściński Institute of Physics, Faculty of Physics, Astronomy and
Informatics, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Toruń, Poland
Francesco Ciccarello Dipartimento di Fisica e Chimica – Emilio Segré,
Università degli Studi di Palermo, Palermo, Italy;
NEST, Istituto Nanoscienze-CNR, Pisa, Italy
Dario Cilluffo Dipartimento di Fisica e Chimica – Emilio Segré, Università degli
Studi di Palermo, Palermo, Italy;
NEST, Istituto Nanoscienze-CNR, Pisa, Italy
Sandro Donadi Frankfurt Institute for Advanced Studies (FIAS), Frankfurt am
Main, Germany
Manuel Gessner Département de Physique, École Normale Supérieure, PSL
Université, CNRS, Paris, France
Gian Luca Giorgi IFISC (UIB-CSIC), Instituto de Fisica Interdisciplinar y
Sistemas Complejos Universitat de les Illes Balears-Consejo Superior de
Investigaciones Cientificas, Palma, Spain
ix
x Contributors
J. F. Haase Institut für Theoretische Physik and IQST, Universität Ulm, Ulm,
Germany
S. F. Huelga Institut für Theoretische Physik and IQST, Universität Ulm, Ulm,
Germany
David Picconi Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, Goethe University
Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
Ángel Rivas Departamento de Física Teórica, Facultad de Ciencias Físicas,
Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain;
CCS-Center for Computational Simulation, Campus de Montegancedo UPM,
Madrid, Spain
A. Smirne Institut für Theoretische Physik and IQST, Universität Ulm, Ulm,
Germany
Roberta Zambrini IFISC (UIB-CSIC), Instituto de Fisica Interdisciplinar y
Sistemas Complejos Universitat de les Illes Balears-Consejo Superior de
Investigaciones Cientificas, Palma, Spain
Chapter 1
Collapse Models: Main Properties
and the State of Art of the Experimental
Tests
Matteo Carlesso and Sandro Donadi
Abstract Collapse models represent one of the possible solutions to the

measurement problem. These models modify the Schrödinger dynamics with non-
linear and stochastic terms, which guarantee the localization in space of the wave
function avoiding macroscopic superpositions, like that described in Schrödinger’s
cat paradox. The Ghirardi–Rimini–Weber (GRW) and the Continuous Spontaneous
Localization (CSL) models are the most studied among the collapse models. Here,
we briefly summarize the main features of these models and the advances in their
experimental investigation.
1.1 Introduction
Quantum mechanics is the most precise theory we have for describing the micro-
scopic world. However, since its formulation, the theory never stopped to raise issues
regarding its meaning. In particular, the superposition principle does not seem to
apply to the macroscopic world. This raises the well-known measurement problem.
Collapse models provide a phenomenological solution to such a problem. These
models modify the Schrödinger equation by adding stochastic and nonlinear terms,
which implement the collapse of the wave function [1]. An in-built amplifica-
tion mechanism ensures that their action is negligible for microscopic systems and
becomes stronger when their mass increases thus providing a natural implementation
of the quantum-to-classical transition.
The most supported among collapse models are the Ghirardi–Rimini–Weber
(GRW) [2] and the Continuous Spontaneous Localization (CSL) models [3, 4]. Their
M. Carlesso (B)
Department of Physics, University of Trieste, Strada Costiera 11, 34151 Trieste, Italy
e-mail: matteo.carlesso@ts.infn.it
Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare, Via Valerio 2, 34127 Trieste, Italy
S. Donadi
Frankfurt Institute for Advanced Studies (FIAS), Ruth-Moufang-Strasse 1, 60438
Frankfurt am Main, Germany
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 1

B. Vacchini et al. (eds.), Advances in Open Systems and Fundamental
Tests of Quantum Mechanics, Springer Proceedings in Physics 237,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-31146-9_1
2 M. Carlesso and S. Donadi
action is determined by two parameters: the collapse rate λ and the

correlation length of the noise rC . Different theoretical proposals for their numer-
ical value were suggested: λ = 10−16 s−1 and rC = 10−7 m by Ghirardi, Rimini, and
Weber [2]; λ = 10−8±2 s−1 for rC = 10−7 m, and λ = 10−6±2 s−1 for rC = 10−6 m by
Adler [5]. Since these models are phenomenological, the value of their parameters
can be bounded and eventually identified only by experiments.
The paper is organized as follows: in Sect. 1.2, we review the GRW model and
discuss its main features and how the model provides a solution to the measurement
problem. In Sect. 1.3, we introduce the CSL model and analyze its properties. In
Sects. 1.4 and 1.5, we briefly review the current experimental attempts to determine
the values of the parameters λ and rC . In Sect. 1.6, we discuss the dissipative and
non-Markovian generalizations of these models. Finally, in Sect. 1.7, we discuss
new proposals to set new bounds on these models.
1.2 The GRW Model
The Ghirardi–Rimini–Weber (GRW) model represents the first consistent model

where the dynamics induces spontaneous collapses in space. In the GRW model, the
wave function of any system is subject to random and spontaneous localizations in
space. These collapses are designed in such a way that one recovers the Born rule. Due
to an in-built amplification mechanism, the rate of collapses increases with the size
of the systems. This guarantees that macroscopic objects always have well-defined
positions. Conversely to other collapse models, as for the CSL model (cf. Sect. 1.3),
the GRW model is not formulated using stochastic differential equations,1 making
it ideal to intuitively explain the main features of collapse models.
The GRW model is defined by the following postulates:
1. Every physical system is subject to spontaneous localizations (i.e., collapses) in
space which take place at random times, following a Poisson distribution with
the mean rate given by2 λ.
2. The localization at the point a is described as
L̂ a |ψ
|ψ → , (1.1)
|| L̂ a |ψ||
where the localization operator L̂ a is given by
1 Itpossible to define the model also through a stochastic differential equation describing the inter-
action with a Poissonian noise, see [6, 7].
2 In their original formulation [2], Ghirardi, Rimini, and Weber considered the possibility that
different particles can have different collapse rate λi . However, this is not required and in literature
only one λ, representing the collapse rate for a nucleon, is considered. For composite objects, the
corresponding total collapse rate can be calculated through the amplification mechanism discussed
below.
1 Collapse Models: Main Properties and the State of Art of the Experimental Tests 3
2
− (q̂−a)
L̂ a = (πrC2 )−3/4 e .
2
2rC
(1.2)
3. The probability of having a localization at the point a is || L̂ a |ψ||2 .

4. When there are no localizations in space, the system evolves according to the
Schrödinger equation
d|ψ(t)
i = Ĥ |ψ(t). (1.3)
dt
We now show how localization works by means of a simple example. Consider a
one-dimensional system in a superposition of two states which are spatially localized
around the points a and −a with a rC . Each state is represented by a wave packet
with a width smaller than rC . The total state reads Ψ (x) = ψa (x) + ψ−a (x). Let us
suppose that a collapse takes place around the point a. This amounts to multiplying
the wave function by a Gaussian centered in a with width rC and normalize the
resulting state, as dictated by postulate 2. Then, after the collapse, the branch of the
wave function ψ−a (x) is suppressed and the wave function of the particle is well
localized around a. This is how, starting from a delocalized wave function, we ended
up with a localized one. Note also that postulate 3 guarantees that the probability of
having a collapse around the points a or −a is, in a good approximation, 50%. More
generally, postulate 3 guarantees two fundamental properties: (i) in the limit of high
number of collapses we get the Born rule, and (ii) the master equation associated to
the GRW dynamics is linear (see [1] for details), which is a necessary condition to
guarantee the not faster-than-light signaling [8].
Together with the localizations, there is another fundamental feature required
in any collapse model: the amplification mechanism. The amplification mechanism
guarantees that, given a composite object, its center of mass localizes with a rate given
by the sum of the rates of localization of its elementary constituents. This implies
that quantum mechanics is still an excellent approximation for microscopic objects:
the collapses are so rare that their effects on the dynamics can be neglected for all
practical purposes. Conversely, the effective collapse rate for a macroscopic object
is large due to the amplification mechanism, and then any spatial superpositions is
rapidly suppressed.
To understand how the amplification mechanics works, let us consider a rigid
system composed of N particles in the following superposition state:
Ψ (x1 , . . . , x N ) = ψa (x1 , . . . , x N ) + ψ−a (x1 , . . . , x N ). (1.4)
Now, let us suppose that the jth particle collapses around a. As in the single-particle
case, this implies that Ψ gets multiplied by a Gaussian centered in a, namely,
( j)
L̂ a |Ψ
|Ψ → ( j)
, (1.5)
|| L̂ a |Ψ ||
( j)
with L̂ a = (πrC2 )−3/4 exp −(q̂ j − a)2 /2rC2 . Consequently, the ψ−a branch of the
superposition is suppressed. Since the collapses happen independently for any jth
particle, then the state in (1.4) collapses with an amplified rate Λ = N λ.
1.3 The CSL Model
In the GRW model, the collapse does not preserve the symmetry of the wave func-
tion implying that the model cannot describe identical particles. This limitation was
overcome with the CSL model, which was formulated using the second quantiza-
tion formalism. Thus, it automatically guarantees that its dynamics preserve the wave
function symmetry. In this model, the collapse is described by a nonlinear interaction
with a classical noise. The CSL equation reads [1]
√
d|ψt λ
i
= − Ĥ + dx M̂(x) − M̂(x) M̂(x) wt (x)
dt m0 t
(1.6)
λ
2
− 2 dx M̂(x) − M̂(x) M̂(x) |ψt ,
2m 0 t
where |ψt is the N particle wave function and Ĥ is the system Hamiltonian. Here
m 0 is a reference mass taken as that of a nucleon, and wt (x) is the noise providing the
collapse, characterized by E[wt (z)] = 0 and E[wt (z)ws (x)] = δ (3) (z − x)δ(t − s),
where E[ · ] denotes the stochastic average over the noise. The locally averaged mass
density operator is defined as

M̂(x) = mj dy g(x − y)â †j (y, s)â j (y, s), (1.7)
j s
where â †j (y, s) and â j (y, s) are, respectively, the creation and annihilation operators
of a particle of type j with spin s at the point y, while
(x−y)2
1 −
(2rC2 )
g(x − y) = 3/2
e , (1.8)
π 3/4 rC
is a smearing function imposing the spatial correlation of the collapses. Exactly as for
the GRW model, also in the CSL model, the wave function gets localized in space.
Indeed, the effect of the second and the third terms in (1.6) is to induce a localization
in the eigenstates of the operators M̂(x) [9], which are position eigenstates. The
mass proportionality of M̂(x) guarantees automatically the implementation of the
amplification mechanism.
Regarding the amplification mechanism, the mass proportionality of M̂(x) auto-
matically implements it. However, in CSL model, the amplification factor is different
compared to that in the GRW model. Indeed, in CSL, the amplification factor depends
on the shape of the considered system, and not just on the number N of its nucle-
ons. In the particular case of a rigid body, when its size is smaller than rC , we have
Λ = N 2 λ. Conversely, in the limit of rC smaller that the interparticle distance, the
amplification scales with Λ = N λ, which is the same as in the GRW model.
Working directly with (1.6) is in general problematic, because the equation is
nonlinear. However, as long as we are interested in computing expectation values,
we can replace the CSL dynamics with [9]
√
d|ψt λ
i = Ĥ − dx M̂(x)wt (x) |ψt (1.9)
dt m0
which is a stochastic Schrödinger equation and is much simpler to handle.
1.4 Interferometric Experiments
We can divide the possible tests of collapse models in two classes of experiments:
interferometric and non-interferometric ones. Interferometric experiments are the
most natural choice of testing collapse models since they detect the direct action
of collapse models. One prepares a quantum system in a superposition state and
then measures the corresponding interference pattern. The collapse action will be
determined by the reduction of the interference contrast. Figure 1.1 summarizes the
state of the art of the bounds on the collapse parameters inferred from interferometric
experiments, where different bounds are shown: in green and in blue from cold
atoms [10] and molecular [11–14] interferometry, respectively, and in orange from
entanglement experiments with diamonds [15, 16]. By following the same reasoning,
one derives also which is the minimum action that collapse models should impose
to actually solve the measurement problem at the macroscopic level. Specifically,
a lower bound (gray area) is derived by requiring that a superposition of a single-
layered graphene disk of radius 10−5 m collapses in less than 10−2 s [12].
1.5 Non-interferometric Experiments
In the second class of possible tests of collapse models, one exploits an indirect effect:
the Brownian-like motion induced by the interaction of the collapse noise with the
considered system. This motion imposes a growth of the position variance of the
center of mass of the system, which can be eventually measured. Alternatively, if
the system is charged, one can measure the radiation emission due to its acceleration
given by such a motion. Since no superposition is involved in these experiments, one
can make use of systems of truly macroscopic dimensions. Indeed, due to the in-built
Fig. 1.1 Exclusion plots for the CSL parameters from interferometric experiments with respect
to the GRW’s and Adler’s theoretically proposed values [2, 5]: molecular interferometry [11, 12]
(blue area), atom interferometry [10] (green area), and experiment with entangled diamonds [15,
16] (orange area). We report with the gray area the region excluded from theoretical arguments
[12]. M, d, and T refer, respectively, to the mass, the superposition distance involved and the time
of each experiment
amplification mechanism, the collapse effect becomes stronger and thus easier to be
detected. However, larger systems are also more affected by environmental noises,
which compete with that due to the collapses. Thus, to impose strong bounds on CSL
parameters, one seeks for a large mass in an experiment that should be as noiseless
as possible.
Figure 1.2 summarizes the state of the art in this class of experiments, which
includes experiments involving cold atoms [17, 18], optomechanical systems [19–
28], X-ray measurements [29, 30], and phonon excitations in crystals [31, 32], and
planetary observations [33].
Of particular interest is the nanomechanical cantilever experiment described in
[21], where an excess noise of known origin was detected. Its value is compatible
with that predicted by the CSL model with—up to date—still non-excluded values
of the CSL parameters. Several standard mechanisms, able to describe such excess
noise, were considered and excluded. An eventual identification of such noise to a
standard source will improve the bound of the experiment in [21] of one order of
magnitude in λ, see the two orange upper bounds contouring the top gray area in
Fig. 1.2.
Fig. 1.2 Exclusion plots for the CSL parameters from non-interferometric experiments: cold
atoms [18] (orange area); nanomechanical cantilevers [20, 21] (purple and gray-orange bounded
areas); gravitational wave detectors AURIGA, LIGO, and LISA Pathfinder [26, 27, 34] (red, blue,
and green areas, respectively); X-ray measurements [29, 30] (light blue area); and phonon exci-
tations in crystals [31, 32] (red line). Similar bounds can be also found from planetary observa-
tions [33]. M and T refer, respectively, to the mass and the time of the experiment
1.6 Generalization of GRW and CSL Models
There are some limitations on the regime of validity of GRW and CSL models. To
make an example, both models are non-relativistic. Possible relativistic extensions
have been suggested for the GRW model in [35] as well as for the CSL model in [36].
Moreover, GRW and CSL models have other two weaknesses. The first is the
presence of a steady increase in the energy of any system in time, the second is the
use of a white (flat) noise. Here, we discuss how such limitations can be evaded.
1.6.1 Dissipative CSL Model
In the CSL model, the energy of any system is not conserved due to the interaction
with the noise inducing the collapse. In the case of a free single particle, one has [1]
3mλ2
Ĥ t = Ĥ 0 + t. (1.10)
4m 20 rC2
The energy of the system grows indefinitely in time. For example, a hydrogen atom is
heated by 10−14 K per year considering the values λ = 10−16 s−1 and rC = 10−7 m.
Although the increment is small, this feature is not realistic even for a phenomenolog-
ical model. Here, the CSL noise acts as an infinite temperature bath. Conversely, one
expects that a system will eventually thermalize at the finite temperature of the noise.
The introduction of dissipation precisely guarantees this. Indeed, in the dissipative
CSL model, (1.10) becomes

Ĥ t = e−χt Ĥ 0 − H as + H as , (1.11)
4km λ 2 2
2
with χ = (1+k) 5 m 2 and H as = 16kmr 2 , where k = 8mk r 2 T
3
. Here, T CSL is a new
0 C B C CSL
parameter representing the effective temperature of the noise. Theoretical arguments
suggest T CSL = 1 K.
For a detailed discussion on the dissipative extension of the CSL (and GRW)
model, the reader can refer to [6, 37]. Here, we give an intuition on how dissipation
is included in the model. Consider the Fourier transform of the localization operators
in the CSL and the dissipative CSL model. They are given, respectively, by
rC2
mj
dP dQ e− Q·y e− 22 Q â †j (P + Q)â j (P),
i 2
M̂(y) = (1.12)
j
(2π )3
and
rC2
mj
dP dQe− Q·y e− 22 |(1+k j )Q+2k j P| â †j (P + Q)â j (P).
i 2
M̂ D (y) =
j
(2π )3
(1.13)
Here, the action of the operator â †j (P + Q)â j (P) is to destroy a particle with momen-
tum P and to create another one with momentum P + Q, i.e., to transfer a momentum
Q to the system. In the CSL model, the distribution of the transferred momentum Q
is a Gaussian centered around zero and it does not depend on the system momentum
P. This is the reason why the noise keeps heating the system indefinitely. On the
contrary, in the dissipative CSL model, the distribution of the possible transferred
momentum is centered around a point proportional to −P. In this way, the energy of
any system approaches an asymptotic finite value in the longtime regime.
Figure 1.3 shows the upper bounds of the dissipative CSL extension for different
values of T CSL . For a more detailed analysis on the current bounds of the dissipative
CSL model, the reader may refer to [12, 14, 18, 38].
1.6.2 Colored CSL Model
The second limitation of the CSL model is that the noise inducing the collapse
is white. While this can be a good approximation in certain regimes, no real
noise is expected to be completely white. In particular, it is reasonable that for
high enough frequencies the spectrum of the noise presents a cutoff Ω C , whose
inverse denotes a characteristic correlation time of the noise. Then, it is important to
verify if the presence of a non-white noise affects the model, in particular whether the
localization and amplification mechanism are still working. A detailed and analysis
Fig. 1.3 First and second panels: Upper bounds on the dissipative CSL parameters λ and rC
for two values of the CSL noise temperature: T CSL = 1 K (first panel) and T CSL = 10−7 K (second
panel). Third and fourth panels: Upper bounds on the colored CSL parameters λ and rC for
two values of the frequency cutoff: Ω c = 1015 Hz (third panel) and Ω c = 1 Hz (fourth panel).
Red, blue, and green lines (and respective shaded regions): Upper bounds (and exclusion regions)
from AURIGA, LIGO, and LISA Pathfinder, respectively [26]. Purple region: Upper bound from
cantilever experiment [21]. Orange and gray top regions: Upper bound from cold atom experiment
[17, 18] and from bulk heating experiments [31]. The bottom area shows the excluded region based
on theoretical arguments [12]
for generic collapse equations can be found in [9, 39]. In general, one can prove that
both the aforementioned mechanism work. Regarding the predictions of the model,
one derives a stochastic Schrödinger equation with the same form as (1.9) where
the noise wt (x) is substituted by a noise ξt (x) with zero average and correlation
E[ξt (z)ξs (x)] = δ (3) (z − x) f (t, s). Here, f (t, s) denotes the time correlation func-
tion. Note that, contrary to the white noise case where the equation is exact, when
working with colored noise, (1.9) is given by a first-order expansion in λ. Since the
noise effects are typically small, a perturbative treatment is generally sufficient.
Some experiments are more sensible than others when a colored noise is intro-
duced. For example, the predictions from radiation emission are sensibly modified.
Indeed, already a cutoff smaller than the order of ∼ 1021 Hz suppresses the cor-
responding bound [40–42] Bounds on the CSL parameters for colored noise were
studied in detail in [12, 18, 43]. In particular, one finds out that the upper bounds
from experiments at high frequencies (or involving small time scales) are weakened
more and more when moving to smaller value of Ω C . Theoretical arguments suggest
Ω C ∼ 1012 Hz. Figure 1.3 shows the upper bounds to the colored CSL extension for
different values of Ω C .
1.7 Proposals for Future Testing
To confirm or falsify the possibility that the excess noise measured in [21] is actu-
ally the effect of a collapse mechanism, one needs to consider new experimental
techniques for an independent inquiry.
One possible test consists of focusing on the rotational degrees of freedom of
a system and its collapse-induced Brownian motion [34, 44]. It turns out that for
truly macroscopic systems, this technique can provide a sensible improvement of the
bounds on the collapse parameters, cf. Fig. 1.4. A direct application was considered
in [34], where the bound from LISA Pathfinder [26] can be significantly improved
by considering also the rotational degrees of freedom.
Another proposal [45] considered a modification of the cantilever experiment in
[21] where the homogeneous mass is substituted with one made of several layers of
two different materials. This will increment the CSL noise for the values of rC of the
order of the thickness of the layers. An example is shown in Fig. 1.4.
These are just two of the several proposals [46–50] suggested over the last years
to push the exploration of the CSL parameter space.
1.8 Conclusions
We discussed how collapse models provide a solution to the measurement problem.

They modify the Schrödinger dynamics introducing a spatial collapse of the wave
function. We focused in particular on the most relevant collapse models, which are
the GRW and the CSL model. We discussed their main properties and the status of
the experimental bounds on their phenomenological parameters λ and rC (Figs. 1.1
and 1.2). In particular, non-interferometric experiments provide the strongest tests
of collapse models. They extend over a broad set of possible systems, which differ
in size, form, materials, degrees of freedom, and much more. Moreover, we consid-
ered the dissipative and colored noise extensions of the CSL model. Also in these
cases, non-interferometric tests are the most relevant for the experimental investiga-
tion (Fig. 1.3). Finally, we present several non-interferometric proposals that were
suggested to push further the exploration of collapse models (Fig. 1.4).
Fig. 1.4 Exemplification of two possible experimental tests of collapse models. First panel: Results
of the analysis proposed in [34, 44] where the rotational degrees of freedom of a cylinder are
studied. The red line denotes the upper bound that can be obtained from the constraints given by
the rotational motion, compared with those from the translations (blue and green lines). Second
panel: Red shaded area highlights the hypothetical excluded value of the collapse parameters that
could be to derived from the conversion of the translational noise of LISA Pathfinder to rotational
one [34]. This is compared to the new (old) upper bounds from the translational motion shown
with the blue line [34] (gray area [26]). Third panels: Hypothetical upper bounds obtained from
substituting the sphere attached to the cantilever used in [21] with a multilayer cuboid of the same
mass for various thickness of the layers [45]. The bounds are compared with that from the improved
cantilever experiment [21] shown in orange. Fourth panel: Same as the third panel, but with a mass
ten times larger
Acknowledgements MC acknowledges the financial support from the H2020 FET Project TEQ
(grant n.766900) and the support from the COST Action QTSpace (CA15220), INFN and the Uni-
versity of Trieste. SD acknowledges the financial support from the Fetzer Franklin Foundation and
the support from the COST Action QTSpace (CA15220) and the Frankfurt Institute for Advanced
Studies (FIAS). Both the authors are grateful for the support offered by the WE-Heraeus-Stiftung for
the WE-Heraeus-Seminars entitled “Advances in open systems and fundamental tests of quantum
mechanics”.
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Chapter 2
Information Flow Versus Divisibility
for Non-invertible Dynamical Maps
Dariusz Chruściński, Ángel Rivas and Sagnik Chakraborty
Abstract We study the equivalence between information flow and completely

positive divisibility—the two main approaches to Markovianity in quantum regime.
Such equivalence is well known to hold for maps which are invertible. For non-
invertible maps, the problem is more subtle. We show that for a class of so-called
image non-increasing dynamical maps, the equivalence still holds true. Moreover,
for qubit dynamics we show that the equivalence is universal, thus providing a com-
prehensive theory of quantum Markovianity at least for two dimensions. In the course
of our proofs, we found certain mathematical restrictions on existence and impossi-
bility of existence of completely positive trace-preserving projectors onto subspaces
of finite-dimensional operator space. We illustrate our results with appropriate exam-
ples.
2.1 Introduction
Dynamics of open quantum systems attracts a lot of attention [1–3]. Theory of open
quantum systems provides an effective tool to describe the evolution of a quan-
tum system interacting with environment. One of the key questions posed recently
D. Chruściński
Institute of Physics, Faculty of Physics, Astronomy and Informatics,
Nicolaus Copernicus University, Grudzia̧dzka 5/7, 87–100 Toruń, Poland
e-mail: darch@fizyka.umk.pl
Á. Rivas (B)
Departamento de Física Teórica, Facultad de Ciencias Físicas,
Universidad Complutense, 28040 Madrid, Spain
e-mail: anrivas@ucm.es
CCS-Center for Computational Simulation, Campus de Montegancedo UPM,
28660 Boadilla del Monte, Madrid, Spain
S. Chakraborty
Optics and Quantum Information Group, The Institute of Mathematical Sciences,
C. I. T. Campus, Taramani, Chennai 600113, India
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 15

B. Vacchini et al. (eds.), Advances in Open Systems and Fundamental
Tests of Quantum Mechanics, Springer Proceedings in Physics 237,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-31146-9_2
16 D. Chruściński et al.
is a characterization of quantum (non)Markovianity. The property of Markovian

processes is well understood in classical physics. However, in the quantum physics,
the notion of Markovianity is much more subtle, and there are several approaches to
this problem (see recent reviews [4–7]).
The two main approaches to quantum non-Markovianity, which turned out to be
very influential, are based on the concept of CP-divisibility [8] and information flow
[9]. In order to formulate them, we assume that the time evolution of a quantum
system is represented by a dynamical map Λt (t ≥ 0), that is, Λt is a family of
completely positive (CP) and trace-preserving (TP) maps acting on the space T (H)
of trace class√operators in the Hilbert space H (an operator X is trace class iff X 1 :=
Tr|X | = Tr X X † < ∞). The application t → Λt is assumed to be continuous in
the topology defined by the trace norm.
Definition 2.1 One calls the map Λt divisible if it can be decomposed as
Λt = Vt,s Λs , (2.1)
where Vt,s : T (H) → T (H) is a linear map for every t ≥ s. Moreover, one calls Λt
P-divisible if Vt,s is positive trace-preserving (PTP) for all t ≥ s, and CP-divisible
if Vt,s is completely positive trace-preserving (CPTP) for all t ≥ s.
According to [8], the evolution represented by Λt is Markovian iff the corresponding
dynamical map Λt is CP-divisible. A different approach identifies the presence of
memory effects with an information backflow between the system and environment.
This can be implemented in terms of the function
d
σ (ρ1 , ρ2 , t) = Λt ρ1 − Λt ρ2 1 , (2.2)
dt
which depends on two different initial states ρ1 and ρ2 . Following [9], Markovian
evolution is characterized by σ (ρ1 , ρ2 , t) ≤ 0. Whenever σ (ρ1 , ρ2 , t) > 0, one says
there is information backflow from environment back to the system. In this case,
the evolution displays clearly nontrivial memory effects and is classified as non-
Markovian.
These two notions of quantum non-Markovianity are very much related but not
strictly equivalent [10–14]. In this paper, we carefully analyze the relation between
these approaches.
2.2 Divisibility Versus No Information Backflow: Invertible

Maps
It is clear that if Λt is invertible, i.e., Λ−1

t exists for any t, then it is necessarily
divisible since
Vt,s := Λt Λ−1
s (2.3)
2 Information Flow Versus Divisibility for Non-invertible Dynamical Maps 17
is well defined on T (H). It should be stressed that even if Λt is invertible for all
t > 0 the inverse needs not be completely positive, but it is always trace-preserving.
Actually, one has the following.
Proposition 2.1 ([17]) Let Φ : T (H) → T (H) be a CPTP map. Then the inverse
Φ −1 is CPTP iff
Φ(X ) = U XU † , (2.4)
for some unitary U : H → H. If we allow that Φ is a positive trace-preserving map,

then Φ −1 is PTP iff Φ is given by (2.4) or
Φ(X ) = U X T U † . (2.5)
The connection between information backflow and divisibility properties starts with
the following theorem.
Theorem 2.1 ([10]) Suppose that Λt is invertible for all t > 0. Then it is P-divisible
if and only if
d
Λt (X )1 ≤ 0, (2.6)
dt
for any X ∈ T (H).

This theorem is a consequence of the following lemma.
Lemma 2.1 ([15]) Consider a linear map Φ : T (H) → T (H) which is trace-
preserving and Hermiticity-preserving. Then Φ is positive if and only if
Φ(X )1 ≤ X 1 , (2.7)
for all X † = X .
Then, the proof of Theorem 1 is as follows. One has
d 1
Λt (X )1 = lim Λt+ (X )1 − Λt (X )1
dt →0+
1
= lim Vt+,t Λt (X )1 − Λt (X )1 . (2.8)
→0+
Now, if Λt is P-divisible, that is, Vt,s is PTP for t ≥ s, because of Lemma 1,
Vt+,t Λt (X )1 ≤ Λt (X )1 (2.9)
and hence
d
Λt (X )1 ≤ 0. (2.10)
dt
Conversely, if (2.6) is satisfied, then (2.8) implies
Vt+,t Λt (X )1 ≤ Λt (X )1 , (2.11)
for all X and > 0. But since Λt is invertible, it is equivalent to
Vt+,t (Y )1 ≤ Y 1 , (2.12)
for all Y ∈ T (H) and by Lemma 1 the map Vt+,t is positive which ends the
proof.
This result can be immediately generalized for k-divisible maps [16]. These are
dynamical maps such that idk ⊗ Vt,s is PTP on the space Mk (C) ⊗ T (H), where
Mk (C) is the space of k × k matrices with complex entries, and idk denotes the
identity map on this space. Therefore, 1-divisibility is the same as P-divisibility, and
CP-divisibility means k-divisibility for all k. For finite dimension dim T (H) = d <
∞, Λt is CP-divisible iff it is d-divisible.
Theorem 2.2 ([16]) Suppose that Λt is invertible for all t > 0. Then it is k-divisible
if and only if
d
[idk ⊗ Λt ](X )1 ≤ 0, (2.13)
dt
for any Hermitian X ∈ Mk (C) ⊗ T (H).
Clearly, taking X = ρ1 − ρ2 one recovers original condition [9] for no backflow of

information. In this case, one has Tr X = 0. Actually, Bylicka et al. [12] have proved
the following result.
Theorem 2.3 ([12]) Suppose that Λt is invertible for all t > 0. If dim T (H) = d 2 ,
then it is C P-divisible if and only if
d
[idd+1 ⊗ Λt ](X )1 ≤ 0, (2.14)
dt
for X = ρ1 − ρ2 ∈ Md+1 (C) ⊗ T (H).
This result shows that one may restrict to the original scenario X = ρ1 − ρ2 but the
price one pays is a use of (d + 1)-dimensional ancilla instead of d-dimensional one.
2.3 Divisibility Versus Information Backflow:

Non-invertible Maps
For dynamical maps Λt which are not invertible, the relation between divisibility
properties and information backflow becomes considerably more intricate. Note that
for a non-invertible dynamical map Λt , the existence of Vt,s is not guaranteed for all
pairs t > s. We shall consider here just the finite-dimensional case. Then, one proves
the following proposition.
2 Information Flow Versus Divisibility for Non-invertible Dynamical Maps 19
Proposition 2.2 ([14]) A dynamical map Λt is divisible iff
Ker(Λt ) ⊇ Ker(Λs ), (2.15)
for any t > s.

One should notice that if Λt is invertible, then Vt,s exists and it is always trace-
preserving on the entire T (H). This is no longer true for non-invertible maps. In
such a case even if Vt,s exists, that is, the map is divisible, it is necessarily trace-
preserving only on the range of Λs and need not be trace-preserving on the entire
T (H). Indeed, if Y ∈ Im(Λs ), then
Vt,s (Y ) := Λt (X ), (2.16)
where X is any operator such that Y = Λs (X ). Thus, Vt,s is well defined: if Λs (X ) =

Y , then Λt (X ) = Λt (X ) due to the fact that X − X ∈ Ker(Λs ) ⊆ Ker(Λt ). Now,
TrY = Tr X and hence
Tr[Vt,s (Y )] = Tr[Λt (X )] = Tr X = TrY. (2.17)
However, if Y is not an element from the image of Λs , the preservation of trace is

not guaranteed.
Proposition 2.3 If the dynamical map Λt satisfies
d
Λt (X )1 ≤ 0, (2.18)
dt
for all Hermitian X ∈ T (H), then Λt is divisible.

Proof Suppose that (2.18) is satisfied but Λt is not divisible, that is, there exists X
such that Λs X = 0 but Λt X = 0 (t > s). This shows Λt (X )1 > 0 = Λs (X )1
and hence Λt (X )1 does not monotonically decrease.
Hence, condition (2.18) implies the existence of some Vt,s : T (H) → T (H) such
that Λt = Vt,s Λs for all t ≥ s, However, Vt,s is uniquely defined just on the image of
Λs due to (2.16). Therefore, there are many possible choices for Vt,s as a map from
T (H) on T (H). All of them have the same action on Im(Λs ), which clearly defines
a linear subspace of T (H) that is closed under Hermitian conjugation. One has the
following result.
Lemma 2.2 Let M ⊂ T (H) be a linear subspace closed under Hermitian conjuga-
tion. Consider a trace-preserving linear map Φ : M → T (H). If Φ is a contraction
in the trace norm, then it is positive.
Take arbitrary X ≥ 0 from M. One has X 1 = Tr X . Now, since Φ is trace-
preserving Tr X = Tr[Φ(X )] ≤ Tr|Φ(X )| = Φ(X )1 . Finally, since Φ is a con-
traction Φ(X )1 ≤ X 1 , and hence it implies
Φ(X )1 = Tr[Φ(X )], (2.19)
which proves that Φ(X ) ≥ 0.
Corollary 2.1 If the dynamical map Λt satisfies
d
[idd ⊗ Λt ](X )1 ≤ 0, (2.20)
dt
for all Hermitian X ∈ T (H) ⊗ T (H), then Λt is divisible and Vt,s : Im(Λs ) →
T (H) defines a completely positive trace-preserving map.
Note that (2.20) implies that Vt,s can be defined on the entire space T (H). However,
Vt,s is CPTP only on Im(Λs ), i.e.,
[idd ⊗ Vt,s ](X ) ≥ 0, (2.21)
for positive X ∈ Md (C) ⊗ Im(Λs ).
2.4 Extension Theorem
From the discussion in the previous section, we conclude that, for non-invertible
dynamics, the condition for no information backflow implies the existence of maps
Vt,s which are CPTP on Im(Λs ). The question is whether or not one of such propaga-
tors Vt,s can be chosen to be CPTP on the entire T (H). In other words, the problem
we face is how to extend the propagator Vt,s as a map defined on Im(Λs ) to the entire
space T (H) such that it is CPTP on T (H). This extension problem was already
studied both in mathematics and physics [17–19].
Theorem 2.4 (Arveson) Let Φ : S → B(H) be a unital completely positive map

: B(H) →
defined on an operator system S. Then there exists a unital CP extension Φ
B(H).
This theorem can not be directly applied in our case since the map Vt,s is not unital
and the subspace Im(Λs ) does not define an operator system. Namely, Im(Λs ) does
not always contain the identity element of T (H). Nevertheless, there is a variant of
this theorem closer to our situation.
Theorem 2.5 ([20]) Let Φ : M → T (H) be a CPTP map defined on a linear

subspace M spanned by positive operators. Then there exists a CP extension
: T (H) → T (H).
Φ
This result can be directly applied to our problem since the subspace Im(Λs ) is
spanned by positive operators (density matrices). However, note that Theorem 2.5
does not guarantee that the extension is also trace-preserving.
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that five thousand, belongs to me by rights. Oh, never mind, I’m
going along. Do you hear?” he shouted, his fists raised, “I’m going
along, I tell you. There ain’t a man of you big enough to stop me.
Let’s see you try and stop me going. Let’s see you once, any two of
you.” He filled the barroom with his clamor.
“Lord love you, come along, then,” said the sheriff.
The posse rode out of Keeler that same night. The keeper of the
general merchandise store, from whom Marcus had borrowed a
second pony, had informed them that Cribbens and his partner,
whose description tallied exactly with that given in the notice of
reward, had outfitted at his place with a view to prospecting in the
Panamint hills. The posse trailed them at once to their first camp at
the head of the valley. It was an easy matter. It was only necessary
to inquire of the cowboys and range-riders of the valley if they had
seen and noted the passage of two men, one of whom carried a bird-
cage.
Beyond this first camp the trail was lost, and a week was wasted in
a bootless search around the mine at Gold Gulch, whither it seemed
probable the partners had gone. Then a traveling peddler, who
included Gold Gulch in his route, brought in the news of a wonderful
strike of gold-bearing quartz some ten miles to the south on the
western slope of the range. Two men from Keeler had made a strike,
the peddler had said, and added the curious detail that one of the
men had a canary bird in a cage with him.
The posse made Cribbens’ camp three days after the
unaccountable disappearance of his partner. Their man was gone,
but the narrow hoof-prints of a mule, mixed with those of huge hob-
nailed boots, could be plainly followed in the sand. Here they picked
up the trail and held to it steadily till the point was reached where,
instead of tending southward, it swerved abruptly to the east. The
men could hardly believe their eyes.
“It ain’t reason,” exclaimed the sheriff. “What in thunder is he up
to? This beats me! Cutting out into Death Valley at this time of year!”
“He’s heading for Gold Mountain over in the Armagosa, sure.”
The men decided that this conjecture was true. It was the only
inhabited locality in that direction. A discussion began as to the
further movements of the posse.
“I don’t figure on going into that alkali sink with no eight men and
horses,” declared the sheriff. “One man can’t carry enough water to
take him and his mount across, let alone eight. No, sir. Four couldn’t
do it. No, three couldn’t. We’ve got to make a circuit round the valley
and come up on the other side and head him off at Gold Mountain.
That’s what we got to do, and ride like blazes to do it, too.”
But Marcus protested with all the strength of his lungs against
abandoning the trail now that they had found it. He argued that they
were now but a day and a half behind their man. There was no
possibility of their missing the trail—as distinct in the white alkali as
in snow. They could make a dash into the valley, secure their man,
and return long before their water failed them. He, for one, would not
give up the pursuit, now that they were so close. In the haste of the
departure from Keeler the sheriff had neglected to swear him in. He
was under no orders. He would do as he pleased.
“Go on, then, you darn fool,” answered the sheriff. “We’ll cut on
round the valley, for all that. It’s a gamble he’ll be at Gold Mountain
before you’re half-way across. But if you catch him, here”—he
tossed Marcus a pair of handcuffs—“put ’em on him and bring him
back to Keeler.”
Two days after he had left the posse, and when he was already far
out in the desert, Marcus’s horse gave out. In the fury of his
impatience he had spurred mercilessly forward on the trail, and on
the morning of the third day found that his horse was unable to
move. The joints of his legs seemed locked rigidly. He would go his
own length, stumbling and interfering, then collapse helplessly upon
the ground with a pitiful groan. He was used up.
Marcus believed himself to be close upon McTeague now. The
ashes at his last camp had still been smoldering. Marcus took what
supplies of food and water he could carry, and hurried on. But
McTeague was farther ahead than he had guessed, and by evening
of his third day upon the desert Marcus, raging with thirst, had drunk
his last mouthful of water and had flung away the empty canteen.
“If he ain’t got water with um,” he said to himself, as he pushed on,
“if he ain’t got water with um, I’ll be in a bad way. I will, for a fact.”
At Marcus’s shout McTeague looked up and around him. For the

instant he saw no one. The white glare of alkali was still unbroken.
Then his swiftly rolling eyes lighted upon a head and shoulder that
protruded above the low crest of the break directly in front of him. A
man was there, lying at full length upon the ground, covering him
with a revolver. For a few seconds McTeague looked at the man
stupidly, bewildered, confused, as yet without definite thought. Then
he noticed that the man was singularly like Marcus Schouler. It was
Marcus Schouler. How in the world did Marcus Schouler happen to
be in that desert? What did he mean by pointing a pistol at him that
way? He’d best look out or the pistol would go off. Then his thoughts
readjusted themselves with a swiftness born of a vivid sense of
danger. Here was the enemy at last, the tracker he had felt upon his
footsteps. Now at length he had “come on” and shown himself, after
all those days of skulking. McTeague was glad of it. He’d show him
now. They two would have it out right then and there. His rifle! He
had thrown it away long since. He was helpless. Marcus had ordered
him to put up his hands. If he did not, Marcus would kill him. He had
the drop on him. McTeague stared, scowling fiercely at the leveled
pistol. He did not move.
“Hands up!” shouted Marcus a second time. “I’ll give you three to
do it in. One, two—” Instinctively McTeague put his hands above his
head.
Marcus rose and came towards him over the break.
“Keep ’em up,” he cried. “If you move ’em once I’ll kill you, sure.”
He came up to McTeague and searched him, going through his
pockets; but McTeague had no revolver; not even a hunting knife.
“What did you do with that money, with that five thousand dollars?”
“It’s on the mule,” answered McTeague, sullenly.
Marcus grunted, and cast a glance at the mule, who was standing
some distance away, snorting nervously, and from time to time
flattening his long ears.
“Is that it there on the horn of the saddle, there in that canvas
sack?” Marcus demanded.
“Yes, that’s it.”
A gleam of satisfaction came into Marcus’s eyes, and under his
breath he muttered: “Got it at last.”
He was singularly puzzled to know what next to do. He had got
McTeague. There he stood at length, with his big hands over his
head, scowling at him sullenly. Marcus had caught his enemy, had
run down the man for whom every officer in the state had been
looking. What should he do with him now? He couldn’t keep him
standing there forever with his hands over his head.
“Got any water?” he demanded.
“There’s a canteen of water on the mule.”
Marcus moved toward the mule and made as if to reach the bridle-
rein. The mule squealed, threw up his head, and galloped to a little
distance, rolling his eyes and flattening his ears.
Marcus swore wrathfully.
“He acted that way once before,” explained McTeague, his hands
still in the air. “He ate some loco-weed back in the hills before I
started.”
For a moment Marcus hesitated. While he was catching the mule
McTeague might get away. But where to, in heaven’s name? A rat
could not hide on the surface of that glistening alkali, and besides, all
McTeague’s store of provisions and his priceless supply of water
were on the mule. Marcus ran after the mule, revolver in hand,
shouting and cursing. But the mule would not be caught. He acted as
if possessed, squealing, lashing out, and galloping in wide circles,
his head high in the air.
“Come on,” shouted Marcus, furious, turning back to McTeague.
“Come on, help me catch him. We got to catch him. All the water we
got is on the saddle.”
McTeague came up.
“He’s eatun some loco-weed,” he repeated. “He went kinda crazy
before.”
“If he should take it into his head to bolt and keep on running—”
Marcus did not finish. A sudden great fear seemed to widen
around and inclose the two men. Once their water gone, the end
would not be long.
“We can catch him all right,” said the dentist. “I caught him once
before.”
“Oh, I guess we can catch him,” answered Marcus, reassuringly.
Already the sense of enmity between the two had weakened in the
face of a common peril. Marcus let down the hammer of his revolver
and slid it back into the holster.
The mule was trotting on ahead, snorting and throwing up great
clouds of alkali dust. At every step the canvas sack jingled, and
McTeague’s bird-cage, still wrapped in the flour bags, bumped
against the saddle-pads. By and by the mule stopped, blowing out
his nostrils excitedly.
“He’s clean crazy,” fumed Marcus, panting and swearing.
“We ought to come up on him quiet,” observed McTeague.
“I’ll try and sneak up,” said Marcus; “two of us would scare him
again. You stay here.”
Marcus went forward a step at a time. He was almost within arm’s
length of the bridle when the mule shied from him abruptly and
galloped away.
Marcus danced with rage, shaking his fists, and swearing horribly.
Some hundred yards away the mule paused and began blowing and
snuffing in the alkali as though in search of food. Then, for no
reason, he shied again, and started off on a jog trot toward the east.
“We’ve got to follow him,” exclaimed Marcus, as McTeague came
up. “There’s no water within seventy miles of here.”
Then began an interminable pursuit. Mile after mile, under the
terrible heat of the desert sun, the two men followed the mule,
racked with a thirst that grew fiercer every hour. A dozen times they
could almost touch the canteen of water, and as often the distraught
animal shied away and fled before them. At length Marcus cried:
“It’s no use, we can’t catch him, and we’re killing ourselves with
thirst. We got to take our chances.” He drew his revolver from its
holster, cocked it, and crept forward.
“Steady now,” said McTeague; “it won’t do to shoot through the
canteen.”
Within twenty yards Marcus paused, made a rest of his left
forearm and fired.
“You got him,” cried McTeague. “No, he’s up again. Shoot him
again. He’s going to bolt.”
Marcus ran on, firing as he went. The mule, one foreleg trailing,
scrambled along, squealing and snorting. Marcus fired his last shot.
The mule pitched forward upon his head, then, rolling sideways, fell
upon the canteen, bursting it open and spilling its entire contents into
the sand.
Marcus and McTeague ran up, and Marcus snatched the battered
canteen from under the reeking, bloody hide. There was no water
left. Marcus flung the canteen from him and stood up, facing
McTeague. There was a pause.
“We’re dead men,” said Marcus.
McTeague looked from him out over the desert. Chaotic desolation
stretched from them on either hand, flaming and glaring with the
afternoon heat. There was the brazen sky and the leagues upon
leagues of alkali, leper white. There was nothing more. They were in
the heart of Death Valley.
“Not a drop of water,” muttered McTeague; “not a drop of water.”
“We can drink the mule’s blood,” said Marcus. “It’s been done
before. But—but—” he looked down at the quivering, gory body “—
but I ain’t thirsty enough for that yet.”
“Where’s the nearest water?”
“Well, it’s about a hundred miles or more back of us in the
Panamint hills,” returned Marcus, doggedly. “We’d be crazy long
before we reached it. I tell you we’re done for. We ain’t ever going to
get outa here.”
“Done for?” murmured the other, looking about stupidly. “Done for,
that’s the word. Done for? Yes, I guess we’re done for.”
“What are we going to do now?” exclaimed Marcus, sharply, after
a while.
“Well, let’s be moving along—somewhere.”
“Where, I’d like to know? What’s the good of moving on?”
“Wat’s the good of stopping here?”
There was a silence.
“Lord, it’s hot,” said the dentist, finally, wiping his forehead with the
back of his hand. Marcus ground his teeth.
“Done for,” he muttered; “done for.”
“I never was so thirsty,” continued McTeague. “I’m that dry I can
hear my tongue rubbing against the roof of my mouth.”
“Well, we can’t stop here,” said Marcus, finally; “we got to go
somewhere. We’ll try and get back, but it ain’t no manner of use.
Anything we want to take along with us from the mule? We can—”
Suddenly he paused. In an instant the eyes of the two doomed
men had met as the same thought simultaneously rose in their
minds. The canvas sack with its five thousand dollars was still tied to
the horn of the saddle.
Marcus had emptied his revolver at the mule, and though he still
wore his cartridge belt, he was for the moment as unarmed as
McTeague.
“I guess,” began McTeague, coming forward a step, “I guess even
if we are done for, I’ll take—some of my truck along.”
“Hold on,” exclaimed Marcus, with rising aggressiveness. “Let’s
talk about that. I ain’t so sure about who that—who that money
belongs to.”
“Well, I am, you see,” growled the dentist.
The old enmity between the two men, their ancient hate, was
flaming up again.
“Don’t try an’ load that gun either,” cried McTeague, fixing Marcus
with his little eyes.
“Then don’t lay your finger on that sack,” shouted the other.
“You’re my prisoner, do you understand? You’ll do as I say.” Marcus
had drawn the handcuffs from his pocket, and stood ready with his
revolver held as a club. “You soldiered me out of that money once,
and played me for a sucker, an’ it’s my turn now. Don’t you lay your
finger on that sack.”
Marcus barred McTeague’s way, white with passion. McTeague did
not answer. His eyes drew to two fine, twinkling points, and his
enormous hands knotted themselves into fists, hard as wooden
mallets. He moved a step nearer to Marcus, then another.
Suddenly the men grappled, and in another instant were rolling
and struggling upon the hot, white ground. McTeague thrust Marcus
backward until he tripped and fell over the body of the dead mule.
The little bird-cage broke from the saddle with the violence of their
fall, and rolled out upon the ground, the flour-bags slipping from it.
McTeague tore the revolver from Marcus’s grip and struck out with it
blindly. Clouds of alkali dust, fine and pungent, enveloped the two
fighting men, all but strangling them.
McTeague did not know how he killed his enemy, but all at once
Marcus grew still beneath his blows. Then there was a sudden last
return of energy. McTeague’s right wrist was caught, something
clicked upon it, then the struggling body fell limp and motionless with
a long breath.
As McTeague rose to his feet, he felt a pull at his right wrist;
something held it fast. Looking down, he saw that Marcus in that last
struggle had found strength to handcuff their right wrists together.
Marcus was dead now; McTeague was locked to the body. All about
him, vast, interminable, stretched the measureless leagues of Death
Valley.
McTeague remained stupidly looking around him, now at the
distant horizon, now at the ground, now at the half-dead canary
chittering feebly in its little gilt prison.—Arranged from “McTeague.”
Copyright by Doubleday, Page & Co., New York, and used by kind
permission.
MICHAEL STROGOFF, COURIER OF THE CZAR

By Jules Verne
The door of the imperial cabinet was opened and General Kissoff
was announced.
“The courier?” inquired the Czar eagerly.
“He is here, sire,” replied General Kissoff.
“Let him come in,” said the Czar.
In a few moments Michael Strogoff, the courier, entered. The Czar
fixed a penetrating look upon him without uttering a word. Then in an
abrupt tone—
“Thy name?”
“Michael Strogoff, sire.”
“Thy rank?”
“Captain in the corps of Couriers to the Czar.”
“Thou dost know Siberia?”
“I am a Siberian.”
“A native of—?”
“Omsk, sire.”
“Hast thou relations there?”
“Yes, sire, my aged mother.”
The Czar suspended his questions for a moment; then pointed to
a letter which he held in his hand:
“Here is a letter which I charge thee, Michael Strogoff, to deliver
into the hands of the Grand Duke, and to no one but him.”
“I will deliver it, sire.”
“The Grand Duke is at Irkutsk. Thou wilt have to traverse a
rebellious country, invaded by Tartars, whose interest it will be to
intercept this letter.”
“I will traverse it.”
“Above all, beware of the traitor, Ivan Ogareff, who will perhaps
meet thee on the way.”
“I will beware of him.”
“Wilt thou pass through Omsk?”
“Sire, that is my route.”
“If thou dost see thy mother, there will be the risk of being
recognized. Thou must not see her!”
Michael Strogoff hesitated a moment, and then said:
“I will not see her.”
“Swear to me that nothing will make thee acknowledge who thou
art, nor whither thou art going.”
“I swear it.”
“Michael Strogoff, take this letter. On it depends the safety of all
Siberia, and perhaps the life of my brother, the Grand Duke.”
“This letter shall be delivered to His Highness, the Grand Duke.”
“Go, thou, for God, for the Czar, and for your native land.”
The courier saluted his sovereign and that very night set out to
fulfill his perilous mission. All went well until he reached Omsk.
Compelled to stop here for food and a change of horses, he was
about to leave the posting house to continue his journey when
suddenly a cry made him tremble—a cry which penetrated to the
depths of his soul—and these two words rushed into his ear: “My
son!”
His mother, the old woman, Marfa, was before him! Trembling, she
smiled upon him and stretched forth her arms to him. Michael
Strogoff stepped forward; he was about to throw himself—when the
thought of duty, the serious danger to himself, and his mother, in this
unfortunate meeting, stopped him, and so great was his self-
command that not a muscle of his face moved. There were twenty
people in the public room, and among them perhaps spies, and was
it not known that the son of Marfa Strogoff belonged to the corps of
Couriers to the Czar? Michael Strogoff did not move.
“Michael!” cried his mother.
“Who are you, my good woman?”
“Who am I? Dost thou no longer know thy mother?”
“You are mistaken; a resemblance deceives you.”
Marfa went up to him, and looking straight into his eyes, said: “Art
thou not the son of Peter and Marfa Strogoff?”
Michael would have given his life to have locked his mother in his
arms. But if he yielded now it was all over with him, with her, with his
mission, with his oath. Completely master of himself, he closed his
eyes that he might not see the inexpressible anguish of his mother.
“I do not know, in truth, what it is you say, my good woman.”
“Michael!”
“My name is not Michael. I never was your son! I am Nicholas
Kopanoff, a merchant of Irkutsk.”
And suddenly he left the room, while for the last time the words
echoed in his ears,—
“My son! My son!”
Michael Strogoff by a desperate effort had gone. He did not heed
his old mother, who had fallen back almost inanimate on a bench.
But when the postmaster hastened to assist her, the aged woman
raised herself. Suddenly the thought occurred to her: She denied by
her own son. It was impossible! As for being deceived, it was equally
impossible. It was certainly her son whom she had just seen; and if
he had not recognized her it was because he had some strong
reason for acting thus. And then, her mother-feelings arising within
her, she had only one thought: Can I unwittingly have ruined him?
“I am mad,” she said to her interrogators. “This young man was
not my son; he had not his voice. Let us think no more of it. If we do,
I shall end in finding him everywhere.”
This scene, however, was immediately reported to Ivan Ogareff,
who was stationed in the town. He at once arrested Michael Strogoff,
and then had Marfa brought before him. Marfa, standing before Ivan
Ogareff, drew herself up, crossed her arms on her breast, and
waited. “You are Marfa Strogoff?” asked Ogareff.
“Yes.”
“Do you retract what you said a few hours ago?”
“No.”
“Then you do not know that your son, Michael Strogoff, Courier to
the Czar, has passed through Omsk?”
“I do not know it.”
“And the man whom you thought you recognized as your son was
not your son?”
“He was not my son.”
“And since then, you have seen him among the prisoners?”
“No.”
“If he were pointed out to you, would you recognize him?”
“No.”
“Listen! Your son is here, and you shall immediately point him out
to me.”
“No.”
“All these men will file before you, and if you do not show me
Michael Strogoff, you shall receive as many blows from the knout as
men shall have passed before you.”
On an order from Ogareff, the prisoners filed one by one past
Marfa, who was immovable as a statue, and whose face expressed
only perfect indifference. Michael was to all appearances unmoved,
but the palms of his hands bled under the nails which were pressed
into the flesh.
Marfa, seized by two soldiers, was forced on her knees on the
ground. Her dress torn off left her back bare. A saber was placed
before her breast at a few inches’ distance. If she bent beneath her
sufferings, her breast would be pierced by the sharp steel. The Tartar
drew himself up and waited.
“Begin,” said Ogareff.
The whip whistled through the air, but, before it fell, a powerful
hand stopped the Tartar’s arm. Ivan Ogareff had succeeded.
“Michael Strogoff!” cried he.
“Himself!” said Michael, and raising the knout, he struck Ogareff a
blow across the face.
“Blow for blow!” said he.
Twenty soldiers threw themselves on Michael and in another
instant he would have been slain, but Ogareff stopped them.
“This man is reserved for the Emir’s judgment. Search him.”
The letter bearing the imperial arms was found in Michael’s
bosom; he had not time to destroy it. It was handed to Ogareff.
Michael was then led before the Emir.
“Your forehead to the ground!” exclaimed Ogareff.
“No!”
Two soldiers tried to make him bend, but were themselves laid on
the ground by a blow from Michael’s fist.
“Who is this prisoner?” asked the Emir.
“A Russian spy,” answered Ogareff.
In asserting that Michael was a spy, he knew that the sentence
would be terrible. The Emir made a sign, at which all bowed low their
heads. Then he pointed to the Koran, which was brought to him. He
opened the sacred book, and placing his finger on one of its pages,
read in a loud voice a verse ending in these words: “And he shall no
more see the things of this earth.”
“Russian spy, you have come to see what is going on in the Tartar
camp; then look while you may! You have seen for the last time. In
an instant your eyes will be for ever shut to the light of day.”
Michael’s fate was to be not death, but blindness. He was going to
be blinded in the Tartar fashion, with a hot saber-blade passed
before his eyes.
The Emir’s orders executed, Ivan Ogareff approached Michael,
drew from his pocket the Imperial letter, opened it and held it up
before the face of the Czar’s courier, saying with supreme irony:
“Read, now, Michael Strogoff, read, and go and repeat at Irkutsk
what you have read. The true Courier of the Czar is henceforth Ivan
Ogareff.”
The Emir retired with his train. Ivan followed after, and sightless
Michael was left alone to his fate. One thought possessed him. He
must somehow arrive at Irkutsk before the traitor and warn the
Grand Duke of the intended deception.
Some months later Michael Strogoff had reached his journey’s
end! He was in Irkutsk. Hastening to the governor’s palace to see
the Grand Duke, he meets in a waiting-room Ivan Ogareff, the traitor.
The latter must act quickly. Ogareff arose, and thinking he had an
immeasureable advantage over the blind man threw himself upon
him. But with one hand Michael grasps the arm of his enemy and
hurls him to the ground. Ogareff gathers himself together like a tiger
about to spring, and utters not a word. The noise of his footsteps, his
very breathing, he tries to conceal from the blind man. At last, with a
spring, he drives his sword full blast at Michael’s breast. An
imperceptible movement of the blind man’s knife turns aside the
blow. Michael is not touched, and coolly waits a second attack. Cold
drops stand on Ogareff’s brow; he draws back a step and again
leaps forward. But like the first, this attempt fails. Michael’s knife has
parried the blow from the traitor’s useless sword. Mad with rage and
terror, he gazes into the wide-open eyes of the blind man. Those
eyes which seem to pierce to the bottom of his soul, and which do
not, cannot, see, exercise a sort of dreadful fascination over him.
Suddenly Ogareff utters a cry: “He sees! He sees!”
“Yes, I see. Thinking of my mother, the tears which sprang to my
eyes saved my sight. I see the mark of the knout which I gave you,
traitor and coward! I see the place where I am about to strike you!
Defend your life! It is a duel I offer you! My knife against your sword!”
Ogareff now feels that he is lost, but, mustering up all his courage,
he springs forward. The two blades cross, but at a touch from
Michael’s knife the sword flies in splinters, and the wretch, stabbed
to the heart, falls lifeless to the ground.
At the same moment the door is thrown open, and the Grand
Duke, accompanied by some of his officers, enters. The Grand Duke
advances. In the body lying on the ground he recognizes the man
whom he believes to be the Czar’s Courier. Then in threatening
voice:
“Who killed this man?”
“I,” answered Michael.
“Thy name? Who dares kill the servant of my brother, the Czar’s
Courier?”
“That man, your highness, is not a Courier of the Czar! He is Ivan
Ogareff!”
“Ivan Ogareff!”
“Yes, Ivan the traitor.”
“But who are you, then?”
“Michael Strogoff.”
THE TIGER’S CAVE

AN ADVENTURE AMONG THE MOUNTAINS OF QUITO
On leaving the Indian village, we continued to wind round
Chimborazo’s wide base; but its snow-crowned head no longer
shone above us in clear brilliancy, for a dense fog was gathering
gradually around it. Our guides looked anxiously towards it, and
announced their apprehensions of a violent storm. We soon found
that their fears were well founded. The fog rapidly covered and
obscured the whole of the mountain; the atmosphere was
suffocating, and yet so humid that the steelwork of our watches was
covered with rust, and the watches stopped. The river beside which
we were traveling rushed down with still greater impetuosity; and
from the clefts of the rocks which lay on the left of our path were
suddenly precipitated small rivulets that bore the roots of trees and
innumerable serpents along with them. These rivulets often came
down so suddenly and violently that we had great difficulty in
preserving our footing. The thunder at length began to roll, and
resounded through the mountainous passes with the most terrific
grandeur. Then came the vivid lightning, flash following flash—
above, around, beneath—everywhere a sea of fire. We sought a
momentary shelter in a cleft of the rocks, while one of our guides
hastened forward to seek a more secure asylum. In a short time he
returned, and informed us that he had discovered a spacious cavern,
which would afford us sufficient protection from the elements. We
proceeded thither immediately, and with great difficulty, and not a
little danger, at last got into it.
The noise and raging of the storm continued with so much
violence that we could not hear the sound of our voices. I had placed
myself near the entrance of the cave, and could observe, through the
opening, which was straight and narrow, the singular scene without.
The highest cedar-trees were struck down, or bent like reeds;
monkeys and parrots lay strewed upon the ground, killed by the
falling branches; the water had collected in the path we had just
passed, and hurried along it like a mountain stream. From everything
I saw I thought it extremely probable that we should be obliged to
pass some days in this cavern. When the storm, however, had
somewhat abated, our guides ventured out in order to ascertain if it
were possible to continue our journey. The cave in which we had
taken refuge was extremely dark, so that if we moved a few paces
from the entrance we could see no more than an inch before us; and
we were debating as to the propriety of leaving it, even before the
Indians came back, when we suddenly heard a singular rumbling or
growling at the farther end of the cavern, which instantly fixed all our
attention. Wharton and myself listened anxiously, but our daring and
inconsiderate young friend Lincoln, together with my huntsman, crept
about upon their hands and knees, and endeavored to discover, by
groping, from whence the sound proceeded. They had not advanced
far into the cavern before we heard them utter an exclamation of
surprise; and they returned to us, each carrying in his arms an
animal singularly marked, and about the size of a cat, seemingly of
great strength and power, and furnished with immense fangs. The
eyes were of a green color; strong claws were upon their feet; and a
blood-red tongue hung out of their mouths. Wharton had scarcely
glanced at them, when he exclaimed, in consternation, “Good God!
we have come into the den of a—.” He was interrupted by a fearful
cry of dismay from our guides, who came rushing precipitately
towards us, calling out, “A tiger! a tiger!” and at the same time, with
extraordinary rapidity, they climbed up a cedar-tree, which stood at
the entrance of the cave, and hid themselves among the branches.
After the first sensation of horror and surprise, which rendered me
motionless for a moment, had subsided, I grasped my firearms.
Wharton had already regained his composure and self-possession;
and he called to us to assist him instantly in blocking up the mouth of
the cave with an immense stone, which fortunately lay near it. The
sense of approaching danger augmented our strength, for we now
distinctly heard the growl of the ferocious animal, and we were lost
beyond redemption if it reached the entrance before we could get it
closed. Ere this was done, we could distinctly see the tiger bounding
towards the spot and stooping in order to creep into his den by the
narrow opening. At this fearful moment our exertions were
successful, and the great stone kept the wild beast at bay. There
was a small open space, however, left between the top of the
entrance and the stone, through which we could see the head of the
animal, illuminated by its glowing eyes, which rolled, glaring with
fury, upon us. Its frightful roaring, too, penetrated to the depths of the
cavern, and was answered by the hoarse growling of the cubs, which
Lincoln and Frank had now tossed from them. Our ferocious enemy
attempted first to remove the stone with his powerful claws, and then
to push it with his head from its place; and these efforts, proving
abortive, served only to increase his wrath. He uttered a
tremendous, heart-piercing howl, and his flaming eyes darted light
into the darkness of our retreat.
“Now is the time to fire at him,” said Wharton, with his usual
calmness; “aim at his eyes; the ball will go through his brain, and we
shall then have a chance to get rid of him.”
Frank seized his double-barreled gun, and Lincoln his pistols; the
former placed the muzzle within a few inches of the tiger, and Lincoln
did the same. At Wharton’s command, they both drew the triggers at
the same moment, but no shot followed. The tiger, who seemed
aware that the flash indicated an attack upon him, sprang growling
from the entrance, but, feeling himself unhurt, immediately turned
back again, and stationed himself in his former place. The powder in
both pieces was wet. Frank and Lincoln, therefore, proceeded to
draw the useless charges while Wharton and myself hastened to
seek our powder-flask. It was so extremely dark that we were
obliged to grope about the cave; and, at last, coming in contact with
the cubs, we heard a rustling noise, as if they were playing with
some metal substance, which we soon discovered was the cannister
we were looking for. Most unfortunately, however, the animals had
pushed off the lid with their claws, and the powder had been strewed
over the damp earth and rendered entirely useless. This fearful
discovery excited the greatest consternation.
“All is now over,” said Wharton. “We have only now to choose
whether we shall die of hunger, together with these animals who are
shut up along with us, or open the entrance to the blood-thirsty
monster without, and so make a quicker end of the matter.”
So saying, he placed himself close beside the stone, which, for the
moment, defended us, and looked undauntedly upon the lightning
eyes of the tiger.
Lincoln raved and swore; and Frank took a piece of strong cord
from his pocket and hastened to the farther end of the cave—I knew
not with what design. We soon, however, heard a low, stifled
groaning; and the tiger, who had heard it also, became more restless
and disturbed than ever. He went backwards and forwards before
the entrance of the cave, in the most wild, impetuous manner, then
stood still, and stretching out his neck in the direction of the forest,
broke forth into a deafening howl. Our two Indian guides took
advantage of this opportunity to discharge several arrows from the
tree. The animal was struck more than once, but the light weapons
bounded back harmless from his thick skin. At length, however, one
of them struck him near the eye, and the arrow remained sticking in
the wound. He now broke anew into the wildest fury, and sprang at
the tree, and tore it with his claws, as if he would have dragged it to
the ground. But, having at length succeeded in getting rid of the
arrow, became more calm, and laid himself down as before in front
of the cave.
Frank now returned from the lower end of the den, and a glance
showed us what he had been doing. In each hand, and dangling
from the end of a string, were the two cubs. He had strangled them,
and before we were aware what he intended, he threw them through
the opening to the tiger. No sooner did the animal perceive them,
than he gazed earnestly upon them, and began to examine them
closely, turning them cautiously from side to side. As soon as he
became aware that they were dead, he uttered so piercing a howl of
sorrow that we were obliged to put our hands to our ears. When I
upbraided my huntsman for the cruel action he had so rashly
committed, I perceived by his blunt and abrupt answers that he also
had lost all hope of rescue from our impending fate, and, that, under
these circumstances, the ties between master and servant were
dissolved. For my own part, without knowing why, I could not help
believing that some unexpected assistance would yet rescue us from
so horrible a fate. Alas! I little anticipated the sacrifice that my rescue
was to cost.
The thunder had now ceased, and the storm had sunk to a gentle
gale; the songs of the birds were again heard in the neighboring
forest, and the sunbeams sparkled in the drops that hung from the
leaves. We saw through the aperture that all nature was reviving
after the wild war of elements which had so recently taken place; but
the contrast only made our situation the more terrible. We were in a
grave from which there was no deliverance; and a monster, worse
than the fabled Cerberus, kept watch over us. The tiger had laid
himself down beside his whelps. He was a beautiful animal, of great
size and strength, and his limbs being stretched out at their full
length, displayed his immense power of muscle. A double row of
great teeth stood far enough apart to show his large red tongue, from
which the white foam fell in large drops. All at once, another roar was
heard at a distance, and the tiger immediately rose and answered it
with a mournful howl. At the same instant, our Indians uttered a
shriek, which announced that some new danger threatened us. A
few moments confirmed our worst fears, for another tiger, not quite
so large as the former, came rapidly towards the spot where we
were.
“This enemy will prove more cruel than the other,” said Wharton;
“for this is the female, and she knows no pity for those who deprive
her of her young.”
The howls which the tigress gave when she had examined the
bodies of her cubs, surpassed everything of the horrible that we had
yet heard; and the tiger mingled his mournful cries with hers.
Suddenly her roaring was lowered to a hoarse growling, and we saw
her anxiously stretch out her head, extend her wide and smoking
nostrils, and look as if she were determined to discover immediately
the murderers of her young. Her eyes quickly fell upon us, and she
made a spring forward with the intention of penetrating to our place
of refuge. Perhaps she might have been enabled by her immense

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Advances in Open Systems and

Fundamental Tests of Quantum

Advances in Databases and Information Systems: 22nd

Electronic Government and the Information Systems

Communication and Computing Systems-Proceedings of the

Advances in Cryptology – ASIACRYPT 2018: 24th

Advances in Cryptology – ASIACRYPT 2018: 24th

Advances in Cryptology – ASIACRYPT 2018: 24th

Quantum Mechanics A Fundamental Approach 1st Edition K.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/361

Advances in Open Systems

ISSN 0930-8989 ISSN 1867-4941 (electronic)

Quantum mechanics has shown unprecedented success as a physical theory,

Milan, Italy Bassano Vacchini

1 Collapse Models: Main Properties and the State of Art

Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

Heinz-Peter Breuer Physikalisches Institut, Universität Freiburg, Freiburg,

Matteo Carlesso and Sandro Donadi

Abstract Collapse models represent one of the possible solutions to the

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 1

action is determined by two parameters: the collapse rate λ and the

1.2 The GRW Model

The Ghirardi–Rimini–Weber (GRW) model represents the first consistent model

where the localization operator L̂ a is given by

3. The probability of having a localization at the point a is || L̂ a |ψ||2 .

Ψ (x1 , . . . , x N ) = ψa (x1 , . . . , x N ) + ψ−a (x1 , . . . , x N ). (1.4)

1.3 The CSL Model

which is a stochastic Schrödinger equation and is much simpler to handle.

1.4 Interferometric Experiments

1.5 Non-interferometric Experiments

1.6 Generalization of GRW and CSL Models

1.6.1 Dissipative CSL Model

1.6.2 Colored CSL Model

1.7 Proposals for Future Testing

We discussed how collapse models provide a solution to the measurement problem.

1. A. Bassi, G.C. Ghirardi, Phys. Rep. 379, 257 (2003), http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/

29. C.E. Aalseth et al. (The IGEX Collaboration), https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevC.59.2108

Dariusz Chruściński, Ángel Rivas and Sagnik Chakraborty

Abstract We study the equivalence between information flow and completely

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 15

is a characterization of quantum (non)Markovianity. The property of Markovian

2.2 Divisibility Versus No Information Backflow: Invertible

It is clear that if Λt is invertible, i.e., Λ−1

for some unitary U : H → H. If we allow that Φ is a positive trace-preserving map,

for any X ∈ T (H).

Φ(X )1 ≤ X 1 , (2.7)

Now, if Λt is P-divisible, that is, Vt,s is PTP for t ≥ s, because of Lemma 1,

Vt+,t Λt (X )1 ≤ Λt (X )1 (2.9)

Vt+,t Λt (X )1 ≤ Λt (X )1 , (2.11)

for all X and  > 0. But since Λt is invertible, it is equivalent to

Vt+,t (Y )1 ≤ Y 1 , (2.12)

for any Hermitian X ∈ Mk (C) ⊗ T (H).

Clearly, taking X = ρ1 − ρ2 one recovers original condition [9] for no backflow of

for X = ρ1 − ρ2 ∈ Md+1 (C) ⊗ T (H).

2.3 Divisibility Versus Information Backflow:

Proposition 2.2 ([14]) A dynamical map Λt is divisible iff

Ker(Λt ) ⊇ Ker(Λs ), (2.15)

for any t > s.

where X is any operator such that Y = Λs (X ). Thus, Vt,s is well defined: if Λs (X ) =

Tr[Vt,s (Y )] = Tr[Λt (X )] = Tr X = TrY. (2.17)

However, if Y is not an element from the image of Λs , the preservation of trace is

for all Hermitian X ∈ T (H), then Λt is divisible.

Φ(X )1 = Tr[Φ(X )], (2.19)

Vt+,t Λt (X )1 ≤ Λt (X )1 (2.9)

Vt+,t Λt (X )1 ≤ Λt (X )1 , (2.11)

for all X and > 0. But since Λt is invertible, it is equivalent to

Vt+,t (Y )1 ≤ Y 1 , (2.12)