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ALA Neal-Schuman purchases fund advocacy, awareness, and
accreditation programs for library professionals worldwide.
KYLE BANERJEE has twenty years of library experience and
extensive systems knowledge. He has planned and written software
to support library systems migration since 1996. He is the coauthor
of Building Digital Libraries (2008) and Digital Libraries: Content and
Systems (2006), and is the author of numerous other publications.
TERRY REESE is the head of digital initiatives at the Ohio State
University Libraries. Over the past seventeen years, his research
interests have centered on the changing nature of library metadata
and the ways in which this data can be reused and transformed in
different contexts. He is the author and creator of MarcEdit, a cross-
platform library metadata editing tool that is designed to lower the
technical barriers for users working with various forms of library
metadata, and is the coauthor of Building Digital Libraries (2008),
and is the author of numerous other publications.

© 2019 by the American Library Association

Extensive effort has gone into ensuring the reliability of the information in this
book; however, the publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect
to the material contained herein.

ISBNs
978-0-8389-1635-3 (paper)
978-0-8389-1723-7 (PDF)
978-0-8389-1714-5 (ePub)
978-0-8389-1724-4 (Kindle)

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Banerjee, Kyle, author. | Reese, Terry, Jr., author.
Title: Building digital libraries : a how-to-do-it manual for librarians /Kyle Banerjee,
Terry Reese.
Description: Second edition. | Chicago : ALA Neal-Schuman, an imprint of the
American Library Association, 2019. | Series: How-to-do-it manuals for
librarians? | Includes bibliographical references.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018001090 | ISBN 9780838916353 (print : alk. paper) | ISBN
9780838917145 (epub) | ISBN 9780838917237 (pdf) | ISBN 9780838917244
(kindle : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Digital libraries.
Classification: LCC ZA4080 .R44 2018 | DDC 027—dc23
LC record available at https://​lccn.loc.gov/​2018001090
Contents

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

INTRODUCTION

Chapter 1. Getting Started

Should You Build a Repository?
Selling the Project
Getting Your Repository off the Ground

Chapter 2. Choosing a Repository Architecture

Questions to Ask before Choosing an Architecture
Who Are the Users and What Do They Need?
What Types of Collections Will It Contain?
How Are Assets Acquired?
What Rights Management and Access Controls Do You Need?
How Does the Repository Handle Preservation?
How Will the Repository Be Managed?
Other High-Level Platform Decisions
Building the Requirements List
General
Metadata
Automation
Access Control
Resource and Data Management

Chapter 3. Acquiring, Processing, Classifying, and Describing

Digital Content
Planning Workflow
Collection Development
Acquiring Content
Object Requirements
Transform
Kick the Can down the Road
Outsourcing
Organizing Content and Assigning Metadata
Structuring Content
Crowd-Sourcing
Resource Identification
Setting Up Workflow
Batch Processes
Rights Management
Protecting the Integrity of Resources

Chapter 4. Preservation Planning

What Is Digital Preservation?
Preserving the Content and Context, Not the Medium
Why Preservation Doesn’t Happen
The Maturity Model
Preservation File Formats
Cloud-Based Digital Preservation Services
Summary

Chapter 5. General-Purpose Technologies Useful for Digital

Repositories
The Changing Face of Metadata
XML in Libraries
XHTML
XPath
XForms
XSLT
XLink
 XQuery
XPointer
XML Schema
Why Use XML-Based Metadata
XML Is Human-Readable
XML Offers a Quicker Cataloging Strategy
Multi-Formatted and Embedded Documents
Metadata Becomes “Smarter”
Metadata Becomes “Connected”
Not Just a Library Standard
JSON
Data Manipulation
Programming Languages
Programming Tools
Software Tools
Application Development
REST (Representational State Transfer)
SPARQL (SPARQL Protocol and RDF Query Language)
SRU (Search and Retrieval via URL)
Code Management
Future of Software Development
Mobile Application Development
Applications Continue to Become More Micro
Deeper Reliance on Interpreted Languages and JavaScript
Sharing Your Services
Summary

Chapter 6. Metadata Formats

Metadata Primitives
MARC
MARC21XML
Dublin Core
MODS
METS
 IIIF
BIBFRAME
Domain-Specific Metadata Formats
Embedded Metadata Formats
PCDM (Portland Common Data Model)
Semantic Web
Summary

Chapter 7. Sharing Data: Harvesting, Linking, and Distribution

The Evolving Role of Libraries
Metadata Doesn’t Want to Be Free . . . If It Did, It Would Be Easy
Linked Data
Sharing Metadata
XSLT
XQuery
Metadata Crosswalking
OAI-PMH
OAI-PMH Verbs
Facilitating Third-Party Indexing
Metadata Repurposing
The Oregon State University Electronic Theses Process
The Ohio State University Libraries: Automatic Data Transfer of Digital Content
between the Internet Archive and the HathiTrust
Summary

Chapter 8. Access Management

Copyright
Access Control Mechanisms
Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP)
Single Sign-On (SSO)
Central Authentication Service (CAS)
Security Assertion Markup Language (SAML)
Shibboleth
 OpenID
OAuth and Social Media Authentication
Athens
Active Directory
Internal Authentication
IP-Based Authentication
Vended Authentication
Implementing Access Control

Chapter 9. Thinking about Discovery

Unpacking Discovery?
Federated Search and Digital Libraries
Why Think about Discovery
Current Research
Searching Protocols
Z39.50
SRU/SRW
OpenSearch
Linking Protocols
OpenURL
DOI (Digital Object Identifiers)
Search Engine Support
Evaluating User Needs
Developmental Needs
User Needs
Summary

Chapter 10. Planning for the Future

Providing Information That People Need
Libraries’ New Roles
Learning from the Past
Adapting to Change
Consolidation and Specialization
The Shared Environment
Federated Vocabularies
Summary

INDEX
Acknowledgments

When we created the first edition of this book in 2006, cultural

heritage organizations largely thought about institutional repositories
in terms of publishing open-access content. These issues are still
present, but the variety of needs that repositories must serve has
expanded, as has the content they provide. Moreover, repositories
have become a much more integral part of library operations—the
long-term success of libraries and cultural heritage organizations
partly depends on their ability to create and integrate digital library
platforms into their identities.
As we considered writing this new edition, we wanted to address
this shift in thinking and expand the book to explore the wider issues
surrounding digital libraries and the infrastructure that makes them
possible. We hope we’ve succeeded, and that this book will help
practitioners and students understand how the landscape has
changed for cultural heritage organizations. We further hope that
this book will afford its readers a better understanding of how one
can initiate and sustain digital endeavors in libraries.
As in other areas of life, many others have helped us throughout
the writing of this book. Friends, colleagues, and family members
endured our endless musings on technical and library topics and
shared ideas that really changed how we look at things.
We are grateful to Rachel Chance and others working behind the
scenes at ALA Neal-Schuman Publishing for their support. Our names
might be on the cover, but our colleagues have put in an enormous
amount of work to make this book much better than it otherwise
would have been, while leaving us to work on the fun parts.

Kyle’s Notes
First and foremost, I want to dedicate my efforts to my dad. He
always liked to say that people get so fixated on ants that they don’t
notice elephants walking by. The multitude of technologies,
standards, methods, reports, and activities associated with digital
libraries are as overwhelming as any swarm of ants, so I hope I can
help you to discover the far more interesting and helpful elephants.
I feel lucky to have worked with Kate Thornhill and David Forero,
who challenged me to think differently and who remind me why I
joined this field in the first place. They looked over early drafts of my
work and offered many insights.
I would also like to thank Terry, who has been a partner in crime
both personally and professionally since we first met. His attitude
and encouragement have helped me get excited about working
every day, even after all these years.
Lastly, I’m grateful to Bonnie Parks, who has awakened things I
didn’t even know I had in me and has taken me in directions I never
dreamed I would go.

Terry’s Notes

I would like to specifically thank my friends and colleagues at the

Ohio State University Libraries, specifically Magda El-Sherbini, who
has been a sounding board and trusted friend throughout my tenure
there. I also would like to thank my coauthor, Kyle, who has pushed
and prodded to make sure I’d make my deadlines, while still
providing great suggestions and feedback throughout the process.
More importantly, Kyle has been my friend and mentor since 2000,
when we first met. I often wonder what I would have ended up
doing had he not encouraged me to pursue my degree in library
science, though I’m happy that he did.
Finally, I’d be remiss if I didn’t mention my family. To my two
boys, Kenny and Nathan, I really appreciate your interest in the
process of writing this book. You may not have realized it, but the
questions you guys have been asking over the past six months really
helped me work on making my writing more accessible and filled
with less techno-speak. And to my wife and partner, Alyce, I’m
grateful for all her suggestions and patience throughout the writing
process. If I accomplish anything in this world, it is due to the
support and faith that she has always shown in me.
Introduction

Digital collections take many forms and serve many objectives.

This book aims to help you understand the broad issues surrounding
institutional repositories (IRs), digital asset management systems
(DAMs), online educational resources (OERs), and digital libraries.
For the purposes of this book, the differences between these
different types of collections are unimportant, and the terms
“repository” or “digital repository” will be used to refer to any system
that is used to organize, store, retrieve, and disseminate digital
resources.
Understanding digital libraries is as much a matter of recognizing
what you don’t need to know as it is about learning what you do
need to know. There are too many types of repositories to discuss
them individually, so we focus on concepts that can help you
understand any system. Commercial and open source systems
designed to fulfill very divergent needs depend on a countless array
of standards and technologies, so this book introduces you only to
those that will likely be significant for your own project, with the
expectation that you will consult specialized references for greater
detail on specific tools, methods, standards, and technologies.
The first chapter of this book discusses creating a digital
repository, including how to determine whether your library should
create one at all, since building a repository requires a permanent
commitment of resources that would otherwise be used to support
other services. This chapter also discusses determining the scope or
extent of your project, securing support for initial and ongoing
expenses, and tools you can use to help get started.
Chapter 2 guides you through the questions that need to be
answered to select a repository architecture. Every repository project
is ultimately motivated by a vision of how a set of needs can be met.
The architecture determines what can be added to the repository,
how materials can be processed and enhanced to meet needs, how
resources are navigated, and how they can be used. The
architecture defines what user and staff workflows are possible, as
well as the potential capabilities of the repository. This chapter
concludes with suggestions on how to build a requirements list that
allows a meaningful comparison of platforms.
Chapter 3 tackles the question of how to identify materials for
your repository and develop workflows to incorporate those
materials into collections. Once it is stored, the value of a resource is
defined by the metadata that makes it findable and the structures
and mechanisms that allow it to be used. This chapter helps you
navigate the process of creating efficient workflows to structure,
organize, and protect resources so they will be useful for many years
to come.
Repositories exist to make resources available for future users—a
challenging task given how formats are largely a reflection of the
capabilities and understandings of the times when they were
created. Chapter 4 discusses how to preserve materials so they can
still be used as technology progresses.
Anyone building or maintaining a repository faces an alphabet
soup of technical acronyms. Chapter 5 introduces you to standards
and technologies for storing, organizing, sharing, and searching
repositories. Chapter 6 elaborates on these themes, with special
attention paid to metadata formats associated with general-purpose
repositories, specific domains, and managing resources.
The value of a repository is measured by its use. Chapter 7
describes how information in repositories can be shared across
different environments created for different purposes. This chapter
discusses linked data, protocols for sharing and harvesting
information, technologies for indexing and searching resources, and
general-purpose technologies for manipulating information in a
shared environment.
 Authentication and authorization appear straightforward from a
technical perspective. However, working with a variety of privacy and
security needs, intellectual property requirements, data sources, user
types, and mechanisms that cross organizational boundaries makes
it challenging to set up access control. Chapter 8 discusses the
deceptively simple task of authenticating staff and users, as well as
managing mechanisms that provide them with convenient and
appropriate access while honoring the needs of different rights
holders.
Of course, a repository would be of little use if users cannot find
and access content—the findability or discovery of content, both
within an existing system, but within the larger information
landscape. Chapter 9 looks at the current research and techniques
for exposing content both within one’s repository and to the broader
research community.
This book’s concluding chapter examines the future of repositories
as library services continue their trend of consolidation, and the vast
majority of resources that users need are owned and maintained
outside the library. Special attention is given to operating in shared
environments, and the chapter offers some thoughts for what might
be in store as demand for maintaining a huge number of resources
with a small number of staff using federated vocabularies continues
to build.
1
Getting Started

IN THIS CHAPTER

The ultimate success or failure of a digital repository is often

determined in the planning stages. A repository must serve a real
need. It must support user workflows and be structured and
organized so that users can interact with resources as needed. It
must be easy to maintain and capable of accommodating needs and
resources that may not exist at the time the repository is designed.
On a basic level, a digital repository is a collection of digital
resources. These materials may have been converted from an analog
format such as paper, or they may have been born digital. They may
consist of singular objects that are used individually such as
documents, images, and video files, but they might also be complex
objects consisting of related files as might be found in exhibitions,
photos associated with releases, and learning objects. Some types of
resources such as datasets, output from specialized devices, music
associated with scores, and anything with a geospatial component
may require specialized software or platforms to be useful.
Regardless of the type of resources they contain, the purpose of
digital repositories is to allow information to be accessed and used.
To accomplish this objective, a repository must preserve both objects
and sufficient metadata to provide a context that can make those
objects usable. The repository must also support a reasonable
mechanism for ingesting, searching, using, and managing materials.

Should You Build a Repository?

People charged with implementing digital repositories often focus
immediately on the technical aspects of the endeavor. They read
about standards and best practices, they write requirements,
evaluate software, and explore hardware and services they might
need to make their repository a success. While important, these
steps represent only a tiny part of the planning process.
Before starting to build a repository, you need to say why it should
even exist. From a user perspective, a repository is just another
website. Countless websites already exist, so why is this one
needed? What compelling service does it offer? Even presuming that
the service is valuable and desired by users, why is this one so
important that it should receive permanently dedicated staff and
funding lines that represent a significant portion of the total budget
—particularly given that most libraries have seen both their budgets
and staff sizes shrink in recent years?
Just as any library would plan carefully before agreeing to take on
the responsibility of absorbing and nurturing a new physical
collection indefinitely, it must also do the same for electronic
collections. Although there is a widespread tendency to think that
digital materials take few resources to work with or maintain,
implementing a digital repository is a major commitment that
requires significant staff and funding resources.
When digital resources are involved, it is natural for people to
want to build all the good features they have seen in other systems
into their own. While it is perfectly reasonable to want the greatest
level of functionality possible, it is important to be aware that every
feature complicates configuration and increases long-term
maintenance commitments.
 Launching a repository is an exciting process, but long-term
success depends on a viable long-term plan. Such a plan requires a
realistic view of how much time and money are required. The library
must have access to adequate technological resources, as well as
sufficient expertise to set up, configure, and maintain systems
properly. The library also needs adequate staff to perform
acquisitions and processing tasks. If the resources are not sufficient
to implement the plan, it may be necessary to adjust the goals
downward to achievable levels. A high-quality repository with a
modest scope is more valuable as a resource than an overly
ambitious project for the simple reason that with the former, people
can reasonably know what they can expect to find.
Acquiring and processing new electronic resources take time and
significant staff resources. An acquisitions model which presumes
that authors and others will consistently identify valuable materials
and submit them using an online submission form is not realistic—
relatively few people are motivated by library interests in archiving
or in open access. Depending on nonexperts to create helpful
metadata is equally unrealistic. History has yet to provide an
example of a good library with a collection development policy based
primarily on letting authors and users determine all acquisitions. Nor
has any library succeeded in organizing a major collection by having
ordinary information providers and patrons catalog and shelve
materials in the way they believe will be most useful.
Repositories are dependent on technology, and it is easy to
underestimate the costs of long-term system support. When a
repository is new, people remember the planning process, they are
familiar with the components used to build the repository, and it is
easy to find people with detailed knowledge of how things work. As
a result, most things function as designed, and while the repository
is still new, problems are solved rapidly.
After some years have passed, however, supporting and improving
the system become more difficult. The software for any digital
repository will have many dependencies, and it may turn out years
later that individual components are dependent on specific versions
of software that are no longer maintained. This problem can occur
with proprietary as well as open source software. Key players may
no longer be available, and critical details will have been forgotten.
Consequently, maintenance and troubleshooting that were previously
simple can become very difficult, and complex operations such as
systems migrations can become overwhelming. Once a system
reaches the point where it cannot be supported properly, all of the
resources in the repository are at risk of being lost.
Maintaining a digital repository in the long term is more
complicated than maintaining an integrated library system (ILS).
Over the past few decades, the ILS market has become relatively
mature. Bibliographic, patron, and vendor data have become more
standardized. Future migrations may be costly and complicated, but
they are certainly feasible.
By contrast, digital repositories use divergent and incompatible
methods to store complex information. It is still unclear which
architectures will survive in the long term. It is important to design
the repository so that it is easy to maintain using resources that will
be available after some time has passed. In many cases, this means
setting relatively modest goals. Sophistication and complexity can
lead to difficulties, while simple, elegant designs tend to be more
robust.
Before embarking on a repository project, you should ask yourself
the following questions:
Why is the repository needed?
When designing a repository, the most important questions
to answer are why people would use it, who would use it,
and what the impact of that use would be. The repository
must identify the specific needs of specific user groups—all-
encompassing mandates such as storing the output of an
institution for anyone who might need it is not a viable
purpose. Is the purpose to provide access to archival
exhibitions, dissertations or articles, institutionally acquired
images for use in marketing and presentations, datasets
with complex structures, or specialized resources to support
specific courses such as allowing students to interact with
scores while they listen to music?
User needs drive the design process. The almost limitless
possibilities must be reduced to a discrete set of capabilities
that will be provided. When determining the purpose, it’s
important not to get bogged down in discussions about
what could be done. Rather, attention must be focused on
what will be done. Search boxes do not appear until code
specifies their size, location, and appearance. Search results
do not display until resources are acquired, encoded,
structured, and made searchable. Patrons cannot even use
text, images, or audio unless they have software that
interprets the files presented by the repository.
Different purposes require different designs and technical
infrastructure. Dissertations and articles may require
embargo support, as well as the ability to provide access to
supplementary data which require anonymization or access
controls. Images for use in marketing and presentations
may require the ability to manage large sequences
contracted from individual photo shoots, access controls,
and release forms that limit how and when they can be
used. Datasets often require specialized metadata and ways
 for users to interact with resources. Music may require
rights management as well as specialized data storage,
display, and user controls. Each type of repository needs to
interact with totally different workflows for acquisition and
use.

Is the library the appropriate entity to meet this need?

It’s essential to articulate how the repository fits within the
library’s mission, priorities, and capabilities. Libraries have
expertise in organizing and preserving certain types of
information, but they lack the professional and technical
resources to manage a wide variety of materials. Just as
the post office isn’t the best entity to provide e-mail service
just because they have extensive experience delivering
mail, the library isn’t the best entity to manage and provide
access to electronic resources simply because it has long
been trusted to preserve and provide access to diverse
physical resources.
Librarians are technically sophisticated and have strong
organizational skills. However, their expertise, tools, and
methods are largely oriented around needs surrounding
bibliographic materials, and they are not usually equipped
to provide services that require specialized technical
knowledge, major computing facilities, or sophisticated
access management. Many communities already have
repositories designed around the needs of specific types of
resources such as genomic or proteomic datasets.
Researchers who need to provide supporting data for
articles may be required to deposit their materials in
specific repositories. Even cloud services designed for
individual use are appropriate in many cases.
Even when libraries have the expertise and technical
capability to provide a service, they should still examine
whether it is appropriate to do so. Managing scientific
datasets, extensive high-resolution video, e-mail, resources
 containing sensitive health or personal data, or information
that is intricately connected to specialized platforms
optimized for tasks such as mapping, bioimaging, and
certain types of social media require the library to
permanently commit support for specialized platforms and
skill sets. Permanently dedicating limited resources for such
services—especially when they duplicate services available
elsewhere—delivers questionable benefits to library users.
The library does not become the appropriate entity to
archive and manage a resource simply because no one else
is doing so and the resource is deemed to be valuable. Just
as many types of resources in the physical world are not
preserved, the same is true of digital materials. It simply
isn’t viable to do everything people want, and so a serious
examination is needed of how a project fits within the
library’s mission before permanently committing money and
staff to maintain a custom application that awkwardly
harvests and stores a specific resource, thus making money
and staff unavailable for other priorities.

How will resources be acquired, managed, and

accessed?
The value that libraries contribute is in the selection,
organization, and presentation of materials. They select
materials that have value, they organize these materials in
meaningful contexts, and they present them in ways that
help the user. Just as a major difference between a
museum and a landfill is that the former selects relevant
items which are organized and presented in meaningful
contexts, while the latter accepts whatever people bring, a
repository must decide what it will contain and how to
make those resources meaningful to users.
Digital materials present many of the same challenges as
physical resources. Just as successful libraries have robust
collection development policies and dedicate significant
resources to catalog and organize physical resources, these
things are also needed for digital materials—a successful
outcome is unlikely if the collection development policy is to
expect users to donate materials that they organize
themselves. Regardless of format, the library plays a critical
role in identifying materials that are organized into useful
contexts and managed so that they are relevant for users.
Nothing lasts forever, so an important component of a plan
is to describe what happens when the library needs to get
rid of objects or collections via deaccessioning or
transferring the assets to another institution.
Some types of resources present special acquisition and
processing challenges. Large files of any sort are difficult to
transmit over network connections. Complex objects and
those consisting of many items present ingestion,
metadata, organization, and display issues. Many types of
resources are produced by specific systems that the
repository needs to interact with. The appropriate
mechanism depends on many factors, but the library should
not assume that a web form that allows users or staff to
upload files one at a time or even in bulk will suffice.
Libraries have limited resources that only allow them to
acquire and protect a small percentage of the world of
information. It is therefore very important that library-
managed repositories are supported by well-scoped
collection development policies that ensure users will be
able to interact with target collections as intended.
Discussions with stakeholders will help you understand
which workflows the repository must interact with, as well
as how resources might be added, modified, and used. Be
aware that stakeholders often have unreasonable service
expectations. For example, if departments submit photo
collections or datasets consisting of thousands of files,
these collections need good metadata to be useful. But
content providers don’t have the time or experience to
 create well-structured metadata, and library staff lack the
domain expertise and time to create it for them. Regardless
of a system’s full capabilities, a major limiting factor is the
completeness and consistency of the metadata, and the
repository plan has to be built around what people will
actually work with and do rather than what one might
imagine they could work with and do.

Selling the Project

A digital repository needs support from all areas in an organization.
While projects to create digital repositories often generate
considerable enthusiasm, they will have a significant impact on the
services an organization provides, as well as the staff responsible for
maintaining those services. For this reason, buy-in from an
organization’s stakeholders, staff, and users is critical to success.
One of the first jobs of those planning a digital repository is to
garner this support.
How will you get support for the repository project?
Many repository projects consist of a small number of
individuals who advocate for a project and effectively get
people to let them do it. However, a successful proposal
needs support throughout the organization—from users and
staff to the administration, which in turn requires each of
these groups to have some ownership of the project.
The key to a successful repository project is to engage
the people who will ultimately use it early in the process so
you can understand how resources need to be acquired,
managed, and used. Doing this requires identifying people
in all areas who will ultimately be involved. These people
will help you answer questions such as:

• Why will people use the repository?

• Who is going to use it?
• How are they going to use it?
• What type of resources will it contain?
• How big is it expected to grow?
• How can resources be maintained?
• How will access and intellectual property rights be
managed?
• What systems does it need to interact with for
ingesting, discovering, and using materials?
• Who is responsible for what parts of its operations?
• What workflows does it need to support?
• What special capabilities does it need?
• How are objects and collections that are no longer
needed identified, and what happens to them?

Key stakeholders must agree on the worth of the

repository and the viability of the plan because their buy-in
is critical to securing funding. Answering these questions
allows planners to refine the repository proposal, generate
 enthusiasm for the project, and engage those individuals
who are necessary for a successful outcome.

How will staffing needs be met?

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Another random document with
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 On the lesser urn were the following verses.

Plund’rers with prying eyes, away!

What mean ye by this curious stay?
Hence with your cunning, patron god,
With bonnet wing’d, and magic rod!
Sacred alone to Pluto’s name,
This mighty work of endless fame.

Saint Austin mentions a lamp that was found in a temple,

dedicated to Venus, which was always exposed to the open weather,
and could never be consumed or extinguished. And Ludovicus Vives,
his commentator, mentions another lamp which was found a little
before his time, that had continued burning for one thousand and fifty
years.

It is supposed, that the perpetuity of these lamps, was owing to the

consummate tenacity of the unctuous matter with which the flame
was united, being so proportioned to the strength of the fire, that, like
the radical moisture and natural heat in animals, neither of them
could conquer or destroy the other. Licetus, who is of this opinion,
observes, that in order to preserve this equality of proportion, the
ancients hid these lamps in caverns, or close monuments: and
hence it has happened, that on opening these tombs, the admission
of fresh air to the lamps has produced so great an inequality
between the flame and the oil, that they have been presently
extinguished.
 Mr. Addison in his Spectator, relates the
following story of the lamp of Rosicrucius.
“A certain person having occasion to dig somewhat deep in the
ground, where the philosopher Rosicrucius lay interred, met with a
small door, having a wall on each side of it. His curiosity, and the
hopes of finding some hidden treasure, soon prompted him to force
open the door. He was immediately surprised by a sudden blaze of
light, and discovered a very fair vault: at the upper end of it was a
statue of a man in armour, sitting by a table, and leaning on his left
arm. He held a truncheon in his right hand, and had a lamp burning
before him. The man had no sooner set one foot within the vault,
than the statue erected itself from its leaning posture, stood bolt
upright, and upon the fellow’s advancing another step, lifted up the
truncheon in his right hand. The man still ventured a third step, when
the statue with a furious blow broke the lamp into a thousand pieces,
and left his guest in a sudden darkness.”
Upon the report of this adventure, the country people soon came
with lights to the sepulchre, and discovered that the statue, which
was made of Brass, was nothing more than a piece of clock work;
that the floor of the vault was all loose, and underlaid with several
springs, which, upon any man’s entering, naturally produced that
which had happened.
Rosicrucius, say his disciples, made use of this method, to shew
the world that he had reinvented the ever-burning lamps of the
Ancients, tho’ he was resolved no one should reap any advantage
from the discovery.[2]
[2] Note.—Mr. Addison seems to have borrowed this story from
the one related by Dr. Parsons. Vide p. 121.

In the tenth year of Henry II. at the digging of a new foundation in

the church of St. Mary-Hill, in London, there was found and taken up
the body of Alice Hackney, she had been buried in that church a
hundred and seventy-five years before, yet was she there found
whole of skin, and the joints of her arms pliable; her corpse was kept
above ground four days without any inconvenience, exposed to the
view of as many as would behold it, and then re-committed to the
earth.
Baker’s Chronicle.

In the reign of King James, at Astley in Warwickshire, upon the fall

of the church, there was taken up the corpse of Thomas Grey,
Marquis of Dorset, who was there buried the 10th of October, 1530,
in the twenty second year of King Henry VIII, and although it had
been lain seventy eight years, in this bed of corruption, yet his eyes,
hair, flesh, nails, and joints, remained as if he had been but newly
buried.

In the year 1554, there was found in Rome a coffin of marble,

eight feet long, and in it a robe, embroidered with Goldsmith’s work,
which yielded six and thirty pounds weight of gold; besides forty
rings, a cluster of emeralds, a little mouse, made of another precious
stone, and amongst all these precious magnificences, two leg bones
of a dead corpse, known by the inscription of the tomb to be the
bones of the Empress Mary, daughter of Stilicoe, and wife of the
Emperor Honorius.

Robert Braybrook, born at a village in Northamptonshire, was

consecrated Bishop of London, January, 5th, 1381. He was after that
Chancellor of England for six months. He died, anno. 1404, and was
buried under a marble stone, in the chapel of St. Mary, in the
Cathedral of St. Paul’s, London. Yet was the body of this Bishop
lately taken up, and found firm, as to skin, hair, joints, nails, &c. For
upon that fierce and fatal fire in London, September, 2nd, 1666,
which burnt so much of St. Paul’s church, when part of the floor fell
into St. Faith’s, this dead person was shaken out of his dormitory,
where he had lain no less than two hundred and sixty two years. His
body was exposed to the view of all sorts of people for divers days;
and some thousands did behold and poise it in their arms, till by
special order it was re-interred.
Fuller’s Worthies.

In the Reign of King Henry II. anno. 1089, the bones of King
Arthur, and his wife Guenevor were found in the vale of Avalon,
under an hollow oak, fifteen feet under ground, the hair of the said
Guenevor being then whole and fresh, of a yellow colour; but as
soon as it was touched, it fell to powder, as Fabian relateth: this was
more than six hundred years after his death. His shin bone, set by
the leg of a tall man, reached above his knee the breadth of three
fingers.
Baker’s Chronicle.

The body of Albertus Magnus was taken out of his sepulchre, to

be re-interred in the midst of the chancel in a new tomb for that
purpose, it was two hundred years from the time wherein he had
been first buried; yet was he found entire without any kind of
deformation, unless it was this (says a celebrated historian) that his
jaw seemed to be somewhat fallen.
 Mr. Brydone in his travels, speaking of a Sicilian Convent, says,
the famous convent of Capuchins, about a mile without the city of
Palermo, contains nothing very remarkable but the burial place,
which is indeed a great curiosity. This is a vast subterraneous
apartment, divided into large commodious galleries, the walls on
each side of which are hollowed out into a variety of niches, as if
intended for a great collection of statues. These niches, instead of
statues, are filled with dead bodies set upright upon their legs, and
fixed by the back to the inside of the niche. Their number is about
three hundred. They are all dressed in the clothes they usually wore,
and form a most respectful and venerable assembly. The skin and
muscles, by a certain preparation, become as dry and hard as a
piece of stock fish: and although many of them have been here
upwards of two hundred and fifty years, yet none are reduced to
skeletons. The muscles indeed, in some, appear to be a good deal
more shrunk in some than in others; probably because these
persons had been more extenuated at the time of their death. Here
the people of Palermo pay daily visits to their deceased friends, and
recall with pleasure and regret, the scenes of their past life. Here
they familiarize themselves with their future state, and choose the
company they would wish to keep in the other world. It is a common
thing to make choice of their niche, and to try if the body fits it, that
no alterations may be necessary after they are dead; and sometimes
by way of a voluntary penance, they accustom themselves to stand
for hours in these niches. The bodies of the princes and first nobility,
are lodged in handsome chests, or trunks; some of them richly
adorned. These are not in the shape of coffins, but all of one width,
and about a foot and a half or two feet deep. The keys are kept by
the nearest relations of the family, who sometimes come and drop a
tear over their departed friends. Some of the Capuchins sleep in
these galleries every night, and pretend to have many wonderful
visions and revelations; but the truth is, that very few people believe
them.
 In the philosophical transactions, we find the following account of a
body found in a vault, in the church of Staverton, in Devonshire, by
Mr. Tripe, Surgeon at Ashburton, in a letter to Doctor Huxham, dated
June, 28th, 1750. There having been a great diversity of reports,
says the writer, relating to a body lately discovered in a vault in
Staverton church, I have taken the liberty of communicating to you
the following particulars. As it does not appear by the register of the
burials, that any person has been deposited in this vault since
October, 5th, 1669, it is certain that the body has lain there upwards
of four score years; yet, when the vault was opened, about four
months ago, it was found as perfect in all its parts, as if but just
interred. The whole body was plump and full, the skin white, soft,
smooth, and elastic; the hair strong, and the limbs nearly as flexible
as when living.
A winding sheet, which was as firm as if just applied, enclosed it
from head to foot, and two coarse cloths dipped in a blackish
substance, like pitch, infolding the winding sheet. The body, thus
protected, was placed in an oaken coffin, on which, as it was always
covered with water, was found a large stone, and a log of wood,
probably to keep it at the bottom.
Various have been the conjectures as to the cause of its
preservation; and it has been reported, though probably without
foundation, that the person was a Roman Catholic; there have been
some of that religion, who not having philosophy enough to account
for it from natural causes, have attributed it to a supernatural one,
and canonized him: and, in consequence of this, have taken away
several pieces of the winding sheet and pitch clothes, preserving
them as relics with the greatest veneration.
In my opinion, says Mr. Tripe, the pitch clothes and water
overthrow the miracle, and bring it within the power of natural
agents; from the former by defending the body from the external air;
and the latter by preserving the tenacity of the pitch.
 In the year 1448, in the ruins of an old wall of the beautiful church
at Dunfermling in Scotland, there was found the body of a young
man, in a coffin of lead, wrapped up in silk: it preserved the natural
colour, and was not in the least manner corrupted; though it was
believed to be the body of the son of King Malcolm the Third, by the
Lady Margaret.

In the year 1764, the following interesting account

appeared in an Italian paper.
“Letters from Rome say, that they have removed to the
Clementinian College there, some antiquities which were
discovered in a vineyard near the church de St. Cesair,
situated on the Appian way, not far from the ruins of the baths
of the Emperor Caracalla. The workmen who laboured in the
vineyard, struck against a thick vault, which they broke
through with great difficulty. In this vault they found four urns
of white marble, adorned with bass-reliefs, the subject of
which left no room to doubt of their being sepulchral urns.
Under this vault they perceived another, which being broke
through, discovered two magnificent oval basons, the one of a
black colour, mixed with veins of the Lapis Calcedonius; its
greatest diameter, was about six feet and a half, the least,
three feet, and two feet deep. This bason contained a human
body. The second bason was of a greenish colour, of the
same dimensions with the other, except its being but a foot
and a half deep. This was covered with white marble, and
contained the body of a woman very richly cloathed; but it
was hardly opened, before the body and its attire fell wholly
into powder; from which was recovered eight ounces of pure
gold. In the same place was found a small statue of Pallas, in
white marble; the work of which is highly esteemed.”
 Alexander Guavnerius, speaking of the old and great city of Kiovia,
near De Borysthenes, “There are,” saith he, “certain subterraneous
caverns extended to a great length and breadth within ground: here
are divers ancient sepulchres, and the bodies of certain illustrious
Russians; these, though they have lain there time out of mind, yet do
they appear entire. There are the bodies of two princes in their own
country habits, as they used to walk when alive, and these are so
fresh and whole, as if they had but newly lain there. They lie in a
cave unburied, and by the Russian Monks are shewn to strangers.”

Some years since, at the repairs of the church of St. Cœcilia,

beyond the river Tiber, there was found the body of a certain
Cardinal, an Englishman, who had been buried there three hundred
years before; yet was it every way entire, not the least part of it
perished, as they report, who both saw and handled it.

At the time Constantine reigned with Irene his mother, there was
found in an ancient sepulchre in Constantinople, a body with a plate
of gold upon the breast of it, and thereon thus engraven.—In
Christum credoqui ex Mariâ Virgine nescetor: O Sol, imperantibus
Constantino & Irene interrem me videbus: that is, I believe in that
Christ who shall be born of Mary a Virgin: O Sun thou shall see me
again, when Constantine and Irene shall come to reign.—When this
inscription had been publicly read, the body was restored to the
same place where it had been formerly buried.

The sepulchre of the great Cyrus, king of Persia, was violated in

the days of Alexander the Great, in such a manner, that his bones
were displaced and thrown out, and the urn of gold that was fixed in
his coffin, when it could not be wholly pulled away, was broken off by
parcels. When Alexander was informed hereof, he caused the Magi,
who were intrusted with the care and keeping thereof, to be exposed
unto tortures, to make them confess the authors of so great a
violation and robbery: but they denied with great constancy that they
had any hand in it, or that they knew by whom it was done. Plutarch
says, that it was one Polymachus, a noble Pellean, that was guilty of
so great a crime. It is said, that the epitaph of this mighty monarch
was to this purpose.
O mortal that comest hither (for come I know thou wilt) know that I
am Cyrus the son of Cambyses, who settled the Persian Empire,
and ruled over Asia, and therefore envy me not this little heap of
earth, where-with my body is covered.

Not long since, at Bononiæ, in the church of St. Dominick, there

was found the body of Alexander Tartagnus, a Lawyer at Imola,
which was perfectly entire, and no way decayed, although it had lain
there from his decease above one hundred and fifty years.

Pausanius makes mention of a soldier, whose body was found

with wounds fresh, and apparent upon it, although it had been buried
sixty two Olympiads, that is no less than two hundred and forty eight
years.
 METHODS
OF
EMBALMING.

The ancient Egyptians had three ways of embalming their dead,

and artists were particularly trained up for that purpose: the most
costly method was practised only upon persons of high rank, of
which sort are all the mummies that have remained entire to the
present times: it was done by extracting the brains through the
nostrils, and injecting a rich balm in their stead, then opening the
belly and taking out the intestines, the cavity was washed with palm
wine impregnated with spices, and filled with myrrh and other
aromatics; this done, the body was laid in nitre seventy days, at the
end of which, it was taken out, cleansed, and swathed with fine linen,
gummed and ornamented with various hieroglyphics, expressive of
the deceased’s birth, character, and rank. This process completed,
the embalmer carried home the body, where it was placed in a coffin,
cut in human shape, and then enclosed in an outer case, and placed
upright against the wall of the burying place belonging to the family.
Another less expensive method of embalming was, by injecting
into all the cavities of the body, a certain dissolvent; which being
suffered to run off after a proper time, carried with it whatever was
contained therein liquified; and then the body, thus purged, being
dried by the nitrous process as before, the operation was closed by
swathing, &c. By the third and lowest method of embalming, which
was only in use among the poor, they drenched the body with
injections, and then dried it with nitre.
The Egyptians had a custom among them of pledging the dead
bodies of their parents and kindred, as a security for the payment of
their debts, and whoever neglected to redeem them was held in the
utmost abhorrence, and denied the rights of burial themselves.
They paid extravagant honours to their deceased ancestors: and
there are at this day to be seen in Egypt pompous subterranean
edifices, called by the Greeks Hypogees, representing towns or
habitations under ground, in which there are streets or passages of
communication from one to another, that the dead might have as
free intercourse as when alive.

FINIS.
 INDEX

Page.

A.

Athens, Law there to prevent premature interment, 3

Asia, Dead bodies kept there several days before burial, 10

Abbé Provost, remarkable circumstance attending, 24

Ackland, Sir Hugh, and his Brandy footman, Story of, 28

Acilius Aviola, burnt to death, for want of being first examined,

60

Armenius Erus, returns to life, after being apparently dead, 69

Alexander, Dr. Story related by, 69

Aberdeen, remarkable affair happened there, 115

Ancients, remarkable Tombs and Lamps of, 121

Atestes, a Town in Italy, Lamp found there that had been

burning 1500 years, 130

Austin, St., Lamp mentioned by him that continued burning 1050

years, 133

Addison, Mr., his story of the Rosicrucian Lamp, 134

Alice Hackney, her body found perfect after 175 years interment,
136

Arthur, King and his wife, their bodies found after 600 years
burial, 138

B.

Boy, remarkable recovery of after being laid out for dead, 20

Benedictus, Alexander, his story of a Lady buried alive, 31

Baldock, Master, resuscitated, after apparent death, 65

Burying in churches and confined church-yards, danger of, 96

Buchan, Dr., his observations on burying in the midst of Cities,

116

Baptistæ Portæ, account by, of a burning Lamp, secreted before

the advent of Christ, 129

Braybrook, Robert, his body found after 262 years interment,

137

Brydone, Mr., his account of a remarkable burying-place near

Palermo, 140

Body found in a Vault, curious particulars of, ib.

Bononiæ, Church of, a perfect body found there, 150 years after
burial, 149

Body buried sixty two Olympiads, described by Pausanius, 150

C.

Cicero, his observations concerning the Dead, 1

Coach office Director, restored to life after being supposed
dead, 19

Civile, Francis. Remarkable story of, 25

Cardinal Espinolæ, ditto, 23

Cornwall, Lady there, ditto, 70

Colchester, a child there, nearly buried alive, 74

Churches, observations on the pernicious custom of burying

there, 96

Ditto, ditto, ditto, 98

Ditto, ditto, ditto, 104

Contagion from opening new Graves, how to prevent, 107

Cleopatra’s Tomb, account of, 126

Cedrenus, his description of a wonderful Lamp, 128

Constantine Chlorus, burning Lamp found in his tomb, ib.

Constantine and Irene, remarkable sepulchre found in their time,

147

Cœciliæ, church of, body found there, buried upwards of 300

years, ib.

D.

Dead bodies improperly treated, 10 to 18

Death, difficulty of distinguishing when persons are really so, 78

Dead, various methods of burying by different Nations, 83

Dead bodies, how to preserve safe in their graves, 120

Dr. Parsons extraordinary story, 121

Dunfermline Church, body of a young Man found there, 144

Dominick, St. Church of, remarkable body found there, 149

E.

Egyptians particularly careful of their dead, 2

England, people there keep their dead several days before

burial, 9

Espinola, Cardinal, not dead when about to be dissected, 23

Elizabeth a Servant, not dead after long hanging, and ill

treatment, 64

Egyptians embalm their dead, 87

Eastern Countries, practice of burying their dead, 117

Edessa, remarkable Lamp found there, 128

F.

Fever patients ought to be particularly looked after before laid

out as dead, 80

France, King of, prohibits burying in churches, 98

Female, extraordinary resolve of, 119

G.

Greeks, great veneration of, for their dead, 2

Geneva, people appointed there to inspect the dead, 9

Genoa, dead people there, dressed according to their rank, ib.

Godfrey, the Honourable Mrs. remarkable trance of, 43

Green, Anne, remarkable story of, 62

Glover, Mr. story related by, of a person restored to life after

hanging, 73

Greeks, old, singular method of burial, 85

Graves, danger of opening too soon, 107

Grave, opened too soon in Aberdeen, fatal consequence

attending, 115

Grey, Thomas, Marquis of Dorset, corpse found after seventy

years burial, 136

Guavnerius, Alexander, curious account of a subterranean

cavern by, 146

H.

Hawe’s, Dr., extract from his addresses to the public, 80

Hale, Sir Matthew, his observations on burying in churches, 98

Hall, Bishop, extract from his Sermon on church burials, 99

Hackney, Alice, her body found after 175 years interment, 136

I.

Interment, premature, great danger of, 1

Interesting account from an Italian paper, 145

 J.

Jews, their manner of burying their dead, 9

Janin, Monsieur, story of a child apparently dead, recovered by,

71

Joseph the Second, prohibits burials in churches, 118

K.

Kiovia, City of, subterranean burying places near, 146

L.

Lady buried alive in Russia, 40

Lamps, ever-burning ones of the Ancients, 121 to 135

M.

Mercier, Monsieur, very remarkable story related by, 31

Mold Church, in Flintshire, singular epitaph there, 98

Montpelier, remarkable circumstance that happened there, 104

Maximus, Olybius, curious Lamp made by, 131

Mary-at-Hill, St., body found there after 175 years burial, 136

Magnus, Albertus, his body found after 200 years interment, 139

Methods of embalming, 151

N.

Navier, Monsieur, observations by, on the danger of burying in

churches, 107
Nevis, Island of, wonderful burning Lamp found there, 129

O.

Olybius, Maximus, curious Lamp made by, 131

P.

Plato, attention by him, recommended to the dead, 1

Primitive church, washed and anointed their dead, 8

Pallas, remarkable burning Lamp of, 129

Philosophical transactions, body found in a vault, described

therein, 142

Pausanius, body mentioned by him, found after 248 years

interment, 150

R.

Romans, great attention paid by them to their dead, 3, 4 and 5

Rouen, siege of, remarkable circumstance happened there, 25

Resuscitation, very extraordinary one, in Sweden, 35

Russia, young lady buried alive there, 40

Retchmuth Adoleh, buried alive, at Cologne, 51

Reanimation of a female in Paris, supposed to be dead, 68

Romans, method of burying their dead, 88

Remarkable fact of Sumovin Feodose, 94

Rosicrucian Lamp, story of, 134

Rome, remarkable coffin and curiosities found there, 137

S.

Syrians, their method of embalming, 2

Spain, method of dressing the dead there, 9

Syncope, sometimes mistaken for death, 21

Schmid, Dr. John, story related by, ib.

Syncope, remarkable story of a person having fallen into one,

22

Scroop, Sir Gervase, story of, related by Dr. Fuller, 29

Sweden, remarkable occurrence there, 35

Spain, lady there, returns to life under the hands of the

anatomist, 59

Sumovin Feodose, remarkable story of, 94

Scripture, quotations from, against burying in churches, 99

Story, remarkable, related by Dr. Parsons, 121

Solomon, King, his servant’s tomb, 126

Sicilian convent, remarkable burial place there, 140

Staverton church, curious particulars of a body found in a vault

there, 142

T.

Turks, scrupulously particular in examining the dead, 7

Trance, remarkable one, of the Honourable Mrs. Godfrey, 43

Tatoreidie, after being laid in a coffin for dead, returns to life, 61

Tissot, Dr. story related by him of a girl returning to life, after

being long in the water, 68

Tossach, Mr. case related by, of a Man recovering, after

apparent death, 69

Tomb of King Edward the First, interesting particulars of

opening, 91

Turks, their burying places, rendered handsome and agreeable,

97

Tombs, fatal consequences frequently happen by opening them

too soon, 107

Tombs, remarkable ones of the Ancients, 121

Temple dedicated to Venus, burning Lamp found therein, 133

Tripe, Mr. story related by, of a body found in a vault, 142

V.

Vesabe, physician, to Philip II. of Spain, opens a body before

dead, 57

Vapour, dreadful effects arising from one at Montpelier, 104

Valentia in Spain, remarkable body found there, 126

W.

Walker, Dr. melancholy account of his being buried alive, 45

Wynne, Dr. William, his epitaph, forbidding church burial, 98