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DISASTER RESEARCH AND MANAGEMENT SERIES
ON THE GLOBAL SOUTH
SERIES EDITOR: AMITA SINGH

AI and Robotics in
Disaster Studies
Edited by
T. V. Vijay Kumar
Keshav Sud
 Disaster Research and Management Series
on the Global South

Series Editor
Amita Singh
Centre for the Study of Law and Governance & Special
Centre for Disaster Research
Jawaharlal Nehru University
New Delhi, India
Disaster Research and Management Series on the Global South is a series
coming out of Special Centre for Disaster Research (SCDR) at Jawaharlal
Nehru University (JNU), Delhi, India. SCDR is the first in Asia Pacific to
start a course on disaster research within a social science perspective. The
series follows and publishes pedagogical and methodological change
within the subject. The new direction of teaching, research and training
turns from ‘hazard based’ to ‘resilience building’. The series taps such
research for the benefit of institutes and higher education bodies of the
global south. It also suggests that much of the western literature based
upon rescue, relief and rehabilitation which is also being taught in the
Asian institutes is not directly relevant to managing disasters in the region.
It provides reading and study material for the developing field of disaster
research and management.
1. Generates a non-west transdisciplinary literature on disaster research
and studies
2. Strengthens disaster governance and improves its legal framework
3. Sensitizes disaster management authorities towards key priorities and
attention areas
4. Focus on preparedness is strongly proposed and revisited
5. Highlights changes in pedagogy and methodology of disaster research
and teaching
6. Mainstream vulnerable communities of differently abled, elderly,
women, children
7. Indicate strategies needed to protect city animals, birds and wildlife
during disasters

More information about this series at

http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/16402
T. V. Vijay Kumar • Keshav Sud
Editors

AI and Robotics
in Disaster Studies
Editors
T. V. Vijay Kumar Keshav Sud
School of Computer and Systems Data Science
Sciences Keurig Dr Pepper
Jawaharlal Nehru University Burlington, MA, USA
New Delhi, India

ISSN 2662-4176     ISSN 2662-4184 (electronic)

Disaster Research and Management Series on the Global South
ISBN 978-981-15-4290-9    ISBN 978-981-15-4291-6 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4291-6

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer
Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of
translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval,
electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now
known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information
in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the
publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to
the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The
publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and
institutional affiliations.

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Singapore Pte Ltd.
The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-­01/04 Gateway East, Singapore
189721, Singapore
 Acknowledgements

Our deepest gratitude to none other than our former Minister of State for
Disaster Management Hon’ble Shri Kiren Rijiju who inspired, encouraged
and supported research into new areas of disaster management. His enthu-
siasm, office room discussions, his encouragement to pursue unattended
areas in disaster research and his unending ambition to make India the
best in the world in implementing the Sendai Framework pushed us to
deeply focused research. He is now adorning the sports ministry but his
contribution to the setting up of India’s first completely research-based
disaster research centre at Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU) has been
the most illuminating feather in his cap. We hope that his contribution
reaches its desired destination from a sapling to a full grown tree.
Some officials from administrative services have joined hands with us in
our endeavour like the former Executive Director of the National Institute
of Disaster Management (NIDM) Mr. Anil Kumar and the current
Executive Director Major Gen. Manoj Kumar Bindal for enabling a whole-
some participation, providing an atmosphere of academic freedom and
enthusing empirical research in the NIDM faculty. The faculty of the
Special Centre for Disaster Research (SCDR) at JNU and the NIDM
could collectively encounter challenges at the field and contribute to a
variety of curriculum-building events at JNU due to the valuable support
coming from the former Minister of State for Home Affairs Shri Kiren
Rijiju. Much research for the book has actually taken place during his ten-
ure as the Minister of State for Home Affairs. It is also worth mentioning
here that on 8 August 2015 Shri Rijiju Ji was instrumental in getting

v
vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

NIDM and JNU sign an MoU for collaboration on disaster research and
three months later on his birthday, 19 November, he was designated by
the UN Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR) as “Disaster Risk
Reduction Champion for the Asia Region”. The JNU Research Team on
Disaster Research recollects the attention, focus and clarity with which he
corrected research teams of seven professors with respect in his office,
sometimes a virtual classroom.
SCDR is equally appreciative of Lt. Gen. N. C. Marwah, member,
National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) who consistently pro-
vided the required backup support during field surveys and data collection
in disaster-affected areas. Helping the victims of disasters became his mis-
sion and shed light on the studies on administrative leadership in manag-
ing disasters.
The work wouldn’t have moved further without the constant support
of former Registrar Prof. Bupinder Zutshi and the present Registrar Dr.
Pramod Kumar in clearing an unending trail of obstructions which came
from peer group scholars who had problems understanding the more
refreshing transdisciplinary imperatives of social science approach to disas-
ter research displacing the mainstream science- and technology-based
approach. The support of Prof. Mondira Dutta (Former Chairperson
CIAS, JNU), Prof. Milap Punia (Chairperson, CSRD), Shri Sanjeev
Kumar Sharma (Director CIS, JNU) and Dr. Robert Thongkholal Haokip
(Faculty CSLG) is unforgettable and is cast in JNU’s academic history.
The JNU Central Library deserves special mention. The readiness to
help in exploring and providing rare literature and data on disasters came
so handy to many authors. Former librarian Dr. Ramesh C. Gaur and after
him Dr. Manorama Tripathy understood and appreciated our search for
literature on transdisciplinary disaster studies in law, governance, public
policy and sciences. One would never forget the vibrancy and intellectual
energy of a younger librarian Azmi Khan of a smaller library at the Centre
for the Study of Law and Governance at JNU. She almost waited to hear
from the research team about their next search and join them in loud
youthful discourses.
Our office staff of the Special Centre for Disaster Research, Deepak
Kumar, Hemchand Pandey, Darakshan, Jhuman and Narinder, brightened
the work with their secretarial assistance and coordination support which
helped us immensely in meeting the deadline.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vii

Editors of the book also acknowledge an unforgettable and versatile

contribution of the research team led by Gaurika Chugh, Vualzhong
Mung, Chetana Attri, and Natasha Goyal who turned this challenge into
a delightful exercise of unresolvable debates and never-ending cups of tea
and coffee. The long-distance support of Dr. Manika Kamthan and Dr.
Binod Kumar was always available like disciplined soldiers of the team.
The most enlightened support arrived from the Springer-Palgrave pub-
lishing team guided by the visionary Editorial Director Springer Singapore
William Achauer, Associate Editor Palgrave Macmillan Sandeep Kaur and
Editor Springer-Nature Nupoor Singh who managed discussions and
coordination in an unfailing mode. Their collaboration goes beyond mere
publication as they absorbed themselves in the research teams including
many workshops, symposiums and debates.
Publishing these volumes of non-west literature has led the SCDR
research team to look for many new authors from local administration,
affected communities and implementers. The editors acknowledge the
shared contribution of many who despite the motivation could not write
due to their intensive work responsibilities in the Chennai floods, Cyclone
Gaja and Kolkata Bridge collapse. Indian Council of Social Science
Research (ICSSR) has empowered many of these implementers who
remain knowledge repositories for original literature in disaster studies.
The editors appreciate the supportive role of ICSSR in bringing about
this volume.
Last but not the least NAPSIPAG (Network of Asia Pacific Institutions
of Public Administration and Governance) stands with this initiative
strong and determined as ever before. This is one big Asia-Pacific family of
policy experts which is always passionate to celebrate collaborations in
generating knowledge from their homelands.
 Contents

1 Introduction: Enhancing Capacity to Manage Disasters  1

Amita Singh

Part I New Technologies in Disaster Management  11

2 Artificial Intelligence and Early Warning Systems 13

Rabindra Lamsal and T. V. Vijay Kumar

3 Artificial Intelligence in Disaster Management: Rescue

Robotics, Aerial Mapping and Information Sourcing 33
Keshav Sud

4 Optimal Visual Cues for Smartphone Earthquake Alert

Systems: Preliminary Data from Lab and Field
Experiments 47
Eran Lederman, Tomer Shemi, Noga Ensenberg-Diamant,
Lior Shalev, Amir Hazan, Naama Marcovits, Yona Weitz,
Or Haklai, Tal Badichi, Bar Segal, Dan Fishbein, and
Hillel Aviezer

5 Using Artificial Intelligence and Social Media for Disaster

Response and Management: An Overview 63
Ferda Ofli, Muhammad Imran, and Firoj Alam

ix
x Contents

6 ‘Internet of Things’ Applications in Disaster Management 83

Malavika Singh

7 Samvad: Reaching Out Through Radio and Wireless

Network 93
Sampark

8 Usages of AI Technologies in Nepal’s Disaster

Management103
Gajendra Sharma and Subarna Shakya

Part II Government, Governance and Law 117

9 Enhancing Accountability and Triadic Collaboration in

Disaster Governance of Sri Lanka119
Kokila Konasinghe

10 Artificial Intelligence and the Legal Response Paradigms

in Disaster Management133
Stellina Jolly and G. S. Moses Raj

11 Artificial Intelligence and Disaster Management in Sri

Lanka: Problems and Prospects149
R. Lalitha S. Fernando

12 Applications of Artificial Intelligence in Reconstruction

Governance Lessons from Nepal Earthquakes167
Narendra Raj Paudel

13 ICT Infrastructure of Disaster Management in India183

G. Durga Rao
 Contents  xi

Part III Building Community Resilience Through AI 197

14 Can Community Plans Really Talk? Integrating and

Strengthening Communications Through Artificial
Intelligence199
Andrew Estrain, Deepa Srinivasan, and Pat Pathade

15 The Challenge of Resilience in an Age of Artificial

Intelligence219
Acharya Shambhushivananda Avadhuta

16 AI in an Urban Village in Delhi235

Natasha Goyal and Anurag Singh

Part IV Extraneous Influences and Ethics in AI Applications 247

17 Prevent AI from Influences: A Challenge for Lazy,

Profligate Governments249
Amita Singh

18 The Final Alert on Ethics in AI Based Technology259

Vaishali Mamgain
 About the Series Editor

Amita Singh Professor at the Special Centre for Law and Governance
and Founding Chairperson, Special Centre for Disaster Research,
Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU), India. Professor Singh teaches Law
and Governance at the Centre for the Study of Law and Governance at
JNU. She has been the longest serving Secretary General of NAPSIPAG
(Network of Asia Pacific Schools and Institutes of Public Administration
and Governance) initiated by ADB 2004 at INTAN Malaysia. She is
Member Secretary of the Institutional Ethics Review Board and Member
of the Indian Council of Social Sciences Research, Delhi. She has a wide
research experience of evaluating best governance practices and working
with the government (DARPG, India) and the Global Innovators
Network, at the John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard
University. She was awarded the Australia-India Council Fellowship
(2006–2007) for academic research in nine Australian Universities and
was again awarded the Australian Monash Fellowship in 2017. She has
been closely associated with the International Women’s Association at
Hunter College SUNY USA in 1990 to prepare for the Beijing Declaration
in 1995. She has received the Bangladesh National Award of ‘Nawab
Bhadur Syed Nawab Ali Chowdhury National Award’ 2014 for women
empowerment. Professor Singh is an ardent activist of the ‘Rights of
Nonhuman Species’.

xiii
 Notes on Editors

T. V. Vijay Kumar is Professor and Dean at the School of Computer and

Systems Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU), New Delhi, India.
He is a concurrent faculty at the School of Engineering, JNU and at the
Special Centre for Disaster Research, JNU. He is also an associated faculty
at the Atal Bihari Vajpayee School of Management and Entrepreneurship,
JNU. His publications and research interests revolve around areas such as
databases, artificial intelligence, machine learning, nature inspired algo-
rithms, disaster management and big data analytics.
Keshav Sud obtained his PhD from the University of Illinois at Chicago.
He has worked for Fortune 500 companies like Amazon, Caterpillar,
Volvo, and currently holds the role of Senior Manager of Data Science at
Keurig Dr Pepper Inc. He is leading the development of recommendation
engines. He has authored many publications in internationally recognized
professional journals. He serves on the editorial board of many American
and Asian journals. He recently published the book Introduction to Data
Science and Machine Learning (co-eds. Pakize Erdogmus and
Seifedine Kadry)

xv
 List of Figures

Fig. 2.1 The disaster management cycle 16

Fig. 2.2 Subfields of Artificial Intelligence 18
Fig. 3.1 Quince land discovery robot 35
Fig. 3.2 SeaBotix underwater remotely operated robot 36
Fig. 3.3 Zipline drone deploying a package 37
Fig. 3.4 Aerial map of affected areas 38
Fig. 3.5 Figure shows legacy flood model on the left and ML-based
model on the right. (Google AI, 2018) 40
Fig. 3.6 AIDR twitter feed of information during the earthquake in
Pakistan (24 September 2019) (Explain which Pakistan
earthquake?)42
Fig. 3.7 Conversion of data into predictions using machine learning
(www.magellanic-clouds.com)43
Fig. 3.8 COMPAS Software results by Julia Angwin et al. (2016), show
results where criminal history was not correlating with threat
label, and highlighting AI’s racial bias 44
Fig. 4.1 Examples of end-user interfaces in alert systems apps. (a)
“ShakeAlert” system. (b) National emergency alerting system
(EAS)48
Fig. 4.2 Reaction time (RT) results of experiment 1. Icons and faces
resulted in faster responses than text 52
Fig. 4.3 Illustrative layout of the experimental design and procedure of
experiment 2 54
Fig. 4.4 Example of the app layout and alert procedure. Left image
portrays the stage of personalization of the face alert image.
The right image portrays the surprise alert 55
Fig. 8.1 Geography of Nepal (Geography of Nepal, 2020) 104

xvii
xviii List of Figures

Fig. 8.2 Nepal earthquakes of 2015 105

Fig. 8.3 Flood detection system (Early Flood Detection System, 2019) 111
Fig. 8.4 Comparison of predicted data (Paul & Das, 2014) 112
Fig. 8.5 Proposed model 112
Fig. 14.1 Phases of the hazard mitigation planning process 201
Fig. 14.2 Hazard mitigation and local planning mechanisms 203
Fig. 14.3 Coordinating with local planning initiatives 207
Fig. 14.4 Plan integration related terms 211
Fig. 14.5 RDF format 214
Fig. 16.1 (a) Commercial Establishments found in residential premises
in Munirka. Such mixed land use is common in Lal Dora
areas. (b) High Vulnerability due to low hanging high voltage
electric wires and five-story vertical building constructions in
Munirka village. (Source: Author’s) 237
Fig. 16.2 Building collapse in Munirka Village on 23 February 2020
even in absence of tectonic activity underscores high
vulnerability of physical infrastructure due to high rise
building constructions on weak foundation. (Source: Author’s) 238
Fig. 16.3 Satellite view of Munirka Village. (Source: Google Maps) 240
Fig. 16.4 Extracting spatial-contextual features from the geo-spatial
image using deep learning. (Source: Bergado, Persello, &
Gevaert, 2016) 243
Fig. 16.5 Collating aerial mapping and crowd-sourcing data to generate
vulnerability maps. (Source: Author’s) 244
Fig. 17.1 Regulatory design 253
Fig. 17.2 Five areas of suggested legal changes 255
 List of Tables

Table 2.1 Classification of hazards (World Health Organization

International, 2002) 14
Table 8.1 Glacial lake outburst floods (GLOF) in Nepal (Ives,
Shrestha, & Mool, 2010) 109
Table 8.2 Distribution of glaciers in the river basins of Nepal (Ives
et al., 2010) 110
Table 12.1 Public entities’ renovations 174
Table 14.1 Plan integration review questions 205
Table 14.2 Example ontologies and associated terms 212
Table 16.1 Differences between physical infrastructure of unplanned/
informal areas and planned areas which the algorithm takes
into consideration 239

xix
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction: Enhancing Capacity to Manage

Disasters

Amita Singh

Introduction
The impact of ICT on the functioning of governance institutions has
come to a stage where some immediate and comprehensive steps should
be taken. More than two and a half quintillion of data is produced every
day in the world and 90 percent of all data today has been produced in the
last two years. This indicates that governance is likely to get buried or
become irrelevant under the load of data. This directs attention towards
the problem of organizing data. Big Data (BD) suggests that even digiti-
zation of information has reached its saturation point and is now to be
stored through higher analytical skills in governance. These special skills
are required for use in identifying content as well as their analytical rele-
vance which could be used later or whenever required. Google’s Eric

A section of this paper was published in the Sri Lankan Journal of Business
Economics (Vol. 4, 2013) as ‘Enhancing Capacity to Govern Through Big Data’
by the author. The current paper is an updated version.

A. Singh (*)
Centre for the Study of Law, Governance & Disaster Research, Jawaharlal Nehru
University, New Delhi, India

© The Author(s) 2020 1

T. V. V. Kumar, K. Sud (eds.), AI and Robotics in Disaster Studies,
Disaster Research and Management Series on the Global South,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4291-6_1
2 A. SINGH

Schmidt writes, “Our propensity for selective memory allows us to adopt

new habits quickly and forget the ways we did things before.” (p. 8). BD
enables us to keep track and simplify the crowding of scattered data which
is creating a ‘data tsunami’ with the communication companies now.
Ignoring this challenge may bring serious hurdles for public policy and for
governance. It is also indicated that countries which delay attending to
this problem may have to spend large sum of capital on retrofitting through
the help of ‘Big Data Analytics’ from USA and despite that are likely to
lose important information. If this capacity to manage Big Data is enhanced
then many policies would become self-reflective, participative and rela-
tively more inclusive since access and content simplicity which is the key to
BD would enlighten citizens as well as governments. For example, the
Human Resource programmes use BD to match positions to existing
employees. One big problem in organizations is that the employees’ pro-
files generally do not match the positions they get posted in due to their
self-descriptions. HR departments scour through social media profiles,
blogs and online conversations across the internet where talents and spe-
cial skills are discovered for organizational requirements. BD helps to find
out all details about the employee to post him/her where best suited. The
Big Data expert from the IBM Company, Jeff Jones says, “You need to let
data speak to you” and this is possible only when the unstructured data is
converted into structured data.

A Social Scientist’s Understanding of AI and BD

BD and AI are strangely connected as a storage tank and the water supply!
BD in itself may not reach further than a satisfaction that information
exists. However, this information is beyond human capacity to decipher
and that is where machine learning through AI helps interpret data, its
impact, location, scale and speed. This space and time data serves as a
warning, as an instruction or as a plan of action for governing institutions.
AI and BD are currently overlapping and interconnected. Their relation-
ship is also improving cognitive initiatives of public institutions in DM.
AI is a form of ICT based computing machines where these machines
become cognitive trendsetters to suggest measures and correct decisions.
A smart phone with GPS and auto check or voice or face recognition sys-
tems is a basic AI based human cognition function. Traditional computing
apps may also respond but through human based deciphering, interpret-
ing and reacting which may be much longer and complex to be always
 1 INTRODUCTION: ENHANCING CAPACITY TO MANAGE DISASTERS 3

correct. This may also miss out emergencies, sudden occurrences and
urgencies to be encountered. For example a plan of action on a suspected
flood may need a big human team of experts to draw a plan of action,
evacuation and escape whereas an AI enabled machine may do it in sec-
onds and may do it with the incorporation of human behaviour of sup-
port, object, capacity and reactions. BD which cannot react on its stored
and classified data is also the basis and a reason of action for AI. BD is like
an arm chair intellectual while AI is the alert army!
The origin of Big Data can be traced to the earlier analytical philoso-
phers who discovered the mathematical logic in the way language is used.
Ludwig Wittgenstein’s Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (1921) and Bertrand
Russell’s ‘logical atomism’ in his Principia Mathematica (1925–27, with
A. N. Whitehead) inspired a debate on the fundamental building blocks of
thought processes or an endorsement of analysis through which a given
domain of enquiry can be defined and recast in a manner that remainder
of the truths could be derived or accessed. Their logic of analysis sug-
gested that the way human beings express themselves in their language
propositions paves the way for understanding the world more logically.
Even the fundamental truths of arithmetic are nothing more than rela-
tively stable ways of playing a particular language game. Big Data is a form
of a revolution within ICT which paves the way for many more ideas to
flow in as society advances.
It is said that the lunch table conversations during the mid-1990s at the
Silicon Graphics featured the Chief Scientist John Mashey quite promi-
nently. Douglas Laney, a veteran data analyst at Gartner, declared John
Mashey as the ‘father of Big Data’.1 However, the origin of the term is
from scattered sources but as Victor Mayer-Schonberger and Kenneth
Cukier (2013) simplify the debate by suggesting that the term has origi-
nated from the many debates on astronomy and genomics, sciences where
data storage, correlation and retrieval leads to major breakthroughs in our
understanding of the universe and well-being of people. It becomes fairly
clear that Big Data originates out of the fundamental building blocks of
language and culture which can be referred to as its genetics. The new
digital forms of communication—Web sites, blog posts, tweets—are often
very different from the traditional sources for the study of words, like
books, news articles and academic journals.
4 A. SINGH

How Would Governance Benefit from AI

and Big Data?

Flood related twitter activity, WhatsApp messages, photographs and

images shared provide a quicker understanding of the location, timing and
impact of a disaster. BD may present a 350,000-tweets-per-minute data
but to make it meaningful institutions will have to move to AI and machine
learning. One would notice that smart phones gradually start producing
data as per the user’s liking when some names, numbers, songs, speeches
and images appear on a priority choice. An open source software platform
AIDR (Artificial Intelligence for Digital Response) is built to filter and
classify billions of social media messages to enhance capacity to draw digi-
tal maps, programmes, evacuation routes and dashboard instructions and
predictions during emergencies, disasters and catastrophes.

Sophistication in Decision Making Tools

In earlier times the decision making involved no process except the whims
and fancies of the rulers. Later it evolved into some scientific principles
which formed the inflexible parameter of good decision making. Contesting
this approach Herbert Simon indicated a behavioural approach to decision
making but warned that a halo of preconceived thoughts around decision
makers led to bounded rationality. Big Data minimizes the fuzziness of all
approaches and brings logic of science in data corroboration, correlation,
forecasting and predictability in decision making. It also helped in making
policies more inclusive and decision making increasingly holistic, interdis-
ciplinary and sustainable. Besides these issues, BD is also needed for
improved risk management in business and in governance. A case is men-
tioned below.
In 2009 the Flu virus was discovered in USA. All strains were collected
from the Bird Flu, Swine Flu and H1N1 and their correlation was estab-
lished with the 1918 Spanish Flu which infected half a billion and killed
tens of millions. The information had to be relayed back to central orga-
nizations and tabulated. This was a big challenge as officials visited this
information only once a week which was a fatal time span for communi-
cable disease spread. At such a time Google through its in-house BD
Analytics made 50 m. Common searches that Americans share online and
compared with the Communicable Disease Report Data on the spread of
seasonal flu between 2003–2008. This correlation established a staggering
 1 INTRODUCTION: ENHANCING CAPACITY TO MANAGE DISASTERS 5

450 m. Different mathematical models in order to test the search terms

and finally helped in finding a solution. Without BD Analytics this was
almost impossible or would have taken so long that the whole exercise
would have become irrelevant.

Diagnostic Capability
Monitoring patient’s history, well-being documents, nature of circulatory
systems and frequency of infection can strengthen microscopic-long dis-
tance robotics which has enormous scope in telemedicine especially in the
third world and in army locations. It has the ability to detect nascent heart
attacks, early stages of cancer and also management of insulin levels.
AI and BD have contributed to the Food and Drug Administration of
USA in many ways; i.e., Proteus Digital Health, a California based bio-
medical firm could kick-start the use of an electronic pill. It creates infor-
mation which helps tissue engineering, genetic testing, DNA sequencing
and source based solutions as well as early warning alerts on the basis of
information corroboration and analytics.

Climate Change Related Early Warning Mechanism Systems

Climate change has brought substantial justification to have BD availabil-
ity. The increasing inter-sectoral and inter-agency information such as the
land, air and water bodies related changes, cloud formation, cyclones and
hurricanes centred specialized data for over many hundred years and rela-
tionships to aquifers, flora and fauna, disasters and droughts, weather and
crops etc. This expanse of information and the widening scope of its appli-
cability in public policy have never existed prior to BD. Currently there are
data and also the country and region based information which is scattered
and much less accessed even during the period when the problem actually
strikes. The meteorological data, density of population inhabitations, eco-
system services, local responses in the past to similar issues and urban plan-
ning records would combine in BD analytics to justify and enable
retrofitting in decision making during troubled times of climate change.
6 A. SINGH

Indispensability of ‘Big Data’ for Public Institutions

For many reasons, Big Data is becoming an unavoidable fact of gover-
nance in present times. Governance being an overlapping team work
between public, private and non-state philanthropic enterprises, organiza-
tions need to find better ways to tap into the wealth of information hidden
in this explosion of data around them to improve their competitiveness,
efficiency, insight, profitability and more (Eaton, Deroos, Deutsch, Lapis,
& Zikopoulos, 2012). The realm of BD as Eaton and his group of IBM
experts suggest is the analysis of all data (structured, semi-structured and
un-structured) so that quick access to relevant information becomes easier
for everyone. As Big Data experts have revolved around many ‘Vs’, it
would be interesting to look into some of them here.
The volume of data being created every day is breaking through the
storage spaces. In 2003 it was 14 trillion in a day which required five exa-
bytes of space. This volume was produced in two hours in 2011 and
10 minutes in 2013. For an average service to 100 million customers,
Customer Service Providers would need 50 terabytes of location data
daily. If stored for 100 days it would need five petabytes as almost five bil-
lion records are created in a day. In 2010 in US records, the most popular
service provider company AT&T had 193 trillion Customer Data Records
(CDR) in its database. The velocity of the data is also increasing. The
global mobility data is growing at 78 percent of a compounded growth
rate. Cisco Visual Networking Index (VNI-2013-2018), an ongoing ini-
tiative to track and forecast the impact of visual networking applications
found that, ‘Traffic’ from wireless and mobile devices will exceed traffic
from wired devices by 2016. By 2016, wired devices will account for 46
percent of IP traffic, while Wi-Fi and mobile devices will account for 54
percent of IP traffic.2 In 2013, wired devices accounted for the majority of
IP traffic at 56 percent. Overwhelmingly, the Global Internet traffic in
2018 will be equivalent to 64 times the volume of the entire global
Internet in 2005 which suggests that bureaucracy and public officials may
have to revise and reframe their capacity which would not be limited by
their non-availability in office or by their multifarious tours as excuses for
not attending and responding to important queries. To understand that
much of the global Internet traffic which would reach 14 gigabytes (GB)
per capita by 2018, rising by 5 GB per capita in 20133 would require addi-
tional capacities in the offices of public officials including the ability for
BD analytics. As analytics is increasingly being embedded in business
 1 INTRODUCTION: ENHANCING CAPACITY TO MANAGE DISASTERS 7

processes by using data-in-motion with reduced latency yet the real time
data4 which has to be catered to immediately and with urgency in every
government, e.g., www.turn.com capacity of 10 m/sec.
The variety of data is rising very fast in equivalence to its volume and
velocity. The old time Data Warehouse Technology5 used in the 1990s
cannot be relevant anymore for the fact that public policy cannot depend
upon an individual’s understanding anymore. Besides a technically effi-
cient administrator, what is also be needed is an equivalent expansion of
key government offices towards an adoption of latest reporting tools, data
mining tools (SPSS, etc.) and GIS to name a few. The data would come
from various sources and would be transformed using Extract Transform
Load6 (ET) data inside the Warehouse. In earlier times this could be pos-
sible by untrained or less trained ‘babudom’ as it was more or less a struc-
tured content but to allow the earlier capacity to continue would be to
play havoc with public policy. The public policy spaces would then be lit-
tered with consultants, each one asking for their fee and pulling informa-
tion to their vested commercial interests. Currently, data content is
unstructured for lack of a directed objective. Once policy formulation
begins differentiation within larger objectives; i.e., climate change as a
main theme may add ever growing specificities such as coastal regulations,
disaster risk reduction, ecosystem studies, disease control, food security
and environmental changes then the need for Big Data to improve public
policy formulation and implementation becomes important. To organize
unstructured texts, sounds, social media blogs etc. government needs
more enabling technology like the ones at IBMs Info-sphere stream
platform.
Lastly but the most important requirement is the veracity (authenticity)
of data for BD. Unlike governed internet data, BD comes from outside-­
our-­control sources. Thus BD requires significant correctness and accu-
racy problems besides establishing and ensuring the credibility of data for
target audience. Thus each Ministry of Government will have to first start
with a basic data which routinely arrives at its posts and through analytics
store it as Big Data. Right now much of the available data disappears or
gets contaminated. Kevin Normandeau (2013) explains that BD veracity
refers to the biases, noise and abnormality, the knowledge about which
helps to clean the system. Many experts have added validity and volatility
as important ‘Vs’ for BD. This may become important for the coming
times when stored data could become outdated or irrelevant thereby sug-
gesting a time period about its validity and also volatility. This is not so
8 A. SINGH

important for countries of South Asia which have yet to take their initial
test drive on the BD highway.

Drivers for AI and BD Based Decision Making

In a compelling book of David Feinleib (2013) the author has tried to
demystify Big Data as he emphasizes that to understand BD is to capture
one of the most important trends of the present day world which surpasses
every institutional boundary. The Changing governance paradigmatic
requirements, e-governance expansion and rising number of internet and
mobile users is a yeoman’s task for routine administration to attend to.
The new age citizen-customers are more sophisticated consumers who
prefer to go online before taking a decision. Automation and convergence
technology is speeding up faster with IVR, Kiosks and mobile telephony
usages penetrating the regions untouched so far with any market or gov-
ernance activity. Information is being collected through a hub-and-spoke
model in a number of South Asian countries but BD and then creating its
link to AI is still a distant priority in disaster management institutions. The
base of AI and BD is the internet base in a country which in India is still
weak and stands around 31 percent only till 2016 (IAMAI & KANTAR
IMRB, 2016). Urban India has a coverage of 60 percent while the rural
India the coverage is pathetically only 17 percent. Technology, trust and
training are three ‘Ts’ which weaken adoption of new technologies which
are AI and BD base.

Conclusion
An average annual multi-hazard risk loss in India alone is USD 88 billion
out of a total average GDP of around USD 2690 billion (in 2018). South
Asia has the world’s largest number of poor and vulnerable community to
be affected by recurrent disasters. This also obstructs and delays progress,
sustainability and well-being of people. With this high rate of losses and
damages an achievement of Sustainable Development Goals by 2030 may
become impossible. Considering the region’s voluminous governance
challenges in terms of providing health care, livelihood, education, skills
which is a basic platform to raise structures of disaster mitigation and risk
reduction infrastructure, BD and AI can transform the sad scenario if
management is well planned with experts and social scientists. There are
many policy changes which have to be brought in through innovation,
 1 INTRODUCTION: ENHANCING CAPACITY TO MANAGE DISASTERS 9

training and technology. Big Data is a mine of information to overcome

and also escape many decisional catastrophes which are likely to come on
the overloaded highway of government policies. This also requires balanc-
ing of a robust and secure public sector architecture that can accommo-
date the need for sharing data openly with all stakeholders in a transparent
manner. This further entails a commitment from national governments to
undertake a sincere and serious minded leadership in disaster management
in the direction of new technology adoption which not only shares the
human load of decision making but also brings greater accountability,
transparency and cost-effective disaster management.

Notes
1. Lohr, Steve (2013) The Origins of ‘Big Data’: An Etymological Detective
Story, New York Times, Feb. 1. Accessed http://bits.blogs.nytimes.
com/2013/02/01/the-origins-of-big-data-an-etymological-detective-
story/, 15.7.2014.
2. VNI Report available at http://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/solutions/col-
lateral/service-provider/ip-ngn-ip-next-generation-network/white_paper_
c11-481360.html
3. http://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/solutions/collateral/service-provider/
ip-ngn-ip-next-generation-network/white_paper_c11-481360.html
4. Real-time data denotes information that is delivered immediately after col-
lection. There is no delay in the timeliness of the information provided. It is
of immense use to public officials as the ‘Real-time data’ is often used for
navigation or tracking.
5. A data warehouse is the data repository of an enterprise. It is generally used
for research and decision support. For further details see Joseph M. Wilson’s
‘An Introduction to Data Warehousing’(a PPT from Storet Co.) and Samii,
Massood (2004) International Business and Information Technology:
Interaction and Transformation in the Global Economy, New Hampshire
USA: Psychology Press.
6. ETL suggests three functions; extract, transform, load, combined together
into one tool to pull data out of one database and transfer it to another
database. Extract is the process of reading data from a database. Transform
is the process of converting the extracted data from its previous form into
the form it needs to be in so that it can be placed into another database.
Transformation occurs by using rules or lookup tables or by combining the
data with other data. Load is the process of writing the data into the target
database. This helps to either to shift data to data warehouse or to convert
it into data marts which would store data for future usage as well as for
marketing.
10 A. SINGH

References
Eaton, C., Deroos, D., Deutsch, T., Lapis, G., & Zikopoulos, P. (2012).
Understanding Big Data, Analytics for Enterprise Class Hadoop and
Streamlining Data. New York: McGraw Hill.
Feinleib, D. (2013). Big Data Demystified: How Big Data Is Changing the Way We
Live, Love and Learn. San Francisco: Big Data Group LLC.
IAMAI & KANTAR IMRB. (2016). Internet IAMAI in India -IMRB Report.
Retrieved from http://bestmediainfo.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/
Internet-in-India-2016.pdf
Mayer-Schonberger, V., & Cukier, K. (2013). Big Data: A Revolution that Will
Transform How We Live, Work and Think. New York: Houghton Mifflin
Harcourt Publishing Co.
Normandeau, K. (2013, September 12). Beyond Volume, Variety and Velocity Is the
Issue of Big Data Veracity. Inside Big Data. Available at http://inside-bigdata.
com/2013/09/12/beyond-volume-variety-velocity-issue-big-data-veracity/.
Accessed 20 June 2014.
Schmidt, E., & Cohen, J. (2013). The New Digital Age: Reshaping the Future of
People, Nations and Business. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Random House
Publication.
 PART I

New Technologies in Disaster

Management
 CHAPTER 2

Artificial Intelligence and Early Warning

Systems

Rabindra Lamsal and T. V. Vijay Kumar

Introduction
Disaster is a severe disruption or deviation from the norm, occurring usu-
ally for a short period, impacting the community and society as a whole,
while causing widespread harm or damage to human, wildlife, environ-
ment, infrastructure and economy. Disaster management is a multi-faceted
process to mitigate, respond to and recover from the consequences of a
disaster. A disaster occurs when a hazard affects a population of vulnerable
people. In other words, a disaster is a result of a combination of vulnerabil-
ity, hazard and the inability to cope up with its negative consequences
(IFRC, 2018). Researchers working in the Disaster Risk Reduction
(DRR) domain share a common perception about all disasters, i.e. that
they are generally man-made and that proactive human actions taken

R. Lamsal (*) • T. V. V. Kumar

School of Computer and Systems Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University,
New Delhi, India
Special Centre for Disaster Research, Jawaharlal Nehru University,
New Delhi, India

© The Author(s) 2020 13

T. V. V. Kumar, K. Sud (eds.), AI and Robotics in Disaster Studies,
Disaster Research and Management Series on the Global South,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4291-6_2
14 R. LAMSAL AND T. V. V. KUMAR

before the occurrence of a hazard can prevent it from turning into a disas-
ter. Therefore, almost all the disasters are attributable to human failure in
defining and implementing emergency management measures (Blaikie,
Cannon, Davis, & Wisner, 2005).
A hazard may also result in a secondary hazard that has greater impact;
such as an underwater earthquake causing a Tsunami, which results in
coastal flooding (inundation of coastal areas). Hazards are mainly catego-
rized as natural or man-made. A natural hazard is a natural process or
phenomenon, which includes events such as earthquakes, landslides,
floods, blizzards, tsunamis, cyclones, hurricanes, heat waves, lightning
strikes, tornadoes, volcanic eruptions etc. These hazards have a high prob-
ability of turning into disasters, as they may claim thousands of lives and
may result in the destruction of environmental habitats and property.
Man-made hazards are the consequences of technological or human
actions. Such hazards include bioterrorism, fires (urban), explosions, col-
lisions, structural collapses, wars, nuclear radiation leakages etc. Table 2.1
shows the classification of various hazards.

Table 2.1 Classification of hazards (World Health Organization

International, 2002)

Natural hazards Sudden occurrence (Monocausal) Storm

Heat wave
Freeze
Earthquake
Volcanic eruption
Progressive occurrence (multicausal) Landslide
Drought
Flood
Epidemic
Pest
Man-made hazards Sudden occurrence (Monocausal) Fire
Explosion
Collision
Shipwreck
Structural collapse
Environmental pollution
Progressive occurrence (multicausal) War
Economic crisis
Another random document with
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moment’s notice. Sad accounts are daily coming in of the people
about here; every person who ventures out is robbed and beaten:
several people are waiting here for an escort. I cannot so much
blame the Shilhahs and Súsís;[87] they have been sadly oppressed
by the Sultán’s army; and now it is gone, they are repaying
themselves. They acknowledge no law but that of force, and exhibit
but little trace of any religion: their tribes extend, with intervals, to the
Gambia. This has been a dies non.
Sunday, Apr. 3.—Therm. 72°.—A large wolf stole up to the battery
during the night, which roused us all. To-day the wind feels cold, and
there is such a heavy fog that we cannot see the sea; the sun rarely
broke through. There is, at least, a difference of 40°. between the
temperature of to-day and yesterday out of doors, and of 8 to 10
within. Felt not all well, and kept all day to my carpet: beginning to
get tired of Agadír. An arrival from Teródánt, but it brought no news.
Monday, Apr. 4.—Therm. 65°. Very cold, and a mist equal to rain.
All hard at work in making leather bottles, &c., for the water.
Received a large present of fish. A large Káfilah[88] passed this
morning for Teródánt. Did not leave the battery all day.
Tuesday, Apr. 5.—Therm. 72°. The mist continues heavy, and
quite darkening the air. Not very well; kept within the battery. Alas! all
our bread is gone, and these people eat none; and as it is the feast
of unleavened bread, the Jews cannot make any for me, a
deprivation which I feel not a little. The man was seized again by the
devil. Heard the history of the enchanted castle, and the black
woman, who lives at three days’ ride from this place. Heard likewise
of the Jews, and of the tombs. I must see them on my way to Wád
Nún.
Wednesday, Apr. 6.—Therm. 72°. Heavy mist, with rain in the
N.W. A dies non.
Thursday, Apr. 7.—Therm. 76°. Beginning to look out for news:
my man returned from the mines; the specimens he brought were
very bad; he found great difficulty in getting any at all. There was a
market to-day, where I bought nothing but a few carrots. Quite tired
of Agadír. Hope two or three days will decide whether I can go on or
not.
Friday, April 8.—Therm. 60°. Very cold. My fingers were so
chilled, that I could not dress myself. At noon a courier arrived; all is
right; wrote my letters, and after detaining the man an hour,
dispatched him again to Mogadór, to say that we should be ready to
start at an hour’s notice. The feast of the Passover finishes to-day: it
has been very cold, with a strong breeze from the N.E.
Saturday, April 9.—Therm. 70°. Day beautiful; but a stiff gale from
the E. This is the clearest day we have yet had here. The mountains
can be seen distinctly: hard at work in arranging bags, &c.
Sunday, April 10.—Therm. 74°. Weather beautiful. Read the
service. A large káfilah is now passing from Sús; the mountains very
visible; in the afternoon there was a repetition of the easterly wind,
accompanied with the dust, which was very distressing.
Monday, April 11.—Therm. 68°. Wind strong from the E.
Disappointed again, as Hájí Majíibí[89] will not start for some days.
Our horses are to leave Mogadór to-morrow, in order that they may
be fresh for the start (‘Inshállah’) on Saturday next.
Tuesday, April 12.—Therm. 68°. The wind has got more to the N.
with weather very clear. This delay makes me very fidgetty: besides,
I am so well known here, that various reports have been circulated
about me, which rather annoy me. In the evening, thermometer fell
to 56°, when it became very cold. The horses and mules are to leave
Mogadór to-day.
Wednesday, April 13.—Therm. 60°. A dies non. Felt very poorly:
had a touch of the lumbago. Weather variable. Thirst excessive.
Thursday, April 14.—Therm. 70°. Looking out for the arrival of the
horses, as Hájí Majíibí is to start to-day. The people here are rather
too inquisitive, and I am getting rather alarmed. Evening came, but
brought no tidings of my horses, nor has a courier arrived. I am very
uneasy, and all the people here full of conjectures. The Hájí is
thinking only of himself. If he would only consider for one moment
what an object of suspicion I am, while I remain here, he would hurry
on; but no, it is all self in this country. I cannot bite, and therefore I
had better not shew my teeth. Wind got round to the E. The
thermometer fell 11°., when it became very cold. Went to my carpet
rather sulky.
Friday, April 15.—Therm. 70°. This is the first day of the
Mohammedan year 1252. The horses, &c. have arrived. I made my
present to the Sheïkh; got the Sultán’s letter, and one for Sheïkh
Mobarik. A report has reached Mógador, that a party is waiting for
me, who have determined to murder me. The governor here is very
desirous not to let me go. I question, however, if there are any real
grounds for these fears. At half-past seven there came on one of the
severest gales of wind I ever experienced; it threatened the very
fortress: a heavy sea, with lightning in the S.E. The gale from the
N.W. continued to blow hard till half-past nine. This change of
weather may go much against me. I find that I am an object of great
suspicion. A party have sent to ask me to prescribe for a man who
has been bewitched, and is now in a decline. I promised to see him
on Monday, although he lives twenty miles off. This may, however,
do me some good. The people of his tribe offered to bring him here,
but I pointed out the danger of removing him, and hope to gain their
good-will by going so far to visit a Muselmán. Tired, but not sleepy:
no appetite, and out of spirits.
Saturday, April 16.—Therm. 72°. Day beautiful; the gale passed
off without doing any damage. There was one about six weeks ago,
which threatened destruction to the whole place. Despite all I said
about the sick man, they have brought him to-day to Fontí. I had
promised to go down and see him, when the sun was a little lower; I
was scarcely half way down the rock, when I met him on the road; he
was attended by eight of his people, who took it by turns to hold him
on his horse, a splendid animal; the poor Sheïkh, Hájí Ibráhím, was
seriously ill. As he was so far up, I ordered him to the governor’s,
and told his attendants to lay him down, and let him obtain some
rest, previous to my examination of him. I found him in a sad state,
nearly dying to all appearance; he had been frightened, as they call
it, by some spirit, whom, as usual, they had burned out: he had been
fired all over his stomach, which had now lost all its powers. I gave
him a saline draught with tartar acid in effervescence, and made him
a good basin of arrow-root. He no sooner tasted it, than he put the
bowl to his mouth, and nearly emptied it, telling the crowd, that had
now collected to see the holy man, that he had got at last what his
stomach was craving for. I promised to make him a breakfast on the
morrow, and to give him some medicines. By my treatment of him, I
got no little credit; for which I can obtain some help from him in
return. Am heartily sick of this place; although it has lost all its
commerce, it has still a considerable revenue; it may be considered
a frontier town, and is capable of being well defended; it receives
one ducat a-head for all slaves that pass through it, two ounces for
each camel, half a peseta for each mule, and two blanquillas for
each donkey; and as it is in the great road to Sús and Súdán, these
imposts produce a large income.
Sunday, April 17.—Therm. 74°. Had hardly returned from my
patient, when Hájí Majíibí arrived. I repaired immediately to the
governor. All is now arranged for my departure to-morrow, at break
of day: hard at work in packing up. Wrote my letters: dispatched
Cohen and his boy: received a blessing in the synagogue yesterday,
which cost four dollars. I have to part with most of my things, as I
shall be allowed only two mules; the sharks are therefore looking out
for what they can get. I am quite sick at heart at these Moors: poor
ignorant creatures. I have just this moment learned that there is a
town E. of Teródánt, called Tazelt, where there is a Christian church,
in perfect preservation, well finished and painted, but shut up: it is
held in some veneration by the natives, who can only look into it
through the windows. There are also Christian villages in the
neighbourhood of the church. Went down to Fontí; every thing works
well; I am to start as a soldier, accompanying some mules: took
leave of my patient, who is to go with me; but not a soul has an idea
of this. Cohen is very anxious to go on. I have, at his own request,
given him a letter to Lord Glenelg: have packed up every thing: am in
a great bustle. I fear, however, there will be some detention to-
morrow. I suspect the courier has been stopped, as no escort was
visible at sun-set. Laid down to rest, but with no chance of sleeping,
as I am to be up at the earliest dawn, to start, if possible, to-morrow.
 Monday, April 18.—Therm. 70°. Up at four A.M., but did not get
away till seven. I was accompanied as far as the river by the
governor, and four soldiers, Hájí Ibráhím, and our own party; in all
sixteen souls. At half-past eight we came to the boundary of the
district, where a prayer was offered up for the Sultán; after which, the
governor and his party returned. In defiance of all I said about Hájí
Ibráhím’s state of health, he would go on, or rather his tribe
compelled him, to his own house, distant a ride of four hours. Here
we stopped, and had kuskusú and barley-cakes with butter, and
some leben (sour milk). Ibráhím was, indeed, in a sad state of
health.[90] I gave him the medicines I thought best. The perfect
indifference shewn by Hájí Majíbí towards a fellow-creature quite
disgusted me. Had my horse shod, and proceeded S. to Stúka,
attended by a strange semi-devil from the Hájí (Ibráhím), who told
me that I need be under no alarm, as he could bring one hundred
horse into the field, and had promised to protect me. Crossed the
Sús river, which is here a considerable stream, although twenty
miles from the sea. We arrived at a little before six P.M., at the house
of Sheïkh Hamed, who is a fine young man: he and the people of his
town were all out at prayers. The country is fine, with large
plantations of figs and almonds. During the time that our food was
preparing, I was amused with some good ball-firing, the party
standing on one leg or lying down: they are a merry people. We
commenced with bread and butter and honey; then came kuskusú;
then tea till midnight. Abú here received from one of his countrymen
some account of his friends. The pocket-handkerchief is used for the
towel generally, and the corner of the mat lifted up for wiping the
nose: the belching is quite beastly. Passed but a bad night.
Tuesday, April 19.—Therm. 72°. Up at four A.M. and got off at six.
Just before starting, I had the place half-full of patients. I had been
bored to death the night before with questions. One man was
brought to me with a ball in his foot; and by way of assisting me to
cure him, the gun was brought from which the ball had been
discharged. Accompanied by the brother of the Sheïkh and four of
his people, and Hájí Ibráhím’s semi-devil, we reached the Mésah, a
finer river here than at Sús. Its course was S.S.W. We rode along its
banks through a fine and populous district, called Assa, and crossed
it at the great Sók (Tlátah.) Here we met the Sheïkh of ’Akúlí, with
twenty horsemen. Our party stopped; it was a trying moment for me:
the two parties held a council, and after some ten minutes, the
muhabbah-bik[91] (welcome) was pronounced. Here Hájí Ibráhím’s
semi-devil was sent back, and one of the other party took his place,
and conducted us to the house of Sheïkh ’Alí at Tamasert, in the
populous district of ’Akúlí, from which the sea is distant about a half
mile. The people here are said to be very bad characters, and their
looks confirm the tale. We had tea and kuskusú. The Sheïkh was ill,
and I was required to cure him, and a dozen others; but I pretended
to be unwell, and with this view I went without food, for the second
day. Some of Abú’s countrymen came to play and sing to him; and
thus kept me awake till midnight: afterwards the vermin, which were
a worse plague than last night, prevented me from sleeping.
Wednesday, April 20.—Therm. 70°. Heavy rain. Up at five A.M.
After eating and drinking, the people took me out to find a spring;
they had water enough, and so I pretended to point out the spot
where they are to dig. We got off at nine, accompanied by Sheïkh
’Alí. Owing to the rain, we travelled very slowly. I fear that I have had
to pay dear for passing this place. We arrived at the residence of a
great saint. This humbug has the power of taking me any where
through Sús. I bought him for dollars. At this point the Sheïkh
left us to return home. The country is completely cultivated: it is
backed by four regular rows of limestone-hills, which serve as a kind
of embankment against the desert. They are now cutting the corn,
which produces more than one hundred fold, most of the seeds
throwing out four stems, and some five. I am not over-pleased with
my conductor, Hájí Majíbí, who, I see plainly, is making a job out of
my journey. We passed the tomb of a great saint, El Ab, where all
the party, but the Káfri (myself) offered up their prayers. We then
entered a pass, which required some hard climbing. My horse
became so lame, that I was compelled to walk the rest of the
journey, a distance of three hours; when we reached the residence
of another great saint. Here they have to prepare a room for myself,
as I cannot be permitted to enter his apartment. My grumbling to-day
has been of service. I have some Tumbucktú quilts laid over my
carpet to serve for a bed. Received some barley-cakes and honey,
but could not eat them; afterwards butter and honey, and leben (sour
milk); but it will not do: a biscuit is the only food I have taken this day,
although I have fasted for three. The Moors, and Hájí Majíbí
amongst them, who had taken some refuse kuskusú from some
labourers on the road, were eating and drinking till midnight. Not
being allowed to enter the room of the saint, I was put into the
garden, until one was prepared. This is the district of Eit Bamáram.
The water is here both bad and scarce.
Thursday, April 21.—Therm. 74°. Weather muggy, with much rain.
I had been promised that I should reach Wád Nún to-day; but after
travelling two hours, having waited till past nine for the Moors to eat
three times, we met a courier from Wád Nún, and we were then
taken out of our road to a house, where we are to stop all day. This, I
am convinced, is owing to Hájí Majíbí not having sent word in proper
time. I am most grievously disappointed, but must bear it as well as I
can; the day hangs very heavy on my hands. A lot of these beasts
came as usual for physic; called me káfrí, and all the rest of it, but
could get nothing to eat. I would not advise any other traveller to
come through Sús: they ask for every thing, but will neither give, nor
even shew any thing. They affect much on the score of religion;
never going in or out, sitting up or standing, without the Bismillah. At
eight P.M. got four eggs, and had some biscuit. I received a message
from the Sheïkh, stating that we are to arrive to-morrow. This place is
Tisseret, famed for its copper mines.
Friday, April 22.—Up at four, A.M., or rather up all night. Vermin in
myriads. Hurried away; and after one hour’s march, stopped for two
more to eat. At length we reached Ifran Ochran, the last town in Eit
Bamáram. Passed the range of mountains in Lower Sús, and
entered Wád Nún. During the route, saw people reaping corn, with
arms by their side. Wád Nún is a large town, with several small
clusters of buildings: it derives its name[92] from a Portuguese
Queen, Núnah. Hence Wád Nún is the valley of Núnah: the place is
distant from the sea a journey of five or six hours. Our first halt was
on the banks of a magnificent stream of water. When we came to the
spring (Agusa), we washed and drank, while the people prayed. A
fine line of hills protects it from the Sahra. We found here the Sheïkh
waiting for us, who took us at once into his house: at half-past five he
gave us a good dinner, which set me all right. I am much pleased
with him. After tea, all the great folks of the place came to see me:
as soon as he had read the Sultán’s letter, he sent for Hájí Majíbí:
when he came back at nine, he said he wanted three double-
barrelled guns, silver-mounted, and the barrels damascened in gold,
together with an air-gun; to which I am to add my brace of pistols. I
talked over all the wonders of England, and then wrote to Mr.
Willshire to tell him what I had done. The Sheïkh assures me, he will
send me without the least danger. I like him much: he has a large
and fine family. I have brought him a handsome present, and I fear
he expects that I shall return this way back: but this is not in the
bond. Abú is very helpless. Here one begins to see slavery again:
the house swarms with slaves, who form a large item of property.
This Berúk is a person of great wealth: he possesses forty thousand
head of cattle, and has never less than one thousand camels,
working between here and Súdán. His eldest son is a fine young
man. Went to bed at midnight, quite done up.
Saturday, April 23.—Therm. 76°. Symptoms of heat. Had my sour
milk, and then unpacked my things. The Sheïkh highly amused with
the pillow, and the little globe firing the guns: he was smoking and
laughing alternately. All goes on well. I was kept up to write my
letters, and they are not yet sent off: these people are so very
dilatory, where they are not immediately interested. Patients are
beginning to come in. The fellows, who were so free on the road,
have come a little to their senses. Lots of patients, and amongst
them a man, who had been wounded sadly. Had the whole of the
Sheïkh’s family with me: gave each of his little children a bracelet. In
the afternoon walked about and round the town: went to the Abú
Sebah’s tents; from thence to the garden, where I saw a fine crop of
apples: saw likewise several heïries, both of dromedaries and
horses. As the Sheïkh’s cattle were coming in, I perceived that what
looked like a river, was a very small stream of water: it is the Assaka.
The view from the heights is rather pretty over fields of tobacco and
plantations of date-trees; here and there a garden, and many fine
wells: saw a part of my companions, who are to be fasting to-day,
but we hope we shall have some supper, although I am sick at the
sight of my sable attendants, who have the itch very bad. I shall have
to remain here at least three weeks, although I should be glad to
shorten the time.
Sunday, April 24.—Therm. 76°. I was kept up till midnight grinding
a small barrel-organ; and fainting with hunger, I took at last to the
kuskusú, and got some sleep. This morning my patients have
increased, so that I am obliged to say “hold.” Here the people are
really ill; but so stupid or stubborn, that it is impossible to do them
any good. Gorged to their throats, they sleep half their time away,
and then wonder they are ill. The houses here are better than any in
Marocco, and look like casts[93] in plaster, being built piece by piece
in moulds. These people have no idea of taking a draught, and they
sip the most nauseous medicines. As soon as all are asleep, I take
the opportunity of writing up the journal, and reading the prayers.
This is Sók-day, and no little bustle. I do not feel very well, the heat is
so excessive. We had a capital supper of meat, mixed with grapes
and butter; a strange mixture, but a good dish. A man, who has got a
gold mine here, has come to ask me about it. Great doings may be
expected here to-morrow, as I have given to twenty persons strong
doses of medicine. But they are such fools.
Monday, April 25.—Therm. 70°. Very close; heavy dew through
the night, during which I was called up twice to visit patients, some of
whom are very ill; but I am expected to cure them by merely looking
at them; a most disheartening business. Up early and went to the
garden; returned home, and visited patients. All my cigars are gone,
and I am now manufacturing a pipe. Have the prospect of being here
a month; but I must bear it all, as I am quite in the power of these
people. Walked round the town, which is a large one: went to the
millah; looked about for springs. Am sadly bored. They will not give
me a moment’s rest.
Tuesday, April 26.—Therm. 76°. Very hot, and towards mid-day
the sun was oppressive beyond description. Had a strange request
from Hájí Majíbí, whom I hate: he had the impudence to ask me for
one of my gold watches, although he knows they are worth here five
hundred dollars. I shall put him in the hands of Mr. Willshire, to whom
I shall write strongly on the whole subject. The Sheïkh had a
conversation with Abú and myself this evening, and promised us
every thing we could desire; he assured me that he both could and
would protect us. I felt quite satisfied with this: but later in the
evening, that scoundrel, Majíbí, came and started difficulties; that
there was danger here, and much to be arranged there: he was not
aware of the conversation I had had with the Sheïkh. I was sadly
annoyed, and determined to give him a set-down in the morning.
 t
Drawn by J. G. Wilkinson Esqre. from a Sketch taken Drawn on Stone & Printed by P. Gauci, 9, North Cres .
by the late John Davidson. Bedford Sqre.

Style of Buildings of Wadnoon.

(Large-size)

Wednesday, April 27.—Therm. 70°. Made Abú write, for he cannot

talk, to this Majíbí, to ask if he meant to say that his party did not
wish me to go on: if so, that I would return, as I cared little upon the
subject, and had a ship waiting for me. He was taken somewhat
aback at this, and admitted that the observations came from himself,
and not from the Sheïkh. I shall write to Mr. Willshire, and give him
my candid opinion of this scoundrel, whose object is to induce me to
give him a bribe for his assistance. I will see him d———d first. Went
out to see my patients, when I was stopped by a marabout, who
humbugged me out of a dollar. ’Tis well to keep on good terms with
these impostors, who possess considerable influence. This journey
will ruin me, and I fear I shall break down. No person can be more
kind than the Sheïkh has been; and but for this blackguard I should
do very well. I must, however, put up with him, and patiently wait to
see how matters will turn out. The people here are a fine race; they
wear their hair generally curled, and are not at all dark; they are tall
in figure, ride upon spare horses without a bit, and with only a mere
rope put round the nose and neck of the animal; they have fine eyes
and beautiful teeth. The majority of those in better circumstances
have one or more of the desert-horses, which are fed entirely on
camel’s milk, and this only every fourth or fifth day. It is very strange
that they know nothing of the Jebel Khal, the black mountain; Sók
Assa is distant only one day’s journey; Tatta four; Akka five; Tódeny
twenty; from this to Arowán is another twenty; and thence to
Tumbuktú seven. There is another route to Tumbuktú. From hence
to Woden or Weddán, the name better known, twenty days; then to
Tishít ten; and to Tumbuktú ten more. Caravans frequently go to
Jennah from Tishít; from thence to Gwalátah, they say often; thence
to Drah in ten days; to Táfilelt in fifteen, &c. Some of my patients are
improving; others giving up medicines altogether. There is a
Muselmán-fast to-day, which is slept away. The weather has become
very cold. The thermometer has fallen 12°.
Thursday, April 28.—Therm. 68°. Some rain has fallen in the
night. I was called up to give the Sheïkh his medicines. It is perfectly
useless doing any thing for people who take five meals a-day, and
pass the rest of their time in sleep; with no exercise and no
employment, but sitting outside their doors or inside their walls, to
see on whom they can pounce. It is really sad to look upon the two
sides of the picture, which this place presents; the one, the
possessors of the soil, the daring, hardy, and commanding
inhabitants reduced to the level of the brute by his indulgence in food
and sleep, with the past forgotten, the future uncertain: the other
subject to slavery in its most abject form. A large káfilah is expected
from Mogadór to-day or to-morrow, and one from Súdán in a few
days. These will enliven us; but I hardly dare venture out. The
Christian is still upon me. The population may amount to two or three
hundred families, together with twelve Jewish, who are the working
classes, and manufacture good guns and daggers, ornaments in
silver, brass, &c. They are also the tailors and shoemakers, and do
the iron-work. The Muselmáns are the intermediate merchants, or
cultivators or breeders of cattle, which are very fine. There are some
Talebs here, and one has written for me a few prayers most
beautifully. Four káfilahs leave this place annually, consisting each of
slaves varying from three hundred to one thousand. At that time a
large encampment is formed outside of the town, where they collect
and prepare for the journey. I have been used most rascally by
Majíbí: I wish I dared kick him. Went out again to look for water: had
a conversation to-day about Christians, whom these people conceive
to have no idea of any religion. I tried, but in vain, to explain the
matter to them. I have evidently some foes here, because I will not
submit to be plucked unmercifully. I should be left without a penny or
a rag, were I to give all, or even half of what they endeavour to extort
from me. I am fairly tired out. The weather feels very cold. The
thermometer is down to 60°. We have had some rain to-day. I am
anxious to get out; but fear I am in for at least another month, and
must bear it.
Friday, April 29.—Therm. 58°. The wind is still east, and all are
suffering from the cold: I feel the effect of it, being but thinly clad. It
tells pretty sharply to a man with bare arms, legs, and feet. It is a sad
state of existence, where no one cares for his fellow, and throws off
a person the moment he ceases to be useful. As soon as they have
got what they want, they care not what becomes of you. I hope this
is not the case with the Sheïkh, who is certainly a very superior
person; but I find I shall have great difficulty in managing my affairs
here. Abú is not competent for this. To-day we are to have a private
conference with the Sheïkh, as soon as all the persons are gone to
the mosque, which is here a mere circle of large stones. The kiblah
is not quite due east, but rather to the south of it. I wish the Sheïkh
was quite well: but it is impossible to do him, or any of these people
here any good, with their five or six meals a-day, and without
exercise of body or mind, except a constant craving after sensual
enjoyments and for gold, gold, which is always uppermost in their
thoughts. The subject of Beïrúk’s[94] communication was to have an
English consul resident at his port,[95] and to open a trade direct with
England; that for this purpose he would send one of his sons to
London to manage his affairs; that by these means the route to
Súdán would be opened at once; the whole distance be performed in
forty or forty-four days, and a large trade be carried on; that a courier
would perform the journey to Súdán in fifteen or twenty days,
according to the heat—more wonderful for the man than the beast;
that England would receive in exchange gum, almonds, wool, hides,
ostrich feathers, ivory, and all the produce of Súdán, which would
find its way to Wád Nún rather than by a lengthened journey to
Marocco. I wrote to Lord Glenelg on the subject.
Saturday, April 30.—Therm. 60°. Wind still east. The Sheïkh now
thinks it will be impossible for me to cross the desert for the next four
months, owing to the great heat. The last caravan-kafilah left only a
fortnight before I arrived, and none go during the summer. I told him
that I ought to be sent on to overtake it. This he promised to do, if I
wished it; but he warned me of the danger of all the party perishing
from the want of water, as all the springs are then dried up, and the
camels cannot carry heavy loads during the hot months. I have
written to Mr. Willshire, and a courier has been dispatched to
Tumbuktú to say that a Christian is coming, accompanied by the
cousin of the King, Hámed Libbú. Hájí Majíbí now finds that I am too
canine for him to be in the same apartment, and thank Heaven he
has removed. I have the utmost contempt for this beast. The
population of this place rather exceeds six hundred, with great
capabilities for increase. The Sheïkh has about four hundred horse
that he could bring into the field. Went to the Millah, where I saw a
very beautiful woman anxious to get away. Her husband is one of the
principal workmen here. Provisions are cheaper than in any other
place. A good bullock may be purchased for 20s. to 30s.; heifers,
15s.; a sheep, 2s. to 4s.; fowls vary: I paid ½d. each; bread, ¼d. per
lb.; wheat, 5 to 6 pesetas; barley, 3 to 4 do. A camel varies in price
from 20 to 30 dollars; a slave from 20 to 100. All accounts are kept in
mitcalls.
Sunday, May 1.—Therm. 50°. The people are half killed with the
cold. Read the prayers. Received newspapers from England through
Mr. Willshire, and walked round the garden. The cold was so intense
this evening, that I was compelled to put on two cloaks. The Sheïkh
is still harping upon his favourite project, and complaining that all his
profits go into the hands of the Sultán of Marocco by the trade
through Mogadór.
 Monday, May 2.—Therm. 60°. Symptoms of the weather
becoming warmer. This will be a great comfort to me: bare feet and
arms feel the cold too severely. Fasted all yesterday; hope to get
something to eat to-day, as there is a savoury smell of kabábs. It is
wonderful to witness the fear the children have of a Christian. The
itch has broken out with violence amongst the people: I suppose I
shall have my turn. There is one comfort in the cold; it drives away
all the vermin, to which the people here are quite indifferent, as their
skin is so thick, that neither lice or fleas can penetrate it. The káfilah
from Súdán is expected in twenty days. The cold felt here is not
unusual at this time of the year, as our winter is their hottest season.
Am extremely anxious to hear from Mogadór.
Wednesday, May 4.—Therm. 60°. Weather warmer; but I still feel
the cold: went only to the gardens. A part of the káfilah is just
arrived; it made its journey in haste: it brings accounts of a war
between the Fellátahs and Bambári. This will make it rather awkward
for me, should hostilities continue, although I do not pass in the
immediate vicinity of the people of Bambári.
Thursday, May 5.—Therm. 60°. Suffering from a severe cold to-
day, did not go out.
Friday, May 6.—Therm. 68°. It got very warm towards noon. I
have now been a fortnight here, and with every prospect of being
detained a month longer. I am bored to death by the people, of
whom the more I see the worse I like them. Had a visit from Sheïkh
’Ali, and a part of his tribe: I was obliged to be civil, lest I should have
to return to Suweïrah; as in that case he would protect me. Health
but indifferent, as I can get no peace or quiet from the importunities
of the people here. Three persons have just come sixty miles to ask
me to tell them where the silver is to be found, that they know is in
great plenty about Tamenart. The old mines are not worked; but the
nokrah is in the field (ground). I told them it was impossible to give
an answer without visiting the spot, or seeing some of the stones
from it. If I am to stop to make them all rich, Heaven knows when I
shall come back. As I have the character of a magician, every dirty
devil in and about the place claims a prescriptive right to the entré,
and the beasts come loaded with vermin. Took a short walk, and
retired to rest.
Saturday, May 7.—Therm. 70°. Weather beautiful. Feeling myself
much better, I strolled to the water, which is not a river, but a kind of
lake. Met with rhododendrons in full flower, and saw a great variety
of odoriferous shrubs, with an abundance of tortoises. I was followed
by one of the Sherí beggars for money. A nephew of the Sultán has
got off under[96] .........[97] order. The river Assaka is to the south of
the mountains that enclose Wád Nún; but I can gain no information
about it. Sick at heart with my evening parties, which occur quotidie
(daily). Received letters from Mr. Willshire. It is lucky that we are
here: we have done the big wigs.
Sunday, May 8.—Therm. 70°. Weather is becoming quite warm;
was up early, and read the prayers: sent Abú to the Sók, and tried to
purchase a dagger, but it was too dear. The Sheïkh’s son bought one
at night, but it was not equal to the one I had seen. Found a
document relating to the Auléd Deleim, one of the Arab tribes: took a
walk with Sheïkh Ali, whose people returned to a sheep-killing, &c. I
have no chance of sleeping, as they are to leave at day-break.
Monday, May 9.—Therm. 72°. Weather beautiful. The camels are
collecting for the Sók: the best will not fetch more than thirty mitcals,
and good ones are to be bought for twenty. This animal changes its
name every year for the first nine years; but after that time, it is the
jemál. In the first year, and while suckling, it is el howar; in the
second, el ben áshar; in the third, el bellibún; in the fourth, el hak; in
the fifth, el zoa; in the sixth, el thání; in the seventh, el erba’; in the
eighth, el siasí; and in the ninth, el jemál: the female is called nákah:
it has been known to work for thirty years; after which they are
turned out. The Heïri horse does not cost more than from sixty to
one hundred dollars. All kinds of cattle and food are cheap to a fault.
With regard to their buildings, the rooms are long and narrow, but
without windows, as the doors answer for that purpose; and there
they keep their guns, swords, saddles, powder-horns, &c. Driven out
of the room by vermin. At four, A.M., I commenced washing my
clothes.[98] The Jewish gentleman was offended, that I did not pay
him a visit on the Sabbath: after this, I helped to cut up the sheep,
and set about preparing my own food; but as these people think I
dislike what they cook for me, I ate a little by way of training, and I
shall now have a daily dose of it. Abú gets more helpless daily. I fear
he has become religiously crazy. Walked to the water, and then had
a large party in the evening, which kept me up till midnight.
Tuesday, May 10.—Therm. 76°. The heat is returning again; very
sultry at noon. Saw the Sheïkh’s three wives, and his numerous
family of sons and daughters; they were more pleased with me than I
with them; there were two pretty girls amongst them, but very dirty:
the Sheïkh’s forty slaves, and all the family, were out to see one of
the ladies off. Walked round the whole place, which is larger than I
thought: ascended a hill that commands all the approaches to the
town; it formerly had a fort upon it, and should have it now. On the
east of the town there is a large enclosure, surrounded with walls,
where the great Sók is held. There are twenty large public ovens for
cooking meat and bread; ten smaller ones for fritters, made of honey
and butter; and some for sphynge and kuskusú, and many matmórs
for corn; and a good supply of water.
All are in expectation of this great day, or rather of these three
days. Sidi Hasan, and all the people from the neighbourhood, will be
here. Beyond the enclosure is a very neat tomb of the Sheïkh’s
predecessor, from which there is a good view of the country. On the
plain are many scattered villages, and four extraordinary hills, distant
from each other about one thousand yards. By the last is meant the
mountains which shut in a part of Wád Nún: in the back ground is a
fine range of hills, about one thousand feet high. I am now in my
third week here, with every chance of detention for three or four
weeks longer. I got rid of my evening party by pretending to be ill.
Wednesday, May 11.—Therm. 76°. Weather most favourable for
acclimatizing me for the Sahrá. Went to the house of ’Omar to see
Banna; had two ladies to examine. There was too great
fastidiousness on the part of some, and too little on the part of
others: from this I went to the Millah. My pretty patient is better to-
day, but is very stupid, as they all are: the Jewesses bear away the
palm of beauty; and dirty as they proverbially are, they are
cleanliness itself, as compared with the Arab ladies, whose filth, dirt,
and misery, are dreadful. A consul lives here, which is quite absurd.
Received many blessings. Had some disturbance about my horse:
the people are beginning to find fault, and my food is falling off; nor
do they give the same hearty welcome as formerly: the fact is, one
must be always giving to get on with these people. I took to my haik,
and like it much better than the sulham. I am nearly devoured by flies
by day, and fleas by night. Am pleased more and more with Hájí El
Khirefí, who is to take us, I hear, to Súdán, where he has been
twenty times. My evening party was much better behaved than
usual.
Thursday, May 12.—Therm. 75°. Went to breakfast with Solomon
the Jew, whose wife is making up my shirts, and mother washing my
clothes; but such is the fashion of the place. Went some distance up
the bed of the river, which is now quite dry. Nothing is talked of but
Sidi El Rásí and the Moutardi, or the forthcoming great Sók. Food is
very bad, and the meat stinking. Saw a beautiful gun that was made
here; the Sheïkh promises to get me one[99] before I go. Some rain
fell before noon, and it became quite cold, as evening came on. To-
day I had many more lady-patients, as Abú calls them; their
complaints are curious. One is to be fattened up to thrice her present
size. Several wish to know how they are to become mothers: many
want me to give them the powder which Christians have to make
people love them. Eyes to be cured out of number; and as they are
far too many for me to attend to all, I have selected two, who are
very ill, and whom I think I can cure, and I have put the rest away as
incurable. Rain has fallen all round, but has not yet reached here.
The husband of the pretty Jewess has sent to say, that he shall feel
hurt, if I do not breakfast with him, as I had breakfasted with
Solomon. I promised to go to-morrow.
Friday, May 13.—Therm. 78°. Went to breakfast with the pretty
Jewess; her husband is a man of some information. We had too
much to eat: afterwards walked about two miles up the bed of the
river, which, when full, must contain a large body of water. Visited the
Arab tents; on returning, saw some very fine women, but they were
beastly dirty. Morality is here at a very low ebb; the husband
prostitutes his wife, and the father his child; and this is considered no
disgrace, if it is done for a valuable consideration, and not for love.
Witnessed a very disgusting scene with the Sheïkh; he has three
wives all living, but he still likes his slaves: his fourth wife died lately;
she was an Arab of great beauty, for whom he gave two hundred
camels, twelve slaves, and a great quantity of produce. His eldest
son is a chip of the old block, and is running after every woman he
takes a fancy to, the pretty Jewess excepted, whose person is
considered sacred. Three Moors have destroyed themselves for her
in a fit of love, and all come to see her. As she is a patient, I can visit
her daily. I am becoming very impatient, and the people tell me I
have a quick temper: but the fact is, time is no object to the people
here; their care is merely how to waste it; as soon as one meal is
finished, they want to sleep till the time for the next arrives. It is quite
dreadful to see the sad state to which human nature is degraded in
this place. The small-pox has broken out with great violence, and I
have to run the gauntlet without the least chance of escaping from it.
A slave was brought in, charged with attempting to run away; it
appears to have been a little love affair: he was punished by having
a fifty-six pound-weight fastened to his leg.
Saturday, May 14.—Therm. 74°. The poor creature is still chained,
and has not a drop of water, although it is now mid-day. The Sheïkh
should have clean hands before he thus punished others. Went out
again to the bed of the river, and made the round of the Khiesin: met
many beautiful women, if they were only clean. Their husbands are
all gone to Súdán; had to prescribe for some fifty of them; they
wanted me to make their faces of the same colour as my legs and
arms. My watch, rings, &c. were a great object of curiosity with them:
had a little difficulty in making some of them shew their tongues,
which they consider a mark of impudence; they all like to be closely
examined; their figures are perfectly beautiful; most of them were at
work. I had prayers and thanks in abundance. One very merry lass
had on her neck a curious collection: it embraced a little bag of
spices and scents; the nail of a horse-shoe; a leather charm, called
horse; a broken shell; a large glass bead; another horse; a shell
again (habha); a small habha, consisting of a circular piece of agate,
and a large horse at the centre, from which was suspended the horn
of a young ram; and the same things were repeated, forming the
circle. Some of the women work beautiful háïks, blankets, and
carpets. In the large tents are two beds raised on feet, with a cradle,
the canopy for the bride. There are two tents in each inclosure of
thorns or prickly pears. Visited the Millah, and then home.
Sunday, May 15.—Therm. 76°. Had a long conversation with
Zeïn, who was at Tumbuktú when Major Laing was killed.[100] It
appears that Hámed Libbú gave all the protection he could; but that
the Sheïkh, to whose care the Major was entrusted, expected to gain
a large plunder by his destruction. Zeïn had seen also Caillié[101]
several times during his stay there. Things have now changed. The
government is now Fulání. Hámed Libbú killed four thousand of the
Tawáriks in one day, and has quite reduced that tribe to subjection.
These marauders are, however, still in force between Tumbuktú and
Sakatú. A large portion of the former place, inhabited by the
Tawáriks, has been burnt down. Zeïn tells me there is no chance of
my getting to Sakatú. The Wád and the river are both beset by the
Tawáriks. The distance by land is forty days to Jennah, which is
distant from Tumbuktú eight days; from thence to Sansanding and
Ségó four or five days; and from thence twenty days to the source of
the river. To Kóng he did not know how long the journey was; but it is
very distressing, and is all performed on foot. Read the prayers. Day
very hot towards noon. There is a little quiet to-day, as all the people
are out at the Sók; which has been but badly attended, as there is no
arrival from Suweïrah, and the káfilah will not be here for some days.
Walked out and looked at Wesnúnah, which is about six miles south,
and to As-sérir about four east. The Sheïkh has about forty villages,
containing a population, they say, of twenty-five thousand. My spirits
are much depressed to-day. My position is truly miserable: I am
bored to death, and obliged to submit, through the fear of making
enemies amongst savages. I have scarcely a book to while away the
time, and no means of improving myself, or getting information from
others. I have at last learnt the name of the river; it is the
Bontkonman, or, as some call it, Buatkuman: it is called also
Mulasar. The large river that is laid down in the maps, as the Akassa,
runs nearly due east and west, flowing through the south of Wád