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Automobile
Electrical and
Electronic
Systems
Fifth Edition
This textbook will help you learn all the skills you need to pass all Vehicle Electrical and Electronic Systems
courses and qualifications.
As electrical and electronic systems become increasingly more complex and fundamental to the workings
of modern vehicles, understanding these systems is essential for automotive technicians. For students new
to the subject, this book will help to develop this knowledge, but will also assist experienced technicians in
keeping up with recent technological advances. This new edition includes information on developments in
pass-through technology, multiplexing, and engine control systems. In full colour and covering the latest
course specifications, this is the guide that no student enrolled on an automotive maintenance and repair
course should be without.
Designed to make learning easier, this book contains:
• Photographs, flow charts, quick reference tables, overview descriptions and step-by-step instructions.
• Case studies to help you put the principles covered into a real-life context.
• Useful margin features throughout, including definitions, key facts and ‘safety first’ considerations.
• Free access to the support website where you will find lots of additional information and useful learning
materials: www.automotive-technology.org.

Tom Denton is a Fellow of the Institute of the Motor Industry, a Member of the Institute of Road Transport
Engineers and of the Society of Automotive Engineers. He has written over 20 textbooks, along with support
materials, and world-leading eLearning courses.
Automobile
Electrical and
Electronic
Systems
Fifth Edition

Tom Denton
Fifth edition published 2018
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN

and by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2018 Tom Denton

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any
form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented,
including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publishers.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered

trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

First edition published 1996 by Arnold, a member of Hodder Headline plc.

Fourth edition published 2012 by Routledge

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Denton, Tom, author.
Title: Automobile electrical and electronic systems / Tom Denton.
Description: 5th edition. | Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2017. |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017002757 | ISBN 9781138310490 (hardcover) |
ISBN 9780415725774 (pbk. : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781315856629 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Automobiles—Electric equipment. | Automobiles—
Electronic equipment.
Classification: LCC TL272 .D43 2017 | DDC 629.2/7—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017002757

ISBN: 978-1-138-31049-0 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-415-72577-4 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-85662-9 (ebk)

Typeset in Arial
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
Contents

Prefacexxiii
Acknowledgementsxxv

Chapter 1 Electrical and electronic principles 1

1.1 Safe working practices 1
1.1.1 Introduction 1
1.1.2 Risk assessment and reduction 1
1.2 Basic electrical principles 1
1.2.1 Introduction 1
1.2.2 Electron flow and conventional flow 2
1.2.3 Effects of current flow 3
1.2.4 Fundamental quantities 4
1.2.5 Describing electrical circuits 4
1.2.6 Conductors, insulators and semiconductors 5
1.2.7 Factors affecting the resistance of a conductor 5
1.2.8 Resistors and circuit networks 5
1.2.9 Magnetism and electromagnetism 7
1.2.10 Electromagnetic induction 8
1.2.11 Mutual induction 8
1.2.12 Definitions and laws 8
1.3 Electronic components and circuits 11
1.3.1 Introduction 11
1.3.2 Components 11
1.3.3 Integrated circuits 15
1.3.4 Amplifiers 16
1.3.5 Bridge circuits 19
1.3.6 Schmitt trigger 19
1.3.7 Timers 20
1.3.8 Filters 20
1.3.9 Darlington pair 22
1.3.10 Stepper motor driver 22
1.3.11 Digital-to-analogue conversion 23
1.3.12 Analogue-to-digital conversion 24
1.4 Digital electronics 25
1.4.1 Introduction to digital circuits 25
1.4.2 Logic gates 25
vi Contents

1.4.3 Combinational logic 26

1.4.4 Sequential logic 27
1.4.5 Timers and counters 28
1.4.6 Memory circuits 29
1.4.7 Clock or astable circuits 31
1.5 Microprocessor systems 31
1.5.1 Introduction 31
1.5.2 Ports 31
1.5.3 Central processing unit (CPU) 32
1.5.4 Memory 32
1.5.5 Buses 32
1.5.6 Fetch–execute sequence 33
1.5.7 A typical microprocessor 33
1.5.8 Microcontrollers 35
1.5.9 Testing microcontroller systems 36
1.5.10 Programming 36
1.6 Measurement 37
1.6.1 What is measurement? 37
1.6.2 A measurement system 38
1.6.3 Sources of error in measurement 38
1.7 Sensors 40
1.7.1 Thermistors 40
1.7.2 Thermocouples 41
1.7.3 Inductive sensors 42
1.7.4 Hall Effect 43
1.7.5 Strain gauges 44
1.7.6 Variable capacitance 45
1.7.7 Variable resistance 46
1.7.8 Accelerometer (knock sensors) 48
1.7.9 Linear variable differential transformer
(LVDT) 50
1.7.10 Hot wire air flow sensor 51
1.7.11 Thin film air flow sensor 52
1.7.12 Vortex flow sensor 52
1.7.13 Pitot tube 53
1.7.14 Turbine fluid flow sensor 53
1.7.15 Optical sensors 54
1.7.16 Oxygen sensors 54
1.7.17 Light sensors 55
1.7.18 Thick-film air temperature sensor 56
1.7.19 Methanol sensor 56
1.7.20 Rain sensor 56
 Contents vii

1.7.21 Oil sensor 57

1.7.22 Dynamic vehicle position sensors 57
1.7.23 Summary 58
1.8 Actuators 59
1.8.1 Introduction 59
1.8.2 Solenoid actuators 59
1.8.3 EGR valve 60
1.8.4 Motorized actuators 61
1.8.5 Stepper motors 62
1.8.6 Synchronous motors 66
1.8.7 Thermal actuators 66
1.9 Testing electronic components, sensors and
actuators 66
1.9.1 Introduction 66
1.9.2 Testing sensors 67
1.9.3 Testing actuators 68
1.10 Updates 69
1.10.1 Sensors overview and
developments 69

Chapter 2 Tools and equipment 71

2.1 Basic equipment 71
2.1.1 Introduction 71
2.1.2 Basic hand tools 71
2.1.3 Accuracy of test equipment 71
2.1.4 Multimeters 74
2.1.5 Logic probe 75
2.2 Oscilloscopes 77
2.2.1 Introduction 77
2.2.2 Waveforms 78
2.3 Scanners/fault code readers and analysers 79
2.3.1 On-board diagnostics introduction 79
2.3.2 Serial port communications 79
2.3.3 OBD2 signal protocols 80
2.3.4 Entry level scanners 81
2.3.5 Bosch KTS diagnostic equipment 86
2.3.6 Engine analysers 88
2.4 Emission testing 90
2.4.1 Introduction 90
2.4.2 Exhaust gas measurement 90
2.4.3 Exhaust analyser 91
2.4.4 Emission limits 93
viii Contents

2.5 Pressure testing 93

2.5.1 Introduction 93
2.5.2 Automotive pressure oscilloscope
transducer 94
2.5.3 Breakout boxes 96
2.6 Diagnostic procedures 96
2.6.1 Introduction 96
2.6.2 The ‘theory’ of diagnostics 96
2.7 Pass-through technology 97
2.7.1 Introduction 97
2.7.2 J2534 99
2.7.3 Hardware and software requirements 100
2.7.4 Legislation 100
2.7.5 OEM software and data links 101

Chapter 3 Electrical systems and circuits 103

3.1 The systems approach 103
3.1.1 What is a system? 103
3.1.2 Vehicle systems 104
3.1.3 Open loop systems 104
3.1.4 Closed loop systems 105
3.1.5 Summary 105
3.2 Electrical wiring, terminals and switching 105
3.2.1 Cables 105
3.2.2 Colour codes and terminal designations 106
3.2.3 Harness design 109
3.2.4 Printed circuits 112
3.2.5 Fuses and circuit breakers 113
3.2.6 Terminations 115
3.2.7 Switches 117
3.3 Multiplexing 119
3.3.1 Limits of the conventional wiring system 119
3.3.2 Multiplex data bus 121
3.3.3 Overview 121
3.3.4 Controller Area Network (CAN) 123
3.3.5 CAN data signal 125
3.3.6 Local Interconnect Network (LIN) 129
3.3.7 FlexRay 131
3.4 Media oriented systems transport (MOST) 134
3.4.1 Introduction 134
3.4.2 MOST network 134
3.4.3 Protocol 135
3.4.4 MOST applications 137
 Contents ix

3.4.5 Consumer device gateway 138

3.4.6 Summary 138
3.5 Automotive Ethernet 139
3.5.1 Introduction 139
3.5.2 Overview 139
3.6 Circuit diagrams and symbols 139
3.6.1 Symbols 139
3.6.2 Conventional circuit diagrams 140
3.6.3 Layout or wiring diagrams 140
3.6.4 Terminal diagrams 140
3.6.5 Current flow diagrams 140
3.7 Electromagnetic compatibility 140
3.7.1 Introduction 140
3.7.2 EMC problems 140
3.8 Central electrical control 145
3.8.1 Overview 145
3.8.2 Ford generic electronic module (GEM) 152
3.8.3 Communication between modules 153
3.8.4 Summary 157
3.9 Connected cars 158
3.9.1 Introduction 158
3.9.2 Smart cars and traffic systems 158
3.9.3 Wi-Fi cars 160
3.9.4 Bluetooth 161
3.9.5 Applications (apps) 162
3.9.6 Vision enhancement 163
3.9.7 Self-help 165
3.9.8 Big Brother 165
3.9.9 When computers go wrong 166
3.9.10 Summary 167
3.10 Updates 167
3.10.1 Multiplexing 167
3.10.2 Bluetooth to displace cables? 176
3.10.3 Update on 48 V technology 178

Chapter 4 Batteries 181

4.1 Vehicle batteries 181
4.1.1 Requirements of the vehicle battery 181
4.1.2 Choosing the correct battery 181
4.1.3 Positioning the vehicle battery 182
4.2 Lead-acid batteries 183
4.2.1 Construction 183
4.2.2 Battery rating 184
x Contents

4.3 Maintenance, charging and testing batteries 186

4.3.1 Maintenance 186
4.3.2 Charging the lead-acid battery 186
4.3.3 Servicing batteries 189
4.3.4 Battery faults 189
4.3.5 Testing batteries 189
4.3.6 Safety 193
4.4 Advanced battery technology 193
4.4.1 Electrochemistry 193
4.4.2 Electrolytic conduction 194
4.4.3 Ohm’s law and electrolytic
resistance 194
4.4.4 Electrochemical action of the lead-acid
battery 195
4.4.5 Characteristics 197
4.4.6 Peukert’s law 198
4.5 Developments in electrical storage 198
4.5.1 Lead-acid 198
4.5.2 Alkaline 199
4.5.3 ZEBRA 201
4.5.4 Sodium sulphur 201
4.5.5 Swing 201
4.5.6 Fuel cells 202
4.5.7 Super-capacitors 205
4.5.8 Summary 205
4.6 Updates 207
4.6.1 Micro batteries research 207
4.6.2 Lead-acid batteries update 208
4.6.3 Battery diagnostics 210

Chapter 5 Charging 213

5.1 Requirements of the charging system 213
5.1.1 Introduction 213
5.1.2 Basic operating principles 213
5.1.3 Vehicle electrical loads 214
5.2 Charging system principles 216
5.2.1 Basic principles 216
5.2.2 Charging voltages 216
5.2.3 Charging circuits 217
5.2.4 Generation of electricity 218
5.2.5 Rectification of AC to DC 219
5.2.6 Regulation of output voltage 222
 Contents xi

5.3 Alternators 226

5.3.1 Bosch compact alternator 226
5.3.2 Efficient alternators 228
5.3.3 Water-cooled alternators 229
5.3.4 Denso high-output alternators 230
5.3.5 Charging system testing procedure 230
5.4 Smart charging 231
5.4.1 Introduction and closed loop regulation 231
5.4.2 Open loop regulation 233
5.4.3 Engine performance 233
5.4.4 Fault conditions 235
5.4.5 Summary 235
5.5 Advanced charging system technology 235
5.5.1 Charging system – problems and
solutions 235
5.5.2 Charge balance calculation 238
5.5.3 Alternator characteristics 239
5.5.4 Mechanical and external
considerations 240
5.6 Updates 241
5.6.1 Alternator developments 241

Chapter 6 Starting 245

6.1 Requirements of the starting system 245
6.1.1 Engine starting requirements 245
6.1.2 Starting system design 247
6.1.3 Choosing a starter motor 248
6.2 Starter motors and circuits 250
6.2.1 Starting system circuits 250
6.2.2 Example circuits 250
6.2.3 Starter circuit testing 253
6.2.4 Principle of operation 254
6.2.5 DC motor characteristics 257
6.3 Types of starter motor 258
6.3.1 Inertia starters 258
6.3.2 Pre-engaged starters 259
6.3.3 Permanent magnet starters 261
6.3.4 Integrated starters 263
6.3.5 Electronic starter control 263
6.3.6 Starter installation 263
6.3.7 Belt-driven starter-generator 264
6.3.8 Summary 265
xii Contents

6.4 Advanced starting system technology 265

6.4.1 Speed, torque and power 265
6.4.2 Efficiency 267
6.5 Updates 268
6.5.1 Electronic starter motor control and
stop-start system 268
6.5.2 Jump start without a battery 270

Chapter 7 Ignition 273

7.1 Ignition system fundamentals 273
7.1.1 Functional requirements 273
7.1.2 Generation of high tension 274
7.1.3 Advance angle (timing) 274
7.1.4 Fuel consumption and exhaust emissions 275
7.1.5 Contact breaker ignition 275
7.1.6 Plug leads 276
7.1.7 Ignition coil cores 278
7.2 Electronic ignition 278
7.2.1 Introduction 278
7.2.2 Constant dwell systems 279
7.2.3 Constant energy systems 279
7.2.4 Hall Effect pulse generator 279
7.2.5 Inductive pulse generator 280
7.2.6 Other pulse generators 281
7.2.7 Dwell angle control (open loop) 281
7.2.8 Current limiting and closed loop dwell 283
7.2.9 Capacitor discharge ignition 284
7.3 Electronic spark advance 285
7.3.1 Overview 285
7.3.2 Sensors and input information 286
7.3.3 Electronic control unit 287
7.4 Distributorless ignition 290
7.4.1 Principle of operation 290
7.4.2 System components 291
7.5 Coil on plug (COP) ignition 291
7.5.1 General description 291
7.5.2 Control of ignition 293
7.6 Spark plugs 293
7.6.1 Functional requirements 293
7.6.2 Construction 294
7.6.3 Heat range 295
7.6.4 Electrode materials 296
7.6.5 Electrode gap 297
 Contents xiii

7.6.6 V-grooved spark plug 297

7.6.7 Choosing the correct plug 298
7.6.8 Spark plugs development 299
7.7 Summary 299
7.7.1 Overview 299
7.7.2 Testing procedure 301
7.8 Advanced ignition technology 303
7.8.1 Ignition coil performance 303
7.9 Updates 304
7.9.1 Spark plug electrode designs 304

Chapter 8 Fuel control 307

8.1 Combustion 307
8.1.1 Introduction 307
8.1.2 Spark ignition engine combustion process 307
8.1.3 Range and rate of burning 309
8.1.4 Detonation 311
8.1.5 Pre-ignition 311
8.1.6 Combustion chamber 312
8.1.7 Stratification of cylinder charge 312
8.1.8 Mixture strength and performance 313
8.1.9 Compression ignition (CI) engines 313
8.1.10 Combustion chamber design –
diesel engine 316
8.1.11 Summary of combustion 316
8.2 Engine fuelling and exhaust emissions 317
8.2.1 Operating conditions 317
8.2.2 Exhaust emissions 317
8.2.3 Other sources of emissions 318
8.2.4 Leaded and unleaded fuel 319
8.3 Emissions and driving cycles 320
8.3.1 Exhaust emission regulations 320
8.3.2 Test cycles 321
8.4 Fuel injection 324
8.4.1 Advantages of fuel injection 324
8.4.2 System overview 324
8.4.3 Components of a fuel injection system 328
8.4.4 Bosch ‘L’ Jetronic – variations 332
8.4.5 Bosch Mono Jetronic – single point
injection 333
8.4.6 Sequential multipoint injection 335
8.4.7 Lean burn technology 336
8.4.8 Double fuel injectors 338
xiv Contents

8.5 Diesel fuel injection 339

8.5.1 Introduction 339
8.5.2 Injection overview 344
8.5.3 Diesel exhaust emissions 345
8.5.4 Electronic control of diesel injection 346
8.5.5 Rotary pump system 347
8.5.6 Common rail system 350
8.5.7 Electronic unit injection (EUI) –
diesel fuel 355
8.5.8 Diesel lambda sensor 357
8.6 Summary 358
8.6.1 Overview 358
8.6.2 Diagnosing fuel control systems 358
8.7 Advanced fuel control technology 359
8.7.1 Air–fuel ratio calculations 359
8.8 Updates 360
8.8.1 Under pressure... 360
8.8.2 Euro 6 overview 362

Chapter 9 Engine management 365

9.1 Combined ignition and fuel introduction 365
9.1.1 Introduction 365
9.1.2 Variable inlet tract 366
9.1.3 Combustion flame and pressure sensing 366
9.1.4 Wide range lambda sensors 367
9.1.5 Injectors with air shrouding 367
9.2 Exhaust emission control 367
9.2.1 Engine design 367
9.2.2 Combustion chamber design 367
9.2.3 Compression ratio 368
9.2.4 Valve timing 368
9.2.5 Manifold designs 368
9.2.6 Charge stratification 368
9.2.7 Warm-up time 369
9.2.8 Exhaust gas recirculation 369
9.2.9 Ignition system 370
9.2.10 Thermal after-burning 370
9.2.11 Catalytic converters 370
9.2.12 Closed loop lambda control 373
9.3 Engine management systems 374
9.3.1 Motronic M3 374
9.3.2 DI-Motronic 385
9.3.3 ME-Motronic principles 390
 Contents xv

9.4 Other aspects of engine management 391

9.4.1 Introduction 391
9.4.2 Variable valve timing 391
9.4.3 Lean burn engines 394
9.4.4 Two-stroke engines 394
9.4.5 Combustion control system 395
9.4.6 Active cooling 397
9.4.7 Engine trends – spark ignition 399
9.4.8 Transonic combustion 400
9.4.9 Diagnosing engine management
systems 401
9.5 Advanced engine management technology 405
9.5.1 Speed density and fuel calculations 405
9.5.2 Ignition timing calculation 406
9.5.3 Dwell calculation 408
9.5.4 Injection duration calculation 408
9.5.5 Developing and testing software 409
9.5.6 Artificial Intelligence 411
9.5.7 Neural computing 412
9.6 Updates 413
9.6.1 Gasoline direct injection electronic
control technology 413
9.6.2 Common rail diesels – intelligent
injectors 415
9.6.3 eSupercharger 417
9.6.4 GPS data for powertrains, apps,
other systems 417
9.6.5 V6 diesel with electric turbocharging 418
9.6.6 Water injection 418
9.6.7 Cylinder deactivation 419
9.6.8 Dynamic skip fire 421
9.6.9 Diesel particulate filters 421
9.6.10 Miller cycle 424
9.6.11 Cooled EGR 426
9.6.12 Nissan variable compression (VC)
engine 427

Chapter 10 Lighting 429

10.1 Lighting fundamentals 429
10.1.1 Introduction 429
10.1.2 Bulbs 429
10.1.3 External lights 431
10.1.4 Headlight reflectors 433
10.1.5 Complex shape reflectors 434
xvi Contents

10.1.6 Headlight lenses 435

10.1.7 Headlight levelling 436
10.1.8 Headlight beam setting 438
10.2 Lighting circuits 439
10.2.1 Basic lighting circuit 439
10.2.2 Dim-dip circuit 439
10.2.3 General lighting circuit 441
10.2.4 Flow diagram lighting circuit 442
10.2.5 Central lighting control circuit 442
10.2.6 Testing procedure 442
10.3 Gas discharge, LED and infrared lighting 445
10.3.1 Gas discharge lamps 445
10.3.2 Xenon lighting 447
10.3.3 Ultraviolet headlights 449
10.3.4 LED lighting 450
10.3.5 Infrared lights 451
10.4 Other lighting techniques 452
10.4.1 Mono-colour signal lamps 452
10.4.2 Linear lighting 452
10.4.3 Neon technology 452
10.4.4 Bending Light 453
10.4.5 Intelligent front lighting 454
10.5 Advanced lighting technology 455
10.5.1 Lighting terms and definitions 455
10.5.2 Single light-source lighting 456
10.6 Updates 457
10.6.1 BMW laser headlamps 457

Chapter 11 Auxiliaries 459

11.1 Windscreen washers and wipers 459
11.1.1 Functional requirements 459
11.1.2 Wiper blades 460
11.1.3 Wiper linkages 460
11.1.4 Wiper motors 462
11.1.5 Windscreen washers 462
11.1.6 Washer and wiper circuits 464
11.1.7 Electronic control of windscreen
wipers 466
11.1.8 Synchronized wipers 467
11.1.9 Wiper blade pressure control 468
11.1.10 Linear wiper systems 469
 Contents xvii

11.2 Signalling circuits 470

11.2.1 Introduction 470
11.2.2 Flasher units 470
11.2.3 Brake lights 472
11.2.4 Indicators and hazard circuit 472
11.3 Other auxiliary systems 473
11.3.1 Electric horns 473
11.3.2 Engine cooling fan motors 474
11.3.3 Headlight wipers and washers 475
11.3.4 Other circuits 475
11.3.5 Diagnosing auxiliary system faults 476
11.4 Advanced auxiliary systems technology 476
11.4.1 Wiper motor torque calculations 476
11.4.2 PM Motor – electronic speed control 477

Chapter 12 Instrumentation 479

12.1 Gauges and sensors 479
12.1.1 Introduction 479
12.1.2 Sensors 480
12.1.3 Thermal-type gauges 480
12.1.4 Moving iron gauges 482
12.1.5 Air-cored gauges 483
12.1.6 Other types of gauges 485
12.1.7 A digital instrumentation system 486
12.2 Visual displays 488
12.2.1 Choosing the best display –
readability 488
12.2.2 Light-emitting diode displays 489
12.2.3 Liquid crystal displays 489
12.2.4 Vacuum fluorescent displays 491
12.2.5 Head-up displays 492
12.2.6 Electroluminescent instrument
lighting 493
12.2.7 Display techniques summary 494
12.2.8 Instrumentation system faults 496
12.3 Global Positioning System (GPS) 497
12.3.1 Introduction 497
12.3.2 Calculating position 498
12.3.3 Sensors 499
12.3.4 Data input and output 499
12.3.5 Accuracy 499
xviii Contents

12.4 Driver information 500

12.4.1 Vehicle condition monitoring 500
12.4.2 Trip computer 503
12.5 Advanced instrumentation technology 504
12.5.1 Multiplexed displays 504
12.5.2 Quantization 505
12.5.3 Holography 505
12.5.4 Telematics 505
12.6 Updates 509
12.6.1 Touch screen with haptic feedback 509
12.6.2 Navigation and the new NDS data
standard 510
12.6.3 Laser head-up displays (HUDs) 512

Chapter 13 Heating ventilation and air conditioning 515

13.1 Conventional heating and ventilation 515
13.1.1 Introduction 515
13.1.2 Ventilation 516
13.1.3 Heating system – water-cooled engine 518
13.1.4 Heater blower motors 518
13.1.5 Electronic heating control 518
13.2 Air conditioning 519
13.2.1 Introduction 519
13.2.2 Principle of refrigeration 520
13.2.3 Air conditioning overview 521
13.2.4 Air conditioning system and
components 522
13.2.5 Automatic temperature control 528
13.2.6 Electrically driven air conditioning 528
13.3 Other heating systems 529
13.3.1 Seat heating 529
13.3.2 Screen heating 530
13.3.3 Heating development 531
13.3.4 Air conditioning system faults 531
13.4 Advanced temperature control technology 532
13.4.1 Heat transfer 532
13.4.2 Types of heat and temperature 533
13.4.3 Armature reaction 533
13.4.4 Refrigerant developments 534
13.5 Updates 536
13.5.1 Heat pumps 536
13.5.2 AC research 538
 Contents xix

Chapter 14 Chassis electrical 541

14.1 Anti-lock brakes 541
14.1.1 Introduction 541
14.1.2 Requirements of ABS 541
14.1.3 General system description 543
14.1.4 Components 544
14.1.5 Anti-lock brake system control 546
14.1.6 Control strategy 548
14.1.7 Honda anti-lock brakes 548
14.2 Traction and stability control 549
14.2.1 Introduction 549
14.2.2 Control functions 550
14.2.3 System operation 551
14.2.4 Electronic Stability Program (ESP) 551
14.3 Active suspension 555
14.3.1 Overview 555
14.3.2 Sensors and actuators 557
14.3.3 Delphi MagneRide 558
14.4 Automatic transmission 561
14.4.1 Introduction 561
14.4.2 Control of gear shift and torque
converter 561
14.4.3 Tiptronic 563
14.4.4 Summary 565
14.5 Other chassis electrical systems 565
14.5.1 Electric power steering 565
14.5.2 Robotized manual transmission 568
14.5.3 Active roll reduction 568
14.5.4 Electronic limited slip differential 569
14.5.5 Brake assist systems 570
14.5.6 X-by-wire 571
14.5.7 Diagnosing chassis electrical system
faults575
14.6 Advanced chassis systems technology 577
14.6.1 Road surface and tyre friction 577
14.6.2 ABS control cycles 580
14.6.3 Traction control calculations 581
14.7 Updates 582
14.7.1 Tyre pressure monitoring 582
14.7.2 Antilock braking system (ABS) update 584
14.7.3 Electronic parking brake 586
14.7.4 Predictive active ride control 588
xx Contents

14.7.5 Electronic clutch 589

14.7.6 Active driveline 590
14.7.7 Transmission control and GPS 591

Chapter 15 Comfort and safety 593

15.1 Seats, mirrors and sun-roofs 593
15.1.1 Introduction 593
15.1.2 Electric seat adjustment 594
15.1.3 Electric mirrors 595
15.1.4 Electric sun-roof operation 596
15.1.5 Seat control circuit 596
15.2 Central locking and electric windows 597
15.2.1 Door locking circuit 597
15.2.2 Electric window operation 598
15.2.3 Electric windows example circuit 601
15.3 Cruise control 602
15.3.1 Introduction 602
15.3.2 System description 603
15.3.3 Components 604
15.3.4 Adaptive cruise control 605
15.4 In-car multimedia 606
15.4.1 Introduction 606
15.4.2 Speakers 607
15.4.3 In-car entertainment (ICE) 608
15.4.4 Radio data system (RDS) 608
15.4.5 Radio broadcast data system (RBDS) 609
15.4.6 Radio reception 610
15.4.7 Digital audio broadcast (DAB) 611
15.4.8 Interference suppression 611
15.4.9 Mobile communications 614
15.5 Security 615
15.5.1 Introduction 615
15.5.2 Basic security 616
15.5.3 Top of the range security 616
15.5.4 Security-coded ECUs 618
15.5.5 Alarms and immobilizers 618
15.5.6 Keys 621
15.6 Airbags and belt tensioners 623
15.6.1 Introduction 623
15.6.2 Operation of the system 623
15.6.3 Components and circuit 625
15.6.4 Seat-belt tensioners 628
 Contents xxi

15.6.5 Side airbags 628

15.6.6 Intelligent airbag sensing system 628
15.7 Other safety and comfort systems 630
15.7.1 Obstacle avoidance radar 630
15.7.2 Tyre pressure warning 632
15.7.3 Noise control 633
15.7.4 Auto dimming mirrors 635
15.7.5 Automatic parking system 635
15.7.6 General systems diagnostic
procedure 637
15.8 Advanced comfort and safety systems
technology 638
15.8.1 Cruise control and system response 638
15.8.2 Radio suppression calculations 639
15.9 Updates 640
15.9.1 Advanced driver assistance systems
(ADAS) 640
15.9.2 The connected car 652
15.9.3 Hacking 655
15.9.4 Key jammers 656
15.9.5 Proximity awareness 656

Chapter 16 Automotive Technology Academy 659

16.1 Introduction 659
16.2 Resources 660

References 661
Index 663
Preface

Automobile electrical and electronic systems

are at the same time the most complex yet
most interesting aspects of a vehicle. Well,
they are to me anyway, which is why I am
particularly pleased to have produced the
fifth edition of this book! However, it was
becoming too big so we had to remove the
chapters on History and development, which
is now available free on my website, and EVs
and Hybrids, which has become a separate
book.
Ideally, you will have studied the mechanical book, or have some experience,
before reading this one. If not, it does start with the basics so don’t worry!
This book is the second in the ‘Automotive Technology: Vehicle Maintenance
and Repair’ series:
• Automobile Mechanical and Electrical Systems
• Automobile Electrical and Electronic Systems
• Automobile Advanced Fault Diagnosis
• Electric and Hybrid Vehicles
• Alternative Fuel Vehicles

The content concentrates on electrical and electronic principles as well as

comprehensive case studies and examples. It will cover everything you need
to advance your studies to a higher level, no matter what qualification (if any)
you are working towards.
Comments, suggestions and feedback are always welcome at my website:

www.automotive-technology.org
On this site, you will also find lots of free online resources to help with your
studies. Check out the final chapter for more information about the amazing
resources to go with this and my other books. These resources work with the
book, and are ideal for self-study or for teachers helping others to learn.
Good luck and I hope you find automotive technology as interesting as I still do.
Acknowledgements

Over the years many people have helped in the production of my books. I am
therefore very grateful to the following companies who provided information
and/or permission to reproduce photographs and/or diagrams:

AA Mitsubishi
AC Delco Most Corporation
ACEA NGK Plugs
Alpine Audio Systems Nissan
Audi Oak Ridge National Labs
Autologic Data Systems Peugeot
BMW UK Philips
Brembo brakes PicoTech/PicoScope
C&K Components Pierburg
Citroën UK Pioneer Radio
Clarion Car Audio Porsche
Continental Renesas
CuiCAR Robert Bosch Gmbh/Media
Delphi Media Rolec
Eberspaecher Rover Cars
Fluke Instruments UK Saab Media
Flybrid systems Scandmec
Ford Motor Company SMSC
FreeScale Electronics Snap-on Tools
General Motors Society of Motor Manufacturers
GenRad and Traders (SMMT)
haloIPT (Qualcomm) Sofanou
Hella Sun Electric
HEVT T&M Auto-Electrical
Honda Tesla Motors
Hyundai Thrust SSC Land Speed Team
Institute of the Motor Industry Toyota
Jaguar Cars Tracker
Kavlico Tula
Loctite Unipart Group
Lucas UK Valeo
LucasVarity Vauxhall
Mahle VDO Instruments
Mazda Volkswagen
McLaren Electronic Systems Volvo Media
Mennekes Wikimedia
Mercedes ZF Servomatic

If I have used any information, or mentioned a company name that is not listed
here, please accept my apologies and let me know so it can be rectified as
soon as possible.
C H A P T E R 1
Electrical and
electronic principles

1.1 Safe working practices

1.1.1 Introduction
Safe working practices in relation to electrical and electronic systems are
essential, for your safety as well as that of others. You only have to follow two
rules to be safe.
• Use your common sense – don’t fool about.
• If in doubt – seek help.
The following section lists some particular risks when working with electricity or
electrical systems, together with suggestions for reducing them. This is known Safety first
as risk assessment.
The key to safe working:
Common sense.
1.1.2 Risk assessment and reduction
Table 1.1 lists some identified risks involved with working on vehicles, in
particular the electrical and electronic systems. The table is by no means
exhaustive but serves as a good guide.

1.2 Basic electrical principles

1.2.1 Introduction
To understand electricity properly we must start by finding out what it really is.
This means we must think very small (Figure 1.1 shows a representation of an
atom). The molecule is the smallest part of matter that can be recognized as
that particular matter. Sub-division of the molecule results in atoms, which are
the smallest part of matter. An element is a substance that comprises atoms of
one kind only. Figure 1.1 The atom
2 Electrical and electronic principles

Table 1.1 Risks and risk reduction

Identified risk Reducing the risk

Electric shock Ignition HT is the most likely place to suffer a shock, up to 40 000 volts is quite normal. Use
insulated tools if it is necessary to work on HT circuits with the engine running. Note that high
voltages are also present on circuits containing windings due to back emf as they are switched
off, a few hundred volts is common. Mains supplied power tools and their leads should be in
good condition and using an earth leakage trip is highly recommended. Only work on HEV and
EVs if training in the high voltage systems.
Battery acid Sulphuric acid is corrosive so always use good PPE. In this case, overalls and if necessary
rubber gloves. A rubber apron is ideal, as are goggles if working with batteries a lot.
Raising or Apply brakes and/or chock the wheels and when raising a vehicle on a jack or drive on lift. Only
lifting vehicles jack under substantial chassis and suspension structures. Use axle stands in case the jack fails.
Running Do not wear loose clothing, good overalls are ideal. Keep the keys in your possession when working
engines on an engine to prevent others starting it. Take extra care if working near running drive belts.
Exhaust gases Suitable extraction must be used if the engine is running indoors. Remember it is not just the
CO that might make you ill or even kill you, other exhaust components could cause asthma or
even cancer.
Moving loads Only lift what is comfortable for you; ask for help if necessary and/or use lifting equipment. As a
general guide, do not lift on your own if it feels too heavy!
Short circuits Use a jump lead with an in-line fuse to prevent damage due to a short when testing. Disconnect
the battery (earth lead off first and back on last) if any danger of a short exists. A very high
current can flow from a vehicle battery; it will burn you as well as the vehicle.
Fire Do not smoke when working on a vehicle. Fuel leaks must be attended to immediately.
Remember the triangle of fire – (Heat/Fuel/Oxygen) – don’t let the three sides come together.
Skin problems Use a good barrier cream and/or latex gloves. Wash skin and clothes regularly.

The atom consists of a central nucleus made up of protons and neutrons.

Around this nucleus orbit electrons, like planets around the sun. The neutron is
a very small part of the nucleus. It has equal positive and negative charges and
is therefore neutral and has no polarity. The proton is another small part of the
nucleus, it is positively charged. The neutron is neutral and the proton is positively
charged, which means that the nucleus of the atom is positively charged. The
electron is an even smaller part of the atom, and is negatively charged. It orbits
the nucleus and is held in orbit by the attraction of the positively charged proton.
All electrons are similar no matter what type of atom they come from.
When atoms are in a balanced state, the number of electrons orbiting the
nucleus equals the number of protons. The atoms of some materials have
electrons that are easily detached from the parent atom and can therefore join
an adjacent atom. In so doing these atoms move an electron from the parent
atom to another atom (like polarities repel) and so on through material. This is
a random movement and the electrons involved are called free electrons.
Materials are called conductors if the electrons can move easily. In some
materials it is extremely difficult to move electrons from their parent atoms.
These materials are called insulators.

1.2.2 Electron flow and conventional flow

If an electrical pressure (electromotive force or voltage) is applied to a
conductor, a directional movement of electrons will take place (for example,
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Otoconcha is peculiar. The fresh-water Mollusca, besides the Isidora
characteristic of the sub-region, are partly related to New Caledonia
through the occurrence of Melanopsis, partly to Tasmania through
Potamopyrgus, while the peculiar Latia is possibly akin to
Gundlachia (Tasmania). The land operculates number only 5 genera
and 14 species in all, excluding a doubtful Diplommatina.[374]
Land and Fresh-water Mollusca of the Neozealanian Province
Schizoglossa 1
Paryphanta 5
Rhytida 6
Rhenea 2
Helicarion 1
Otoconcha 1
Microcystis 1
Trochonanina 1
Phacussa 3
Thalassohelix 5
Gerontia 2
Allodiscus 10
Pyrrha 1
Therasia 7
Phenacohelix 3
Suteria 1
Flammulina 13
Laoma 23
Endodonta 10
Charopa 28
Placostylus 1
Carthaea 1
Tornatellina 1
Janella 3
Latia 2
Ancylus 2
Limnaea 5
Amphipeplea 2
Planorbis 1
Isidora 7
Melanopsis 2
Potamopyrgus 4
Paxillus 1
 Lagochilus 7
Omphalotropis 1
Realia 4
Hydrocena 1
Unio 9
Sphaerium 1
Pisidium 2
Lord Howe’s I. is remarkable as containing a Placostylus, which
thus links the island with this province. The remainder of the fauna is
Polynesian, with the exception of a species (common to the Fijis) of
Parmella, a slug akin to Helicarion, Parmacochlea, and Cystopelta.
(3) The Polynesian Sub-region includes all the island groups of
the central and southern Pacific (except those classified in the
Papuan and Australian sub-regions), from the Pelews and Carolines
in the west to the Marquesas and Paumotus in the east, and from
the Tonga group in the south to the Sandwich Is. in the north. It may
be subdivided into (a) the Polynesian province proper, and (b) the
Hawaiian province, which includes the Sandwich Is. only.

Fig. 216.—Characteristic
Polynesian Mollusca: A,
Achatinella vulpina Fér.,
Sandwich Is.; B, Partula
planilabrum Pease, Society
Is.
(a) The general features of the Polynesian province are very
similar throughout, although the Mollusca of each island group are in
the main peculiar. The species are mostly small and obscure. Helix
scarcely occurs, its place being taken by small Zonitidae
(Microcystis, Charopa, Trochomorpha, etc.), and by groups of so-
called Patula (Endodonta, Pitys, etc.), the exact position of which is
not yet settled. Libera, remarkable for its method of ovipositing (p.
128), is peculiar to the Society and Hervey Is.; Partula is almost
universal, attaining its maximum (40 sp.) in the Society Is.;
Tornatellina, Pupa, and Vertigo occur throughout.
The land operculates consist chiefly of Omphalotropis, Pupina,
Realia, and Helicina. Diplommatina and Palaina are abundant on the
Pelews, and a Moussonia occurs in the Samoa Is. Ostodes, a small
form of Cyclophorus, is found in some of the southern groups. The
fresh-water operculates are Melania, Neritina (including Clithon, a
sub-genus furnished with spines), and Navicella; there are no
Unionidae, while fresh-water Pulmonata are very scarce.
(b) The land Mollusca of the Hawaiian province are distinguished
by the possession of four entirely peculiar genera—Achatinella,
Leptachatina, Carelia, and Auriculella. More than 300 of the two
former genera have been described, every mountain valley of some
of the islands having its own peculiar species. The destruction of the
indigenous herbage by goats is rapidly extinguishing many forms.
Partula, and the small land operculates, so characteristic of the other
groups, are, with the exception of Helicina, entirely wanting. The
occurrence of one of the Merope group of Helix (Solomon Is.) is
remarkable, and there is a rich development of Succinea. “Patula,”
Microcystis, Tornatellina, and the other small Polynesian land
Pulmonata are well represented. The presence of Isidora, absent
from the central Pacific groups, is remarkable, and Erinna is a
peculiar genus belonging to the Limnaeidae.
 CHAPTER XI
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF LAND MOLLUSCA (continued)—THE
ETHIOPIAN, NEARCTIC, AND NEOTROPICAL REGIONS

D. The Ethiopian Region

The Ethiopian region includes the whole of Africa south of the
Great Desert, and Southern Arabia, together with the outlying
islands, excepting those of the Atlantidean province (p. 297).
Regarded as a whole, the Ethiopian is poorest in land Mollusca of
all the tropical regions. And yet its characteristics are very
remarkable. The entire Achatina group is peculiar, and takes,
especially in W. Africa, some curious forms (Columna, Perideris,
Pseudachatina). Carnivorous Mollusca (Ennea, Gibbus, etc.) are
highly developed, especially in the south and east, the largest known
helicoid form (Aerope) being from Natal. In the possession of these
types of the Agnatha, Africa is more closely related to the
Australasian than to the Oriental region. The true Cyclostoma are
entirely peculiar to the region, but are absent from West Africa.
Fresh-water Mollusca are abundant and characteristic, especially
in and near the Great Lakes. Lanistes, Cleopatra, and Meladomus,
among the operculates, together with Mutela and Aetheria
(Unionidae), Galatea and Fischeria (Cyrenidae), are peculiar.
In its negative, as well as its positive features, the Ethiopian
region is markedly isolated. Helicidae and Naninidae are equally
deficient, the former, indeed, attaining some numerical
predominance in the extreme south, but the species are nearly all
insignificant in size and colouring. It is only in Madagascar that Helix
asserts itself. Arion, Limax, Hyalinia, Clausilia, and a number of other
genera abundant along the Mediterranean, are either altogether
absent, or are very scantily represented. Land operculates, so
characteristic of other tropical countries, are almost entirely wanting.
If we disregard the Malagasy sub-region, there are scarcely forty
species of land operculates on the whole African continent.
 The Ethiopian region may be divided into three sub-regions: (1)
the Central African; (2) the South African; (3) the Malagasy.
(1) The Central African Sub-region is bounded on the north by
the Great Desert, on the east and west by the ocean, and on the
south by a line roughly drawn between the mouth of the Orange
River and Delagoa Bay; it also includes S. Arabia. No natural
features exist which tend to break up this vast district into areas of
independent zoological development. The absence of long and lofty
mountain ranges, the enormous size of the great river basins, and
the general uniformity of climate, equalise the conditions of life
throughout. It will be convenient to break the sub-region up into
provinces, but in most cases no precise line of demarcation can be
laid down.
(a) The Senegambian Province may be regarded as extending
from the mouth of the Senegal River to Cape Palmas. Only 8 genera
of land Mollusca are known, including 4 Limicolaria and 3 Thapsia,
with 1 small Cyclophorus. Fresh-water genera are abundant, and
include most of the characteristic Ethiopian forms.
(b) The West African Province extends from Cape Palmas to the
mouth of the Congo, and is rich in Mollusca. The great Achatina,
largest of land snails, whose shell sometimes attains a length of 6½
in., Limicolaria, Perideris, and Pseudachatina are the characteristic
forms. The Agnatha are represented by Ennea, Streptaxis, and
Streptostele. Rachis and Pachnodus, sub-genera of Buliminus, occur
also on the east coast. A special feature is the development of
several peculiar slug-like genera, e.g. Oopelta, perhaps a form of
Arion; Estria, a slug with an external shell, akin to Parmacella; and
Aspidelus, a form intermediate between Helicarion and Limax.
Claviger, a handsome group akin to Cerithium, is peculiar to the
estuaries of West African rivers.
About sixteen species are known from the Cameroons District, but
no peculiar genera occur. The French Congo District has not yet
been well explored. Tomostele, a genus allied to Streptostele, is
peculiar, and Pseudachatina attains its maximum.
 Fig. 217.—Columna
flammea Müll., Princes I.
St. Thomas and Princes Is., in the Gulf of Guinea, are well known.
Princes I. has 22 species, 14 peculiar, and 2 common to St. Thomas
only, one of the latter being the great sinistral Achatina bicarinata
Chem. The remarkable genus Columna (Fig. 217) is peculiar, and
Streptostele (4 sp.) attains its maximum. Peculiar to St. Thomas are
Pyrgina, a turreted form of Stenogyra; Thyrophorella, a sinistral form
of Zonites; and Atopocochlis, a large bulimoid shell, whose true
relationships are not yet known. Homorus, a group of Achatina with
an elongated spire, occurring also in the Angola District and on the
east coast, has 4 species. No fresh-water species have as yet been
discovered in either of the islands.
The Angola and Benguela District, extending from the Congo to
the Cunene R., probably belongs to the West African Sub-region, but
until its fauna is better known it is advisable to consider it apart.
Achatina continues abundant, but the other characteristic West
African forms (Pseudachatina, Streptostele, Perideris) diminish or
are absent altogether. No Helix and only 1 Cyclophorus occur.
Ovampo, Damara, and Great Namaqualand, lying between the
Cumene and Orange rivers, seem to form a transition district
between the West and South African faunas. Helix reappears, while
the characteristic West African genera are almost entirely wanting.
 (c) The East African Province extends from about Delagoa Bay to
the Abyssinian shores of the Red Sea. In general out-line the
province consists of a flat marshy district, extending inland for many
miles from the sea; this is succeeded by rising ground, which
eventually becomes a high table-land, often desolate and arid,
whose line of slope lies parallel to the trend of the coast. The
Mollusca are little known, and have only been studied in isolated
districts, usually from the discoveries of exploring expeditions.
The Mozambique District, from Delagoa Bay to Cape Delgado,
includes no genus which does not occur on the west coast, except
Cyclostoma (2 sp.). Trochonanina (4 sp.), Urocyclus, a characteristic
African slug (2 sp.), Rachis (6 sp.), Pachnodus (2 sp.), and Achatina
(5 sp.), are the principal groups.

Fig. 218.—Urocyclus comorensis Fisch., Comoro Is.:

G, Generative orifice; M, mucous gland; O,
orifice leading to internal shell; P, pulmonary
orifice; T, tentacles. (After Fischer.)
The Zanzibar District, from Cape Delgado to the Somali country,
has the same general features. Meladomus, a large sinistral
Ampullaria, is characteristic, while Cyclostoma (5 sp.) becomes more
abundant. Helix is still absent, but the carnivorous forms (Streptaxis
2 sp., Ennea 7 sp.) are rather numerous.
The Somali District is characterised by operculate groups of the
Otopoma type (Georgia, Rochebrunia, Revoilia) whose generic value
is rather doubtful. Petraeus, in an Arabian type, supplants Rachis
and Pachnodus. Achatina is nearly wanting, but Limicolaria has 9
species. A few Helix, said to be of the Pisana group, occur.
 The District between the Great Lakes and the coast region is fairly
well known through recent explorations, especially those associated
with Emin Pasha. Streptaxis (6 sp.) and Ennea (24 sp.) are
numerous, Helix is wanting, and the Naninidae are represented by
Trochonanina (7 sp.), and other forms at present grouped under
Nanina or Hyalinia. On the high ground Buliminus, Cerastus, and
Hapalus replace, to some extent, the Achatina and Limicolaria of the
marshy plains. Land operculates (Cyclophorus 1, Cyclostoma 8) are
more numerous; among fresh-water genera we have Lanistes (5
sp.), Cleopatra (3 sp.), Meladomus (1 sp.), and Leroya, a sinistral
form with the facies of a Littorina. The characteristic African bivalves
(Mutela, Spatha, etc.) are few in number.
(d) Province of the Great Lakes.—The Mollusca of the four great
lakes of Eastern Central Africa—Lakes Albert Nyanza (Luta Nzige,
2720 ft.), Victoria Nyanza (Oukéréwé, 3700 ft.), Nyassa (1520 ft.),
and Tanganyika (2800 ft.)—are well known, and supply an
interesting problem in distribution. Those of the three first mentioned
lakes differ in no way from the rest of tropical Africa, but the Mollusca
of Tanganyika include, in addition to the ordinary African element, a
number of peculiar operculate genera, belonging principally to the
Melaniidae and Hydrobiidae. Several of these possess a solidity of
form and compactness of structure which is unusual in fresh-water
genera, and has led to the belief, among some authorities, that they
are the direct descendants of marine species, and that Tanganyika
represents an ancient marine area. This view appears untenable.
The Victoria Nyanza and Nyassa are part of the same system as
Tanganyika, and it is not easy to see how, if Tanganyika were once
an arm of the sea, they were not equally so, especially as they are
several hundred miles nearer the Indian Ocean as at present
defined. Nor, as will be seen from the figures given above, is there
anything in the altitudes which would make us expect anything
exceptional in Tanganyika. The similar case of L. Baikal must be
compared (p. 290), where again a number of specialised forms of
Hydrobia occur.
Of the genera concerned, Paramelania and Nassopsis are forms
of Melaniidae; Tiphobia (Fig. 219), which is allied to Paludomus, is a
compact shell with angulated spinose whorls; Lacunopsis,
Ponsonbya, Limnotrochus, and Tanganyicia are probably forms of
Lithoglyphus, some, as their names denote, being of decidedly
marine facies; Syrnolopsis and Turbonilla (?) look like
Pyramidellidae, Horea and Reymondia like Rissoina; Bourguignatia
appears to belong to Vivipara, with which has now been merged the
genus Neothauma. Recently discovered forms from the adjacent L.
Mweru are evidently of kindred origin.
(e) The Afro-Arabian Province includes Abyssinia, with S. Arabia,
the African shores of the Gulf of Aden, and Socotra. The province
contains a singular mixture of types. The high ground of Abyssinia
stands like a lofty European island in the midst of a tropical plain,
with Palaearctic genera flourishing like hardy northern plants on a
mountain in low latitudes. Helix, Vitrina, and Pupa abound, with a
few Clausilia and even a Limax. On the lower levels occur
Limicolaria (3 sp.), Subulina (7 sp.), Helicarion, and Homorus, but
land operculates are entirely wanting. Characteristic of the province
as a whole are various forms of Buliminus, which in Socotra are
represented by two peculiar sub-genera, Achatinelloides and
Passamaiella. In S. Arabia the mixture of types produces curious
results: the Helix, Clausilia, and Vitrina being Palaearctic, the
Limicolaria and all the operculates Ethiopian, while the single
Trochomorpha is Indian. Indian influence, indeed, comes out
unmistakably throughout the province. Thus in Socotra there are two
Cyclotopsis, in Abyssinia two Africarion (closely related to the Indian
Girasia), two Microcystis, and a Glessula, and in the Scioa district
there is a Sitala. The fresh-water Mollusca of Socotra are Indian
forms.
 Fig. 219.—Tiphobia Horei E.
A. Smith, L. Tanganyika.

Fig. 220.—Mollusca
characteristic of L.
Tanganyika: A, Nassopsis
nassa Woodw.; B, Spekia
zonata Woodw.; C,
Syrnolopsis lacustris E. A.
Smith.
 Fig. 221.—Achatina zebra
Lam., S. Africa. × ½.
(2) The South African Sub-region.—The principal characteristic
of the Mollusca of S. Africa is the occurrence of numerous small
species of Helicidae, belonging chiefly to the groups Pella, Phasis,
Dorcasia, and Sculptaria, all of which are practically peculiar.
Carnivorous genera are also prominent, Ennea here attaining its
maximum. Rhytida (to which several species still regarded as Pella
belong) is common only to the S. Pacific and Australasia, and forms,
with Isidora among the fresh-water pulmonates, a remarkable link of
connexion. Aerope, the largest of all helicoid carnivorous genera,
and Chlamydephorus, a carnivorous slug with an internal shell, are
peculiar. Achatina is still abundant, but Limicolaria is wanting.
Livinhacea, a form with a continuous peristome, perhaps akin to
Bulimus; Apera, a form of slug; and Coeliaxis, a genus perhaps akin
to the Papuan and Queensland Perrieria, are all peculiar. The land
operculates, which are not numerous, are of the East African type.
Land Mollusca of the S. African Sub-region
Chlamydephorus 1
Ennea 31
Aerope 5
Rhytida 3
Helicarion 3
Trochonanina 1
Trochozonites 1
Limax 1
Apera 1
 Vitrina 7
Nanina 6
Conulus 2
Patula 2
Pella 44
Dorcasia 8
Phasis 1
Sculptaria 2
Helix (inc. sed.) 4
Rachis 1
Pachnodus 3
Buliminus (?) 4
Pupa 20
Vertigo 2
Achatina 18
Livinhacea 1
Stenogyra 4
Coeliaxis 1
Succinea 3
Vaginula 2
Cyclophorus 1
Cyclostoma 7
Cyclotus (?) 1
Blanfordia 1
St. Helena.—The Molluscan fauna of St. Helena is perhaps the
most puzzling, as regards its geographical affinities, of any in the
world. It consists of 29 peculiar species of land Mollusca (fresh-water
species being unknown), 19 of which are recently extinct, partly
owing to the destruction of the forest, but are found in considerable
abundance in a state of good preservation.[375] The genera are—
Hyalinia 1
Patula 4 (3 extinct)
Endodonta 10 (7 extinct)
Bulimulus 7 (5 extinct)
Pachyotus 1 (extinct)
Tomigerus (?) 1 (extinct)
Pupa 2 (extinct)
Succinea 3
The 5 genera which concentrate our attention are Patula,
Endodonta, Pachyotus (Fig. 222), Tomigerus, and Bulimulus, all of
which appear utterly strange to an oceanic island in the middle of the
S. Atlantic. Patula and Endodonta are essentially Polynesian forms,
occurring abundantly on all the island groups in the Central Pacific.
Pachyotus, Tomigerus (assuming its correct identification), and
Bulimulus are all S. American forms, the two former being especially
characteristic of Brazil. How this mixture of genera now confined to
regions so widely distant, not only from St. Helena itself, but from
one another, became associated here, is a problem obviously not
easy of solution. The fauna is probably a remnant of a very ancient
type, possibly at one time much more widely distributed. Endodonta
(an essentially insular form, like Omphalotropis) actually occurs on
Fernando Noronha, off the Brazil coast, and we shall see how an
Indian and even a Polynesian element is present off the eastern
coasts of Africa.
Ascension I.—One indigenous species, a so-called Limax, is all
that has ever been discovered.
(3) The Malagasy Sub-region includes Madagascar with its
attendant satellites Bourbon, Mauritius, and Rodriguez, and the
Seychelles and Comoro groups. No land Mollusca are known from
the Amirantes, the Chagos, or from Aldabra. The special
characteristics of the sub-region are the great development of the
carnivorous land Mollusca (Ennea, Gibbus), the occurrence of a
considerable number of true Helicidae of great size and beauty, and
the prominence of the genus Cyclostoma.
(a) The Madagascan Province.—The land Mollusca of
Madagascar, although as yet imperfectly known, possess a striking
individuality. Two of the chief characteristics of the Ethiopian region
are the paucity of its land operculate and of its Helix fauna;
Madagascar is especially distinguished by the rich development of
both these groups. For size, colouring, and beauty of shape, the
Helicidae of the two sub-genera Ampelita and Helicophanta rival, if
they do not surpass, any in the world. They are quite peculiar to this
sub-region, not a trace of them occurring on the Mascarenes,
Seychelles, or even on the Comoros. Helicophanta is distinguished
by the enormous size of its embryonic shell, which persists in the
adult (Fig. 223), and in this respect the group appears to be related
to Acavus (Ceylon, Fig. 204) and Panda (N.E. Australia). As is usual
when Helix is well developed, Nanina (about 12 sp.) is
proportionately scanty.
The African Bulimini (Pachnodus and Rachis) are represented by
two species, but Achatina, so abundant on the mainland, is scarce.
Two other groups of Buliminus, Leucotaenia and Clavator, are
peculiar. The presence of a single Kaliella, specifically identical with
a common Indian form, is very remarkable.
Cyclostoma proper, of which Madagascar is the metropolis, is
richly developed (54 sp.). Many of the species are of great size and
of striking beauty of ornamentation. Unlike its Helicidae, this genus is
not restricted to Madagascar; several species occur on the mainland,
6 on the Comoros, one on the Seychelles, and 16 in Mauritius. The
sub-genera Acroptychia and Hainesia are peculiar.

Fig. 222.—Pachyotus auris

vulpina Desh., St. Helena (sub-
fossil).
 Fig. 223.—Helix (Helicophanta)
Souverbiana Fisch.,
Madagascar, showing
embryonic shell. × ⅔.

Fig. 224.—Cyclostoma
campanulatum Pfr., Madagascar.
The fresh-water Mollusca of Madagascar contain further traces of
Indian relationship. Thus we find two species of Paludomus, a genus
whose metropolis is Ceylon, India, and Further India, and which is
barely represented on the Seychelles and in the Somali district.
Melanatria, which is peculiar to Madagascar, has its nearest affinities
in the Cingalese and East Indian faunas. Several of the Melania and
the two Bithynia are of a type entirely wanting in Africa, but common
in the Indo-Malay sub-region. Not a single one of the characteristic
African fresh-water bivalves (Mutela, Spatha, Aetheria, Galatea, etc.)
has been found in Madagascar. On the other hand, certain African
Gasteropoda, such as Cleopatra and Isidora, occur, indicating, in
common with the land Mollusca, that an ultimate land connexion with
Africa must have taken place, but at an immeasurably remote period.
Land and Fresh-water Mollusca of Madagascar
Ennea 9
Urocyclus 2
Helicarion (?) 1
Macrocyclis (?) 1
Kaliella 1
Nanina (inc. sed.) 9
Ampelita 35
Helicophanta 17
Pachnodus 2
Rachis 2
Leucotaenia 2
Clavator 2
Achatina 3
Opeas 2
Subulina 3
Vaginula 4
Limnea 2
Planorbis 3
Isidora 3
Melania 7
Melanatria 4
Paludomus 2
Vivipara 1
Bithynia 2
Cleopatra 2
Ampullaria 6
Cyclophorus 2
Cyclotus (?) 1
Cyclostoma 54
Otopoma 5
Lithidion 1
Acroptychia 3
Hainesia 3
Unio 1
Corbicula 2
Sphaerium 1
Pisidium 1
 The Comoro Islands.—This isolated group possesses about 100
species, almost all of which are peculiar. The principal feature is the
rich development of Ennea (30 sp.). On the whole the group shows
more relationship to Madagascar than to the mainland. Thus we
have six species of true Cyclostoma, and only one Achatina, while
among the fresh-water genera is Septaria, which is characteristic of
the whole Malagasy Sub-region, but is absent from the mainland.
The Helicidae are all of insignificant size. Peculiar to the group is the
remarkable genus Cyclosurus (Fig. 152, p. 247).
(b) The Mascarene Province (Mauritius, Bourbon, Rodriguez, and
the Seychelles).—The percentage of peculiar species, which is very
high, can only be paralleled in the case of some of the West Indian
islands, and sufficiently attests the extreme isolation of the group
from Madagascar. We have—
Total sp. Land sp. Fresh-water Peculiar Peculiar to
sp. group
Mauritius 113 104 9 78 102 (90 p.c.)
Bourbon 45 40 5 19 38 (84 p.c.)
Rodriguez 23 19 4 15 21 (95 p.c.)
Seychelles 34 27 7 24 30 (90 p.c.)
The Mollusca of the group exhibit three distinct elements, the
Indigenous, the Madagascan, and the Indian and Australasian.
The genus Pachystyla (Naninidae) is quite peculiar, forming the
main portion of the land snails proper. It attains its maximum in
Mauritius (17 sp.), with 5 sp. in Bourbon and one sub-fossil sp. in
Rodriguez, while in the Seychelles it is absent. But the principal
feature of the Mascarene group is the extraordinary development of
the carnivorous genus Gibbus, which has 27 sp. in Mauritius, 8 in
Bourbon, 4 in Rodriguez; in the Seychelles, it is replaced by
Edentulina and Streptostele. The principal link with Madagascar is
found in a part of the operculate land fauna. Cyclostoma is present
(with Otopoma) in several fine living forms, and the number of sub-
fossil species is a clear indication that this group was, not long ago,
much more abundant, for of the 16 Cyclostoma known from
Mauritius 10 are sub-fossil. The operculates form a decided feature
of the land fauna; thus in Mauritius there are 32 species, or more
than 28 per cent of the whole.

Fig. 225.—Characteristic Mauritian land

shells: A, Gibbus palanga Fér.; A´,
young of same; B, Gibbus
lyonetianus Pall.
Indian and Australasian affinities are unmistakably present. Thus
Omphalotropis, a genus characteristic of small islands, is profusely
represented, but it does not occur in Madagascar or Africa. Two
Helicina (Mauritius and Seychelles) and a single Leptopoma
(possibly a Leptopomoides) are also of eastern relationship.
Cyclotopsis, Cyathopoma, and Geostilbia are markedly Indian
genera. Microcystis, Patula, and Tornatellina are Polynesian.
Hyalimax—and this is a very striking fact—occurs nowhere else but
in the Andamans and Nicobars, and on the Aracan coast. The
nearest relation to the Seychelles Mariaella appears to be the
Cingalese Tennentia. Not a single representative of these eleven
genera has been found even in Madagascar.
The fresh-water Mollusca (omitting the Neritidae) are: Mauritius 9
species, Bourbon 5, Rodriguez 4, Seychelles 6, with only 15 species
in all. The one Planorbis and the Vivipara, the Paludomus and two of
the Melania are of Indian types. The Lantzia (peculiar to Bourbon) is
probably allied to the Indian Camptonyx. Owing to the paucity of
permanent streams, no fresh-water bivalves occur. Among the
Neritidae is a single Septaria, a genus which, though occurring in
Madagascar, is entirely strange to Africa, and is abundant in the
Oriental and Australasian regions.
It would seem probable that when the closer connexion which at
one time undoubtedly existed between India and Eastern Africa
began to be less continuous,[376] the Mascarene group was first
severed from what ultimately became Madagascar, while the
Seychelles, and perhaps the Comoros, still continued united to it.
The Comoros, which lack the great Helices, separated off from
Madagascar first, while the Seychelles continued in more or less
direct union with that island sufficiently long to receive the
progenitors of Stylodonta (a peculiar group of Helix), but became
disunited at an exceedingly remote period.

E. The Nearctic Region

The southern boundary of this region may be regarded as roughly

corresponding to that of the United States, i.e. Lower California and
Mexico are excluded. The southern portion of Florida belongs to the
Antillean sub-region.
The principal characteristic of the Nearctic Region is the
remarkable poverty of its land Mollusca. No district in the world of
equal extent is so poor in genera, while those which occur are
generally of small size, with scarcely anything remarkable either in
colouring or form. The elongated land shells (Clausilia, Buliminus),
so characteristic of Europe, are entirely wanting, but a few
Bulimulus, of Neotropical origin, penetrate Texas, and from the same
sources come a few species of Glandina (as far north as S.
Carolina), Holospira (Texas), and Helicina.
The region falls into two well-marked sub-regions, the N.
American and the Californian, with the Rocky Mountain district as a
sort of debatable ground between them. The Californian sub-region
consists of the narrow strip of country between the Sierra Nevada,
the Cascade Mountains and the coast-line, from San Diego to
Alaska; the N. American sub-region consists of the remainder of the
region.
(1) The N. American Sub-region.—The Carnivorous genera are
represented solely by the few Glandina mentioned above, and by the
indigenous genus Selenites, a form midway between Testacella and
Limax, whose metropolis is on the Pacific slope, but which spreads
eastward into the Antilles. Among the Limacidae, Limax is common
to both sub-regions, but Tebennophorus (4 sp., 3 of which belong to
the genus Pallifera), a genus found also in China and Siam, and
Vitrinozonites do not occur in the Californian. Hyalinia (Zonites) is
fairly abundant, especially in the groups Mesomphix and
Gastrodonta (peculiar to this sub-region), and Hyalinia proper. Patula
is well represented. The Helicidae belong principally to the groups
Mesodon, Stenotrema, Triodopsis, Polygyra, and Strobila, only 6 of
which, out of a total of 84, reach the Pacific slope. Land operculates
are conspicuous for their almost complete absence (see map,
frontispiece).

Fig. 226.—Characteristic North American Mollusca. A,

Helix (Mesodon) palliata Say, Ohio. B, Helix
(Polygyra) cereolus Mühlf., Texas. C, Patula
alternata Say, Tennessee.
The poverty of the land fauna is atoned for by the extraordinary
abundance and variety of the fresh-water genera. A family of
operculates, the Pleuroceridae, with 10 genera and about 450
species, is quite peculiar, a few stragglers only reaching Central
America and the Antilles. The nucleus of their distribution is the
Upper Tennessee River with its branches, and the Coosa River.
They appear to dislike the neighbourhood of the sea, and are never