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 A TEXT BOOK
OF
MODERN ORGANIC FARMING

Dr. Vikas Singh Sengar

Dr. Chandra Shekhar
Dr. Deo Kumar
Dr. Avinash Kumar Singh
Dr R K Doharey

[i]
 Copyright©: Authors

All Rights Reserved

No part of this publication may be reproduced, transmitted

or stored in a retrieval system, in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying recording or
otherwise, without the prior permission of the author.

Website: www.bookrivers.com

Email: publish@bookrivers.com

Mobile: +91-9695375469

Place: Lucknow

Year: 2021

MRP: 270/-INR

ISBN: 978-93-5515-008-0

[i]
 INDEX

s.no. Particulars Page no.

1. Organic forming (Shubhranshu

Singh1, Pooja yadav1 and Dr.
Ravi Shanker Singh2 )
2. Organic farming in india (Ankita
Rao1, Deo Kumar2, Vikas Singh
Sengar3and A.K. Singh4)
3. Smart farming (Hariom Mishra*,
Ankit Gupta*, Ambikesh
ripathi* and Shubhendu Singh*)
4. Composting ( Ankita Rao* and
R.K. Aryan**)
5. Compost Preparation (R.K.
Aryan* and Vikas Singh
Sengar**)
6. Bio fertilizers/bio inoculants for
organic farming (Sandeep Kumar
Diwakar* Chandra Shekhar**and
Avinash Kumar Singh)
7. Cost of organic production
system (Vikas Singh Sengar* and
Deo Kumar**)
8. Economic considerations,
marketing and export
potential oforganic farming

[ii]
 (Vikas Singh Sengar)
9. Non chemical approach for
insect, pest,disease and weed
manage ment
10. Post harvest management: quality
aspect,grading, packaging and
handling (Vikas Singh Sengar* and
Deo Kumar**)
11. Visit of organic farms to study
the various components and
their utilization (Sandeep Kumar
Diwakar* Chandra hekhar**and
Avinash Kumar Singh)
12. Principles and concepts of
cropping systems (Vikas singh
sengar* and ankita rao**)
13. Agro climatic zones and Agro
cological zones of
ndia(Shidhant Gupta1, Deo
Kumar2, Saurabh Tiwari3, and
Abhishek Raj Ranjan4)
14. Agro-Meteorological Observatory
(S.R. Mishra1, Sidhant Gupta2,
R.K. Aryan3 and A.K. Singh4)
15. Isolation and characterization of
plant growth promoting
Rhizobacteria (PGPR) of pulse
crops (Niyaj Ahamad1, Adesh
Kumar1 and R.K. Aryan2)
[iii]
16. Moisture stress (Ankit Gupta*,
Hariom Mishra*, Deepraj
Verma*, Asheesh Kumar* and
Nitees Kumar**)

[iv]
 PREFACE

The authors have great pleasure in presenting the first

edition of this manual on A TEXT BOOK OF MODERN
ORGANIC FARMING.

At the undergraduate level, a student of Agriculture,

Horticulture as well Agronomy is expected to grasp the
basic concepts of Organic farming as well as some practical
knowledge of organic farming.

In its first edition of manual deals with Organic

forming, smart farming, Composting, Compost Preparation,
Bio fertilizers/bio inoculants for organic farming, Cost of
organic production system, Economic considerations,
marketing and export potential of organic farming,
Nonchemical approach for insect, pest, disease and weed
management, Post harvest management: quality aspect,
grading, packaging and handling, Visit of organic farms to
study the various components and their utilization and
Principles and concepts of cropping systems.

The treatment of the manual is in consonance with the

level of Under-Graduate and Post Graduate students of
Agriculture, Agronomy and Horticulture.

[v]
 The authors, as a student and as a teacher of concern
discipline, would like to point out to students that organic
farming is an intricate science and should be carefully
studied. The subject has its own technical terminology,
which is not easily understood by the every man. A student
of agriculture has got to acquire a very good command of
this organic farming terminology and this is possible only
by hard work. Once the fundaments of agronomy have been
clearly caught, the subject becomes very easy and
interesting.

The author will be grateful for any constructive

suggestions he may receive from the readers for
improvement of the text in a later edition.

VIKAS SINGH SENGAR

CHANDRA SHEKHAR
DEO KUMAR
AVINASH KUMAR SINGH
&
R K DOHAREY

[vi]
 Organic forming

Shubhranshu Singh1, Pooja yadav1 and Dr. Ravi Shanker

Singh2
1. MSc. (Ag),Deptt.,of Agronomy, ANDUAT, Ayodhya ,U.P
2. Asst. Prof. Deptt. of Agronomy, ANDUAT, Ayodhya, U.P.
BACKGROUND
Organic farming, agricultural system that uses
ecologically based pest controls and biological fertilizers
derived largely from animal and plant wastes and nitrogen-
fixing cover crops. Modern organic farming was developed
as a response to the environmental harm caused by the use
of chemical pesticides and synthetic fertilizers in
conventional agriculture, and it has numerous ecological
benefits. Compared with conventional agriculture, organic
farming uses fewer pesticides, reduces soil erosion,
decreases nitrate leaching into groundwater and surface
water, and recycles animal wastes back into the farm.
These benefits are counterbalanced by higher food costs for
consumers and generally lower yields. Indeed, yields of
organic crops have been found to be about 25 percent lower
overall than conventionally grown crops, although this can
vary considerably depending upon the type of crop. The
challenge for future organic agriculture will be to maintain

[1]
its environmental benefits, increase yields, and reduce
prices while meeting the challenges of climate change and
an increasing world population.

Organic farming is an alternative agricultural system

which originated early in the 20th century in reaction to
rapidly changing farming practices. Certified organic
agriculture accounts for 70 million hectares globally, with
over half of that total in Australia. Organic farming
continues to be developed by various organic agriculture
organizations today. It is defined by the use of fertilizers of
organic origin such as compost manure, green manure, and
bone meal and places emphasis on techniques such as crop
rotation and companion planting. Biological pest control,
mixed cropping and the fostering of insect predators are
encouraged. In general, organic standards are designed to
allow the use of naturally occurring substances while
prohibiting or strictly limiting synthetic substances. For
instance, naturally occurring pesticides such as pyrethrin
and rotenone are permitted, while synthetic fertilizers and
pesticides are generally prohibited.

Organic agricultural methods are internationally

regulated and legally enforced by many nations, based in
large part on the standards set by the International
[2]
Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM),
an international umbrella organization for organic farming
organizations established in 1972.

HISTORY

The concepts of organic agriculture were developed in

the early 1900s by Sir Albert Howard, F.H. King, Rudolf
Steiner and others who believed that the use of animal
manures (often made into compost), cover crops, crop
rotation, and biologically based pest controls resulted in a
better farming system. Such practices were further
promoted by various advocates—such as J.I. Rodale and
his son Robert, in the 1940s and onward, who published
Organic Gardening and Farming magazine and a number of
texts on organic farming. The demand for organic food was
stimulated in the 1960s by the publication of Silent Spring,
by Rachel Carson, which documented the extent of
environmental damage caused by insecticides. Organic
food sales increased steadily from the late 20th century.
Greater environmental awareness, coupled with concerns
over the health impacts of pesticide residues and
consumption of genetically modified crops, fostered the
growth of the organic sector.

[3]
Concept of organic farming

The basic concepts behind organic farming are:

1. It concentrates on building up the biological fertility

of the soil so that the crops take the nutrients they
need from steady turnover within the soil nutrients
produced in this way and are released in harmony
with the need of the plants.

2. Control of pests, diseases and weeds is achieved

largely by the development of an ecological balance
within the system and by the use of bio-pesticides
and various cultural techniques such as crop
rotation, mixed cropping and cultivation.

3. Organic farmers recycle all wastes and manures

within a farm, but the export of the products from
the farm results in a steady drain of nutrients.

4. Enhancement of the environment in such a way that

wild life flourishes.

In a situation where conservation of energy and

resources is considered to be important community or
country would make every effort to recycles to all urban
and industrial wastes back to agriculture and thus the

[4]
system would be requiring only a small inputs of new
resources to ―Top Up‖ soil fertility.

Importance of Organic Farming

The agriculture today in the country is hampered by

erosion of natural resources viz., land, water, biodiversity,
fast declining soil fertility and use efficiency of inputs, such
as water, fertilizer and energy. Demographic pressure
accelerates the former and the faulty agronomic practices
account for the latter problems. The modern agriculture
with its potential takes the country out of the food trap and
to reach an era of self sufficiency in food grain production.

The present day for self sufficiency in food grain

production may not last longer unless we develop a
sustainable agricultural system which maintains and /or
improves soil fertility and productivity with greater
acceptance of biological principles so as to assure
adequate/more food production in future. Besides plants are
more prone to pest and diseases in intensive agriculture, use
of chemicals can have residues on the produce, in the soil
and in ground water. With more of purchased inputs cost of
production is also mounting up. Pesticides use in paddy,
cotton and vegetables which occupy less than 30 per cent of

[5]
total area account for more than 80 per cent of the
chemicals used.

Organic farming practices that reduces the pressure on

land, water and bio-diversity without adverse effects on
agricultural production and nutritive value of food
comprise, judicious use of organic manure, viz. farm yard
manure, compost, crop resides, Vermicompost etc.
integrated is an efficient nutrient management practices,
cropping systems, conjunctive use of rain, tank and
underground water, integrated pest management and
conservation of genetic resources. Among them, soil
fertility is give top attention due to its dynamic action with
various physical, chemical and biological properties.
Besides this, following advantages derived from organic
farming:

Objectives of Organic Farming

The objectives of organic agriculture have been

expressed in the standard document of the International
Federation of Organic Agriculture Movement (IFOAM) as
follows:

1. To produce food of high nutritional quality in

sufficient quantity.

[6]
2. To work with natural systems rather than seeking to
dominate them.

3. To encourage and enhance the biological cycles

within farming system involving microorganisms,
soil flora and fauna, plants and animals.

4. To maintain and increase the long term fertility of

soils.

5. To use, as far as possible, renewable resources in

locally organized agricultural systems.

6. To work as much as possible, within a closed

system with regard to organic matter and nutrient
elements.

7. To given all livestock, conditions of life that allow

them to perform all aspects of their innate behavior.

8. To avoid all forms of pollution that result from

agricultural techniques.

9. To maintain the genetic diversity of the agricultural

system and its surroundings, including the
protection of plant and wildlife habitats.

[7]
10. To allow agricultural producers for adequate return
and satisfaction from their work including a safe
working environment.

11. To consider the wider, social and ecological impact

of the farming system.

Essential Characteristics of Organic Farming

The most important characteristics are as follows:

1. Maximal but sustainable use of local resources.

2. Minimal use of purchased inputs, only as

complementary to local resources.

3. Ensuring the basic biological functions of soil-

water-nutrients-human continuum.

4. Maintaining a diversity of plant and animal species

as a basis for ecological balance and economic
stability.

5. Creating an attractive overall landscape which given

satisfaction to the local people.

6. Increasing crop and animal intensity in the form of

polycultures, agro-forestry systems, integrated
crop/livestock systems etc to minimize risks.

[8]
METHODS OF ORGANIC FARMING

Organic farming involves various techniques which are

eco-friendly and by practicing it the fertility of soil is
conserved for long time. There various methods in organic
farming some of them are Crop rotation, use of green
manures, biological pest control and composting, these also
provide employment to agriculture labors.

Employment to agriculture labors

In present day machinery are replacing man power and

making them unemployed but with organic farming it
provides employment because many techniques are used,
from preparation of manure to cop harvesting.

Crop rotation

It is a technique of growing different crops in same area

according to the seasons and it is practiced to avoid
agriculture pests, and to maintain soil fertility.

Green manures

Green manures are the plant leaves and waste material

of plant which cover the soil and stuffed in to soil and
become as nutrient to the soil and increase the soil fertility.

[9]
Vermicomposting

It is a process of composting using different worms like

white worms, earth worms and red wrigglers for
preparation of compost with mix of kitchen waste and other
vegetable waste. This is rich in nutrients and used as
fertilizers in the agriculture fields.

Biological pest control

Living organisms are used to protect plants from peats

without synthetic chemicals.

ADVANTAGES OF ORGANIC FARMING

Organic farming is an important form of doing

agriculture which has many benefits to ecosystem such as:

Nutrition

Organic food is rich in nutrients and it is free from

harmful chemicals, it also increases the nutrients in the soil
so the grown crop is healthier to consume.

Free from chemicals

In organic farming chemicals are not used to control

pests and other harmful plant diseases, which causes cancer
and other diseases to the consumers. But organic farming is
free of toxic chemicals.
[10]
Quality food

The organic food is having quality with nutrients and it

tastes better than the food grown by using synthetic
chemicals and quality of food is determined by its taste.
Brix analysis is used to measure the quality of vegetables
and fruits.

Long Time Store

Organic food has the capability of longer time storage

due to its metabolic and structural integrity in their cellular
structure than the other crops grown by using synthetic
chemicals.

Low input cost:

Expenditure on agriculture is low with organic farming

because it need animals to till the land, manures which are
easily available and they can prepare their own, and the bio
fertilizers are prepared with low cost

FUTURE PROSPECTS

In present world most of the consuming food contains

harmful chemicals which are causing various diseases
unknowingly or neglected knowingly this can be reduced
by organic farming. The agricultural lands are becoming

[11]
useless to do agriculture if this continues the coming
generations will face a serious problem of food production
and they unable to produce quality food. It requires proper
practice of organic farming skills with patience.

LIMITATIONS

 Apart from advantages organic farming is

demerits they are:
 Organic farming is a time taking process in
getting the result, which makes the farmers to
neglect this kind of farming.
 It requires more labor force and should have
regular observation compared to conventional
farming.
 Organic farming is a skill based work and
farmers should be trained time to time according
to the seasons and the condition of the crops.
 Low productivity is the major problem in
organic farming compared to conventional
farming, but in conventional form of agriculture
the fertility of soil is decreasing time to time
with excess use of chemicals.

However it has some disadvantages it is a useful form

of doing agriculture, which benefits the ecosystem and the
[12]
consumers. The soil gains the nutrients and maintains the
soil fertility for longer time and useful for agriculture.

SCOPE OF ORGANIC FARMING

The movement started with developed world is

gradually picking up in developing countries. But demand
is still concentrated in developed and most affluent
countries. Local demand for organic food is growing.
Success of organic movement in India depends upon the
growth of its own domestic markets. India has traditionally
been a country of organic agriculture, but the growth of
modern scientific, input intensive agriculture has pushed it
to wall. But with the increasing awareness about the safety
and quality of foods, long-term sustainability of the system
and accumulating evidences of being equally productive,
the organic farming may emerge as an alternative system of
farming which addresses the quality and sustainability
concerns.

Large-scale use of inputs both organic and inorganic

has been a common sight in many of the farming situations
in the past several decades. However, in recent times the
concept of organic farming is being forcefully projected as
the method for sustaining the agricultural production in the
country.
[13]
 Organic farming is a form of agriculture which avoids
or largely excluded the use of synthetic fertilizers and
pesticides, plant growth regulators and livestock feed
additives. Organic farming relies on crop rotation, crop
residues, animal manures, bio-fertilizers and mechanical
cultivation to maintain soil productivity, to supply plant
nutrients and to control weeds, insects, disease and other
pests.

Before jumping into organic farming bandwagon, we

need to have answers to the following: What level of crop
yield/productivity is acceptable? It is suitable for country
like India with a large population to feed? Whether
available organic sources of plant nutrients sufficient for
pure organic farming? And, are organic farming
technologies sustainable in long run?

Whether organic farming can address the multitude of

problems faced by Indian agriculture at present is a major
issue. Further, the virtues attributed to organic farming
need to be rechecked before coming to any conclusions.

Issues of concern

Major issues to be considered for a decision on

conventional agriculture or organic agriculture are:

[14]
  Organic farming and nutrient supply.
 Organic farming and plant protection.
 Organic farming and crop productivity.
 Organic farming and certification processes.
 Organic farming and heterogeneity of inputs.
 Organic farming and food quality.
 Organic farming products and marketing.
 Organic farming and switch over period.

CONCLUSION

Most of the farmers are doing conventional form of

agriculture to get the high yield and quick result, but with
conventional agriculture the fertility of the soil is
decreasing gradually and if this kind of practice continues
the land become useless for agriculture. So, to avoid such a
serious problem practice of organic farming helps the soil
to maintain the fertility and can get good quality of food
products which are also healthier.

***

[15]
 ORGANIC FARMING IN INDIA

Dr. Ankita Rao1, Deo Kumar2, Vikas Singh Sengar3and

A.K. Singh4

1. Ph. D. Research Scholar, Deptt. of Agronomy, ANDUAT,

Kumarganj, Ayodhya, U.P.

2. Assistant professor, Deptt. of Soil Science & Agricultural

Chemistry,BUAT, Banda, U.P.

3. Ph. D. Research Scholar, Agril. Economics, ANDUAT,

Kumarganj, Ayodhya, U.P.

4. Professor and Head Deptt. of Agronomy, ANDUAT,

Kumarganj, Ayodhya, U.P.

Organic farming is a system which avoids or largely

excludes the use of synthetic inputs (such as fertilizers,
pesticides, hormones, feed additives etc) and to the
maximum extent feasible relies upon crop rotations, crop
residues, animal manures, and off-farm organic waste.
(USDA, 1980)

―It is a holistic production management system that

promotes and enhances health of agro-ecosystem, including
biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity‖.
(FAO, 2002)

[16]
Religious Documentation of Organic farming

Oldest practice 10000 years old, dating back to Neolithic

age, practiced by ancient civilization like Mesopotamia,
Hwang Ho basin etc.

Ramayana (All dead things – rotting corpse or stinking

garbage returned to earth are transformed into wholesome
things that nourish life. Such is the alchemy of mother earth
– as interpreted by C. Rajagopalachari).

Mahabharata (5500 BC) Mention of Kamadhenu, the

celestial cow and its role on human life and soil fertility.

Kauthilya Arthashastra (300 BC) Mentioned several

manures like oil cake, excreta, excreta of animals.

Brihad-sanhita (by Varahmihir) described how to choose

manures for different crops and the methods of manuring.

Rig Veda (2500-1500 BC) Mention of organic manure in

Rig Veda 1, 161, 10, 2500-1500 BC, is Green Manure in
Atharva Veda 11 8.3, (1000 BC). In Sukra (IV, V, 94, 107-
112) it is stated that to cause healthy growth the plant
should be nourished by dungs of goat, sheep, cow, water as
well as meat. A reference of manure is also made in
Vrksayurveda by surpala (manuscript, oxford, No 324 B,
Six, 107-164)
[17]
Holy Quran (590 AD) At least one third of what you take
out from soils must be returned to it implying recycling or
post-harvest residue.

Organic farming in India:

 Organic cultivation not new in India. The term

organic farming was first used by lord North
Bourne in the book of look of the land
 Organic agriculture in India started long back
1900 by Sir Albert Howard a British agronomist,
in local village of the north India.
 Organic farming was first coined by north Bourne
in 1946.
 The state of Sikkim and Uttaranchal declared
organic state. Race less use of this chemical
material not alert the ecosystem but it claim with
death to many lives every year due to their
hazardous nature.

WHAT SHOULD BE OUR APPROACH?

 Keeping in view of food security it is not possible

to go as such for organic farming in intensive
cultivated areas hence there is need:

[18]
  On the other hand, bringing the areas, where
fertilizer consumption is very low, under organic
farming
 The organic agriculture, therefore, could be
advocated only to certain areas and for selected
crops showing promise for organic agriculture.
The rain-fed agro-eco-zones, tribal areas,
northeast and hilly regions of the country and
farms where diversified agriculture is being
practiced on commercial scale are the potential
areas.

Difference between conventional farming and organic

farming

Conventional Farming:

 It is based on economical orientation.

 Supplementing nutrients through chemical
fertilizers
 Weed control by herbicide
 Pest control by pesticide
 Livestock rarely combined
 Low input output ratio with pollution
 Using up soil fertility often resulting in erosion
and soil loss
[19]
Organic Farming:

 It is based on ecological orientation.

 Cycle of nutrients within the farms;
predominantly farm produced materials
 Weed control by crop rotation and cultural
practices
 Pest control based on nonpolluting substances
 Livestock for production and health
 Optimum input: output ratio with No pollution
 Maximum conservation of soils, water quality and
wild life

Why organic farming is necessary?

 Sustainable and eco-friendly technology.

 It improves quality, shelf and nutritive value of
the farm produce.
 It encourages sustainable livelihood of the
producers as well as safeguards consumers‘
health.
 It improves the physical, chemical and biological
health of the soil.
 Promotes healthy use of the natural resources and
minimizes all forms of the pollution.

[20]
  It enhances and sustains biological diversity
within the system.

Key characteristics of organic farming:

 Relies primarily on local, renewable resources.

 Makes efficient use of solar energy and the
production potential of biological systems.
 Maintains the fertility of the soil.
 Maximizes recycling of plant nutrients and
organic matter.
 Does not use organisms or substances foreign to
nature.
 Maintains diversity in the production system as
well as the agricultural landscape.
 Gives farm animal‘s life conditions that
correspond to their ecological role and allow them
a natural behavior.
 Careful attention to the impact of the farming
system on the wider environment and the
conservation of wildlife and natural habitats.

[21]
Principles of organic farming:

Principles of organic farming:

Four principles identified in organic farming which are

given below.

1. Principle of health

 Organic Agriculture should sustain and enhance

the health of soil, plant, animal, human and planet
as one and indivisible.
 Healthy soils produce healthy crops that foster the
health of animals and people.
 Health is the wholeness and integrity of living
systems.

[22]
2. Principle of ecology

 Organic Agriculture should be based on living

ecological systems and cycles, work with them,
emulate them and help sustain them.
 This principle roots organic agriculture within
living ecological systems.

3. Principle of fairness

 Organic Agriculture should build on relationships

that ensure fairness with regard to the common
environment and life opportunities.
 Fairness is characterized by equity, respect,
justice and stewardship of the shared world, both
among people and in their relations to other living
beings

4. Principle of care

 Organic Agriculture should be managed in a

precautionary and responsible manner to protect
the health and well-being of current and future
generations and the environment.
 This principle states that precaution and
responsibility are the key concerns in

[23]
 management, development and technology
choices in organic agriculture.

Types of organic farming:

1.Pure organic farming: It includes use of organic

manures and bio-pesticides with complete avoidance of
inorganic chemicals and pesticides.

2.Integrated Farming: It involves Integrated Nutrient

Management (INM) and Integrated Pest Management
(IPM).

3.Integrated Farming Systems: In this type, local

resources are effectively recycled by involving other
components such as poultry, fish pond, mushroom, and
goat rearing etc. apart from crop components. It is a low
input organic farming.

Objective of organic farming:

1. Produce food with higher nutritional quality

2. Work with natural system

3. Maintain and increase soil fertility

4. Use renewable resources as far as possible

[24]
 5. Wider social and ecological impact of farming
system

6. Allow satisfaction to agricultural producer

7. Avoid Pollution

Benefits of organic farming:

1. Increase long-term fertility of the soil.

2. It helps in maintaining environment health by

reducing the level of pollution.

3. It reduces human and animal health hazards by

reducing the level of residues in the product.

4. It helps in keeping agricultural production at a higher

level and makes it sustainable.

5. It reduces the cost of agricultural production and also

improves the soil health.

6. It ensures optimum utilization of natural resources

for short term benefit and helps in conserving them
for future generation.

7. It not only saves energy for both animal and

machine, but also reduces risk of crop failure.

[25]
Basic Steps of Organic Farming:

Organic farming approach involves following five

principles:

1. Conversion of land from conventional management

to organic management

2. Management of the entire surrounding system to

ensure biodiversity and sustainability of the system

3. Crop production with the use of alternative sources

of nutrients such as crop rotation, residue
management, organic manures and biological
inputs.

4. Management of weeds and pests by better

management practices, physical and cultural means
and by biological control system

5. Maintenance of live stock in tandem with organic

concept and make them an integral part of the entire
system.

Limitations of organic farming in India:

 Small land holding

 Poor infrastructure facilities
 Lack of technology knowledge

[26]
  Convert organic farm
 Neighboring farmer well co-operate
 Organic material such as animal dung and other
crop waste used for fuel purpose
 Organic material are bulky in nature very difficult
store and high price
 City garbage contains heavy metal, plastic bags,
stones and needles.
 Bio control agent is available only few selected
insect pest.
 Complicated organic certification process and
high fees cost.
 Higher human population of India.

Components of organic farming:

1. Vermicompost

2. Green leaf manures

3. Crop Rotation

4. Manures

5. Biological Management

6. Animal Husbandry

7. Bio-fertilizer

[27]
 Weed management:

1. Preventive methods

 Weed free crop seed

 Weed free manure
 Clean harvesting and ploughing equipment.

2. Cultural method

 Smother crop
 Cover crop
 Crop rotation
 Optimum plant density and line sowing
 Drip irrigation

3. Mechanical method

 Tillage
 Stale seed bed
 Hand weeding
 Hoeing
 Moving
 Mulching
 Burning

4. Soil solrization

5. Allelopathy
[28]
  ex : marigold :congress grass

Biological control:

 Insect Weed control

 Crocidosema lantana busck moth weed control
Lantana camara
 Cochineal scale weed control Pricklypear
 Fleabeetle larva weed control Alligatorweed
 Neochetina burchii weed control Waterhyacinth
 Mexican gall fly weed control Congress grass

Mycoherbicides:

1. De-Vine content Phytophrhora plamivora weed

control Milk weed vine

2. Collego content Colletotrichum gloeosporiodes weed

control Joint vetch

3. Bipolaris content Bipolaris sorghicola weed control

Johnsongrass

4. Biolophos content Streptomyces hygroscopicus weed

control General vegetation

[29]
Pest management:

1. Physical method

 Mechanical control
 Light trap
 Pheromone trap
 Nylon net

2. Cultural method

 Field and plant sanitation

 Crop rotation
 Trap cropping

Ex : cabbage: mustard= diamondback moth

 Water management
 Adjusting time of sowing

Multiple effects of duck-azolla-rice farming system:

[30]
Duck in Rice field (China) Duck in Rice field (China)

Fertilizer management:

1. Bulky organic manures

 FYM
 Compost
 Biogas slurry
 Night soil
 Sheep and goat manure
 Poultry manure
 Green manure
 Vermicompost

2. Concentrated organic manure

 Oil cakes
 Fish meal
 Meat meal
 Blood meal
 Horn and hoof meal
[31]
  Bird guano
 Row bone meal

Bio-fertilizer:

N2 Fixing Bio fertilizer

1. Free-living: Azotobacter , Beijerinka, Clostridium,

Anabanea

2. Symbiotic: Rhizobium, Azolla, Frankia

3. Associtave symbiotic: Azospirrlum

P Solubilising Bio fertilizer

1. Bacteria: Bacillus sp, pseudomonus sp

2. Fungai: Penicillum sp, Aspergillus awamori

P Mobilizing Bio fertilizer

1. Arbuscular mycorrhiza: Gloumus sp, Gigaspora sp,

2. Ectomycorrhiza: Laccaria sp, Amanita sp.

3. Ericoid mycorrhizae: Pezizella ericae

4. Orchid mycorrhizae: Rhizoctonia solani.

Seed treatment technique popular amongst farmer in

organic farming

a) With cow urine

[32]
  cow urine + water (1:10)
 soak the seed in solution for 15 minutes
 Dry the seed in shade and sowing.
 If better germination and prevent seed borne
disease

b) With cow milk

 Cow milk + water (1:5)

 Soak the seed in solution for 30 minutes
 Dry the seed in shade and sowing.
 It prevent yellowing of leaves and leaf spot
diseases

C) With wood ash:

 Wood ash + water (10 gram + one litter)

 Dip vegetable seed in solution for 15-30 minutes
 Dry in shade and sow immediately
 It prevent seedling root

D) Hot water treatment:

 Boil water till it reaches 55 c.

 Soak the seed for 15 – 30 minutes.
 Dry seed first in shade and after in sun and stored
in insect proof container.

[33]
  It controls pathogens which develop seeds when
they are stored for a long time period.

International organic standards

1. IFOAM:

 Established in 1972
 Headquarter in Germany
 Umbrella organization for organic Agriculture
Association
 Developed international basic standards of
organic agriculture
 Established IFOAM accreditation programme
(1992) to accredit certifying bodies
 Set up International Organic Accreditation
Service (IOAS) in July 2001

2. CODEX:

 Codex Alimentations Commission – a joint

FAO/WHO
 Inter-government body
 Established in 1962
 Produced a set of guidelines for organic
production

[34]
3. EU-regulation:

 Laid out a basic regulation for European Union‘s

organic standards in Council
 regulation No. 2092/91 (June 1991)
 Regulations give guidelines for the production of
organic crops in the European Community.

4. Demeter:

 Demeter International is a worldwide net work of

19 International certification
 bodies in Africa, Australia, Europe
 Developed guideline for biodynamic preparation.

5. JAS:

 A set of guidelines Japan Agricultural Standards

for organic production

List of accredited certifying and inspection agencies in

India

 Association for promotion of Organic Farming

(APOF)

- Bangalore

 Indian Society for Certification of organic

production (ISCOP)
[35]
- Tamil Nadu

 Indian Organic Certification Agency

(INDOCERT)

- Cochin, Kerala

 Skal Inspection and Certification Agency

- Bangalore

 IMO Control Pvt. Ltd.

- Bangalore

 Ecocert International

-Aurangabad

 Bioinspectra

-Cochin, Kerala

 SGS India Pvt Ltd

- Gurgaon

 International Resources for Fair Trade (IRFD)

- Mumbai

 National Organic Certification Association

(NOCA)

- Pune
[36]
Government support to promote organic farming:

The ministry of agriculture is promoting organic

farming in the country under the following schemes:

 National Project on Organic Farming (project

implemented since October 2004)
 Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojna
 National Centre on Organic Farming: Ghaziabad

Regional centers:

(1) Bangalore (4) Imphal

(2) Bhubaneswar (5) Jabalpur

(3) Hissar (6) Nagpur

Conclusions:

From the foregoing discussion, it can be inferred that

organic farming appears to be a sustainable, economic and
eco-friendly, since there is no risk of residual toxicity. It
improves soil fertility and yielded quality production. An
addition of compost prepared from farm wastes i.e. FYM,
Neem-cake, biogas slurry, vermicompost etc. helps
maintain organic matter in soil.

[37]
 SMART FARMING

Hariom Mishra*, Ankit Gupta*, Ambikesh Tripathi* and

Shubhendu Singh*

[M.Sc.(Ag.), Deptt. Of Agronomy, ANDUA&T Kumarganj

Ayodhya]

Introduction

Smart Farming is a farming management concept using

modern technology to increase the quantity and quality of
agricultural products. Farmers in the 21st century have
access to GPS, soil scanning, data management, and
Internet of Things technologies. By precisely measuring
variations within a field and adapting the strategy
accordingly , farmers can greatly increase the effectiveness
of pesticides and fertilizers, and use them more selectively.
Similarly, using Smart Farming techniques, farmers can
better monitor the needs of individual animals and adjust
their nutrition correspondingly, thereby preventing disease
and enhancing herd health.

Purpose of smart farming

A recent Beecham,s report entitled Toward Smart

Farming; Agriculture Embracing the IoT Vision predicts
[38]
that food production must increase by 70% in the year 2050
in order to meet our estimated world population of 9.6
billion people . It also describes growing concerns about
farming in the future: climate change, limited arable land,
and costs/availability of fossil fuels .

 Automation
 Efficient
 Climate Independency
 Reducing wastage of resources
 Maximizing crop yield
 Environmental friendly
Components of smart farming

A. Internet of Things (IOT)

B. Precision farming/ precision agriculture/ remote

sensing

C. Management Information System – (MIS)/Control

Center

D. Geographic Information Systems- (GIS)

E. Spatial Decision Support Systems- (SDSS)

F. Yield Mapping

[39]
( A ) What is smart farming IoT

Smart farming is the term used to describe the adoption

of modern information and communications technologies in
order to enhance, monitor, automate or improve
agricultural operations and processes.Sensors collect
information such as soil moisture, fertilization, weather and
transmit that through a gateway over cellular wireless
network to a central hub providing farmers real time access
to information and analysis on their land, crop, livestock,
logistics and machinery.

Application of smart farming iot

(a.) Water Management :

Irrigation system is one of the most common features of

any farm or agricultural site. In order to optimize irrigation
system, farmers could access data collected from remote
sensors and use it to analyze where their water resources
should directed, in what kind of volume and for how long,
and all from their connected laptop tablet or smart phone.

(b.) Fertigation: Fertigation is defined as the injection of

fertilizers, soil amendments and other products typically
needed by farmers into soil. With an IoT enabled
fertigation solution, farmers could remotely control how
[40]
many fertilizers are injected and within what volumes. It
would also enable them to monitor fertilizer concentrations
and other environmental condition, such as pH, in the soil
using remote sensors and adjust to the required levels if
necessary.

(c.) Livestock Safety and Maturity Monitoring :

Anyone who, even worked on a livestock farm will tell you
that, sometimes, animals tend to wander off . With IoT –
enable sensors producing real time biomedical data on
livestock such as body temperature, pulse and even tissue
resistivity .

(d.) Crop communication : As the world becomes ever

hungrier, farms will need to be able to keep up with
global crop requirements . In order to do so, Smart
farming IoT solution can be deployed to enhance
production, minimize waste and costs and improve resource
consumption . The ability to monitor the condition in which
your latest crop is planted via your smart phone or tablet is
something most farmers would jump upon if given the
chance .

(e.) Drilling , Seeding and Harvesting : Driverless vehicles

have a major application in Smart Farming IoT once that
market matures . Remote controlled autonomous tractors
[41]
built to do function such as drilling, speeding and
harvesting are already being deployed in pilot projects and
have shown.

(f.) Aerial Crop Monitoring : Monitoring a vast field to

expose issues related to soil variation, fungus and irrigation
is quite Challenging and costly to achieve in a timely
fashion . But thanks to cheap drones, inexpensive but
powerful processors, GPS and radio technology, now farm
monitoring is not only affordable but way more precise .
Now farmers can use time series animation to keep an eye
on development on their crop and soil variation issues
leading to more efficient crop management.

( B. ) Precision Agriculture

This technique was used to derive the first input

recommendation maps for fertilizers and pH corrections.
The use of yield sensors developed from new technologies,
combined with the advent of GPS receivers, has been
gaining ground ever since. Today, such systems covers.

Precision agriculture (PA) , satellite farming or site specific

crop management (SSCM) is a farming management
concept based on observing, measuring and responding to
inter and intra-field variability in crops.

[42]
Technologies of Precision Farming practices

 A . High precision positioning systems (like

GPS) : Are the key technology to achieve
accuracy when driving in the field, providing
navigation and positioning capability anywhere on
earth, anytime under any all conditions .
 B . Automated steering systems: Enable to take
over specific driving tasks like auto-steering,
overhead turning, following field edges and
overlapping of rows. These technologies reduce
human error and are the key to effective site
management .
 C . Sensors and remote sensing: Collect data
from a distance to evaluating soil and crop health
(moisture, nutrients, compaction, crop diseases).
 D . Geomapping : Used to produce maps
including soil type, nutrients levels etc.
 E . Variable rate technology (VRT): Ability to
adapt parameters on a machine to apply, for
instance, seed or fertilizer according to the exact
variations in plant growth, or soil nutrients and
type.

[43]
( C. ) Geographic Information Systems- (GIS)
 GIS are computer-based tools designed for both
mapping and analyzing feature events on earth.
 GIS analyze soil data combined with historical
farming practices in order to determine what are
the best crops to plant, where they should be
situated, what is the best way to maintain soil
nutrition levels in order to give the greatest level
of benefit to the plants.
 By mapping geographic and geologic features of
current (and potential) farmland scientists and
farmers can work together to create more effective
and efficient farming techniques; this could
increase food technology being developed by
experts such as Micro Multi Copter Aero
Technology.

( E. ) Spatial Decision Support Systems- (SDSS)

Spatial decision systems are extremely useful to save

solve spatial problems to make decisions regarding
irrigation scheduling, fertilization, use of crop growth and
regulators for other chemicals. For decision makers in a
smart agriculture system, a spatial decision-support system
allows them to:
[44]
 (a) From different data types, build both spatial and
process-based relationships

(b) Merge multiple data layers into synthetic

information

(c) Observe potentially competing alternatives and in

turn weigh the outcomes

(d) Forecast

( F. ) Yield Mapping

Yield mapping or yield monitoring is a component

utilized in a smart agriculture system to make use of GPS
data in order to analyze variables such as Crop Yield and
moisture content in a given field. Some of the forerunners
in the GPS technology applied in yield mapping systems
are indoor and Can more .

The University of Nebraska- Lincoln give a list of the

components that would usually make up a grain yield
mapping system.

 Grain moisture sensor

 Clean grain elevator speed sensor
 GPS antenna
 Yield monitor display with a GPS receiver

[45]
  Header position sensor
 Travel speed sensor

Technologies used in smart farming

Greenhouse: A greenhouse (also called a glasshouse,

or, if with sufficient heating, a hot house) is a structure with
walls and roof made chiefly of transparent material, such as
glass, in which plants requiring regulated climatic
conditions are grown. These structures range in size from
small sheds to industrial-sized buildings. A miniature
greenhouse is known as a cold frame. The interior of a
greenhouse exposed to sunlight becomes significantly
warmer than the external ambient temperature, protecting
its contents in cold weather.

Hydroponics: Hydroponics is a subset of hydroculture,

the method of growing plants without soil, using mineral
nutrient solutions in a water solvent. Terrestrial plants may
be grown with only their roots exposed to the mineral
solution, or the roots may be supported by an inert medium,
such as perlite or gravel. The nutrients in hydroponics can
come from an array of different sources; these can include
but are not limited to byproduct from fish waste, duck
manure, or normal nutrients.

[46]
Aquaculture: Aquaculture is the farming of fish, mollusks,
aquatic plants, algae, and other aquatic organisms.
Aquaculture involves cultivating freshwater and saltwater
populations under controlled conditions, and can be
contrasted with commercial fishing, which is the harvesting
of wild fish. It is less commonly spelled aquiculture, and is
also known as aquafarming. Mariculture refers to
aquaculture practiced in marine environments and in
underwater habitats.

Aquaponics: Aquaponics refers to any system that

combines conventional aquaculture (raising aquatic animals
such as snails, fish, crayfish or prawns in tanks) with
hydroponics (cultivating plants in water) in a symbiotic
environment. In normal aquaculture, excretions from the
animals being raised can accumulate in the water,
increasing toxicity. In an aquaponic system, water from an
aquaculture system is fed to a hydroponic system where the
by-products are broken down by nitrifying bacteria initially
into nitrites and subsequently into nitrates, which are
utilized by the plants as nutrients, and the water is then
recirculated back to the aquaculture system.

Paddy–cum-fish culture: Production of fish in rice

fields is almost as old as the practice of rice or paddy
[47]
culture itself (combined culture of rice and fish is also
known as Paddy-cum-fish culture). Whenever water is
stagnated within bunds as for rice culture, fish which
naturally occur in the irrigation water and nearby tanks and
pools enter the paddy-fields and grow there until harvest,
along with the paddy. Thus fish production in rice fields
dates from very early days, even though it was based on
capture rather than culture.

Challenges in Smart Farming

• Risk: Farming can be very risky. Your farm is

exposed to wide fluctuations in the price of the crops
you sell. Most farmers take out large loans to buy seed
and equipment, the pay those loans back after they
harvest. The harvest can be affected by weather, disease
and crop prices.

• Lack of tech knowledge: Most farmers have not

used technology in their businesses until recent years.
While smart farming can improve the farmer‘s
outcomes, that farmer will need to learn how to use
technology.

[48]
 • Equipment purchases: Equipment is a huge expense
for a farmer. The farmer can use the Internet to find the
best tools to meet their needs.

Advantages of smart farming

(a.) Increased Production – Optimized crop treatment

such as accurate planting, watering, pesticide application
and harvesting directly affects production rates.

(b.) Water Conservation – Weather predictions and soil

moisture sensors allow for water use only when and
where needed.

(c.) Real-Time Data and Production Insight – Farmers

can visualize production levels, soil moisture, sunlight
intensity and more in real time and remotely to accelerate
decision making process.

(d.) Lowered Operation Costs – Automating processes

in planting, treatment and harvesting can reduce resource
consumption, human error and overall cost.

(e.) Increased Quality of Production – Analyzing

production quality and results in correlation to treatment
can teach farmers to adjust processes to increase quality
of the product.

[49]
(f.) Accurate Farm and Field Evaluation – Accurately
tracking production rates by field over time allows for
detailed predicting of future crop yield and value of a
farm.

(g.) Improved Livestock Farming – Sensors and

machines can be used to detect reproduction and health
events earlier in animals. Geofencing location tracking
can also improve livestock monitoring and management.

(h.) Reduced Environmental Footprint – All

conservation efforts such as water usage and increased
production per land unit directly affect the environmental
footprint positively.

(i.) Remote Monitoring – Local and commercial farmers

can monitor multiple fields in multiple locations around
the globe from an internet connection. Decisions can be
made in real-time and from anywhere.

(j.) Equipment Monitoring – Farming equipment can be

monitored and maintained according to production rates,
labor effectiveness and failure prediction.

[50]
Disadvantages of smart farming:

However, the actual growth and proliferation of smart

farming has not been as robust as was expected earlier. The
sector faces several disadvantages in smart farming .

 Loss of manual employments

 Problem in adaption new technologies
 Connectivity problem in rural areas
 Non-awareness of the varying farm production
functions
 Small size of individual land management
 Challenge for indoor farming
 Technical failures and resultant damages
 Benefits not immediately apparent

References:

Tomar Pradeep and Kaur Gurjit 2021. Artificial

Intelligence and IoT – Based Technologies for sustainable.
Engineering Science reference.

Reddy SR 2017. Principle of Agronomy. Kalyani

Publishers, Ludhiana, New Delhi.

[51]
 Composting

Ankita Rao* and R.K. Aryan**

* Ph. D. Research Scholar, Deptt. of Agronomy ANDUAT

Kumarganj, Ayodhya, U.P.

**Ph. D. Research Scholar, Deptt. of Agro Meteorology

ANDUAT Kumarganj, Ayodhya, U.P.

Decomposition followed by stabilization of organic

substances by biological actions has been taking place in
nature from the beginning of life appeared on our planet.
Anthropogenic control and utilization of the process for
sanitary disposal and reclamation of organic waste material
have been termed as composting and the final product is
known as compost. Microbial community leads the
processes of both aerobic and anaerobic composting and
this process converts wastes to a stable form of nutrients.
The C/N ratio is the most important factor for
decomposition, particularly in aerobic decomposition.

Composting is a very old art, and some of its basic

principles have been appreciated and used in practice for
centuries. In recent years, however, rapid progress has been

[52]
made in scientific studies of the underlying biological and
chemical processes involved in composting.

There is an important relationship between sanitation

and agriculture in all parts of the world. In agricultural
areas, the utilization of human and animal wastes is of great
importance from both the public health and the agricultural
points of view. This is because of-

(1) The ever-increasing difficulties in disposing of great

accumulations of wastes,

(2) The ever-increasing threat to soil fertility, and

(3) The intensive ever-increasing waste demand for

agricultural lands to produce more food.

Decomposition:

Decomposition or stabilization of organic matter by

biological action is the most valuable portion of life cycle
on our planet. In current times, man has attempted to
control and directly utilize the process for sanitary disposal
and reclamation of organic waste material, and this process
has been termed ―composting,‖ and the final product of
composting has been called ―compost‖.Normally there are
two processes:

[53]
 (a) Aerobic decomposition and stabilization and

(b) Anaerobic fermentation

In these processes, microbial community feed upon

organic materials such as vegetable matter, animal manure,
night soil, and other organic refuse and convert the wastes
to a more stable form.

Aerobic decomposition:

When organic material is decomposed in the presence

of oxygen, the process is called aerobic. In aerobic
stabilization, living organisms, which utilize oxygen, feed
upon the organic matter and develop cell protoplasm from
the nitrogen. From the nitrogen, phosphorus carbon and
other required nutrients. Much of the carbon serves as a
source of energy for the organisms and is burned up and
respired as carbon dioxide. Since carbon serves both as a
source of energy and as an element in the cell protoplasm,
much more carbon than nitrogen is needed. Generally about
two-thirds of the carbon is required as carbon dioxide
(CO2), while the other third is combined with nitrogen in
the living cells. If the excess of carbon over nitrogen in
organic materials being decomposed is too great, biological
activity diminishes, and several cycles of organisms may be

[54]
required to burn up most of the carbon. When some of the
organisms die, their stored nitrogen and carbon become
available to other organisms. The utilization of nitrogen
from the dead cells by other organisms to form new cell
material requires the burning of excess carbon to CO2.
Thus, the amount of carbon is required, and the limited
amount of nitrogen is recycled.

Finally, when the ratio of available carbon to available

nitrogen is sufficiently low, nitrogen is released as
ammonia. Under favorable conditions, some ammonia may
be oxidized to nitrate. Phosphorus, potash, and various
micronutrients are also essential for biological growth.
These are normally present in more than adequate amounts
in compostable materials and present no problem; hence, a
discussion of their metabolism by the biological cells will
not be included.

Anaerobic decomposition:

Putrefactive breakdown of organic material takes place

an aerobically. Anaerobic living organisms in metabolizing
nutrients break down the organic compounds by a process
of reduction. As in aerobic process, the organisms use
nitrogen, phosphorus, and other nutrients in developing cell
protoplasm but reduce organic nitrogen to organic acids
[55]
and ammonia. Carbon from organic compounds which is
not utilized in the cell protein is liberated mainly in the
reduced form of methane (CH4). A small portion of carbon
may be respired as CO2. This process takes place in nature
as in the decomposition of organic muds at the bottom of
marshes and in buried organic material to which oxygen
does not have access. The marsh gas which rises is largely
CH4. Intensive reduction of organic matter by putrefaction
is usually accompanied by disagreeable odors of hydrogen
sulfide and of reduced organic compounds which contain
sulfur, such as mercaptans. Since anaerobic destruction of
organic matter is a reduction process, the final product,
humus, is a subject to some aerobic oxidation when put on
the soil. This oxidation is minor, takes place rapidly, and is
of no consequences in the utilization of the material on the
soil.

Raw material:

The quantity, characteristics, and composition of wastes

available for composting vary widely with season and
different localities. The multiplicity and complexity of the
factors affecting the quality and quantity of compostable
refuse prohibit the use of any formula or rule-of-thumb
method for determining the amount of waste material to be
[56]
expected at any given place [1]. Either a study of specific
place or the use of information obtained from studies of
places with very similar characteristics is necessary for
estimating the quality and quantity of refuse for a given
population. These are basic information, useful in
supplementing local data in analyzing a particular
composting operation. In a particular agricultural village,
following basic quantity and quality data will be useful for
studying a compost operation.

Human feces without urine:

Approximate quantity: 135–270 g per capita per day

moist weight and 35–70 g per capita per day dry weight
Approximate composition: Moisture, 66–80%; organic
matter (dry basis), 88–97%; nitrogen, 5.0–7.0%; phosphate
(P2O5), 3.0–5.4%; potash (K2O), 1.0–2.5%; carbon, 40–
55%; calcium oxide, 4–5%; C/N ratio, 5–10.

Human urine:

Approximate quantity: 1.0–1.3 liters per capita per day and

50–70 g per capita per day Approximate composition:
Moisture, 93–96%; organic matter (dry basis), 65–85%;
nitrogen, 15–19%; phosphate (P2O5), 2.5–5.0%; potash

[57]
(K2O), 3.0–4.5%; carbon, 11–17%; calcium oxide, 4.5–6%
Animal manure:

The quantity of animal manure varies widely with

different conditions of feeding and stabling. The stable
manure is approximately composed with three main
components: (a) bedding or vegetable matter litter, (b) solid
excreta, and (c) urine. The characteristics and relative
concentration of these components vary widely, depending
on the type of animal, the stable feeding and handling, and
the use to which the animal is put. Straw and plant residues
used for bedding usually contain large amounts of carbon,
particularly in the form of cellulose and small amounts of
nitrogen and minerals. Considerable amount of protein is
present in the solid excreta and provide balance nutrient
material for the growth of microorganisms.

Refuse (garbage, rubbish, and other litter):

The most available quantities of garbage, organic

rubbish, and dead vegetables are used for animal feed.
There is also little waste paper, rags, etc. in the refuse. Ash,
particularly in cold climate, street sweeping, and trash
constitute a major portion of waste. In warm areas with
high rainfall, much waste vegetation finds its way into the
refuse. However, in many villages the amount of such
[58]
refuse is sufficient in quantity to provide a satisfactory
compostable mass when mixed with night soil and animal
manure. The approximate quantity of garbage in village is
usually 220–340 g per capita per day with the following
composition: moisture content, 10–60%; organic content
(dry basis), 25–35%; nitrogen, 0.4–0.8%; phosphate, 0.2–
0.5%; potash, 0.8–1.5%; carbon, 12–17%; and calcium
oxide, 4.0–7.5%.

Slaughterhouse wastes:

The amount of these wastes is extremely variable,

depending upon the extent of processing. In small house
with no by-product processing, the compostable wastes will
be as much as 22–36 kg (dry basis) per ton of meat
processed, while in large plant with by-product processing,
the compostable wastes will be 11–18 kg (dry basis) per
ton. The composition of slaughterhouse waste varies with
the extent of utilization of wastes for the manufacture of
by-products. Most rural slaughterhouses have primitive
recovery processes, and the wastes consist of blood,
unsalable meat, intestines, offal, paunch manure, hoofs, etc.
and have the following average composition: moisture
content, 75–80%; organic matter (dry basis), 80–95%;

[59]
nitrogen, 8–11%; phosphate, 3.0–3.5%; potash, 2.0–2.5%;
carbon, 14–17%, and calcium oxide, 3.0–3.5% .

Cities and urban centers:

Compostable urban wastes probably vary as to quantity

and composition almost as much as do rural wastes. Some
basic data pertaining to cities with water-carried sewage
collection and regularly operated garbage and refuse
collection systems that can supplement local information in
analyzing municipal composting operations will be shown.
Sewage sludge, either fresh or digested, can be composted
with garbage and other refuse with sufficient moisture so
that the mass will compost aerobically.

In industrial areas, the waste composition and quantity

vary with the type of industry. Domestic and food
establishment waste garbage quantity depends on climate,
food-preservation facilities, type of food used, and
utilization of garbage for stock food and the economic
status of the community. Domestic wastes vary from 90 to
400 g per day per capita with 60–85% moisture and 65–
85% organic matter on dry weight basis. On the other hand,
quantities of non-consumable and non-compostable rubbish
such as cans, bottles, china, and metal vary from 45 to 500
g per capita per day.
[60]
Different methods of composting:

1. Indore method:

During the early days of organic gardening/farming,

this method was the only systematic way to mature
compost. This method developed at the Institute of Plant
Industry, Indore, India, between 1924 and 1931, was
designed and described by Sir Albert Howard, known as
the father of modern organic farming, in his dissertation on
organic agriculture An Agricultural Testament (1940). In
this method, animal dung is used as the catalytic agent
along with different types of organic wastes available on
the farm.

The steps followed for preparation of compost by

Indore method are given below:

 A compost heap of suitable size says 3 m × 1.5 m

× 1 m (length × width × depth) is prepared. The
selected site should be near the cattle shed and
water source and at an elevated site so that no
rainwater floods into the pit during rainy season.
 Organic wastes of different sources available on a
farm are accumulated near the trench and mixed
thoroughly. Hard woody materials (not exceeding

[61]
 10% of the total plant residues) are crushed before
being piled. Green materials, which are soft and
succulent, are allowed to wilt for 2 to 3 days in
order to remove excess moisture before stacking;
these tend to pack closely when stacked in the
fresh state. The mixture of different kinds of
organic materials/ residues ensures a more
efficient decomposition.
 The compost heap is built in layers. First a layer
of refuse/organic wastes like weeds, crop residue,
grass clippings, or leaves of about 15–20 cm (6–8
inch) thick is spread at the base of the heap. Next
a 5 cm (2 inch) layer of cattle dung slurry and
water is added onto the refuse. A third layer of the
same size of the first is then spread followed by a
layer of slurry of cattle dung and water. This
layering sequence is continued till the heap is
raised to a height of 50–100 cm above the ground
level. The top is then covered with a thin layer of
soil, and the heap is kept moist.
 The filling of heap is completed within 6–7 days
to fill the three-fourth length of the trench, leaving

[62]
 1/4th length empty to facilitate subsequent
turnings.
 Water is sprayed on regular basis so as to keep the
moisture content to about 60–80%.
 Turning is done three times, at 15, 30, and 60 days
after compost filling in order to allow air to
penetrate so that the heap will heat up properly.
At each turning the whole mass is mixed
thoroughly. This can be done manually or
mechanically.
 The main advantage of this method is that the
finished compost is ready within
 4–5 months for application to the soil. The
composed prepared by this method contains, on
an average, 0.8% N, 0.3–0.5% P2O5, and 1.0–
1.5% K2O. Periodic turning of composting mass
helps the process to remain aerobic throughout the
decomposition and facilitate faster decomposition
by bringing the substrates which are un-
decomposed or partially decomposed with the
microorganisms and air. As it requires extra labor,
the cost of preparation of compost is more. Heat is
generated during the decomposition process inside

[63]
 the compost pit which helps in destroying most of
the pathogens and weed seeds. When sufficient
nitrogenous material is not available, a green
manure or leguminous crop like sunnhemp
(Crotalaria juncea) may be grown on the
fermenting heap after the first turning. The green
matter is then turned in at the second mixing.

2. Bangalore method:

This method is an anaerobic process, developed at the

Indian Institute of

Science, Bangalore, by the late Dr. C.N. Acharyain in

1939. It is recommended where night soil and refuse are
used for preparing the compost. This method overcomes
many of the disadvantages of the Indore method, such as
the problem of heap protection from adverse weather,
nutrient losses from intensive rains and strong sun, frequent
turning requirements, and fly nuisance.

The method is suitable for areas with scanty rainfall.

The compost is done in the trenches of 9.1 m × 1.8 m × 0.9
m (=302′ × 62′ × 32′) or in the pits of 6.1 m × 1.8 m × 0.9
m (= 202′ × 62′ × 32′). This method saves on labor cost

[64]
because there is no need of turning and regular sprinkling
of water but takes much longer time to finish.

This method includes the following steps:

 As like Indore method, the mixed farm residues

are spread at the bottom of a trench or pit of a
convenient size, similar to that of Indore method.
Generally, trenches or pits about 1 m deep are dug
1 m in breadth, and the length of the trenches can
vary according to the availability of land and the
type of material to be composted. The trenches
should preferably have slopping walls and floor to
prevent water logging.
 Organic residues and night soil are put in alternate
layers. The trench or pit is filled layer-wise till the
raw material reaches about 50 cm above the
surface. Here 100% space of pit is used.
 The pit is covered with 15–20-cm thick layer of
refuse and then plastered with a 2–5 cm layer of a
mixture of mud and cattle dung. Plastering of pit
prevents the loss of moisture and fly nuisance.
This method effectively controls foul smell and
kills pathogenic organisms.

[65]
  The materials are allowed to remain in the pit
without turning and watering. During this period
the material settles down due to reduction in the
volume of biomass. Under such conditions,
decomposition is largely anaerobic and high
temperatures do not develop. The C/N ratio of the
finished product drops to a value below 20:1 with
no odor, indicating that the compost is ready to
use.
 The material undergoes anaerobic decomposition
at a very slow rate, and it takes about 6–8 months
to obtain the finished product.
 The recovery of the finished product is greater
than aerobic composting.
 Labor requirements are less than for the Indore
method as turning of material is not done; labor is
needed only for digging and filling the pits.

Organic nitrogenous compounds gradually become

soluble, and the carbonaceous matter breaks down into
CO2 and H2O. The loss of ammonia is negligible because
in high concentrations of CO2, forming ammonium
carbonate is stable. The anaerobic process is particularly
suited for use by gardeners in or near cities and towns. The

[66]
well-decomposed compost contains 0.8–1.0% N. A
uniform high temperature is not assured in the biomass.
Problems of odor and fly breeding need to be taken care of.
After 8–9 months, all the material decomposes, and the
compost becomes ready for application.

3 NADEP composting

This method of composting was developed by Sri

Narayan Deorao Pandharipande. He was an old Gandhian
worker, popularly known as ―Nadep Kaka‖ from
Maharashtra. He worked for 25 years at the Dr. Kumarappa
Gowardhan Kendra at Pusa to perfect his composting
technique [2]. This process facilitates aerobic
decomposition of organic matter. This method takes care of
all the disadvantages of heaping of farm residues and cattle
shed wastes in the open condition. This method envisages a
lot of composting through minimum use of cattle dung. It
requires composting materials like dung, farm residues,
soil, waste products of agriculture, etc. Decomposition
process follows the ―aerobic‖ route and requires about 3–4
months for obtaining the finished product.

[67]
This method includes the following steps:

 A brick structure measuring 9′ × 6′ × 3′ with

perforated holes in all the side walls is prepared to
ensure adequate supply of air during composting.
It is carried out in specially constructed tanks with
walls built like ―honeycombs‖ through which
water is sprayed to prevent the compost from
becoming dry. This aboveground-perforated
structure facilitates passage of air for aerobic
decomposition. The floor of the tank is laid with
bricks and covered above with a thatched roof.
This prevents loss of nutrients by seepage or
evaporation, and the contents are not exposed to
sunshine and rain.
 The brick tank is plastered with cattle dung slurry
to facilitate bacterial culture for decomposition of
biodegradable wastes. The brick tank is then filled
layer-wise first with a thick layer (10–15 cm) of
chopped fine stick of semi-hard wood which helps
in providing aeration, followed by a same layer of
farm wastes or dry and green biomass or any other
biodegradable material to be composted.

[68]
 Prepared slurry of mixing cattle dung (5–10 kg)
with water (100 liters) is then sprinkled
thoroughly on the biodegradable mass in order to
facilitate bacterial culture for faster
decomposition. On it a layer of soil is maintained
in order to compress the volume of the wastes.
Addition of soil also facilities retention of
moisture, provides microorganisms, acts as buffer,
and controls pH of the compost during
decomposition. The nutrients produced in the
manure are absorbed by the soil layers, thus
preventing nutrient loss.
 The whole tank is thus filled completely with
about 10–12 layers in the same sequence having
1–3 sub-layers in each layer. After 2–4 weeks, the
volume of the composting mass is reduced to
almost two-third of the original. At this stage,
additional layers of composting mass are formed
over it keeping the same sequential set up, already
said. Finally, the whole biomass is plastered and
sealed with slurry of cattle dung and mud. In this
condition, the tank is allowed to decompose the
biodegradable wastes for further 3 months. Water

[69]
 is added on regular basis to maintain the moisture
content between 60 and 75% throughout the
composting period.
 It is advisable to sprinkle microbial cultures like
Trichoderma, Azotobacter, and Rhizobium and
phosphate-solubilizing microorganisms in each
layer to enhance the equivalent speed of
composting process at each corner of the compost.
 Compost becomes ready for use within 110–120
days after composting. So one tank can be used
three times annually.
 The prepared compost can be stored for future
use, preferably in a thatched shed after air-drying
and maintaining it at about 20% moisture level by
sprinkling water whenever needed. Also storage at
gunny bag in shade areas is also preferable. By
following this procedure, the composed could be
preserved for about 6–8 months.
 Requirement of higher labor and inconvenience
faced in filling during rainy season are the two
difficulties experienced by the farmers in adopting
NADEP method of composting.

[70]
4. Municipal solid waste composting (MSW)

MSW composting or mechanical composting is followed in

big cities, where huge quantities of garbage are generated.
The metropolitan cities like Mumbai,Kolkata, Delhi, and
Chennai generate about 2000–6000 tonnes garbage per day,
posing gigantic disposal problems. Mechanical composting
plants with capacity of 500–1000 t day-1 of city garbage
could be conveniently installed in big cities and 200 t day-1
plants in the small towns in India. The adoption of
accelerated fermentation treatment enables 70% of the
refuge to be available as refined compost in the form of a
dry, black free-following material, easy to transport and
handle. Such refined mechanical compost contains
generally equivalent amount of mineral matter and organic
matter with half of organic carbon. The composition of the
compost is variable and at par with the raw materials used.
On an average, it may contain 0.7% N, 0.5% P2O5, and
0.4% K2O and a C/N ratio of 15–17. Mechanical
composting has several advantages such as

(i) Environmental sanitation to minimize pollution,

(ii) Recycling of discarded wastes into a value-added

product, and

[71]
 (iii) Production of compost within a short period.

5. Enriched compost:

In general, the bulky organic manures like FYM

contains around 0.5–1.0% N, 0.2–0.5% P2O5, and 0.5–
1.0% K2O. The cost of preparation, storage, transport, and
application of FYM or compost to soils is high. The
demerits of bulky manures can be overcome through the
preparation of enriched compost by adding nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium, and micronutrients either alone or
in combination. Enriched composts have the following
advantages:

 Enriched compost is more concentrated than

compost; it reduces the bulk to be handled per unit
of nutrient.
 It may increase nutrient use efficiency of added
fertilizer and maintain soil organic carbon.
 It prevents nutrient losses due to microbial
immobilization of nutrients during decomposition
of organic residues and due to adsorption of
cations on account of high exchange capacity of
organic matter.
 Lesser problems in handling, storage, and
transportation.
[72]
  Offers a potential avenue for the efficient
utilization of low-grade materials such as rock
phosphate and waste mica (a K-bearing mineral)
Enrichment of compost can be done in two ways,
namely, (i) physical addition of fertilizer materials
during composting and (ii) addition of fertilizer
materials with ready compost by mixing.
Incorporation of fertilizers during composting
leads to immobilization of fertilizers into
microbial body and insertion into molecules of
humic substances formed during decomposition.
A substantial part of added inorganic nutrients
may also be adsorbed on to exchange sites or
chelated by humic substances. On the other hand,
physical mixing of fertilizers with finished
product of compost reflects adsorption and
chelation of fertilizer elements by humic
substances, which are already present in the
decomposed product.

5.1 Enrichment with nitrogen:

Microbial mineralization and immobilization depend on

the C/N ratio of the compost. The wide C/N ratio (>30:1)
plant materials require addition of mineral N to narrow
[73]
down the C/N ratio for rapid decomposition including
mineralization during composting. During the preparation
of compost from wide C/N ratio substrates, such as
straws/stubbles, incorporation of fertilizer N like
ammonium sulfate or urea at 0.5–1.0% of raw materials
hastens the decomposition process. Addition of nitrogenous
fertilizer serves as starter. Enrichment of N during
composting with inorganic N can be done up to 1.8–2.5%
but cannot be improved beyond 2.5% N, because of the
associated losses of N includes the production of free NH3.
In case of ready compost, it is recommended that compost
with a C/N ratio of about 20:1 should be treated with
fertilizer nitrogen so as to bring the C/N ratio to <10:1 and
N content >2.5%. Thus, by spraying a solution of urea on
finished product of compost followed by physical blending,
the N content can be increased up to 5–7%. As most of the
added inorganic N remains in the fertilizer from without
much of chemical or biological reaction with the manure, it
is tough to understand the utility of using fertilizers to raise
N content of the finished product above 5–7%.

5.2 Enrichment with phosphorus

Phosphorus-enriched compost can be prepared by

adding 5% superphosphate, dicalcium phosphate (DCP),
[74]
and rock phosphate at the time of filling of the compost
pits. Due to enrichment with soluble phosphate in compost,
a small amount of immobilized soluble P into microbial
body may be expected. But with most plant material
containing sufficient P to satisfy microbial demands during
decomposition, assimilation of P from external sources is
seldom needed. Addition of insoluble sources of P like low-
grade rock phosphate to enrich compost is a more rational
and practical approach, since solubilization of sparingly
soluble P occurs during composting. Besides phosphorus, it
is a source of calcium and micronutrients. Early work
showed that by adding rock phosphate to farm composting
materials to a thickness of about 5 mm per layer, nearly 50–
70% of sparingly soluble P could be converted to soluble
from which is readily available to plants. Addition of
soluble fertilizer-P to finished compost provides a better
scope for increasing the efficiency of fertilizer-P as well as
organic-P. Thorough mixing of fertilizers with compost
may reduce P-fixation. The mineralization of organic-P
may also be accelerated due to increased solubility of
organic-P in the presence of fertilizers. Amalgamation of
compost with single superphosphate (SSP) could raise

[75]
phosphorus content of the enriched compost up to 5%
P2O5.

5.3 Enrichment with potassium:

To enrich the compost, potassium-bearing minerals like

feldspars and mica can be added during composting. The
availability of potassium can be improved due to the
production of organic acids such as citric, tartaric, acetic
acid, etc. Potassium can also be added to compost by
incorporating plant materials, which contain appreciable
amounts of potassium, viz., water hyacinth and banana skin
are rich source of potassium. Dry potato vines also contain
about 1% potassium which can be incorporated to improve
the K content in the compost.

5.4 Enrichment with bio-inoculants:

Addition of nitrogen-fixing bacteria and/or phosphate-

and potassium solubilizing microorganisms is one of the
possible means of improving nutrient content of the final
product of compost. Inoculation of Azotobacter,
Azospirillum,

Clostridium, etc. to the compost heap enhances N

content by fixing atmospheric N2. Phosphate-solubilizing
bacteria such as Bacillus polymyxa, Pseudomonas striata,
[76]
and fungi such as Aspergillus awamori can be introduced
into the composting mass along with rock phosphate. These
microorganisms help in solubilizing sparingly soluble
inorganic phosphates due to the production of organic acids
such as citric, tartaric, gluconic acid, etc. and thereby
increasing the available P, both water-soluble and citrate
soluble P, content of compost. Some cellulolytic and
lignolytic microorganisms such as Trichoderma viride,
Trichurus spiralis, Paecilomyces fusisporus, and
Phanerochaete chrysosporium are used as compost
accelerator to hasten the process of composting.

6. ADCO compost:

This process was introduced in England in 1921.

Hutchinson and Richards developed an ADCO powder,
used as a starter at 7.0 kg per 100 kg dry waste product.
Fowler assured that this powder is prepared with various
substances like ammonium phosphate, cyanamide, and
urea. On the other hand, Collision and

Conn prepared another powder of 27 kg ammonium

sulfate, 13.5 kg superphosphate, 11.25 kg murate of potash,
and 22.5 kg ground limestone and added to 1 tone dry
matter for producing manure. This produced manure has
characteristic resemblance with manure produced using
[77]
ADCO powder. For ADCO process a plane place
measuring 450 cm long and 180 cm breadth is required.
First, a layer of refuse about 30 cm thick is spread at the
bottom of the pit, and over this a calculated amount of
ADCO powder, i.e., 7 kg per 100 kg refuse, is sprayed. Six-
time addition of refuse in that pit means 1 ton refuse, and
every time ADCO powder is added. The heap height should
be within 180 cm, i.e., 6 feet. After completion of heap,
time to time watering is done. Through aerobic composting,
the manure becomes ready within 4–5 month.

Advantages:

This method is Very suitable method for making

compost. Within 4–5 months proper decomposition makes
good organic manure.

Disadvantages:

Regular turning is required for aeration and watering

for proper decomposition. It increases labor charges and
cost of production.

Vermi compost:

Compost prepared using earthworms is called vermin

compost. Earthworms consume all type of organic matter
especially green matter, retain 5–10% for their growth, and
[78]
excrete the mucus-coated undigested matter called vermin
cast. This undigested matter undergone physical and
chemical breakdown by the activity of muscular gizzard
present in the worms‘ intestine. It is a cost-effective, time
saving, and efficient process of recycling nontoxic animal
and agricultural and industrial wastes. Vermi cast is rich in
nutrients—N, P, K, Ca, Mg, vitamins, enzymes, and
growth-promoting substances. In addition, the warms do
the turning and no additional turning of the compost heap is
required. The efficient species of earthworms are Eisenia
foetida, Pheretima elongata, Eudrilus eugeniae, and
Perionyx excavatus. For preparation of a good quality of
vermin compost, a number of steps are followed as
mentioned below:

i. Selection of earthworm: The locally available

earthworm native to a particular soil and efficient
for fast composting may be used for vermin
composting.
ii. Size of pit: Any convenient dimension such as 2 m
× 1 m × 1 m may be prepared. This can hold
20,000–40,000 worms giving one ton manure per
cycle. The pit should be base concreted as termite
proof and ant proof through water drain around it. A

[79]
 shade of 6–8 ft height is also required for cool and
ambient climate for the worms.
iii. Preparation of verminbed: A thick layer of 15–20
cm of good loamy soil above a thin layer (5 cm) of
broken bricks and sand should be made. This layer
is prepared on concreted floor and made to inhabit
the earthworms.
iv. Inoculation of earthworms: About 100
earthworms are introduced as an optimum
inoculating density into a composite pit of about 2
m × 1 m × 1 m, provided with a verminbed.
v. Organic layering: It is done on the vermibed with
fresh cattle dung of 5–10 cm. The compost pit is
then layered to about 5 cm with dry crop residues.
Carbon-rich solid and dead substrates like sawdust,
paper, and straw are mixed with N-rich natural
components such as sewage, sludge, and biogas
slurry to obtain a near optimum C/N ratio. Mixing
variety of substances produces good-quality
compost which is rich in macro, micro, and even
traces nutrients. Decomposition can be accelerated
by chopping raw materials into small pieces.
Moisture content of the pit is maintained at 50–60%

[80]
 of water holding capacity. Aeration can be
maintained by mixing with fibrous N-rich materials.
The temperature of the piles should be around 28–
30°C. Wide gap between higher or lower
temperatures reduces the activity of microflora and
earthworms. The normal pH of the raw materials is
preferable.
vi. Wet organic layering: It is done after 1 month with
moist/green organic waste, which can be spread
over it. This practice can be repeated every 3–4
days as per requirement. Mixing of wastes
periodically without disturbing the vermibed
ensures proper vermicomposting. Wet layering with
organic waste can be repeated till the compost pit is
nearly full.
vii. Harvesting of vermicompost: In order to facilitate
the separation of worms from vermicompost, the
moisture content in the compost is brought down by
stopping the addition of water around 7–10 days
before maturation thatensures drying of compost
and migration of worms into the vermibed. This
forces about 80% of the worms to the bottom of the
bed. The remaining worms can be removed by

[81]
hand. The mature compost, a black, fine loose,
granular humus rich material, looks like CTC tea, is
removed out from the pit, dried, and packed. The
pleasant earthen smell is one of the good indications
of mature compost. The vermicompost is then ready
for application. The nutrient content of
vermicompost varies depending on the raw
materials as well as different species of earthworms
used. Thus, the final product is not a single standard
product. The average nutrient content of
vermicompost is 0.6–1.2% N, 0.13–0.22% P2O5,
0.4–0.7% K2O, 0.4% CaO, and 0.15% MgO. On an
average, it contains comparable N, P, and wide C/N
ratio as in FYM but less K and micronutrients than
FYM. On the whole, vermicompost cannot be
described as being nutritionally superior to other
organic manures. Yet the unique way in which it is
produced, even in the field condition, time saving,
and at low cost, makes it very attractive for practical
application. Unique feature of vermicompost is its
rapid process of composting which takes about 60–
90 days depending on the environmental conditions.
The excess worms that have been harvested from

[82]
 the pit can be used in the other pits, sold to other
farmers for compost inoculation, and may be used
as animal and poultry feed or fish food.

Green manure

Green manuring is the practice of enriching soil nutrient

status by growing a crop and plowing in situ or turning it
into the soil as un-decomposed green plant materials for the
purpose of improving soil health. These crops are known as
green manure crops. They improve soil physical properties
and supplies nutrients particularly N, if it is a legume crop.
Green manuring can be of two types.

1. In situ green manuring

When the green manure crop is grown and buried in the

same field, it is called in situ green manuring. Most
important in situ green manuring crops are sunnhemp
(Crotalaria juncea), dhaincha (Sesbania aculeata), cowpea
(Vigna sinensis), berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum), and
Lucerne (Medicago sativa).

2. Green leaf manuring

These are the plants grown elsewhere, and green leaves

and tender twigs are brought to the field for incorporation.
This is labor consuming. Popular green leaf manuring
[83]
plants are Leucaena leucocephala (Subabul), Cassia tora,
Sesbania speciosa, Pongamia pinnata (Karanj), Pongamia
glabra, and Gliricidia maculata.

In general, green manure crops should be a legume with

good nodulation,i.e., N2-fixing capacity, fast growing, is
having low water requirement, and short duration, i.e., 4–6
weeks with tender leafy habit permitting rapid
decomposition.

Incorporation of green manure crop should be done

before or at flowering stage because these are easily
decomposed at this stage after which these become fibrous
and take more time for decomposition.

Concentrated organic manures:

These manures contain higher percentages of major

essential plant nutrients

(N, P, and K) compared to bulky organic manures

(FYM and compost). They are derived from raw materials
of plant or animal origin, such as oilcakes, fish manure,
dried blood, bone meal, etc. Oilcakes are the residues, left
after oil is extracted from oil-bearing seeds. Generally,
edible oilcakes are used for animal feed, while

[84]
 Non-edible oilcakes are used as manures. Oilcakes
contain higher amounts of N than P2O5 and K2O; thus,
these are commonly referred to as the organic nitrogenous
fertilizers. Bone meal consists of calcium phosphate
together with fats and proteins. These are good sources of
lime, phosphate, and N. Bone meal is a slow-acting
organic-P-fertilizer resembled with rock phosphate and
suitable for acid soils. Fish manure is a quick-acting
manure and suitable for all soils and crops. It is available as
either dried fish or fish meal or powdered fish. However, its
use is restricted mainly to coastal areas where it is available
easily. Guano (dried excreta of sea birds) is concentrated
organic manure, containing substantial amount of nutrients,
particularly N and P2O5, but it is not produced in India.
Average nutrient contents in various concentrated organic
manures are placed in Table 5.

Sewage and sludge:

Sewage refers to the liquid portion, and sludge refers to the

solid portion of the waste which originates from the city
sewerage system. Raw sewage consists mainly of water
carrying suspended and dissolved black colored solid
organic matter which may pollute water bodies (rivers). For
that reason, it is treated by some means to reduce the
[85]
organic matter load before it could be disposed off safely.
During siphoning at sewage treatment plant, the sludge
portion settles down and is separated from the liquid
portion (sewage). The sewage can be used for irrigation
purposes, while sludge can be used as manure as it contains
large amount of plant nutrients. It has been estimated that
available sewage of big cities in India could annually
contribute around 1.2 Mt of N, 1.0 Mt of P2O5 and 0.8 Mt
of K2O. Treated sewage water, after dilution (1:1) with
good-quality water, can increase yield of crops. The main
disadvantage of using sewage and sludge in agriculture is
its heavy metals content, particularly Pb, Cd, Cr, and Ni
depending on the source of industry from where the sewage
and sludge originates. Thus, repeated application of sewage
tends to increase the concentration of metals in soils and
their availability to plants, which in turn could get into our
food chain.
Distillery effluents (spent wash):

It is the by-product of manufacturing of ethyl alcohol

from molasses. It contains considerable amounts of organic
matter and plant nutrients especially K and S and
appreciable amounts of N and P. This can be applied as
irrigation water and as an amendment (for alkali soils).

[86]
However, because of its high organic load, it may results
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen
demand (COD) in water. For that reason, they are unsafe
for direct application on to agricultural lands. Spent wash
can, however, be safely applied to different crops after
suitable dilution and has been reported to increase yield of
several crops. Treatment of this effluent through
biomethanation digesters reduces the organic matter load
but still carries considerable organic and salt load, making
its disposal a problem.

Composting is a natural phenomenon and pervasively

relates with organic farming. Accelerating the quality and
speed of compost is a scientific phenomenon and
irrevocable for sustainable growth and development of
agriculture without any toxic effect on environment and
livelihood. It is established that any single method or
technique of composting cannot be recommended for all
areas and conditions. Also area-wise economic, climatic,
social, and other factors will dictate the best method for
that area. The efficiency of composting technique also
depends on the type and amount of substrate(s) and the
rearing techniques. However, it is hoped that the described
methods will aid economic improvement in many areas and

[87]
help establishing sustainable agriculture for the betterment
of future. In consideration of time and quality,
vermicomposting seems to be the best technique for
composting and much more economically viable for the
sustainable growth and development of modern agriculture.
Vermicomposting technique is also worm and site specific.
After long-term scientific experiments, Eisenia fetida is
considered as the world‘s most efficient species having the
capacity to acquaint with wide environmental condition.
The compost production capacity of this worm is higher
than other species, and so this species is widely accepted
for vermicomposting.

References:

1. Howard A. The waste products of agriculture:

Their utilization as humus. Journal of Royal
Society of Arts.
2. Biswas DR, Ghosh AK. Manures, Bio-fertilizers
and fertilizers. In: Soil Science, an Introduction.
Indian Society of Soil Science. New Delhi:
National Agricultural Science Centre Complex.
ISBN: 81-903797-7-1. p. 436
3. Acharya CN. Preparation of Compost Manure
from Town Wastes. Calcutta: Indian Council of
[88]
 Agricultural Research, Ministry of Agriculture;
1950.
Bulletin No. 60.
4. Jenkins SH. Organic manures. In: Composting.
Harpenden, England: World Health Organization;
1935, 1956. p. 37

***

[89]
 Compost Preparation

R.K. Aryan* and Vikas Singh Sengar**

*Research Scholar, Deptt. of Agril. Meteorology, ANDUAT,

Ayodhya, U.P.

** Research Scholar, Deptt. of Agril. Economics, ANDUAT,

Ayodhya, U.P.

Compost:

Compost is a mixture of decayed organic materials

decomposed by microorganisms in a warm, moist and
aerobic environment releasing nutrients into readily
available forms for plant with involve of humans

Site Selection for Compost Production:

 Raw materials should be available

 Water should be available
 Should not be in the close vicinity to drinking
water well
 Should not be close to the home
 Should be well drained soil
 Should be clean site
 Should be shaded area

[90]
Raw Materials:

 Green leaves
 Weeds
 Banana leaves
 Banana trunk
 Salvenia
 Sow dust
 Vegetable peelings
 Crop waste
 Animal waste ( Cow-dung, Poultry manure)
 Incubator ( Old Compost)

Methods of Compost Production

1. Heap method

2. Cage method

3. Pit method

4. Barrel method

Benefits of using compost

 Increase yield
 Improves overall soil fertility
 Provides humus or organic matter

[91]
  Provides vitamins, hormones and plant enzymes
which are not supplied by chemical fertilizers
 Acts as buffer to changes in soil pH
 Compost is free from pathogenic organisms,
weeds and other unwanted seeds
 Nutrients are readily available
 Easy to apply when compared to other organic
manures

Average nutrient content of organic manures and crop

wastes:

Manure Nitrogen Phosphor Potash

(%) N us (%) (%)
P2O5 K2O
Bulky
organic
manure
Farm Yard 0.5-1.5 0.4-0.8 0.5-
Manure 1.9
Compost 1.0-2.0 1.0 1.5
(Urban)
Compost 0.4-0.8 0.3-0.6 0.7-
(Rural) 1.0
Green manure 0.5-0.7 0.1-0.2 0.6-
(averages) 0.8
Sewage sludge 2.0-3.5 1.0-5.0 0.2-
dry 0.5
Sewage 4.0-7.1 2.1-4.2 0.5-
allivated dry 0.7
Non-edible
cakes
[92]
Castor cake 5.5-5.8 1.8-1.9 1.0-
1.1
Mahua cake 2.5-2.6 0.9-1.0 1.8-
1.9
Karanj cake 3.9-4.0 0.9-1.0 1.3-
1.4
Neem cake 5.2-5.3 1.0-1.1 1.4-
1.5
Safflower 4.8-4.9 1.4-1.5 1.2-
cake (un- 1.3
decorticated)
Edible cakes

Cotton seed 6.4-6.5 2.8-2.9 2.1-

cake 2.2
(decorticated)
Cotton seed 3.9-4.0 1.8-1.9 1.6-
cake (un- 1.7
decorticated)
Groundnut 7.0-7.2 1.5-1.6 1.3-
cake 1.4
Manual of
animal origin
Fish manure 4.0-10.0 3.0-9.0 0.3-
1.5
Bird guano 7.0-8.0 11.0-14.0 2.0-
3.0
Bone meal 3.0-4.0 20.0-25.0 -
(row)
Bone meal 1.0-2.0 25.0-30.0 -
(steamed)
Straw and
stalks
Pearl millet 0.65 0.75 2.5

[93]
Sorghum 0.40 0.23 2.17

Maize 0.42 1.57 1.65

Paddy 0.36 0.08 0.71

Wheat 0.53 0.10 1.10

Sugarcane 0.35 0.10 0.60

trash
Cotton 0.44 0.10 0.66

***

[94]
 BIO FERTILIZERS/BIO INOCULANTS FOR
ORGANIC FARMING

Sandeep Kumar Diwakar* Chandra Shekhar**and Avinash

Kumar Singh,

*Research Scholar Deptt. of Soil Science and Agril.

Chemistry, ANDUAT, Ayodhya, U.P.

**Research Scholar, Deptt. of Agronomy, ANDUAT,

Ayodhya, U.P.

The atmosphere over a hectare of land consists of

80,000 tones of N. Though atmospheric N is present in
sufficient quantity (80%), it is not available to plants since
it exists in inert form. Biological nitrogen fixation is the
conversion of atmospheric N by living organisms into
forms that plants can use. This process is carried out by a
group of bacteria and algae which fix atmospheric Nitrogen
(N2) in to assailable forms of nitrogen (NH3)

It can be defined as bio-fertilizers or microbial

inoculants are preparations containing live or latent cell of
efficient strain of N-fixing or P-solubilizing micro
organisms used for seed or soil application with the
objectives of increasing the numbers of such micro
organisms in the soil or rhizosphere and consequently
[95]
improve the extent of microbiologically fixed N for plant
growth.

Use of bio-fertilizers

Azospirilum is applied as seed treatment or soil

application in crop like rice, sugarcane, pulses, soybean and
vegetables. It increase in root length, top dry weight, root
dry weight, total leaf area and yield were reported. The
inoculants like nitroplus (legume inoculants) and VAM
(Vesicular Arbuscular Micorrhizae) are also effective for
crop yield improvement. The Bacillus sp. and pseudomonas
sp. are help full in synthesizing the insoluble form of
phosphorus. The combined applications of
phosphobacteria, rock phosphate and FYM to commercial
crops have greatly enhanced biomass production, uptake of
nutrients and yield.

Benefits of bio- fertilizers in organic farming

 Bio-fertilizers are eco-friendly and do not have

any ill effect on soil health and environment.
 They reduce the pressure on non-renewable
nutrient sources/fertilizer.
 Their formulations are cheap and have easy
application methods.

[96]
  They also stimulate plant growth due to excretion
of various growth hormones.
 They reduce the incidence of certain disease,
pathogen and increase disease resistance.
 The economic benefits to cost ratio of bio-
fertilizers is always higher.
 They improve the productivity of waste land and
low land by enriching the soil.

Types of Bio-fertilizers

 Biological N fixing micro organisms

 Phosphate solubilizing and mobilizing micro-
organisms
 Potash solubilizing micro-organisms
 Sulphur mobilizing micro-organisms
 Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi
 Growth promoting substance excreting micro-
organisms

a. Biological N-fixing micro-organisms

Biological N-fixing micro-organisms help in reduction

of atmospheric N2 to NH3. The N-fixing organisms such as
Rhizobium spp. which live in symbiotic association with
roots of leguminous vegetables, forming nodules and free

[97]
living fixers Azotobacter spp. and Azospirillum spp. which
live in association with root system of crop plants. There
are two types of Rhizobia; (i) the slow growing
Bradyrhizobium and (ii) the fast growing Rhizobium.
Azospirillum fix N from 10 to 40 kg/ha and saves N
fertilizer inputs by 25 to 30%. Azotobacter inoculation
saves N fertilizer by 10 to 20%

Rhizobium and bradyrhizobium

They symbiolically fix N with leguminous plants

increasing the amount of available N for uptake by plants.
The quantum of N fixation ranges from 50-300 kg
N/ha/crop under most optimum conditions. i.e. cow pea 80-
85 kg/ha, Red gram 168- 200 kg/ha, G.nut 50-60 kg/ha &
lucerne 100-300 kg/ha can fix symbiotically N by legume
crop root nodules. An increase in yield about 10-20 % has
been observed in pulses treated with Rhizobium.

Azola

Azola symbiotically can fix 30-100 kg N /ha & increase

in yield up to 10-25% and also survive at high temperature
in flooded rice crop.

[98]
Azotobacter

Azotobacter is free living aerobic N-fixing bacteria can

fix 10-25 kg N/ha/season in cereals. 50% of N requirement
of crop can be reduced through Azotobacter inoculation
along with FYM. A. chroococcum is the dominant spices in
arable soils. Vegetable crop such as tomato, brinjal and
cabbage responded better to Azotobacter inoculation than
other crops.

Azospirillum

Azospirillum inoculation helps to fix nitrogen from 15

to 40 kg/ha. It is useful in cereals for better vegetative
growth and also saving inputs of nitrogenous fertilizers by
25-30 %

Beijerinckia:

Its production is high in acidic soils. B. idica is a

common species. It is generally present in the rhizosphere
of plantation crops such as coconut, arecanut, cashewnut,
cocoa and pepper.

b. Phosphate solubilizing and mobilizing micro-

organism.

[99]
 Several soil bacteria particularly Pseudomonas straita
and Bacillus polymixa and fungi Aspergillus awamori and
Penicilium spp. poses the ability to bring insoluble
phosphates into soluble forms by secreting organic acids.
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are also responsible
for converting fixed Phosphorus into available phosphorus
through inoculation of efficient strains of AMF, 25 to 50 %
of P fertilizer can be saved.

c. Potash solubilizing micro-organisms

The bacterium, Frateuria aurantia was isolated from

banana plant from Orissa soil. These bacteria have
solubilizing power of 90% within 22 days when the mineral
source of K is in fixed form. These bacteria were tested on
banana and paddy which increased the yield by 20 & 25%,
respectively. It can be used as soil application for all types
of crops @ 2.5 kg/ha. It can be mixed with @ 200- 500 kg
FYM in furrows before sowing. The bacterium can save up
to 50-60 % of cost of K fertilizer.

d. Sulphur mobilizing micro organisms.

Sulphur present as insoluble sulphur form at 30-35 cm

deep in soil and are associated with oxides of iron and
aluminium. Acetobacter pasteurianus helps in converting

[100]
this non-usable form to usable form. The use of 625 g/ha of
A. pasteurianus influenced the levels of sulphur in crops
like vegetables, cabbage, turnip, onion etc.

e. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF)

AMF improve plant growth through better uptake of

nutrient like P, Zn, Cu etc. and make the plant root more
resistant to pathogens, improve soil texture, WHC, disease
resistance and better plant growth. AMF saves 25-50 kg
P/ha in addition increase the yield up to 10-12%.

f. Growth promoting substance erecting micro

organisms.

The specific strain of plant growth promoting

rhizobacteria (PGPR) could colonize roots of crops like
potato, beet root, apple and legumes. They enhance plant
growth indirectly by depriving the harmful micro
organisms. PGPR belong to many genera including
Agrobacterium, Arthrobacter, Azotobacter, bacillus,
Pseudomonas, cellublomonas, Rhizobium etc.

General recommendations of bio-fertilizers for different

crops

1. For pulses such as Green gram, Black gram,

Pigeonpea, Cowpea, kidney bean etc. and legume
[101]
 oil seeds such as groundnut and soyabean use
Rhizobium + PSB 200 gm each per 10 kg of seed as
seed treatment.

2. Non legume crops such as pearlmillet, wheat,

sorghum maize, cotton, etc. use Azotobacter + PSB
200 gm each per 10 kg of seed as seed treatment.

3. Vegetables crops like tomato, brinjal, chilli,

cabbage, cauliflower etc. use

Azotobacter/Azospirillum + PSB, 1 kg each as seedling

root dip.

4. Low land transplanted paddy Azospirillum + PSB 2

kg each/acre as seeding root dip for 8-10 hrs.

5. For sugarcane crop, use Acetobacter + PSB 4 kg

each/acre as seed set dipping.

METHOD OF APPLICATION

Seed treatment

Suspend 200 gm N bio-fertilizer and 200 gms

Phosphotika in 300-400 ml of water and mix thoroughly.
Mix this paste with 10 kg seeds and dry in shade. Sow
immediately.

Seedling root dip

[102]
 For vegetables 1 kg recommended bio-fertilizers is
mixed in sufficient quantity of water. Dip the roots of
seedlings in this suspension for 30-40 min before
transplanting.

For paddy make a bed in the field and fill it with water.
Mix bio-fertilizers in water and dip the roots of seedlings
for 8-10 hrs.

Soil treatment

Mix 4 kg each of recommended bio-fertilizers in 200 kg

of compost, make moist and leave it overnight. Apply this
mixture in the soil at the time of sowing or planting.

PRECAUTIONS

 Store bio-fertilizer packets in cool and dry place

away from direct sunlight and heat
 Rhizobium is crop specific, so use in specified
crop
 Do not mix with chemicals
 Use the packet before expiry, only on the
specified crop, by the recommended method.

***

[103]
 COST OF ORGANIC PRODUCTION
SYSTEM

Vikas Singh Sengar* and Deo Kumar**

*Research Scholar, Deptt. of Agril. Economics, ANDUAT,

Kumarganj Ayodhya, U.P.

** Assistant Professor, Deptt. of Soil Sience, BUAT, Banda,

U.P.

No-cost inputs are those inputs which cost nothing or

cost the bare minimum but have high benefits. The
following are important no-cost inputs useful for organic
farmers:

1. Indicator plants

2. Use of planting calendar

3. Homa therapy or agnihotra

INDICATOR PLANTS

When a nutrient is not present in sufficient quantity in

the soil or is not supplied in sufficient quantity to the plant,
the plant will show deficiency symptoms described below
to a greater or lesser degree, depending on the extent of the
deficiency. However, some plants have been found to be
[104]
especially useful as indicators of particular deficiencies.
These plants are markedly susceptible to a particular
deficiency and deficiency symptoms like poor growth and
colour changes in leaves are shown more prominently by
such indicator plants.

A list of such indicator plants suitable to indicate

various deficiencies is given below.

Deficient element Indicator plants

1. Nitrogen Cauliflower, cabbage

2. Phosphorus Rapeseed
3. Potassium Potato, cauliflower, broad beans
4. Calcium Cauliflower, cabbage
5. Magnesium Potato, cauliflower
6. Iron Cauliflower, cabbage, oats, potato
7. Zinc Citrus, cereals, linseed
8. Copper Wheat, oats
9. Manganese Oats, sugar, beet, potato
10. Boron Sugarbeet, cauliflower
11. Molybdenum Cauliflower
In addition, sunflower and crotons are indicators of
moisture stress in the soil. Farmers can irrigate the crop
looking at the wilting symptoms of these plants.
[105]
Use of the planting calendar :

The life patterns of all living organisms are woven into

the cosmic rhythm. The modern science world may not
accept the influence of these cosmic rhythms and
constellations on life forms. However, human life, as well
as animal and plant life, is all strongly dependent on the
rhythms of the earth. Similarly, plant and animal life is also
influenced by the syndic relationships of the sun, earth,
moon and other planets. On the basis of such influences,
the planting calendar is prepared for agricultural operations,
during different timings of the year.

The moon opposite to Saturn

Occurs approximately once in 29.5 days.

Activities to be undertaken:

1. Seed sowing, transplanting, grafting, pruning and

layering.

2. Spraying BD 501 (cow horn silica) to manage pests.

3. Spraying liquid manures and foliar sprays.

Full moon

Occurs every 29.5 days

[106]
Activities to be undertaken:

1. Sow seeds two days before sowing.

2. Apply liquid manures and CPP (cow pat pit)

manure.

3. Spraying bio pesticides to control pests and

diseases.

4. Drenching the animals to remove internal parasites

(48 hours before).

New moon

Happens once in 27.5 days

Activities to be undertaken:

1. Avoid sowing seeds.

2. Cutting timber.

Ascending periods

The moon moves in an arc from east to west and when

this arc gets higher, the moon is ascending.

Activities to be undertaken:

1. Sowing of seeds.

2. Spray BD 501.

[107]
 3. Spray liquid manures and CPP.

Descending periods

The moon moves in an arc from east to west and when

this arc gets lower, the moon is said to be in descending
phase.

Activities to be undertaken:

1. Transplanting of seedlings.

2. Spraying BD 500 (cow horn manure).

3. Making and spreading compost.

4. Pruning trees.

5. Land preparation activities.

Nodes

These are the days when the moon passes the sun‘s
path. It creates negative influences on the growth of plants.

Avoid all agricultural activities during nodes.

Apogee

The moon‘s orbit around the earth is elliptical. The

point where the moon is furthest away from the earth is
called its apogee.

[108]
Activities to be undertaken:

1. Planting potatoes.

2. Irrigating the field.

Perigee

The moon moves around the earth in an elliptical path.

The point where the moon is closest to the earth is called its
perigee. Spray biopesticides to manage pests and diseases.

Seed and fruit days

These days influence the growth of seed and fruit crops

and are good for sowing and harvesting of the same, e.g.,
paddy, wheat, brinjal, bhendi and tomato.

Root days

These days influence the growth and development of

root crops and are good for sowing and harvesting of them:
potato, carrot, beet root, etc.

Flower day

These days influence the growth and development of

flowers and are good for sowing and harvesting of them:
cut flowers, cauliflower, rose, jasmine, etc.

[109]
Leaf days

These days help in the growth and development of leafy

vegetables and are good for sowing and for harvesting
them: green leafy vegetables, cabbage.

***

[110]
 ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS,
MARKETING AND EXPORT
POTENTIAL OF ORGANIC FARMING

Vikas Singh Sengar(Research Scholar, Agril. Eco. ANDUAT,

Kumarganj Ayodhya, U.P.

Farming in India was fundamentally organic till the

middle of the twentieth but industrial revolution; desire to
make quick and more money and to get rid pests and
disease brought in the concept of chemical farming after
independence. Farmers started using chemical fertilizers to
increase the yield and to meet the demand of growing
population. Though, initially it looked extensively amazing,
its adverse effects started to appear in 1980s. Extensive use
of fertilizers and pesticides resulted in pests and diseases
resistance of the cultivars and polluted the crop growing
environment including groundwater. It appears that health
conscious people are looking for healthy options and
shifting towards organic products.

ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS

Productivity of organic farming may be less in initial

years, but the yield increases progressively under organic
[111]
farming, equating the yield under inorganic farming by
sixth year. A long -term experiment conducted by
ICRISAT also sustains the view that yield of different crop
in low cost sustainable systems, the annul productivity (rain
+ post rainy season yield), in particular, is comparable to
that in the conventional system.

In areas of intensive farming system, shifting to organic

agriculture decrease yield; the range depends on the
intensity of external input use before conversion. In the so-
called green revolution era (irrigated lands), conversion to
organic usually leads to almost identical yields. In
traditional rainfed agriculture (with low external inputs),
organic agriculture has shown the potential to increase the
yield.

Replacement of external inputs farm-derived organic

resources normally leads to a reduction in variable input
costs under organic management. Expenditure on fertilizers
and plant protection inputs is substantially lower than in
conventional systems in almost all the cases. In a few cases,
higher inputs costs due to purchase of compost and other
organic manures have been reported. Studies have shown
that the common organic agricultural combination of lower
input costs and favorable premiums can offset reduced
[112]
yields and did not include organic farms equally and often
more profitable than conventional farms. Farms that did not
include organic price premiums have given mixed results
on profitability. Economics of organic cotton cultivation
over a period of six years indicated that there is a reduction
in cost of cultivation and increased gross and net returns
compared to conventional cotton cultivation in India.

VIABILITY OF ORGANIC FARMING

Farmers will only be able to convert to organic farming

if their livelihood is secured during the transition phase and
if their farming is economically viable in the long run. Crop
yield play an important -though not the only- role in this. It
is therefore important to minimize the initial drop in yield
to the best possible extent and to ensure that yield achieve a
satisfying level after the conversion period. At the same
time, production costs need to be kept low. By providing
appropriate extension services, projects can support farmers
in identifying and implementing suitable management
practice to achieve these goals. In order to be able to
manage the farm in an optimum way, farmers not only need
to learn organic farming methods, but also to develop and
understanding on the interrelations between the different
components of an agro-ecosystem: soil fertility, nutrition
[113]
and water household, biodiversity, ecological balance etc.
Conducting suitable training for farmers interested in
converting to organic farming can help build a basis on
which farmers can further develop their management
capacity. Equally important is that farmers can obtain
practical can obtain practical advice to fine-tune their
management practices in the field.

Extension staff must be able to create awareness among

farmers for the core principles of organic farming, such as
the ecosystem approach, the central role of soil fertility,
closed nutrient cycles and ecological balance .If they
manage to convey the philosophy of organic agriculture, it
is more likely that farmers whole heartedly stick to organic
farming about is potential benefits and persuade farmers to
join the initiative. They should openly address the
difficulties that farmers are likely to face during the
conversion process and provide a realistic picture own the
limitations of the project. In this, they need to take into
consideration the different resource bases and degrees of
vulnerability of marginal and wealthier farmers. It is
important to create an atmosphere in which problems and
short- comings are openly addressed by all stakeholders, so
that the team and the management can work on

[114]
improvements. Most probably the farmers are technically
more familiar with cotton farming practice than the
extension staff and after some time they will also be more
experienced in the practical implication of organic farming
methods. The role of extension staff should, therefore,
change to being facilities or coaches who farmers in
developing suitable solutions to problems and in sharing
their experience and expertise with other members of the
group. The focus might shift to creating platforms for and
moderating processes of farmer-to farmer exchange.

Application of adequate of organic manures increases

soil organic matter content leading to increasing cotton
yields. Especially in fields where synthetic fertilizers were
extensively used before conversion, it is a necessary to
apply sufficient amounts of organic material in order to
build up soil organic matter and to stimulate soil life.
Projects, therefore, should advise farmers about producing
organic manure from farm-own sources, such as farmyard
manure, compost and liquid manures, Support could also be
rendered for purchasing additional cattle or for building
simple infrastructure for efficient collection of cattle dung
and urine and for preparing compost. As farm-own sources
of manure might not be sufficient to achieve satisfying

[115]
yield levels, projects could further facilitate the supply of
manures and natural mineral fertilizers from off-farm
sources (de-oiled castor, sugarcane press mud, rock
phosphate). Increased input of manure, however, is not the
only way to increase soil organic matter and nutrient
supply. Appropriate crop rotation patterns that involve
legumes, the cultivation of green manures and intercrop
and the recycling of crop residues can be equally effective.

Results of investigation have shown that small holder

organic farming systems can produce similar yield as in
conventional farming after completing a transitional period
of 3-4 years. This challenges the argument that conversion
to organic farming is not a suitable option for developing
countries as it puts food security at risk. Crop yield are
without a doubt-an important factor in farming. However, if
innovation in farming is to really improve rural livelihoods,
the focus needs to shift away from yields, to a broader
perspective that includes sustainability of the management
of the production base, economic viability of the farm
operations (the relation of costs and revenues) and
livelihood security. It is in the field where organic farming
offers the most promising potentials. Replacing agro-
chemicals with natural means and management practices

[116]
has positive impacts on soil fertility environment and
human health. Lower dependency of organic farms on
external inputs not only decreases production costs, thus
contributing to improved incomes, but also reduces the risk
of farming in context of insecure climatic and market
conditions. While this could to some extent -also be
achieved with integrated farming approaches, organic
farming offers in additional the opportunity to link
production with a growing market demand for
environmentally and socially improved products.

Organic farming seems to be a particularly suitable

option for smallholders and marginal farmers, who could
not benefit from adopting green revolution practices. Their
lack of production means and capital is counter balanced
with the availability of under- utilized family labour and
the ability to produce inputs on the farm itself. Once
production costs are intensifying their production and
opening up off-farm income sources. However, small and
marginal farmers are also the ones who find conversion to
organic farming most difficult, as yield and incomes in
usually in the initial year, thus putting their fragile
livelihoods at risk. The challenge in utilizing the potential
of organic farming for achieving development goals,

[117]
therefore, lies in enabling poor farms to overcome the
obstacles of conversion period so that they can benefit in
the long term, appropriate extension approaches that
facilitate conversion and mechanisms for bridging the
initial income gap are thus needed. The experience of
successful organic cotton initiatives in several developing
countries provides ample material to study how project
support could be further improved.

For successful extension, certification and marketing,

organic cotton farming with Small- holders require a group
approach. Only if the involved farmers develop emotional
ownership for the project and identify as a group, can free-
riding b prevented and the long term sustainability of the
project be ensured. Due to its holistic approach that relates
to societal dimensions of rural livelihoods, the organic
farming systems seems to be particularly suitable to create
this identify and solidarity among framers. The need to
form strong farmers based project entities poses a
considerable challenge to utilizing organic farming in
development work. At the same time -if successful - the
group approach allows implementing a range of joint
activities in other fields e.g. in micro-credit community
development and off-farm income generation.

[118]
 Although our research has shed some light on crucial
regarding the potential of organic farming in developing
countries, it also opened up a range of new questions. In
some aspects- such as water management, gender aspects
and the interface between farmers and project organizers -
we could only touch the surface, leaving a more in-depth
investigation to other researches. It will also be necessary
to put the finding on a broader base of investigated case
studies in different countries. Therefore, a lot remains to be
done to fully utilize the potential of organic farming in
development work.

MARKETING AND EXPORT POTENTIAL OF

ORGANIC PRODUCTS

Organic farming has a place where there is a market to

accept the produce at a higher price as the growing interest
in organic farming practice is due to an expectation of
higher premium for organically produced farm
commodities. The basic focus of organic farming should be
first to produce farm products for the home (domestic)
market and second for the export market.

[119]
Marketing of Organic Products

Major organic produces in India are given in Table.

There is no organic production of meat products like
poultry, livestock and fisheries in India as yet. There are
three types of organic producers in India- Traditional
organic growers who grow for their subsistence needs,
commercial farmers who have surplus and export their
produce through different channels and private companies
which either have their own farms or organize large
conversion programmes with growers.

Table: Major products produced in India by Organic

Farming

Type of Products
Product
Commodity Tea, coffee, rice, wheat

Spices Cardamom, black pepper,

white pepper, ginger,
turmeric,
vanilla, tamarind, clove,
cinnamon, nutmeg, mace, chili
Pulses Pigeonpea, black gram
Fruits Mango, banana, pineapple,
passion fruit, orange, cashew
nut,
walnut
Vegetables Okra, brinjal, garlic, onion,
tomato, potato

[120]
 Oilseeds Mustard, sesame, castor,
sunflower
Others Cotton, sugarcane, herbal
extracts

Organic products available in the domestic market are

rice, wheat, tea, coffee, pulses and vegetables. On the other
hand, products available for export market, besides, these,
include cashew nuts, cotton, oilseeds, various fruits and
medicinal herbs. Whereas wholesalers and traders, super
markets and own shops are the major channels in the
domestic market which is mainly in metropolitan cities and
accounts for only 8.0 per cent of the total organic
production, the market channel for export of organic
products is export companies with the exception of tea
which is produced and exported by tea estates. Major
markets for Indian organic products are the EU, USA,
Canada, Australia and the Middle East Asian countries.
Quality production with traditional methods, low use of
chemical inputs in mountain and tribal areas, easy
availability of cheap labour, NGO interventions and various
types of support provided by the governments as the main
advantages of Indian organic products. High price
expectations, delayed delivery, quality restrictions, lack of

[121]
certification and marketing networks are some of the
constraints in marketing organic products internationally.
On the other hand, in home market, there are no separate
markets for organic products in many commodities like
wheat in Rajasthan. Thus, the market does not offer any
incentive for the production of organic produce. But more
recently, some agencies have tried to create separate market
outlets for organic produce like the Maharashtra Cotton
Marketing Federation purchased organic cotton from
growers separately for export.

NON CHEMICAL APPROACH FOR INSECT,

PEST, DISEASE AND WEED MANAGEMENT

In organic agriculture, incidence of insect and disease

attacks can be reduced by sound cultural practices and
biological approaches. These practices are region and crop
specific.

CULTURAL PRACTICES: The cultural methods are the

traditional practices followed by farmers for modulating
crop growth through selection of seed varieties, appropriate
time of sowing and maintenance of specific plant
population density for altering the microclimate.

[122]
 Crop rotation: Rotating the crop belonging to one
family with one of a different family helps to reduce pest
incidence to a large extent. Rotating groundnut with maize
will reduce the attack of white grubs. Rotating pigeon pea
or chickpea with other non- leguminous crop helps to
control fusarium wilt and nematode problems.

Trap crops: Insects are strongly attracted by certain

plants and when these are sown in the field or along the
border, they will gather on them rather than on the main
crop. Later they can easily be destroyed. Mustard is a trap
crop along with cabbage for the control of diamond back
moths, aphids and leaf webbers. The African marigold is a
good trap crop for the American bollworm and it also
attracts the adults of leaf miners to lay eggs on its leaves.
Maize plants are a trap crop to attract fruit flies which are a
pest in vegetable cultivation and the cotton bollworm
Helicoverpa armigera.

Intercropping:

Intercropping generally has positive effects in terms of

reducing the occurrence of insect pests. Insects find it
difficult to locate host plants as the visual and chemical
stimuli for the host plants are not so strong and the
aromatic odour of other plants can disrupt the insects‘
[123]
ability to locate such host plants. Intercropping also
interferes with the population development and survival of
insect pests. For example, cabbage along with carrot or
tomato is an important intercrop combination to effectively
manage diamond back moth. Sowing cowpea as intercrop
with groundnut minimizes leaf miner infestation. Green
gram intercropped with sugarcane reduces the incidence of
sugarcane early shoot borer. Growing short-duration pulses
like black gram, cowpea, soybean and green gram as
intercrops in cotton, increases the effectiveness of natural
predators like coccinellids, syrphids, trichogrammatids, etc.

Use of resistant / tolerant varieties: Genotypes

showing tolerance and resistance to insect pests and
diseases are to be selected for sowing. Plants have
sophisticated mechanisms to protect themselves from
attacks by insects. Certain genotypes act as deterrents and
antifeedants and some encourage the predators of pests.
There should be a constant watch to update such genotypes
in the region. A number of resistant varieties are available
for every crop from all agro climatic zones.

BIOLOGICAL APPROACHE: Biological approaches to

pest management comprise the use of:

 plants or botanicals
[124]
  microbial pesticides
 bio-control by insects
 biorationals

Botanicals: The plant kingdom is a rich storehouse of

biologically active compounds. Various plant products
have been in use for many centuries in India to minimize
losses in crops and grain storage.

A large database of plant species that possess pest-

controlling insecticidal, antifeedant, repellant, attractant
and growth inhibiting properties exists in every village.
Some of the plants widely used in the preparation of
botanical pesticides are Anona sp, Azadirachta indica,
Chrysanthemum sp., Cymbopogan sp., Nicotiana sp,
Pongamia sp, Vitex sp. , etc. Seeds, leaves, extracts, fruits,
kernels, oil and decoctions from botanicals are used to
control the pests. The following are some of the botanical
pesticides that can be prepared by using plants having
insect repellant properties:

Neem seed kernel extracts (NSKE):NSKE can be easily

prepared by using neem seed kernels and it is very effective
for a variety of insect pests. Method Collect 25 kg of neem
seeds and crush them into a coarse powder. Tie the crushed
seeds in a muslin or cotton cloth and immerse overnight in
[125]
50 litres of water. Squeeze the cloth containing the crushed
neem seeds and remove the extract entirely. Dip the cloth
containing the crushed neem seeds again in 50 liters of
water and squeeze again. Add 400 liters of water to the
concentrated solution of 100 liters extract. A 5% solution
can be used as a foliar spray. For every 100 litres of the
spray solution add about 50 gm of khadi soap or soap nut
which acts as an emulsifier to spread the spray solution
uniformly on the foliage. NSKE should be used within 2–3
days of preparation. This spray is effective for a variety of
leaf eating insects and is also undertaken as a prophylactic
or preventive measure for pests.

Precautions

 Spray the solution during evening hours.

 Khadi soap or soap nut are mild emulsifiers.
Strong detergents (with enzymes) should never be
used
 Liquid manure for pest management
 A variety of plants (weeds) which have pesticidal
value are used to make liquid manure. Plants that
have strong disagreeable odour, e.g., Parthenium,
Lantana, Vitex, Calotropis, etc., are ideal for this
preparation.
[126]
Method

 Collect 30 kg of leaves and tender parts of plants

which have pesticide qualities.
 Chop them into small pieces and put them into a
200 liter barrel.
 Add 30 kg of cattle dung to the barrel and fill it up
with water.
 Add about 5 kg of local soil to the barrel to
facilitate faster degradation.
 One set of biodynamic preparation (502–507) can
be added to the barrel and is optional.
 The barrel is stirred every day for seven days and
then stirred once a week for the next three weeks.
The preparation will be ready in 30 days.
 The concentrated solution is diluted ten times in
water and used as a foliar spray.
 These sprays are very efficient in managing a
variety of pests.
 Precautions
 The liquid manure has to be diluted ten times
before spraying on the crop otherwise it scorches
the plant.

[127]
  The solution has to be sieved through a cloth or
gunny bag before spraying to avoid blockage of
nozzles.
 The solution has to be used within one month as
its efficacy diminishes after that period.

Microbial pesticides or bio-pesticides:

The use of microorganisms as bio control agents is

gaining importance in recent years. Bio-pesticides are
living organisms or their derived parts which are used as
bio-control agents to protect crops against insect pests.
Entomo-pathogenic viruses of the baculovirus group,
bacterial insecticides, particularly Bacillus thuringiensis,
entomo-fungal pathogens, protozoans and insect parasitic
nematodes have been found to control important pests of
crops. These bio pesticides are commercially available and
are quite difficult to formulate in field conditions.

Types of microbial bio-pesticides:

 Bacterial bio pesticides

 Fungal bio pesticides
 Viral bio pesticides

[128]
Biorationals:

Biorationals comprise of the use of pheromones and

sticky traps in pest management. There are three main ways
in which pheromones are used

 to control pests:
 to trap insects;
 to disrupt mating;
 for survey and monitoring.

Method of application of bio-pesticides

a) Seed treatment:

Prepare 5% jaggery solution by boiling 500 gm of

jaggery in ten litres of water for 15–20 minutes. Depending
on the quantity of seeds to be treated, sufficient solution
has to be prepared.

Cool the solution:

Mix the contents of the bio pesticide packet in the

above solution. The general recommendation is 10 gm of
bio pesticide/kg of seed. Heap the seeds to be treated on a
polythene sheet and pour the bio pesticide solution over the
seeds and mixed thoroughly. Dry the seeds in the shade and
sow immediately.

[129]
Nursery bed

One kilo of bio-pesticide is mixed with 100 kilograms

of good quality soil. Forest soil can also be used. In areas
where forest soil is not available, 30 kg of well-rotted dung
can be mixed with 70 kg of soil to prepare a good soil
mixture. The soil mixture can be used as a nursery soil or it
can be mixed with soil in the nursery bed.

Soil drenching

Prepare a solution by adding 10 grams of bio-pesticide

to a litre of water and stir the solution well. Drench the soil
with the solution using water can.

Seedling dip

Prepare a solution by adding ten grams of bio-pesticide

to a litre of water.

Dip the seedlings in this solution for 30 minutes.

Bio-control by insects: Beneficial insects are predators

of insect pests and damage the latter during various stages
of their development like egg, larva, pupa, etc. Accordingly
these bio-control agents are categorized as:

[130]
Egg parasites

These parasites damage the egg stage of the insect pest.

Some of the commonly used egg parasites are
Trichogramma spp. Telenomus spp. and Testrastichus sp.
These parasites control top shoot borer in sugarcane,
internode borer in sugarcane, cotton bollworms, paddy
stem borer, sorghum stem borer, fruit borers, etc.

Larval parasites

These parasites destroy the larval stages of the insect

pest. Some examples are the Bracon spp., which is used in
controlling the black-headed caterpillar in coconut and
Goppniozus nephantidis which is used against the coconut
leaf-eating caterpillar.

Pupal parasites

The pupal stage of the pests is destroyed by the pupal

parasites. Testrastichus sp, is widely used to control pests
like American bollworm, paddy leaf rollers, black-headed
caterpillars, etc., in their pupal stages.

Predators

Predators like Chrysopa sp, Menochilus spp. are very

useful in controlling a wide variety of insects like aphids,

[131]
white flies, cotton bollworms, leaf insects, etc. The eggs of
these parasitoids are commercially available on egg cards.
Each egg card (e.g., Trichogramma) contains 20,000 live
parasitized eggs which have 90–96% hatching rate within
7– 10 days of parasitisation. These are applied @ 3–5
cards/ha. Each egg card costs Rs.20 to Rs. 50. Chrysopa sp.
is available in vials containing 1,000–5,000 live
eggs/larvae. The standard recommendation for crops like
cotton, sunflower, tobacco, groundnut, mustard and
vegetables is 5,000–10,000 eggs/larvae per ha. Each vial
costs Rs.150 to Rs.200.

PREPARATION 501 (HORN SILICA):

This preparation is made from a crystal of quartz

(silicon oxide, SiO2). It is important to have good quality
quartz crystals, well formed and clear, which allow the
light to flow right through them. A good clear crystal will
cause refraction of light in the same way as a prism.

Method

 Collect translucent quartz crystals and grind them

into a fine powder, as smooth as talcum powder.
 Moisten the quartz powder with water and fill the
cow horn with it.

[132]
  Bury the horn in the soil (similar to BD 500)
during spring and summer (April/May).
 Remove the horn from the soil during the
ascending moon phase in September/October.

Usage

Preparation 501 is stirred in a manner similar to

preparation 500. It is stirred for one hour, using one gram
in 13.5 litres of water, which is sufficient for one acre of
land. It is sprayed in the morning in a fine mist, using a
high pressure spray, allowing the mist to be suspended
briefly in the air so that the sunlight can shine momentarily
through the mist on the plant and the fine mist is allowed to
drift over the crop. For smaller areas a knapsack sprayer
may be used turning its fine nozzle skywards to produce the
desired misting effect.

As a general rule, 501 should be sprayed during the

early stages of the plant‘s growth and after fruit set.
Preparation 501 is generally sprayed in the morning, during
spring and early summer, and sometimes in the autumn if
the lushness of growth demands it. As the season advances
during summer, 501 is sprayed progressively early in the
morning.

[133]
 Because of the stimulation of the light, it is advised not
to use 501 in drought conditions and it should be used only
once in the spring on pasture as overuse can accentuate
drought conditions. Due to the enhancement of
photosynthesis of the plant, the starches, sugars and
cellulose in the plant improve thereby improving the
overall quality of the produce as well.

Mineral based pesticides for managing diseases:

Sulphur: Sulphur is probably the oldest known pesticide

in use. Sulphur can be used as dust, wettable powder, paste
or liquid. It is very effective in controlling powdery
mildews, rusts, leaf blights and fruit rots. Wettable sulphur
@ 2–3% foliar spray is very effective to control a variety of
plant diseases.

Lime sulphur: Boiling lime and sulphur together makes

lime sulphur. The mixture is used as a dormant spray on
fruit trees to control diseases such as blight, anthracnose,
powdery mildews and some insect pests such as scales,
thrips and eriophyid mites. The general recommendation is
1% lime sulphur as a foliar spray.

***

[134]
 POST HARVEST MANAGEMENT: QUALITY
ASPECT, GRADING, PACKAGING AND
HANDLING

Vikas Singh Sengar* and Deo Kumar**

*Research Scholar, Deptt. of Agril. Economics, ANDUAT,

Kumarganj Ayodhya, U.P.

** Assistant Professor, Deptt. of Soil Sience, BUAT, Banda,

U.P.

Processing

Processing of organic food products and handling

should be optimized to maintain the development of pest
and diseases. Processing and handling of organic products
should be done separately in time or place from handling
and processing of non-organic products.

Processing of organic fresh produce requires cleaning,

grading followed by peeling, stoning or slicing. At this
stage fruits and some vegetable such as onion and peppers
are ready for freezing, but most vegetables need to be
blanched with hot water or steam at 80OC to 100 oC to
inactivate enzymes that could otherwise lead to a loss in
vitamin C and flavour. Fruit can be coated in sugar or in

[135]
syrup that contains an antioxidant like ascorbic acid.
Coating retards browning, avoids the cooked tests after
defrosting and increases product quality. The products may
be packaged before or after freezing.

The following techniques are adopted for processing.

Freezing:

Freezing is quite often applied to vegetables but rarely

used for fruits, as they do not handle it well. Nutritional
quality is maintained when the product is sold from
colour, odour and taste are retained well by freezing. The
degree of freezing depends on the duration of storage eg.

Products Practical
storage life
(Month)
-18oC -25oC -30oC
Fruits in 12 18 24
sugar
Cauli 15 24 <24
flower
Carrots 18 24 <24
Potatoes 24 <24 <24

Drying facilitates for easy transportation and storage of

fruits. Dried vegetables are produced in low quantities for
the local market but can be useful for soup mixes. The

[136]
major risks with dried products are microbiological attack
and physiological deterioration which leads to browing,
loss of vitamins and the development of off- flavors.

2. Water content :

Dry fruit products have a water content of 8 to 12 %

and dry vegetable around 7%. Under these conditions, there
are no microbiological problems during storage of the
products.

3. Additives and processing aids:

Permitted processing aids helps to retain quality of dry

produce, such as ascorbic acid, citric acid, tartaric acid,
which resulting in low pH, it limits the development of
micro organisms and browing. The product is treated by
dipping in or spraying with acids or lemon juice. Salt can
be used for drying.

4. Blanching:

A brief period at high temperature destroys most of

micro organisms and inactivates enzymes which promote
browning and degradation i.e.

[137]
 Fruits /Vegetables Process
Banana Boiling water for 5 min
Mango, Papaya Hot water (56oC) for 1 min
Cabbage Boiling water 3 min
Carrot Boiling water 4-6 min

6. Rapid Drying:

Sun drying is mostly used for organic fruits such as

figs, bananas etc, but there is risk to quality and the
difficulty of maintaining a high degree of sanitation. Hence,
a rapid drying is followed.

Drying condition, moisture content and storage life of

food products

Fruits/ Drying Moistur Storage

vegetable temp (oC) e life
content (Month)
(%)
Mango 55 14 6
Banana 55 12 6
Tomato 55 6 6
Onion 50-55 5 3-12

[138]
Labeling:-

The label should convey clear and accurate information

on the organic status of the product. The labels for organic
products should be distinguishable by different coloured
labels. The details like name of the product, quality of the
product, name and address of the producer name of the
certification agency, certification, lot number etc. are to be
given in the label. for example;

Information required on the label

Crop OG (Organic Ginger)

Country I (India)
Field No. 05
Date of harvest 32 (1st Feb.)
Year 2009
Lot No. OG I 05 32 2009

Lot No. is helpful in tracking back the product

particularly field number in which it is grown in case of
contamination. Lot number should include the crop,
country, and field number, date of harvest and production
year.

[139]
Packing:

For packing, recycling and reusable materials like clean

jute bags should be used. Use of biodegradable materials
can also be used. Un necessary packaging material should
be avoided. Various types of packaging materials are used
for packing such as bamboo baskets, gunny bags, card
board, paper, glass, metal, wooden box, plastic crates and
ventilated corrugated fibre board (CFB) box for safe
handling.

***

[140]
 VISIT OF ORGANIC FARMS TO STUDY
THE VARIOUSCOMPONENTS AND
THEIR UTILIZATION

Sandeep Kumar Diwakar* Chandra Shekhar**and Avinash

Kumar Singh,

*Research Scholar Deptt. of Soil Science and Agril.

Chemistry, ANDUAT, Ayodhya, U.P.

**Research Scholar, Deptt. of Agronomy, ANDUAT,

Ayodhya, U.P.

Major components of organic farming are crop rotation,

maintenance and enhancement of soil fertility through
biological nitrogen fixation, addition of organic manure and
use of soil microorganisms, crop residues, bio-pesticide,
biogas slurry, waste etc. Vermiculture has become a major
component in biological farming, which is found to be
effective in enhancing the soil fertility and producing large
numbers of horticultural crops in a sustainable manner. The
various components of organic farming have been
discussed in details below:

[141]
1. Crop rotation:

Crop rotation is a systematic planning for the growing

of different crops in a regular sequence on the same piece
of land covering a period of two years or more. Crop
rotation is important for soil fertility management, weed,
insect and disease control. Legume crops are essential in
any rotation, because legumes are able to fix atmospheric
nitrogen through symbiotic relationship with N-fixing
bacteria enables organic farming systems to be self
sufficient in nitrogen.

2. Crop Residue

There is a great potential for utilization of crop residues

of the major cereals and pulses. Incorporation/composting
of crop residues in conjunction with organics have been
shown to improve availability of plant nutrients, soil
organic matter, aggregate stability, infiltration rate,
microbial population etc.

3. Organic manure

The organic manure is derived from biological sources

like plant, animal and human residues. Aggregate stability,
decrease in pH, resistance to compaction and water holding
capacity increase by addition of organic manure in the soil.
[142]
Moreover, it showed the beneficial effect on soil
microorganisms and their activities and thus increases the
availability of major and minor plant nutrients.

4. Industrial and other waste

By products like molasses and pressmud from sugar

industry possess good manurial value. Addition of
pressmud improves the soil fertility and enhances the
microbial activity. While municipal and sewage waste also
forms an important component of organic farming. Sewage
sludge particularly from industrialized cities is
contaminated with heavy metals and these pose hazards to
plants, animals and human beings. Separation of the toxic
waste at the source will minimize the concentration of such
elements in the sludge.

5. Bio-fertilizers

Bio-fertilizer is microorganism's culture capable of

fixing atmospheric nitrogen when suitable crops are
inoculated with them. Bio-fertilizer offers an economically
attractive and ecologically sound means of reducing
external inputs and improving the quality and quantity of
products. Microorganisms are capable of mobilizing
nutritive elements from non-usable form to usable form

[143]
through biological process. These are less expensive, eco-
friendly and sustainable. The Biofertilizers containing
biological nitrogen fixing organism are of utmost important
in agriculture in view of the following advantages:

1. They help in establishment and growth of crop

plants and trees.
2. They enhance biomass production and grain
yields by 10-20%.
3. They are useful in sustainable agriculture.
4. They are suitable organic farming.
5. They play an important role in Agro-forestry /
silvi-pastoral systems.

Types of Biofertilizers: There are two types of bio-

fertilizers.

a. Symbiotic N-fixation: These are Rhizobium culture of

various strains which multiply in roots of suitable legumes
and fix nitrogen symbiotically.

Rhizobium: It is the most widely used bio-fertilizers,

which colonizes the roots of specific legumes to form
tumours like growth called root nodules and these nodules
act as factories of ammonia production.

[144]
b. Asymbiotic N-fixation: This includes Azotobacter,
Azospirillium, BGA, Azolla and Mycorrhizae, which also
fixes atmospheric N in suitable soil medium.

Mycorrhizae: Mycorrhizae are the symbiotic association

of fungi with roots of Vascular plants. The main advantage
of Mycorrhizae to the host plants is facilitating an increased
phosphorous uptake. In many cases the Mycorrhizae have
been shown to markedly improve the growth of plants. In
India, the beneficial effects of Vascular- Arbuscular
Mycorrhizae (VAM) have been observed in fruit crops like
citrus, papaya and litchi.

6. Bio-pesticide

Bio-pesticides are natural plant products that belong to

the so-called secondary metabolites. Botanical insecticides
are ecologically and environmentally safer generally affect
the behaviour and physiology of insects rather than killing
them. Neem (Azadirachta indica) has justifiably received
the maximum attention. All parts of the Neem tree possess
insecticidal property but seed kernel is most active.

7. Vermicompost

It is organic manure produced by the activity of

earthworms. It is a method of making compost with the use
[145]
of earthworms that generally live in soil, eat biomass and
excrete it in digested form. It is generally estimated that
1800 worms which is an ideal population for one sq. meter
can feed on 80 tones of humus per year. These are rich in
macro and micronutrients, vitamins, growth hormones and
immobilized microflora. The average nutrient content of
vermicompost is much higher than that of FYM.
Application of vermicompost facilitates easy availability of
essential plant nutrients to crop.

***

[146]
 PRINCIPLES AND CONCEPTS OF
CROPPING SYSTEMS

Vikas Singh Sengar* and Ankita Rao**

* Research Scholar, Deptt. of Agril. Economics, ANDUAT,
Kumarganj, Ayodhya, U.P.
** Ex-Research Scholar, Deptt. of Agronomy, ANDUAT,
Kumarganj, Ayodhya, U.P.
Cropping system – Cropping patterns practiced on a farm

Cropping patterns – Different crop sequences followed in

a year

 Rainfall is the main & the most variable source of

water for dry land crops
 Rainfall variability plays a dominant role in
influencing crop growth and yield and also in crop
planning.
 Cropping pattern in a region is usually planned on
the basis of prevailing rainfall behavior.

Important climatologically inputs in crop planning

 Seasonal rainfall
 Probable period of assured rainfall distribution
 Long range forecast
 Medium-range forecast
[147]
  IMD forecasting of seasonal rainfall accuracy of
more than 90%

Characteristics of crops / varieties for dry lands

 Capacity to produce a fairly good yield under

 limited soil moisture conditions
 Short life or yearly reproductive cycle
 Photo - insensitive
 Strong and penetrating root system
 Low water requirement
 Higher harvest index

Types of cropping systems

a) Mono cropping

A single crop is grown on a piece of a land and the

same crop is grown every year. Predominant mono crops in
dry lands- Groundnut, Sorghum and Finger millet.

b) Multiple cropping

Two or more crops are grown on the same piece of land in

one calendar year.

Types of multiple cropping:

a) Inter cropping: Two or more crops are grown at a

given time in spatial arrangement.
[148]
 b) Mixed cropping: Two or more crops are randomly
grown at a given time without any distinct arrangement.

c) Sequential cropping: Two or more crops are grown

in succession one after another.

Advantages of multiple cropping

 Avoid risk of total crop failure due to erratic

rainfall and ensures food security.
 Optimum utilization of natural resources – land,
water, sunlight
 Increases the annual net yield per unit area

Factors influencing choice of cropping system

1) Farm resources

Choice of the cropping system depends on land, labour

and water. Amount of rainfall as well as soil type and water
holding capacity influence the type of cropping system
based on the length of crop growing season.

2) Farm enterprises: Enterprise at the farm level leads to a

cropping system having specific crops e.g. Fodder crops in
dairy and grain crops in poultry.

[149]
3) Farm technology

Improved technologies alter the cropping systems. In

deep black soils with annual rainfall more than 750mm, dry
seeding yields both kharif and rabi crops instead of only
one rabi crop in the post rainy season.

Intercropping:

Interaction between the component crops may be

competitive, non-competitive or complementary.

A combination of tall and short crop (millet /groundnut)

or short and long duration (groundnut/pigeonpea) reduces
competition for sunlight.

Water is used more efficiently by crops that extract

water from different soil depths due to different rooting
depths or produce more canopies thus reducing evaporation
from soil surface.

A combination of cereal and legume crops reduces

input of nitrogen.

Sequential cropping:

 Interaction is non-competitive.
 Some preceding crops have an allelopathic effect
on the succeeding crop.

[150]
  Soil fertility is reduced by the preceding crop.
 Residual effect of Farmyard manure (FYM) or
phosphorus (P) fertilizer can be seen on the
succeeding crop.

Inter cropping:

 Use less competitive crops.

 Adjust time of sowing – staggered planting in
aggressive & non-aggressive crop combination.
 Adequate nutrient application as per requirement
of component crop.
 Weed control – less weed infestation compared to
mono-crops.
 Pest & disease control – less pests and diseases
due to crop diversity.

Sequential cropping:

 Use short duration & photo insensitive varieties.

 Harvest the first crop at physiological maturity to
avoid terminal drought of second crop.
 Add additional amount of N if the preceding crop
is sorghum or millet.
 Reduce N quantity if the preceding crop was a
grain legume.

[151]
  If FYM or P fertilizers are applied to the
preceding crop, reduce the input of N and p to the
succeeding crop.

The plant characteristics that influence cropping

systems are:

Plant height, crop canopy, nutrient & water

requirements, and root structure and plant products. Farm
sustainability depends on the efficient use of natural
resources (soil, water, energy, and plant diversity)
depending on the requirements of the farmers. A
sustainable system aims to optimize the production rather
than maximizing it.

An ideal sustainable cropping system is one which

includes crop combinations meeting:

 Soil and water conservation

 Efficient use of water and energy
 Enhance and maintenance of soil fertility
 Maintenance of crop yield level: and
 Farm (including crop) diversity

Scope of Farming System

 Farming enterprises include crop, livestock,

poultry, fish,
[152]
 Sericulture etc. A combination of one or more
enterprises
 with cropping when carefully chosen, planned and
executed
 gives greater dividends than a single enterprise,
especially for
 Small and marginal farmers. Farm as a unit is to
be
 considered and planned for effective integration
of the
 Enterprises to be combined with crop production
activity

***

[153]
 Agro climatic zones and Agro ecological
zones of India

Shidhant Gupta1, Deo Kumar2, Saurabh Tiwari3, and

Abhishek Raj Ranjan4

1. M. Sc. Research Scholar, Deptt. of Agro- Metrology,

ANDUAT, Kumarganj, Ayodhya, U.P.
2. Assistant professor, Deptt. of Soil Science & Agricultural
Chemistry, BUAT, Banda, U.P.
3. M.Sc. Research Scholar, Deptt. of Fruit Science,
ANDUAT, Kumarganj, Ayodhya, U.P.
4. M.Sc. Research Scholar, Deptt. of Agronomy, ANDUAT,
Kumarganj, Ayodhya, U.P.
What is Agro-Climatic Zone?

According to (FAO, 1983) an agro-climatic zone as a

land unit represented accurately or precisely in terms of
major climate and growing period, which is climatically
suitable for certain ranges of crops and cultivars. In other
words, an Agro-climatic zone is a land area/region in
terms of major climate, suitable for a particular range of
crops and varieties.

[154]
Agro-Climatic Zones/regions of India

With the 329 million hectares of the total geographical

area, the country presents a wide range of complex agro-
climatic conditions. India has been divided into fifteen
agro-climatic zones on the basis of physiographic, soils,
geological formation, Climate, cropping patterns and
development of irrigation and mineral resources for
extensive agricultural planning and developing future
strategies by the planning commission of India. To
integrate the plans of the agro-climatic regions with the
state and national plans to enable policy development based
on techno-agro-climatic considerations was the objective of
dividing the country into the agro-climatic zones. The agro-
climatic zones of India are given below:

1. Western Himalayan Region

Area: Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and the hilly

areas of Uttarakhand

Major Crops: cherry, almond, Saffron, apricot, maize,

barley, oats and wheat, peaches, pears, litchis, walnuts.

[155]
2. Eastern Himalayan Region

Area: Arunachal Pradesh, hills of Assam, Sikkim,

Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura and
Darjeeling district of West Bengal.

Major Crops: Rice, maize, potato, tea, orchards of

pineapple, litchi, oranges and limes.

3. Lower Gangetic Plain Region

Area: West Bengal (except the hilly areas), Brahmaputra

valley and eastern Bihar.

Major Crops: jute, Rice, maize, potato, and pulses

4. Middle Gangetic Plain Region

Area: Eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar

Major Crops: Rice, wheat, barley, maize, millets, gram,

peas, mustard and potato

5. Upper Gangetic Plains Region

Area: Central and western parts of Uttar Pradesh, Haridwar

and Udham Singh Nagar districts of Uttarakhand

Major Crops: wheat, rice, sugarcane, gram, barley,

millets, maize, oilseeds, pulses.

[156]
6. Trans-Ganga Plains Region

Area: Punjab, Haryana, Chandigarh, Delhi and the

Ganganagar district of Rajasthan.

Major Crops: wheat, rice, maize, sugarcane, cotton, gram,

millets, pulses and oilseeds.

7. Eastern Plateau and Hills

Area: Chhota Nagpur Plateau, Jharkhand, Orissa,

Chhattisgarh and Dandakaranya

Major Crops: rice, maize, millets, urd, oilseeds, ragi,

gram, potato, tur, groundnut, soyabean, castor and
groundnut.

8. Central Plateau and Hills

Area: Vindhyan Hills, Baghelkhand, Bundelkhand,

Bhander Plateau and Malwa Plateau.

Major Crops: wheat, gram, millets, oilseeds, cotton and

sunflower

9. Western Plateau and Hills

Area: Deccan plateau and Southern parts of Malwa

plateau.

[157]
Major Crops: Wheat, gram, millets, pulses, oilseeds,
groundnut, cotton, rice, wheat, oranges, grapes and
bananas.

10. Southern Plateau and Hills

Area: Deccan and parts of southern Maharashtra, parts of

Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu uplands from
Adilabad district of the north to Madurai District in the
south.

Major Crops: coffee, tea, millets, oilseeds, pulses,

cardamom and spices.

11. Eastern Coastal Plains and Hills

Area: Coro mandal and northern coasts of Andhra Pradesh

and Orissa

Major Crops: Rice, jute, millets, tobacco, sugarcane,

maize, groundnut and oilseeds

12. Western Coastal Plains and Ghats

Area: Konkan and Malabar coastal plains and the

Sahyadris.

Major Crops: coconut, oilseeds, millets, pulses, Rice,

sugarcane and cotton

[158]
13. Gujarat Plains and Hills

Area: Hills and plains of Kathiawar, fertile valleys of Mahi

and Sabarmati rivers.

Major Crops: Groundnut, cotton, millets, oilseeds, rice,

wheat and tobacco.

14. Western Dry Region

Area: Western parts of Aravallis (Rajasthan)

Major Crops: jwar, Bajra, wheat, moth and gram

15. Island Region

Area: Andaman & Nicobar and Lakshadweep.

Major Crops: rice, maize, arecanut, millets, pulses,

cassava and turmeric.

[159]
Agro ecological zones of India:

India has a variety of vegetation and climatic conditions

and this is reflected in the development of various soils and
types of vegetation. Based on 50 years of climatic data and
soil databases, the country has been divided into 20 agro-
ecological zones (AEZs). Each Agro Ecological Zone is as
uniform as possible in terms of physiographic, climatic,
length of growing period and type of soil for macro level
land-use planning and effective transfer of technology.

Important Features of Agro-ecological Zones of India

[160]
[161]
 (Source: www.fao.org)

(Image source: lotus arise)

[162]
 Agro-Meteorological Observatory

S.R. Mishra1, Sidhant Gupta2, R.K. Aryan3 and A.K.

Singh4
1. Associate Professor, Deptt. of Agro. Metrology, ANDUAT,
Ayodhya, U.P.
2. M.Sc. Research Scholar, Deptt. Of Agro. Metrology,
ANDUAT, Ayodhya, U.P.
3. Ph. D. Research Scholar, Deptt. of Agril. Metrology,
ANDUAT, Ayodhya, U.P.
4. Associate Prof. Deptt. of Agronomy, A.N.D.UAT,
Ayodhya, U.P.
Agro-Meteorological Observatory:

Agro-meteorological observatory is a place where all

the necessary instruments are installed to observe and
record different weather elements or parameters at
stipulated interval of time. When the observations are
recorded for a sufficiently long period of time and analyzed
statistically, reliable crop-weather relations can be
retrieved.

or

Agro meteorological observatories are those stations at

which physical elements of climate and agriculture and
allied sectors are observed to explore crop-weather
relationships.
[163]
 Therefore, an agro-meteorological observatory is
crucial to record the weather phenomena for better
understanding of crop-weather relationships leading to
improvement in crop productivity.

Types of observatories

On the basis of instrumental availability, observer type,

data observation frequency and mode of data transmission,
India Meteorological Department has divided general
observatories into six classes:

Class I (Special station): Autographic recording and

eye recording, all data elements are recorded at least
thrice (0530, 1130,1430,2030,0230 IST).

Class II (Synoptic station): Eye reading, nearly all

facts recorded at the least twice (0830, 1730 IST).

Class III (Synoptic station): Eye reading, data are

recorded part time once in a day (0830 IST).

Class IV (Climatological station): Eye reading

without barometer all data are recorded except
pressure once a day.

Class V (Rainfall station): only Eye reading, rainfall is

recorded daily.

[164]
 Class VI (Less or Non instrument station): Less or
no instrument, wind direction, cloud, speed
visibility etc. are recorded daily.

Depending on the availability of instruments and number of

weather elements/parameters observed, agro-
meteorological observatories are classified into 3 major A,
B and C and 2 minor D and E classes.

Class A, B and C observatories are supplied with each

eye analyzing and self-recording instruments. Observations
in Class A observatories are at an interval of three hours in
a day, from Class B thrice daily and from Class C once in a
day.

World Meteorological Organization (WMD) has

divided Agro-met observatories into four categories:

[165]
 1. Principal agro-met observatories,

2. Ordinary agro-met observatories,

3. Auxiliary and

4. Specific purpose Agro-met observatories.

(1) Auxiliary ( or class C) observatory:

Essential instruments: Single Stevenson screen with Dry

and Wet bulb thermometer with one spare set of
thermometers, Minimum and Maximum thermometer,
Non-recording rain-guage and measuring cylinder.

Optional instruments: Wind vane, Anemometer and

Dewgauge

(2) Ordinary (or class B) observatory:

Essential instruments: Single Stevenson screen with Dry

bulb thermometer Wet bulb thermometer with one spare set
of thermometers Minimum thermometer Maximum
thermometer, Non-recording rainguage and measuring
glass (with one spare measuring glass), Soil thermometers
at the depth of 5, 10, and 20 cms along with the stand,
Class A pan evaporimeter with fixed point gauge covered
with a wire mesh and an ordinary thermometer for

[166]
measuring water temperature in the evaporimeter, Wind
vane and Anemometer

Optional instruments: Dew-gauge, Sunshine recorder,

Self recording rain-guage and Double Stevenson screen
with thermograph and hygrograph.

Layout of B-type agro-meteorological observatory:

Instrument Height from ground

level In feet(ft.)
approx.
Sunshine recorder 3.68 m or 12 ft.
Anemometer 3.08 m or 10 ft.
Wind vane 3.08 m or 10 ft.
Automatic 75 cm or 2.4 ft.
raingauge
Ordinary rain gauge 30 cm or 0.9 ft.
Evaporation pan 30 cm or 0.9 ft.
Stevenson screen 1.22 m or 4.0 ft.

(2) Principal (or class A) observatory: Instruments of

class B observatory, Self recording rain-guage,
Thermograph and Hygrograph.

[167]
Site selection should meet the following basic
requirements:

1. The site should be the representative of the area.

2. As far as possible, the observatory should be at the

centre of the farm.

3. The observatory should be free from water-logging

condition during rainy season and easily accessible.
[168]
 4. It should be away from irrigation channels and tall
structures like buildings, mountains and trees. The
site should be at a distance of 10 times of the height
of such obstacles, if these structures occur.

5. The site should be well levelled without any sloppy

land.

6. The site should be selected once for all.

Ideal site for an observatory should be a well exposed,

bare, well levelled having a plot of size of 60 m (N-S) x 40
m (E-W) located more or less at the centre of the farm. A
gate at suitable area with inside the barbed cord fence must
be provided. In general, agro-meteorological observatories
are most commonly set up in all Agricultural Universities
under the technical steering of IMD, Pune.

Classification of Agro-Meteorological Observatory:

Climatologically observatory is supposed for reading

the impact of climate. Synoptic observatory is maintained
for the take a look at of weather. Agro-meteorologocal
observatory is maintained for agricultural research.

The meteorological elements observed, includes:

a. Rainfall.

[169]
 b. Air and soil temperature.

c. Humidity.

d. Soil moisture.

e. Wind.

f. Pan evaporation.

g. Sunshine.

h. Occurrence of storms, frost, high wind etc.

These observations are recorded at 0700 and 1400 hrs

LMT. While, evaporation and rainfall observations are
recorded at 0830 hrs IST and 1400 hrs LMT.

Meteorological instruments/equipments for an ordinary

observatory are given below:

Essential instruments:

i. Dry-bulb thermometer

ii. Wet-bulb thermometer

iii. Maximum thermometer

iv. Minimum thermometer

v. Single Stevenson screen

vi. Rain gauge (non-recording)

[170]
 vii. Soil thermometers (5, 10, 15 cm)

viii.Wind vane

ix. Anemometer

x. Class A open pan evaporimeter

xi. Assmann psychrometer

xii. Soil moisture equipment

Optional Instruments:

i. Sunshine recorder

ii. Dew gauge

iii. Self-recording rain gauge

iv. Thermograph

v. Hair hygrograph

vi. Double Stevenson screen

The instruments are installed in the observatory in a

specified sequence according to height of the instruments
and path of the sunrays. As for as possible, taller
instruments should be placed at the northern direction and
shorter ones in the southern side of the gate.

[171]
The D-type or Pilot Balloon cum Micro Meteo Stations
was started under the desert locust meteorology scheme.
They offer low-stage winds to help in the problem of
expected wind for antilocust observations.

The IMD handles E-Type or Evapotranspiration

Stations for measuring evapotranspiration by means of
using lysimeter.

Units of parameters:

Instrument Parameter Unit

Wind Vane Wind direction
directions Degree (0 to
360°)
Psychrometer, Relative Per cent (%)
hygrograph humidity
Rain gauge, Precipitation mm/day
dewgauge and , RF
snowguage
Evaporimeters Evaporation mm/day
Sunshine Duration of hours (hrs)
recorder sunshine
hours
Visual observed Cloud cover Oktas (0 to 8)
in the
observatory
Barometer, Atmospheric Mb , mm of
Barograph pressure Hg, pascal

[172]
 Thermometer, Temperature Degree
Thermograph Celsius (°C)
Anemometer, Wind speed kmph, mps
Anemograph
Anemometer,

Thermometers: Thermometers are consisting of closed

glass tubes with a ‗bulb‘ at the end. As the air gets hotter,
the level of the liquid (Hg or alcohol) rises and as the air
gets cooler, the liquid level falls.

Thermograph: Automatic self recording thermometers

which mark the prevailing temperature continuously on
graph paper are called thermograph.

Uses of Thermometers in agriculture: By measuring

temperature farmers should control the losses due to
Chilling injury, freezing injury, Scorching & Burning off.

Anemometers: The most common type anemometer is the

Robinson Cup Anemometer. Anemometers are instruments
used for the measurement of wind speed. Now days digital
anemometers are also used for the measurement of wind
speed.

Ultrasonic Anemometer: it is consists of a number of ―Z"

shaped sensors/transducers through which sonic pulses are
[173]
transmitted and received. These pulses measure the wind
speed very accurately.

Uses of Anemometers in agriculture: It is important to

know about the wind speed for spraying and for the design
of wind protection. Early in the morning, when wind
speeds are low (<3kmph), may seem to be a good time to
spray. Extreme winds cause mechanical damage to crops.
In general plant growth appears to be inhibited by wind
speed more than 10km/hr. Moderate turbulence promotes
the consumption of CO2 by crops during photosynthesis.
Action of wind on soil causes soil erosion and transport of
particles and dust.

Wind vane: Wind vane is an instrument that indicates the

direction of wind from which the wind is blowing. It
consists essentially of a broad arrow head placed in ball
bearings to enable the arrow to move freely in the
horizontal plane. The arrow indicates the direction of wind.

Pscychrometer: This is an instrument used to measure

humidity.

Other instrument used to measure RH are-

[174]
Stevenson screen: Low humidity occurs when the
difference between the dry bulb temperature and the wet
bulb temperature are far apart.

Hygrometer: it measures relative humidity. There are

several types of hygrometers (coil, hair tension, capacitive,
resistive and others), whose operation is based on different
principles. When a hygrometer is transformed into a self
recording device it is called as a hygrograph.

Uses of Psychrometers in agriculture: A reading of 100%

RH- creates the possibility of rain. Transpiration and water
necessities of flora are depending on humidity. Extremely
excessive humidity complements the boom of a few
saprophytic and parasitic fungi, micro organism and pests,
the boom of which reasons large harm to crop flora.
Extremely low humidity reduces the yield of crops. The
Grain equilibrium moisture content (EMC) is depending
upon the relative humidity and the temperature of the air.

Rain gauge: Manual rain gauges collect water in a tube so

one can see how much rainfall is received. Automatic rain
gauge (siphon type or the tipping- bucket type) help to
track daily, weekly and monthly rainfall history on a chart
mounted on a drum which rotates round a vertical axis once
per day.
[175]
Uses of Rain gauge in agriculture: Knowing the quantity
of rainfall received, farmers need to plan for quantity of
irrigation consistent with crop water requirement. The
quantity of rainfall is the maximum vital determinant of the
kind of crop raised. Wet plants are raised in moist quarter
and dry plants with inside the dry quarter. Measurement of
rainfall can substantially useful resource with inside the
usual purpose to enhance plant fitness and yields, to keep
treasured resources, to apply inputs greater effectively and
to reduce the general effect at the environment

Evaporimeter: Evaporimeter is an instrument that

measures the rate of evaporation of water into the
atmosphere, once in a while referred to as an atmometer. A
variety of evaporation pans are used throughout the world.
The standard USWB Class-A pan evaporimeter is the most
widely for finding evaporation from the free water surface.
Evaporation is measured daily as the depth of water (in
mm) evaporates from the pan.

Uses of Evaporimeters in agriculture: For Irrigation

scheduling. Pan evaporation measurements enable farmers
to understand how much water their crops will need. Daily
Epan readings provide a practical basis for estimating daily

[176]
ETc by use of a pan factor (Kp) and thus determining the
amount of water required to replace crop water use.

Sunshine recorder: Campbell-Stokes sunshine recorder

which uses a spherical glass lens to focus the sun rays on a
specially designed tape, when the intensity of sunshine
surpasses a predetermined threshold, the tape burns. The
duration of the burn hint is proportional to the quantity of
vivid hours.

Uses of Sunshine recorder in agriculture: Sunshine,

without delay thru radiation and circuitously thru its impact
upon air temperatures, affects the distribution of crops By
using photodiode based readings, farmers should predict an
idea about dry matter yield in advance, evaporation and
transpiration losses can be estimated, irrigation need to be
controlled to keep away from water strain at some stage in
intervals of excessive sun radiation and excessive
temperature.

Cloud cover: The amount of cloud cover at any given

location can be measured by using unit- Okta. Sky
situations are expected in phrases of what number of
eighths of the sky is protected in cloud, starting from zero
oktas (absolutely clear sky) to eight oktas (absolutely
overcast). In addition, with inside the SYNOP code there
[177]
may be a further cloud cover indicator '9' indicating that the
sky is absolutely obscured normally because of dense fog
or heavy snow.

Uses of Cloud cover in agriculture: Cloud cover

indirectly affects agriculture by affecting other weather
parameters like-

 Effect on evapo-transpiration: Clear sky enhance

the effect of solar radiation and hence ET.
 Effect on Rainfall: The thicker clouds associated
with heavier and less frequent rainfalls.
 Effect on Solar radiation: overcast reduces the
solar radiations, hence crop growth and
development.

Barometer: Barometers are used to measure the current air

pressure at a selected region in "inches of mercury" or in
‗mill bars‘ (mb). The generally used barometer in
meteorological observatories is Fortin‘s barometer.

Barograph: this instrument records the pressure

continuously.

Uses of Barometer in agriculture: Atmospheric pressure

has no direct influence on crop growth. It is, however an
important parameter in weather forecasting. Falling air
[178]
pressure usually means that warmer moist air is coming, so
there will be wet weather. Low-pressure systems are
associated with cloudy, rainy, or windy weather. Rising air
pressure usually means that cooler, drier air is coming, so
there will be fair weather. A rapid increase in atmospheric
pressure pushes the cloudy and rainy weather out, clearing
the skies and bringing in cool, dry air.

***

[179]
 References

2001: Lecture Notes for Training Agricultural

Meteorological Personnel (J. Wieringa and J. Lomas).
Second edition (WMO-No. 551), Geneva

Ahamad, L., Kanth, R.H., Parvaze, S. and Mahdi, S.S.

2018. Experimental Agrometeorology: A Practical
Manual. Springer International Publishing AG. pp 23.

Lomas, J., 1999. Education and training in agricultural

meteorology – current status and future needs. WMO
Bulletin, 48: 379–384.

Murthy, V.R.K., 2002: Basic Principles of Agricultural

Meteorology. Hyderabad, Book Syndicate
Publications.

Practical Manual of Introductory Agro-Meteorology &

Climate Change (13A.266). Jharkhand Rai University
Ranchi, Jharkhand

Rijks, D. and M.W. Baradas, 2000: The clients for

agrometeorological information. Agric. For.
Meteorol., 103:27–42

[180]
World Meteorological Organization, 2000: Education
and Training in Agrometeorology (J. Lomas, J.
Collins, S. Gachara and S. Mukhopadhyay).
Commission for Agricultural Meteorology Report No.
78 (WMO/TD-No. 990), Geneva.

www.agricultureinindia.net/agronomy/crop-
production/agro-meteorological-observatory-meaning-
and-classification-agronomy

***

[181]
 ISOLATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF
PLANT GROWTH PROMOTING RHIZOBACTERIA
(PGPR) OF PULSE CROPS

Niyaj Ahamad1, Adesh Kumar1 and R.K. Aryan2

1. Department of Plant Molecular Biology & Genetic

Engineering, ANDUAT, Kumarganj, Ayodhya (U.P.) 224229,
India.

2. Department of Agricultural Meteorology, ANDUAT,

Kumarganj, Ayodhya (U.P.) 224229, India.

Introduction

Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) are

groups of beneficial bacteria that promote plant growth and
biocontrol by variety of mechaninsms. In the context of
increasing global concern for food quality and
environmental issues, the utilization of PGPR for
minimizing chemical inputs in agriculture practices is a
potentially important issue.

PGPR could be defined as beneficial bacterial strains

that colonize the roots of plant for plant growth stimulation
and biocontrol potential. They can affect plant growth by
promoting plant-microb symbiosis, competition for

[182]
colonization space and nutrients and decreasing the
activities of plant pathogenic microbes. PGPR stimulates
plant growth and biocontrol by variety of direct and
indirect mechanisms. Direct mechanism of PGPR includes
facilitating availability of resources i.e. solubilisation of
phosphate, nitrogen fixation, iron acquisition by
siderophore and modulating proper level of plant hormones
like auxins, cytokinins and gibberellins and lowering the
level of ethylene by production of ACC deaminase enzyme.
Indirect mechanisms of PGPR include suppression of
fungal, bacterial and likewise chitinase, protease, cellulose,
antibiotics, HCN, ammonia and volatile organic compound
etc. Several other mechanism of indirect growth promotion
by PGPR include antagonistic activities, signal
interference, quorum sensing, inhibition of biofilm
formation, systemic acquired resistance and induced
systemic resistance, inhibition of biofilm formation,
increasing mineral nutrient solubilisation. PGPR isolates
have been isolated and screened from rhizospheric soil of
diverse pulse and other crops to enhance growth, seed
emergence, crop yield and production. PGPR have been
commercially used as microbial bioinoculants of
biofertilizers to enhance crop production. PGPR offers and

[183]
attractive strategy for replacement and reduction of high
amount of chemical pesticides and fertilizers (Tiwari et. al.,
2016).

Mechanisms of PGPR

Formation of PGPR colonies roots of plant and exert

beneficial effects on plant growth and development by
variety of mechanisms. The precise mechanism by that the
efficient PGPR promotes plant growth and productivity,
like production of phytohormones, solubilisation of
phosphate, enhancement of the mineral nutrient uptake and
suppression of soil born plant pathogens (Tiwari et. al.,
2016). Characterization, selection and utilization of the
rhizobacteria to improve the amount of nitrogen fixed so as
to increase the yield. SomeRhizobium leguminosarum bv.
viciae strains are considered as plant growth promoting
rhizobacteria (PGPR), as they can promote the growth of
non-leguminous crops through mechanisms that are
independent for biological nitrogen fixation (Antoun et. al.,
1998; Yanni et. al., 2001; Sommers and Vanderleyden,
2004). Rhizospheric bacteria that have capability of
stimulating the plant growth by colonizing roots are known
as PGPR (Kloepper, 1993). PGPR stimulates plant growth
directly either by synthesizing phytohormones such as
[184]
indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) or by enhancing the process of
nutrition uptake such as phosphate solubilizaiotn and
siderophore production, which facilitate phosphoruc and
iron uptake from soil (Kloepper, 1993; Leppmann et. al.,
1995). Plant growth promoting bacteria can also stimulate
growth indirectly by protecting the plant against soil-born
fungal pathogens (O‘ Sullivan and O‘ Gara, 1992). Several
studies reported that Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. viciae
give characteristcs of phosphate solubilizaiton, siderophore
and phytohormones production, and biocontrol activity
with PGPR strains (Antoun et. al., 1998; Yanni et. al.,
2001; Vergas et. al., 2009). Such types of rhizobacterial
strains could be used as wide range (Wolde-maskel, 2007)
multipurpose inoculants for both leguminous and non-
leguminous crop grown on rotations of subsequently.

[185]
Figure 1- rhizosphere/bacteria interactions. A) Different
types of association occurs between plant roots and
beneficial soil bacteria. B) after colonization or symbiotic
association with roots and rhizosphere, bacteria can benefit
the plant by (i) tolerance of abiotic stress through action of
ACC deaminase. (ii) dfense against plant pathogens by the
presence of competitive traits such as siderophore
production. (iii) increase of fertility and plant growth
through biological N2 fixatiom (BNF), IAA (Indole 3-
acetic acid) production, and phosphate solubilizaiton
around roots.

The Mechanisms of Plant Growth Promotion

Plant growth promoting bacteria and their mechanisms

can influence may differ in among species and strains, so
typically there is no single mechanisms for plant growth
promotion. Studies conducted regarding the capabilities of
variety of bacteria to promote plant growth, among them
the endophytic bacteria. Endophytes of simply defined as
the bacteria of fungi that colonize internal plant tissues,
cabn be isolated form the plant after surface disinfection
and cause no negative effects on plant growth at various
stages of the host plant life cycle by different mechanisms

[186]
(Fig. 1B). Here we discuss some important mechanisms of
plant growth promoting bacteria.

Biological Nitrogen Fixation

All the organisms require nitrogen to synthesize

biomolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids. However
atmospheric nitrogen is the main source of nitrogen, and it
is not accessible to many living organisms, including
eukaryotes. Biological nitrogen fixation is the process
responsible for reduction of nitrogen to ammonia (NH3)
(Newton, 2000; Franche et. al., 2009). Root nodules
leguminous plants areconfined by the soil bacteria of the
Rhizobiaceae (Rhizobia) family (willems, 2007). Rhizobia
effectively perform biological nitrogen fixation within
these nodules through adequate control of the presence of
oxygen, and inhinitor of nitrogenase activity (Dixon and
Kahn, 2004; Shridhar, 2012).

Production of Indolic Compounds

The effect of bacteria in the plant rhizosphere is largely

due to the production of auxin phytohormones (Spaenpen
et. al., 2007). Many bacterial species can produce indolic
compounds such as the auxin phytohormone indole-3-
acetic acid (IAA), that is great physiological relevance for

[187]
bacteria and plant interactions, varying from pathogenesis
to phytostimulation (Spaenpen et. al., 2007). Other studies
have shown that the rhizospheric bacteria produce more
indolic compound than bulk of soil bacteria (Khalid et. al.,
2004), and in a recent study of Costa et. al., (2014) has
showed that these effects was observed also in the
Enterobacteriaceae family (Escherichia, Enterobacter,
Grimontella, Klebsiella, Pantoea, and Rahnella). Soil
microorganisms are able to synthsize and catabolize IAA.
The Bacillus japonicum has been well characterized for
catabolizing the IAA. (Jensen et. al., 1995) and
Pseudomonas putida 1290 also (Leveau and Lindow,
2005). IAA is used as the sole source of carbon, nitrogen
and energy by the Pseudomonas putida 1290. In this
context, IAA catabolizing microorganisms make positive
effects on plant growth and prevent the attacks of pathogen.
(Leveau and Lindow, 2005).

Siderophore Production

Iron is an essential micronutrients for plant and

microorganisms, because it involves in various important
biological process, like photosynthesis, respiration,
synthesis of chlorophyll (Kobayshi and Nishizawa, 2012),
and biological nitrogen fixation (Dixon and Kahn, 2004). In
[188]
anaeronic and acidic soils, like flooded soils, high amount
of concentrations of ferrous (Fe2+) ions generated by the
reduction of ferric (Fe3+) ions may lead to iron toxicity as
the excessive Fe uptake (Stein et. al., 2009). Under aerobic
conditions, low iron solubility, reflecting the predominance
of Fe3+ typically it observed as oxyhydroxide polymers, by
limit supply for different forms of life, particularly in
calcareous soils (Andrews et. al., 2003; Lemanceau et. al.,
2009). Active strategy for iron uptake have been developed
by microorganisms. Limitation of iron nutrient can
overcome in bacteria by using chelator agents known as
siderophores. Siderophore is low molecular-mass
molecules (<1000 Da) with high specifictity and affinity
for chelating or binding Fe3+ followed by transportation
and depostition of Fe within bacterial cells (Neilands, 1995;
Krewulak and Vogel, 2008). The excretion of siderophores
by bacteria may promote plant growth, thereby improving
nutrition (direct effect or inhibition of establishment of
phytopathogens (indirect effect) by the sequestration of Fe
from the environment. Unlike plant pathogenic microbes,
plants are not affected by bacterial mediated Fe depletion,
and some plants can even capture and utilize Fe3+
siderophore of bacterial complex (Dimkpa et. al., 2011).

[189]
ACC Deaminase Activity

The endogenously produced gaseous phytohormone

that is ethylene is acts at low concentrations, participates in
regulation of all the processes of plant growth,
development and senescence (Shahroona et. al., 2006;
Saleem et. al., 2007). Additionally it is acts as a plant
growth regulator, 404 Souza et. al., ethylene has been
identified as a stress phytohormone. Under stresses such as
abiotic and biotic (including flooding, pathogen damage,
drought, salt, organic and inorganic contaminants),
production of endogenous ethylene is substantially
accelerated and affects adversely the growth of roots and
thus the growth plant as a whole. Various mechanisms have
been investigated and aiming to reduce the levels of
ethylene in plants. The mechanisms involve the activity of
bacterial enzyme 1-aminocyclopropane-1carboxylate
(ACC) deaminase (Glick, 2005; Jalili et. al., 2009;
Farajzadah et. al., 2012). A considerable amount of plant
ACC might be excreted from the plant roots and
subsequently uptake by the soil microorganisms and
hydrolysed by the enzyme ACC deaminase, thus lowering
the amount of ACC in the environment. When they
accumulated with plant roots, soil microbes with ACC

[190]
deaminse activity could have a better growth than other
free living microorganisms; these organisms utilizes ACC
as the source of nitrogen (Glick, 2005).

Phosphate solubilisation

Plants required the phosphorus as an essential plant

nutrient, as the structural components of nucleic acids,
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and phospholipids, which is
the key element of metabolic and biochemical pathway,
particularly important for biological nitrogen fixation and
photosynthesis (Khan et. al., 2009; Richardson and
Simpson, 2011). Plants usually utilize the phosphorus in
two soluble form; the monobasic (H2PO4-) and the dibasic
(HPO42-) (Glass, 1989).However large amount of P is
available in the insoluble form and is ultimately not
available for plant nutrition. Low amount of P shows the
high reactivity of phosphate with other soluble components.
(Khan et. al., 2009), like aluminium in acidic soill (pH < 7)
and calcium in alkaline siol (pH > 7). (Holford, 1997;
McLaughlin et. al., 2011). Organic and inorganic
compound usually in the form of insoluble mineral
complex is major sources of P availability in the soil
(Rodriguez et. al., 2006; Richardson and Simpson, 2011).
Therefore, P availability depends on this element solubility,
[191]
that could be influenced be activity of microorganisms and
plant roots in the soil. PSB and fungi available about 1-
50% and 0.1-0.5 %, respectively, of total population of
cultivable microorganisms in the soils (Chabot et. al., 1993;
Khan et, al., 2009).

Inorganic phosphate like Ca3(PO4)2, FePO4, and

AIPO4 are solubilizes by phosphate solubilizing bacteria.,
by the production of organic acids, siderophores, and
hydroxyl PGPB in agricultural soil (Jones, 1998; Chen et.
al., 2006, Sharma et. al., 2013). Some microorganisms are
able to solubilize calcium phosphate or other forms of
inorganic phosphates at different intensities. Enteroacter,
Pantoea and Klebsiella bacterial isolates solubilize
Ca3(PO4)2 to a greater extent than FePO4 and AIPO4
(Chung et. al., 2005). The organic acid production and
carboxylic acid is one of the important mechanisms utilized
by microorganisms for solubilisation of inorganic
phosphate (Rodriguez and Fraga, 1999).

***

[192]
 Conclusions

The microbial communities present in rehizospheric

soil play a significant role in crop production, soil structure
and soil heath. Pulses are known to improve soil health as
they harbour beneficial microbes in their rhizophere. The
combination of different methodologies with these bacteria,
such as identification of plant growth promoting
characteristics, the identification of bacterial strains, as well
as assays of seed inoculation in laboratory conditions and
cultivation expremints in the field, are part of the search for
new technologies for agricultural crops.

***

[193]
 References

Arshad, M., Saleem, M., and Hussain, S. (2007)

Perspectives of bacterial ACC deaminase in
phytoremediation. Trends Biotechnol25:356-362.

Bacon, C. W., and Hinton, D. M. (2006) Bacterial

endophytes: The endophytic niche, its occupants, and
its utility. In: Gnanamanickam SS (Ed) Plant-
Associated Bacteria. Springer, Netherlands, pp 155-
194.

Chen, Y. P., Rekha, P. D., Arun, A. B., Shen, F. T., Lai,

W. A., and Young, C. C. (2006) Phosphate slubilizing
bacteria from subtropical soil and their tricalcium
phosphate solubilizing abilities. Applied Soil Ecol.
34:33-41.

Franche, C., Lindström, K., and Elmerich, C. (2009)

Nitrogen-fixing bacteria associated with leguminous
and non-leguminous plants. Plant Soil 321:35-59.

***

[194]
 MOISTURE STRESS

Ankit Gupta*, Hariom Mishra*, Deepraj Verma*, Asheesh

Kumar* and Nitees Kumar**

[*M.Sc. (Ag.) Agronomy, Collage of Agriculture, ANDUAT,

Kumarganj, Ayodhya, U.P.]

[**M.Sc. (Ag.) Crop Physiology, Collage of Agriculture,

ANDUAT, Kumarganj, Ayodhya, U.P.]

MOISTURE STRESS

 In biology, stress is the result of action of external

factor on an organism.
 Moisture stress indicates the action of lack of or
excess of water on plants.
 The term moisture stress is generally used for
deficit moisture conditions though it is applicable
to excess moisture also.

Development of moisture stress

• Water deficits occur in the plant whenever

transpiration exceeds absorption.

• It may be due to excessive water loss, reduced

absorption of water from soil or both.

[195]
• After irrigation or rain, water deficits develop
gradually. Through there is sufficient amount of soil
moisture, water deficits develop due to higher
transpiration than absorption especially on hot mid-
days. This temporary wilting is known as incipient
wilting or middy depression.

• As days progress, the soil moisture is depleted and

plants cannot absorb sufficient amount of water to meet
the high demand. Water deficits, therefore, occur for
prolonged period, stomata are open for a short period in
the morning and evening and partially closed during the
rest of the day. When the soil moisture reaches about –
15 bars, plants show wilting symptoms most of the day,
but do not die and it is known as permanent wilting
point. Plants recover when irrigation is given or rain is
received.

• If the soil moisture is further allowed to deplete to a

level of -60 bars, plants die permanently and this is
known as ultimate wilting point.

[196]
A.) EFFECTS OF MOISTURE STRESS

a.) Water relations

• It alters the water status by its influence on

absorption, translocation and transpiration.

• Moisture stressed plants manifest typical reduction

in leaf water potential and relative water content.

• Water deficits also cause increase in leaf and

canopy temperature.

b.) Photosynthesis

• Photosynthesis is reduced by moisture stress due to

reduction in photosynthetic rate, chlorophyll content,
leaf area and increase in assimilate saturation in leaves.

• The photosynthetic process i.e. entry of carbon

dioxide into the leaf, photochemical reactions and
reduction of carbon dioxide are affected by moisture
stress.

• Reduction in photosynthesis due to moisture stress

in mainly by the reduction in leaf area than by
photosynthetic rate.

• Translocation of assimilates is affected by water

stress. Between the two processes viz. Translocation of
[197]
 photosynthates and photosynthesis, translocation is
more reduced due to moisture stress than net
photosynthesis.

c.) Respiration

• Respiration increases with mild stress. However, as

the water deficits become severe, it decreases

d.) Anatomical changes

• Periodical water stress leads to anatomical changes

like decrease in size of the cells and intercellular
spaces, thicker cell wall and greater development of
mechanical tissue

e.) Metabolic reaction

Accumulation of sugars and amino acids takes place

under moisture stress. Proline, an amino acid, accumulates
whenever there is moisture stress.

f.) Hormonal relationships

• As a consequence of water deficits, hormonal

balance is altered. The activity of growth promoting
hormones like cytokinin, gibberellic acid and auxins
decreases and growth regulating hormone like abscisic
acid, ethylene, increases.

[198]
 • Abscisic acid content is inversely related to leaf
water potential. Abscisic acid acts as water deficit
sensor

• Betain is another hormone produced by the

moisture stressed plants and it is used as an indicator of
moisture stress.

g.) Nutrition

• Moisture stress affects fixation, uptake and

assimilation of nitrogen.

• Nitrogen fixation by leguminous plants is reduced

due to reduction in leghaemoglobin in nodules, specific
nodules activity and number of nodules.

• Nitrogenase activity in the nodules, is less in

stressed plants.

• Moisture stress also delays nodule formation in

leguminous crops.

• Nutrient uptake is the product of nutrient content

and dry matter produced.

• Moisture stress may or may not reduce nutrient

content but reduces dry matter production considerably.
As a result, nutrient uptake is reduced.

[199]
h.) Growth

• Generally, the organ growing most rapidly at the

time of stress is the one most affected.

• The expansion of cells and cell division are reduced

due to moisture stress resulting in decrease in growth of
leaves, stems and fruits.

i.) Development

• In general, moisture stress delays maturity.

• The general rule is that if stress occurs before

flowering, the duration of the crop increases and when
it occurs after flowering, the duration decreases.

j.) Reproduction and Grain Growth

• Moisture regime during flowering and grain

development determines the number of fruits and
individuals grain weight respectively.

• For many crop plants, especially cereals, moisture

stress at panicle initiation is critical.

• Anthesis is another important moisture sensitive

stage

[200]
 • However, vegetative and grain filling stages are less
sensitive to moisture stress.

k.) Yield

• The effect of water stress on yield depends largely

on what proportion of the total dry matter produced is
considered as useful material to be harvested when the
yield consists of mostly aerial parts like forage crops,
tobacco etc. the effect of moisture stress is the same as
those on total growth.

• When the yield consists of underground storage

organs as in potatoes, sugarbeets etc., it will be as
sensitive as total growth.

• When the yield is fibre or chemicals where

economic product is a small fraction of total dry matter,
moderate stress on growth does not have adverse effect
on yields.

B.) CROP ADAPTATIONS

 The ability of crop of grow satisfactorily under

water stress is called drought adaptation.
 Adaptation is structural or functional modification
in plants to survive and reproduce in a particular
environment.
[201]
  Crops survive and grow under moisture stress
conditions mainly by two ways :

A. Escaping drought and

B. Drought resistance.

Fig. Flow chart showing different mechanism for

overcoming moisture stress

C.) ESCAPING DROUGHT

 Evading the period of drought is the simplest

means of adaptation of plants to dry conditions.

[202]
  Ability of a cultivar to mature before the soil dries
(Ephemerals) is the main adaptation to growth in
dry regions.
 Certain varieties of pearl millet mature within 60
days after sowing.
 Short duration pulses like cowpea, green gram,
black gram can be included in this category.

D.) DROUGHT RESISTANCE

Plants can adapt to drought either by avoiding stress or

by tolerating stress due to different mechanisms.

a.) Avoiding stress

• Stress avoidance is the ability to maintain a

favorable water balance and turgidity even when
exposed to drought conditions, thereby avoiding stress
and its consequences.

• Can be achieved either by (i) Conserving water by

restricting transpiration, (ii) Accelerating water uptake
sufficiently to replenish the lost water.

 Mechanisms to conserve water

• Stomatal mechanism: Drought resistant varieties

close stomata when drought prevail and open their

[203]
stomata more rapidly in the early morning when
moisture stress is at its minimum.

• Increased photosynthetic efficiency: When

stomata are closed as a mechanism against water loss,
photosynthesis is affected due to reduction in entry of
carbon-di-oxide through stomata. Some plants
overcome this problem by their increased
photosynthetic efficiency (C4 plants). C4 plants are said
to be drought resistant. Sorghum, maize, pearl millet,
and sugarcane can photosynthesize even when carbon
dioxide concentration is 100ppm. The plants with
crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) are highly
drought resistant. They open stomata only during night
and during the day, as the stomata are closed, carbon
dioxide does not enter the leaves.

• Lipid deposits on leaves: Soybean, sorghum etc. to

reduce water loss, depositing lipids on plant surfaces
under moisture stress.

• Reduction in leaf area: Plants reduce transpiration

by limiting leaf area of the plants. Water deficits reduce
tillering or branching which in turn reduces the leaf
area resulting in less transpiration. The individual leaf
size is also reduced.
[204]
 • In grasses, the leaves roll or curl due to moisture
stress and thus reduce the area exposed to solar
radiation.

• Leguminous plants show parahelionastic

movements i.e. the leaves are oriented parallel to sun
rays thus avoiding the load of solar radiation.

• Senescence or drooping of leaves is another

mechanism for reducing leaf area.

• Leaf surface: Leaves with thick cuticle, waxy

surface and spines are common and effective to reduce
transpiration.

• Effect of Awns: Awned varieties give more yield

under drought conditions compared to awn-less
varieties. Awns contribute 12% of photosynthates to
grain.

• Water storage in plants: Water stored in plants is

considered as an adaptive mechanism. However, its
significance is small in crop plants.

II.) Mechanism to improve water uptake

• Drought avoidance is promoted by well developed

deep root system with high efficiency to extract water

[205]
from deeper layers of soil. This mechanism is desirable
only if there is sufficient soil moisture in deeper layers
for extraction.

• Efficient root system: Deep, well branched and

rapidly growing root system helps in absorbing more
moisture by exploiting higher volume of soil. It is an
important morphological adaptation that helps in
drought resistance without losing productivity.

• Root-shoot ratio: If the roots are more compared to

transpiring shoot, water balance can be maintained.
Drought increases root growth and root-shoot ratio.

• Increase in liquid phase conductance: To

maintain high water potential in plants, not only uptake
is important, but also conductance. Lowering of
resistance to water can be achieved by increasing either
diameter of xylem vessels or their number.

• Osmotic adjustment: Stress induced break down

of carbohydrates and proteins increase the
concentration of solutes in the cell sap resulting in
reduction of osmotic potential. Osmotic adjustment
increases translocation and helps in increasing grain
yield

[206]
E.) Drought tolerance

In drought tolerance, water potential of plant is reduced

and its adverse effects are felt. Drought tolerance can be
defined as tolerance of the plants to a level of stress at
which 50% of cells die.

i. Mitigating stress: This is simplest way by

resisting dehydration and by maintenance of
higher osmotic pressure by accumulating higher
amounts of solutes. The leaves with thick cuticle
resist cell collapse.
ii. High degree of tolerance: When plants are
subjected to severe moisture stress, stomata are
closed permanently resulting in cessation of
photosynthesis and starvation of plants. However,
plants capable of keeping the stomata partially
open can photosynthesize and survive.

• Young leaves, are more resistant to drought than

older leaves due to higher protein content. The
mechanism involved is killing of transpiring portions
and keeping propagation material without desiccation.

• In many species of perennial plants, the above

ground parts die off during drought and underground

[207]
parts such as rhizomes, bulbs, tubers etc., remain alive
but dormant.

***

[208]
 Reference

• A.M. Michael 2011. Irrigation: Theory and practice.

Vikash Publication, New Delhi.

• S. R. Reddy 2006. Principles of Agronomy. Kalyani

publishers, Ludhiana, New Delhi.

***

[209]

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