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Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering 437
Jiadong Sun
Jingnan Liu
Yuanxi Yang
Shiwei Fan
Wenxian Yu
Editors

China Satellite
Navigation
Conference (CSNC)
2017 Proceedings:
Volume I
Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering

Volume 437

Board of Series editors

Leopoldo Angrisani, Napoli, Italy
Marco Arteaga, Coyoacán, México
Samarjit Chakraborty, München, Germany
Jiming Chen, Hangzhou, P.R. China
Tan Kay Chen, Singapore, Singapore
Rüdiger Dillmann, Karlsruhe, Germany
Haibin Duan, Beijing, China
Gianluigi Ferrari, Parma, Italy
Manuel Ferre, Madrid, Spain
Sandra Hirche, München, Germany
Faryar Jabbari, Irvine, USA
Janusz Kacprzyk, Warsaw, Poland
Alaa Khamis, New Cairo City, Egypt
Torsten Kroeger, Stanford, USA
Tan Cher Ming, Singapore, Singapore
Wolfgang Minker, Ulm, Germany
Pradeep Misra, Dayton, USA
Sebastian Möller, Berlin, Germany
Subhas Mukhopadyay, Palmerston, New Zealand
Cun-Zheng Ning, Tempe, USA
Toyoaki Nishida, Sakyo-ku, Japan
Bijaya Ketan Panigrahi, New Delhi, India
Federica Pascucci, Roma, Italy
Tariq Samad, Minneapolis, USA
Gan Woon Seng, Nanyang Avenue, Singapore
Germano Veiga, Porto, Portugal
Haitao Wu, Beijing, China
Junjie James Zhang, Charlotte, USA
About this Series

“Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering (LNEE)” is a book series which reports

the latest research and developments in Electrical Engineering, namely:
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More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/7818

Jiadong Sun Jingnan Liu Yuanxi Yang
• •

Shiwei Fan Wenxian Yu

•

Editors

China Satellite Navigation

Conference (CSNC) 2017
Proceedings: Volume I

123
Editors
Jiadong Sun Shiwei Fan
Academician of CAS China Satellite Navigation Office
China Aerospace Science and Technology Beijing
Corporation China
Beijing
China Wenxian Yu
Shanghai Jiao Tong University
Jingnan Liu Shanghai
Wuhan University China
Wuhan
China

Yuanxi Yang
National Administration of GNSS
and Applications
Beijing
China

ISSN 1876-1100 ISSN 1876-1119 (electronic)

Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering
ISBN 978-981-10-4587-5 ISBN 978-981-10-4588-2 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-4588-2
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017937524

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2017

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Preface

BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS) is China’s global navigation satellite

system which has been developed independently. BDS is similar in principle to
global positioning system (GPS) and compatible with other global satellite navi-
gation systems (GNSS) worldwide. The BDS will provide highly reliable and
precise positioning, navigation and timing (PNT) services as well as short-message
communication for all users under all-weather, all-time and worldwide conditions.
China Satellite Navigation Conference (CSNC) is an open platform for academic
exchanges in the field of satellite navigation. It aims to encourage technological
innovation, accelerate GNSS engineering and boost the development of the satellite
navigation industry in China and in the world.
The 8th China Satellite Navigation Conference (CSNC 2017) is held during May
23–25, 2017, Shanghai, China. The theme of CSNC2017 is Positioning,
Connecting All, including technical seminars, academic exchanges, forums, exhi-
bitions and lectures. The main topics are as follows:

Conference Topics

S01 Satellite Navigation Technology

S02 Navigation and Location Service
S03 Satellite Navigation Signals and Signal Processing
S04 Satellite Orbit and Satellite Clock Error
S05 Precise Positioning Technology
S06 Atomic Clock and Time-frequency Technology
S07 Satellite Navigation Augmentation Technology
S08 Test and Assessment Technology
S09 User Terminal Technology
S10 Multi-source Fusion Navigation Technology
S11 PNT New Concept, New Methods and New Technology
S12 Policies and Regulations, Standards and Intellectual Properties

v
vi Preface

The proceedings (Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering) have 188 papers in

twelve topics of the conference, which were selected through a strict peer-review
process from 599 papers presented at CSNC2017. In addition, another 272 papers
were selected as the electronic proceedings of CSNC2017, which are also indexed
by “China Proceedings of Conferences Full-text Database (CPCD)” of CNKI and
Wan Fang Data.
We thank the contribution of each author and extend our gratitude to 249
referees and 48 session chairmen who are listed as members of editorial board. The
assistance of CNSC2017 organizing committees and the Springer editorial office is
highly appreciated.

Beijing, China Jiadong Sun

Wuhan, China Jingnan Liu
Beijing, China Yuanxi Yang
Beijing, China Shiwei Fan
Shanghai, China Wenxian Yu
Editorial Board

Topic: S1: Satellite Navigation Technology

Qin Zhang, Chang’an University, China
Feixue Wang, National University of Defense Technology,
Changsha, China
Shuanggen Jin, Shanghai Astronomical Observatory, Chinese Academy of Sciences
Ruizhi chen, Texas A&M University, Corpus Christi, USA
Topic: S2: Navigation and Location Services
Yamin Dang, Chinese Academy of Surveying & Mapping
Baoguo Yu, The 54th Research Institute of China Electronics Technology Group
Corporation
Qun Ding, The 20th Research Institute of China Electronics Technology Group
Corporation
Kefei Zhang, RMIT University, Australia
Topic: S3: Satellite Navigation Signals and Signal Processing
Xiaochun Lu, National Time Service Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences
Yanhong Kou, Beihang University
Zheng Yao, Tsinghua University
Topic: S4: Satellite Orbit and Satellite Clock Error
Geshi Tang, Beijing Aerospace Control Center
Xiaogong Hu, Shanghai Astronomical Observatory, Chinese Academy of Sciences
Rongzhi Zhang, Xi’an Satellite Control Center
Maorong Ge, Geo Forschungs Zentrum (GFZ) Potsdam, Germany

vii
viii Editorial Board

Topic: S5: Precise Positioning Technology

Qile Zhao, Wuhan University
Jianwen Li, Information Engineering University
Songshu Li, Shanghai Astronomical Observatory, Chinese Academy of Sciences
Feng Yanming, Queensland University of Technology Brisbane, Australia
Topic: S6: Atomic Clock and Time-frequency Technology
Lianshan Gao, The 203th Research Institute of China Aerospace Science &
Industry Corporation
Chunhao Han, Beijing Satellite Navigation Center
Xiaohui Li, National Time Service Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences
Rochat Pascal, Spectratime & T4Science
Topic: S7: Satellite Navigation Augmentation Technology
Junlin Zhang, OLinkStar Co., Ltd., China
Jinping Chen, Beijing Satellite Navigation Center
Rui Li, Beihang University
Shaojun Feng, Imperial College London
Topic: S8: Test and Assessment Technology
Xiaolin Jia, Xi’an Institute of Surveying and Mapping
Jun Yang, National University of Defense Technology
Jianping Cao, Air Force Equipment Research Institute
Yang Gao, University of Calgary, Canada
Topic: S9: User Terminal Technology
Haibo He, Beijing Satellite Navigation Center
Baowang Lian, Northwestern Polytechnical University
Hong Li, Tsinghua University
Yong Li, University of New South Wales, Australia
Topic: S10: Multi-source Fusion Navigation Technology
Zhongliang Deng, Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications
Hong Yuan, Academy of Opto-electronics, Chinese Academy of Sciences
Yongbin Zhou, National University of Defense Technology
Jinling Wang, University of New South Wales, Australia
Topic: S11: PNT New Concept, New Methods and New Technology
Mingquan Lu, Tsinghua University
Wei Wang, The 20th Research Institute of China Electronics Technology Group
Corporation
Yin Xu, Academy of Opto-Electronics, Chinese Academy of Sciences
Xiangzhen Li, Chungnam National University, Korea
Editorial Board ix

Topic: S12: Policies and Regulations, Standards and Intellectual Properties

Daiping Zhang, China Defense Science and Technology Information Center
Yonggang Wei, China Academy of Aerospace Standardization and Product Assurance
Junli Yang, Beihang University
Huiying Li, Electronic Intellectual Property Center, Ministry of Industry and
Information Technology, PRC
Scientific Committee and Organizing Committee

The 8th China Satellite Navigation Conference (CSNC 2017)

Scientific Committee

Chairman
Jiadong Sun, China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation

Vice-Chairman
Rongjun Shen, China
Jisheng Li, China
Qisheng Sui, China
Changfei Yang, China
Zuhong Li, China Academy of Space Technology
Shusen Tan, Beijing Satellite Navigation Center, China

Executive Chairman
Jingnan Liu, Wuhan University
Yuanxi Yang, China National Administration of GNSS and Applications
Shiwei Fan, China

Committee Members: (By Surnames Stroke Order)

Xiancheng Ding, China Electronics Technology Group Corporation
Qingjun Bu, China
Liheng Wang, China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation
Yuzhu Wang, Shanghai Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy
of Sciences
Guoxiang Ai, National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences
Shuhua Ye, Shanghai Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences
Zhaowen Zhuang, National University of Defense Technology
Qifeng Xu, PLA Information Engineering University

xi
xii Scientific Committee and Organizing Committee

Houze Xu, Institute of Geodesy and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences

Guirong Min, China Academy of Space Technology
Xixiang Zhang, China Electronics Technology Group Corporation
Lvqian Zhang, China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation
Junyong Chen, National Administration of Surveying, Mapping and Geoinformation
Benyao Fan, China Academy of Space Technology
Dongjin Luo, China
Guohong Xia, China Aerospace Science & Industry Corporation
Chong Cao, China Research Institute of Radio Wave Propagation (CETC 22)
Faren Qi, China Academy of Space Technology
Sili Liang, China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation
Shancheng Tu, China Academy of Space Technology
Rongsheng Su, China
Zhipeng Tong, China Electronics Technology Group Corporation
Ziqing Wei, Xi’an Institute of Surveying and Mapping

Organizing Committee

Secretary General
Haitao Wu, Navigation Headquarters, Chinese Academy of Sciences

Vice-Secretary General
Weina Hao, Navigation Headquarters, Chinese Academy of Sciences

Under Secretary
Wenhai Jiao, China Satellite Navigation Office Engineering Center
Zhao Wenjun, Beijing Satellite Navigation Center
Wenxian Yu, Shanghai Jiao Tong University
Wang Bo, Academic Exchange Center of China Satellite Navigation Office

Members: (In Surname Stroke Order)

Qun Ding, The 20th Research Institute of China Electronics Technology Group
Corporation
Miao Yu, China Academy of Space Technology
Li Wang, International Cooperation Research Center, China Satellite Navigation
Engineering Office
Liu Peiling, Shanghai Jiao tong University
Ying Liu, China Satellite Navigation Office Engineering Center
Lu Mingquan, Tsinghua University
Xiuwan Chen, Peking University
Ouyang Guangzhou, Academy of Opto-Electronics, Chinese Academy of Sciences
Zhao Qile, Wuhan University
Scientific Committee and Organizing Committee xiii

Xiangan Zhao, China Defense Science and Technology Information Center

Gang Hu, Beijing Unicore Communications, Inc.
Min Shui, National Remote Sensing Centre of China
Contents

Part I Satellite Navigation Technology

Theoretical Study for Bare Soil Freeze/Thaw Process Detection
Using GNSS-R/MR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Xuerui Wu, Shuanggen Jin, Yuanting Li and Yanfang Dong
The Application of BDS/GPS/GLONASS Data Fusion in FAST
Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Benning Song, Lichun Zhu, Dongjun Yu and Hui Yuan
Research on BDS/GPS Combined Single-Epoch Attitude
Determination Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Kang Zhang and Jinming Hao
Calculating High Frequency Earth Rotation Parameters
Using GPS Observations and Precision Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Xuexi Liu, Erhu Wei and Lingxuan Wang
A Comparative Analysis of Relative Positioning Methods
for BDS/GPS in Three Different Fields of Combination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Lingchuan Wan, Guanwen Huang, Rui Tu, Juqing Zhang
and Junqiang Han
Deformation Monitoring and Precision Analysis Based
on BDS/GPS Dual System Combination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Lei Ren, Tianhe Xu, Qingsong Ai and Yuguo Yang
The Research on Nonlinear Attitude Determination Method
of GNSS Multi-antenna Attitude Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Yuan Tian, Lifen Sui, Bing Wang, Qing Dai, Yijun Tian and Tian Zeng
Estimation and Evaluation of the Precipitable Water Vapor
from GNSS PPP in Asia Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Zhimin Liu, Yangyang Li, Fei Li and Jinyun Guo

xv
xvi Contents

Correlation Analysis Among GPS-SNR, Precipitation

and GPS-PWV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Min Mao, Li Wang, Shuangcheng Zhang, Xiaolei Wang and Peng Hu
The Determination of Plumb-Line Deviation by Adopting
GNSS/ Leveling Method in Super Long Tunnel Break-Through
Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Ji Ma, Zhiqiang Yang and Guofeng Ji
BDS/GPS High Precision Railway Deformation Monitoring
Software Design and Verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Rongpan Xu, Zhaoying Liu, Zhaofeng Gao, Daquan Tang
and Yingying Zhang
Application Performance Analysis of Three GNSS Precise
Positioning Technology in Landslide Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Guanwu Huang, Yuan Du, Lumin Meng, Guanwen Huang, Jin Wang
and Junqiang Han
GPS Signal to Noise Ratio Analysis and Using for Real-Time
Tide Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Kai Liu, Shuang-cheng Zhang, Qianyi Wang, Qin Zhang,
Jing-jiang Zhang and Yang Nan
Ship Detection and Data Processing by Using Shore-Based
GNSS-R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Chaoqun Gao, Dongkai Yang, Yunlong Zhu,
Xuejing Qiu and Lei Yang
Characteristic of GPS SNR and It’s Application
for Snow Depth Monitoring Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Ning Zhang, Shuangcheng Zhang, Yuefan He, Qin Zhang,
Xiaojuan Zhang and Tianhe Wan
A Fast Algorithm of GNSS-R Signal Processing Based on DBZP . . . . . . 187
Lin Han, Yansong Meng, Yanguang Wang and Xingyuan Han
Model Establishment and Analysis of Weighted Mean Temperature
in the Region of Guilin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Zixin Chen, Junyu Li, Lilong Liu, Guiren Luo and Xuqi Mo
GNSS-R Ocean Altitude Detection Technology Based
on Carrier Phase Assistant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Liang Kan, Meng Li, Junbo Han, Juanjuan Dong, Linfei He,
Kangning Zhang, Yingna Liu and Dingcheng Tang
Characteristics of Coordinate Time Series of Shenzhen
Continuously Operating Reference Stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Shuguang Wu, Guigen Nie and Haiyang Li
Contents xvii

Voxel Nodes Model Parameterization for GPS Water Vapor

Tomography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Nan Ding, Shubi Zhang, Xin Liu and Yili Xia
The Spatial Deformation Characteristic Analysis of CORS Stations:
A Case Study of Tianjin CORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Wei Wang, Zhong Jie Sheng, Qi Zhang, Yong Huang
and Bastiaan van Loenen
Wide Area Beidou Foundation Enhanced Grid Space-Time
Interlinked Science and Education Collaborative
Experimental Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Jianping Xing, Zedong Wang, Zidong Wang, Zhao Wang,
Shengli Wang and Tao Yang
Single-Antenna Attitude Determination Using GNSS
for Low-Dynamic Carrier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Wen Chen, Chao Yu, Miaomiao Cai and Yaxuan Dong
Differenced Measurements Between Satellites Applied on RTK
PPP for Structure Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Xu Tang and XingXing Li
Research on Retrieval of PWV Based on PPP and NCEP/NCAR
Global Reanalysis 1 Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Zhilu Wu, Yanxiong Liu, Xiufeng He, Kai Guo, Lina He and Menghao Li
Determining the Reasonable Time Resolution of the Precise
Satellite Clock Bias Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Zhiping Liu, Dantong Zhu, Qianxin Wang and Jian Wang

Part II Navigation and Location Service

Pseudolite Cellular Network in Urban and Its High Precision
Positioning Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Xingli Gan, Baoguo yu, Zhang Heng, Zhu Ruihui and Li Yaning
Performance Analysis for AP Selection Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Xianghong Hua, Wei Zhang, Kegen Yu, Weining Qiu,
Shoujian Zhang and Xin Chang
Definition of Conversion and Allocation Model for GNSS
Index Basing Navigation Performances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Mengli Wang, Jinping Chen, Yang Yang, Yuan Hong and Junyi Xu
Analysis of GPS for Monitoring Rain and Snow Weather . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Xiaowei Hou, Shuangcheng Zhang, Zhengxun He, Qin Zang,
Tianhe Wan and Xiaojuan Zhang
xviii Contents

Evolutionary Particle Filter for Indoor Navigation and Location . . . . . . 357

Jian Chen, Gang Ou, Ao Peng, Lingyu Chen, Lingxiang Zheng
and Jianghong Shi
An Indoor Three Dimensional Positioning Algorithm Based
on Attitude Identification and Visible Light Propagation Model . . . . . . . 367
Qu Wang, Haiyong Luo, Xile Gao, Jie Wei and Fang Zhao
An Indoor Positioning and Navigation Technique Based
on Wi-Fi Fingerprint and Environment Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Boxiong Han and Long Zhao
Identification of LBS Deception for Smart Phone Based
on the Speed Consistency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
Da-peng Li, Ting Liu, Wei-na Hao, Bing Liu, Ling-chuan Zeng
and Yan-kun Li
iBeacon/WiFi Signal Characteristics Analysis for Indoor
Positioning Using Mobile Phone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Ling Yang, Bofeng Li, Haojun Li and Yunzhong Shen
Research on Signal Design Method of Pseudolite “Near-Far Effect”
Based on TDMA Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
Xu Liu
Precision Analysis of CNAV Broadcast Ephemeris
and Its Impact on the User Positioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Ahao Wang, Junping Chen and Jiexian Wang
Research on Path Loss and Multipath Propagation of Indoor
Pseudolite Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Yaning Li, Baoguo Yu and Xingli Gan
The GNSS/Inertial Navigation Based Private Car Incentive
Travel Information Platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
Zhao Wang, Jianping Xing, Qianli Yang, Shengli Wang and Zedong Wang
Research on the Next Generation of Emergency Positioning Signal
Design and Ground Stations Receive Processing Based on GNSS . . . . . . 465
Henglin Chu, Tianqiao Zhang, Jiemin Shen, Hongbing Wang
and Jingyuan Li
Obstacle Avoidance Path Planning of Rotor UAV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
Xiaodong Zhang, Xiangyang Hao, Guopeng Sun and Yali Xu
Orbit Analysis for Tiangong-2 Space Lab Under Different
Perturbation Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
Lina He, Wenli Wang and Zhilu Wu
Contents xix

Research on Topological Map Building Based

on Crowdsourcing Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
Xinzheng Lan, Ying Xu, Dongyan Wei and Hong Yuan

Part III Test and Assessment Technology

High Precision Broadband Direct-Spread Signal Delay Control
Based on Phase Controlled Waveform Hermite Interpolation . . . . . . . . . 515
Xin Zhang, Ziqing Ye and Fenghua Mei
The Evaluation of Improvement of GPS Performance Combined with
Quasi-Zenith Satellite System in Japan Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
Xuying Ma, Xiaping Ma, Chengpan Tang and Xingyu Wang
Study on Test Consistency Which Based on the Record
and Playback Instrument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
Tian Wang, Wenbin Yang, Ming Peng, Shufeng Zhang,
Qiang Chen and Weitao Wang
Multipath Effect Analysis of Beidou Satellite Pseudorange
and Its Correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
Shengchao Wang, Xiaolin Jia, Guofeng Ji, Qingsong Ai,
Meiqian Guan and Teng Peng
The Research on Time Series Modeling of ARMA
and Medium/Long-Term Forecasting Method Using
Global Ionospheric Harmonic Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
Xiude Chen, Xiaolin Jia, Yongxing Zhu, Na Cheng,
Shengyang Gao and Meiqian Guan
Comparison and Evaluation of Satellite Performance Based
on Different Clock Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
Jie Zheng, Meijun Guo, Chao Xiong and Yun Xiao
Research on Monitoring and Evaluating Method of Beidou
Monitoring Receiver Inter-frequency Bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
Gang Wang, Weigang Zhu and He Zhao
BDS Multipath Real-Time Estimation Based on Generalized
Regression Neural Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
Zongpeng Pan, Hongzhou Chai, Yang Chong, Yulong Kong
and Rui Wang
Ephemeris Type B Fault Detection for BDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609
Guanlong Wang, Xiaowei Cui, Yun Zhang and Liu He
Radiation Pattern Measurement for Earth Station Antenna
Based on UAV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
Zheng Wang and Chunjie Qiao
xx Contents

Research on Performance Evaluation of Beidou Be Enhanced

by Pseudolites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
Jingyang Fu, Guangyun Li, Tingsong Tang, Li Wang and Yanglin Zhou
Civil Avionic EMI Surrounding Impact Assessment and Testing
on the Performance of Beidou B1I Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645
Pengfei Wang, Xiaofeng Shi, Taosheng Wang and Zhipeng Wang
Research on Design and Implementation of the Test Support
System Architecture for GNSS Ground Control Segment . . . . . . . . . . . . 659
Zhixue Zhang, Jinshi Xie, Na Zhao, Dongxia Wang and Xin Jie
Analysis of Signal Quality and Navigation Performance
for Beidou System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671
Shaohua Dou, Cuilin Kuang, Yaozong Zhou and Zhonghai Yi
Influence of Space Environment on the Beidou Satellite
and Its Countermeasures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683
Ailing Zhang, Xingyu Wang, Ting Wang, Wenjie Liang and Ni Kang
VPL Optimization Method with Multi-objective Program . . . . . . . . . . . . 701
Xueen Zheng, Chengdong Xu, Fei Niu and Anjin Li
Multi-station Combined Evaluation Method for Navigation
Signal Tracking Error Based on Optimization Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713
Jianlei Yang, Qinan Zhi, Song Xie and Xiaonan Li
Test and Evaluation on Timing Performance of BeiDou
IGSO-6 Satellite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723
Dan-dan Li, Feng Zhu, Long-xia Xu, Bo Li and Xiao-hui Li
Research of Navigation Terminal Test Method Based
on Real Playback Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 739
Xiaoxi Jin, Yuze Wang and Rendong Ying

Part IV User Terminal Technology

Space-borne BDS and GPS Receiver of LING QIAO:
Results over Two Years In-orbit Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 753
Sihao Zhao, Xi Chen, Sen Yuan, Linling Kuang and Mingquan Lu
Modeling and Simulation of Receiver-Spoofer Attacking
Process in Tracking Stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763
Meng Zhou, Hong Li, Peng Liu and Mingquan Lu
Low Power Consumption Control Method for Navigation
Receiver with Multi-stage Bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777
Daowei Chen, Hong Lei Lin and De-hui Xu
Contents xxi

A Vector and Scalar Hybrid Tracking Loop for New Generation

Composite GNSS Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791
Honglei Lin, Shengqiang Lou, Xiaomei Tang, Bo Xu and Gang Ou
A Kinematic GNSS Positioning Method Based on Unscented
Kalman Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807
Chunhua Li, Guofu Pan, Chenglin Cai, Chenggang Li
and Xiaoyu Shi
Analysis of Cross-Correlation Peak Distortion Caused
by Antenna Array Space-Time Adaptive Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821
Xinzhi Dai, Junwei Nie, Baiyu Li, Zukun Lu and Gang Ou
Joint Implementation of Interference Suppression and Signal
Acquisition for GNSS Antenna Array Receivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 833
Feiqiang Chen, Junwei Nie, Guozhu Zhang, Zhengrong Li
and Feixue Wang
GNSS Spoofing Detection Based on Power Monitoring
of Two-Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 843
Fei Wang, Hong Li and Mingquan Lu
Application Strategy and Receiver Verification for the New
Generation of BeiDou Navigation Satellites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 853
Bin Tang, Jinlong Li, Qian Wang and Jiazheng Fu
A Polarization Anti-jamming Algorithm Based on Space-Frequency
Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 861
Yongxiang Zheng, Chao Ren and Gang Hu
Navigation Terminal Test Decision Scheme Design
and Verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 869
Zhiheng Zhang, Weiwei Qiu and Zi Wang
Study on Identification Parameters and Updating Mechanism
of Beidou Navigation Message . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 877
Hailing Wu, Hui Liu, Rufei Zhang, Cheng Liu, Hang Ruan and Jun Mo
Research on Multipath Interference Suppression Algorithm Based
on Blind Equalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 889
Dengao Li, Chong Han, Jumin Zhao, Xiaofang Zhao and Doudou Deng
A Fundamental Architecture of Anti-spoofing GNSS Receiver . . . . . . . . 899
Li He, Hong Li and Mingquan Lu
Performance Analysis on High Dynamic Signal Acquisition
of INS-Aided BDS Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911
Xiaqing Tang, Shulei Chen, Xuwei Cheng,
Junqiang Gao and Zepeng Sun
xxii Contents

The Real-Time Realization and Performance Analysis

of BDS Vector Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 923
Cailun Wu, Song Xie, Jianwei Zhang and Yachuan Li
Parameters Design Method of Kalman Filter-Based Tracking
Loop in GNSS/INS Deep Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 933
Bing Li, Wenfei Guo, Xiaoji Niu, Nesreen I. Ziedan and Jingnan Liu
Optimal Carrier Tracking PLL in the Presence of Phase
Noise in GNSS Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 945
Shenhui Xue, Xinming Huang, Zengjun Liu, Xiangwei Zhu
and Guangfu Sun
A GNSS Spoofing Detection Technique Based on Signal
Spatial Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 959
Zhenglin Geng, Junwei Nie, Zhibin Xiao,
Xiangwei Zhu and Feixue Wang
A Multi-mode Multi-channel C Band CAPS Terminal Transceiver
Chip Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 971
Siyuan He, Wei Liu, Xiangwei Wang, Chaoxian Zhu, Gong Zhang,
Sijing Hu, Changhong Zhang, Fangfang Zhang, Yu Zheng,
Dongchun Wang, Qiangyu Hao, Weifeng Zhang, Mingzhao Wang,
Hongyin He, Xiaolan Wang and Guanyi Ma
Parameters Estimation Method for LFM Interference
to GNSS Uplink Injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 985
Shuren Guo, Hang Ruan and Hailing Wu
Analysis of Threshold Setting for Eigenvalue Ratio Based
Interference Detection Under Constant Missed
Detection Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 997
Gangqiang Guan, Deyong Xian, Liu Shi, Jia Mu and Xinshu Zhao
Ranging Performance Analysis and Discriminator Parameters
Optimization for Double Estimator Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1009
Yang Gao, Henglin Chu, Zheng Yao and Xiaowei Cui
 Part I
Satellite Navigation Technology
Theoretical Study for Bare Soil
Freeze/Thaw Process Detection Using
GNSS-R/MR

Xuerui Wu, Shuanggen Jin, Yuanting Li and Yanfang Dong

Abstract GNSS-R remote sensing has emerged as a new promising remote

sensing technique in the past two decades. It has gained wide attention at home and
abroad. In essential, GNSS-R is a bistatic radar, the signals got by the GNSS-R
receiver is delay Doppler map. Different from the specially designed receivers, the
geodetic quality GPS receiver can be used to remotely sense the near surface soil
moisture, vegetation growth and snow depth, i.e. GNSS-Multipath reflectometry
(GNSS-MR). Three metrics, i.e. effective reflector height, phase and amplitude, are
employed for retrieval. As for the applications of space-borne/air-borne GNSS-R or
ground based GNSS-IR techniques, they include soil moisture, vegetation growth
and snow depth retrieval. This paper has extended the bare soil freeze/thaw process
detection, the theoretical fundamentals is that when the soil frozen/thawn process
occurs, there is a big difference for the soil permittivity, which will result in the
difference of reflectivities. The dielectric mixing models are employed for
the calculations of the frozen/thawn soil permittivities, which are the inputs for the
reflectivity models, the coherent scattering model and the random surface scattering
models are employed for the calculation of specular scattering reflectivities and the
diffuse scattering reflectivities, respectively. When the soil freeze/thaw process has
occurred, the corresponding GPS multipath changes and the variations of delay
Doppler map are simulated. The theoretical simulations indicate that the big dif-

X. Wu (&)
S. Jin
Shanghai Astronomical Observatory, Chinese Academy of Sciences,
80 Nandan Road, Shanghai 200030, China
e-mail: xrwu@shao.ac.cn
X. Wu
S. Jin
Key Laboratory of Planetary Sciences, Shanghai Astronomical
Observatory, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200030, China
Y. Li
China Transport Telecommunications
and Information Center, Beijing, China
Y. Dong
Institute of Earthquake Science, China Earthquake
Administration, Beijing 100036, China

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2017 3

J. Sun et al. (eds.), China Satellite Navigation Conference (CSNC) 2017
Proceedings: Volume I, Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering 437,
DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-4588-2_1
4 X. Wu et al.

ference of permittivity will result in the apparent changes of GPS multipath

observables and delay Doppler map. It has been demonstrated in theory that the
bare soil freeze/thaw process can be detected by the GNSS-R or GNSS-MR
techniques.

Keywords GNSS-R/MR
Multipath observables
Delay Doppler map
Soil

freeze/thaw process

1 Introduction

About 35% of the land surface are covered by seasonal and permanent frozen soil,
they are mainly distributed in high latitude and altitude area. The transformation of
soil freeze/thaw process in the land is repeated every year with seasons and they are
highly related to the human life, this process strongly affects the land-atmosphere
energy exchange, the near surface runoff and carbon cycle et.cl. as for the phase
change of liquid water in soil, this process strongly influences the exchange of the
near surface radiative energy, evapotranspiration process and the intensity of sur-
face runoff. Meanwhile, this process is a sensitive indicator of the climate change,
therefore, the efficiently monitoring the soil freeze/thaw process and its related
physical parameters seem very significantly important. The commonly used
space-borne observations can improve the spatial resolution, while its time reso-
lution cannot satisfy the scientific requirements.
GNSS-R is an efficient remote sensing technique with the advantages of low
cost, small power, wide coverage and high spatial/temporal resolution. The scien-
tific objectives of GNSS-R are to realize the space-borne observations. UK DMC
(UK Disaster Monitoring Constellation mission) is the first space-borne mission,
which has successfully received the reflected signals from global ocean, land sur-
face and ice surface [1]. In recent years, this technique has gained more attention.
Both America and European countries have launched several GNSS-R satellites.
ESA has raised the PARIS demonstration satellite, i.e. PARIS IoD, its aim is for the
meso-scale altimetric feasibility study [2]. In 2011, ESA has put forward the
GEROS-ISS (GNSS Reflectometry, Radio Occultation and Scatterometry onboard
the International Space Station) mission, which is used for the climate study [3].
TechDemoSat-1 has launched in July, 2014 and carried a GNSS-R sensor [4].
While CYGNSS mission of NASA, which launched in Dec 12th of 2016, has
carried eight small satellites, their main scientific objectives are for the cyclone
detection [5].
GNSS-R is essentially a bisatic radar, the received signals are delay Doppler
maps. The applications for space-borne GNSS-R are remotely sense soil moisture,
vegetation growth and snow depth.
Different from the specially designed GNSS-R receiver, the geodetic quality
GPS receiver can be used for land geophysical parameters detection. Three metrics
Theoretical Study for Bare Soil Freeze … 5

are employed for retrievals, i.e. effective reflector height, phase and amplitude. Data
analysis by PBO GPS sites has found that there is a linear relationship between soil
moisture and the phase [6]; experimental data of PBO and SNOTEL has shown that
the relationship between effective reflector height and snow depth is between 0.7
and 0.9 [7]; when the vegetation wet weight is below 1.5 kg m2, amplitude is an
efficient parameter for vegetation amount monitoring [8].
This paper has extended the applications of GNSS-R/GNSS-MR to bare soil
freeze/thaw process detection. In the following section, the effects of freeze/thaw
soil process on delay Doppler map and GPS multipath observables are presented.

2 Theoretical Models

2.1 Dielectric Permittivity Models

According to the electromagnetic properties, wet soil is composed of air, solid

particles, free water and bound water [9, 10].
X
eam ¼ Vi eai ð1Þ
i

where a is the shape factor, ei is the ith material permittivity, Vi is its volume. As
for the frozen soil, ice is added.

ea = Vs eas þ Va eaa þ Vfw eafw þ Vbw eabw þ mvi eai ð2Þ

Subscripts s, a, fw, bw, i refers to solid soil, air, free water, bound water and ice.

2.2 Surface Reflectivity Models

The coherent scattering part of soil is calculated by the Fresnel reflectivity by taking
surface roughness factor into consideration [11].
As for the random roughness soil surface, the interaction between navigation
signals and bare soil surface is related to the scattering of random rough surface, the
corresponding scattering models have been carried out over the past two decades.
The commonly used scattering models include the KA (Kirchhoff Approach)
model, SPM (Small Perturbation Method) model, IEM (Integrated Equation Model)
model. The lately developed AIEM (Advanced Integrated Equation Model) model
is employed for the diffuse scattering calculations [12].
6 X. Wu et al.

2.3 The Forward GPS Multipath Model

A fully polarimetric GPS multipath simulator has been developed by Nievinski and
Larson, this simulator has taken the GPS polarimetric response, antenna and surface
responses into consideration [13].

Pd ¼ PRd GRd Wd2 ð3Þ

Pr ¼ PRd jXSWr j2 ð4Þ

P represent the electric magnetic power, G is the antenna responses, W repre-

sents Woodward ambiguity function, subscripts d and r are the direct and reflected
components, respectively, X is the coupled coefficients of surface and antenna.
qffiffiffiffiffiffi  
XR = Rs GRr exp iURr ð5Þ
qffiffiffiffiffiffi  
XL = RX GLr exp iULr ð6Þ

Subscripts R and L represent RHCP and LHCP polarization. U is the interfer-

ometric phase, Rs and RX are the same polarization and cross polarization reflec-
tivity, they are the linear combinations of H pol and V pol.

2.4 The Fully Polarimetric Delay Doppler Map

for Freeze/Thaw Soil

In essence, the fully polarimetric delay Doppler map for freeze/thaw soil is the
integral form of bistatic radar equation [14].
ZZ
  T 2 PT k2 GT r0 GR 2  
Ys ^s; ^f ¼ I 3 2 R2
K ð^s  sÞ sin c2 ^f  f dA ð7Þ
ð4pÞ A R R T

Ys : the received GPS reflected power, which is the function of delay ^s and
frequency; PT : the GPS transmitted power; GT : antenna gain of transmitter; GR :
antenna gain of receiver; RR : the distance between receiver and the surface reflected
point; RT : the distance between transmitter and the surface specular reflected point;
k: wavelength; TI : the coherent integral time; r0 : the frozen soil bistatic radar cross
section; Kð^s  sÞ: GPS correlation function, ^s; s are the delay of replica signal and
Theoretical Study for Bare Soil Freeze … 7

 
incident signals; sin c2 ^f  f : Doppler filter function, ^f ; f are the frequency of
replica signal and incident signals; A: the effective scattering area, nearing the
glisten zone; dA: integral area in A.

3 Theoretical Simulations

3.1 Permittivity for Frozen and Thawn Soil

The mixture dielectric models are employed for the simulation of frozen soil
and thawn soil. Soil temperature is changed from −20 to 20 °C, the corresponding
changes of permittivity (real part and imaginary part) are simulated in Fig. 1.
From the simulations, it can be seen, as for soil temperature below 0°, the
permittivity (both the real part and the imaginary part) increase as the soil tem-
perature; when the soil temperature is above 0°, it decreases as the soil temperature
increases. When the soil temperature increase from below 0° to above 0°, there is an
abrupt change for the soil permittivity. In the vicinity of 0°, when the soil tem-
perature increase from below 0° to above 0°, the difference between real part is
about 10, while the difference between imaginary part is about 2.

22 3.5

20
imaginary part of the dielectric constant

3
real part of the dielectric constant

18
2.5
16

14 2

12 1.5

10
1
8

0.5
6

4 0
-40 -20 0 20 40 -40 -20 0 20 40
temperature(°C) temperature(°C)

Fig. 1 Real part (left) and imaginary part (right) of the permittivities versus soil temperature
8 X. Wu et al.

3.2 Surface Reflectivity Simulations

As shown in Fig. 2, as the soil temperature changes from −0.5 to 0.5 °C, there are
differences (about 2–5 dB) for VV, RR and VR polarizations (when the elevation
angle is greater than 10°). For VV/VR pol, the Brewster angle is observed through
the notches in the plots, the frozen soil has larger reflectivity than thawn soil before
the elevation angle approaches to the Brewster angle and the trend is just opposite
after the Brewster angle. If the soil temperature is fixed, the Fresnel reflectivity at
VV/VR pol decreases as the elevation angle increases (before the Brewster angle).
However, the reflectivity at VV and VR pol increases after the elevation angle
becomes larger than the Brewster angle.
When the direct signal of the navigation satellite is incident to the surface, not
only the coherent scattering at the specular direction but also the diffuse scattering
can be received. Here, the AIEM model is employed to get the diffuse scattering
properties. We use the permittivity model to calculate the soil permittivity, which is

Scattering Cross Section (dB)

0 0

-10 -1
-2
HH

-20
VV

ts=--25
-3
ts=--0.5
-30 -4 ts=0.5
ts=20
-40 -5
0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30
elevation angle(°) elevation angle(°)

0 0

-5
-5
LR
RR

-10
-10
-15

-20 -15
0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30
elevation angle(°) elevation angle(°)

0 -3
-10 -4
-20 -5
HR
VR

-30 -6
-40 -7
-50
0 10 20 30 -8
0 10 20 30
elevation angle(°) elevation angle(°)

Fig. 2 Coherent scattering at XR polarizations for different soil temperatures

Theoretical Study for Bare Soil Freeze … 9

Fig. 3 Diffuse scattering differences (RR, LR, VR and HR pol) as for 1 °C soil temperature
differences (from −0.5 to 0.5 °C). The incident azimuth angle is 30°, while the incident zenith
angle phi is zero. Theta and phi are the scattering azimuth and zenith angle, respectively

a function of the soil temperature, and then put the permittivity as one of the inputs
into the AIEM model. As the soil changes from −0.5 °C to above 0.5 °C, diffuse
scattering differences for RR, LR, VR and HR pol are presented in Fig. 3. The soil
temperature changes by 1 °C will cause about 4 dB NCRS differences for RR, VR
and HR pol, while the scattering difference for LR pol is smaller, about −1.6 dB.
From our simulations, it is thought that LR polarization is less sensitive to soil
temperature.

3.3 Delay Doppler Map Difference

When the soil changes from frozen state to thawn state or vice versa, there is a big
difference for the soil permittivity and this is the fundamental for detection. Table 1
has shown when the soil temperature changes from −1 to 1 °C, the changes for the
real part and imaginary part of the permittivity are from 8.7 to 21.3 and from 1.2 to
3.5, respectively.

Table 1 Real part and Ts (°C) Real part Imaginary part

imaginary part of the
permittivity −1 8.70793 1.16876
+1 21.27701 3.49827
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England—Orphanage—Labour question—Kūmishah—
Village ruffian—His punishment—Prince’s accident—The
kalāat—Mode of bringing it—Invitation to the ceremony
—Procession—Gala dress of the prince—The arrival of
the firman—Assemblage of grandees—The kalāat—The
Kawam’s kalāat—Return to town—Sacrifice of an ox
CHAPTER XXIV.
I FALL INTO THE HANDS OF BRIGANDS.
A call to a patient—Start on post-horses—No horses—I carry
a lantern—The Bakhtiaris—Fall among thieves—They
strip me—And march me off—Mode of disguise of
thieves—Attacked by footmen—Division of spoils—Fate
of a priest—Valuing my kit—Ignorance of my captors—A
welcome sight—My escape—I get a horse—Reach
Yezdikhast—Old women get thorns out of my feet—Want
of hospitality of head-man of Yezdikhast—Arrive at
Kūmishah—Kindness of a postmaster—More robbers—
Avoid them—Am repaid for my lost kit—Fate of my
robbers 259
CHAPTER XXV.
SHIRAZ.
The Muschir—His policy and wealth—His struggle with the
king’s uncle—He is bastinadoed—His banishment to
Kerbela—The Kawam—Mirza Naim—Siege of Zinjan—
Cruelties to Mirza Naim—Reply to an author’s statement
—Cashmere shawls—Anecdote—Garden of Dilgoosha
—Warm spring—“Sau-Sau-Rac”—The Well of Death—
Execution—Wife-killing—Tomb of Rich—Tomb of Hafiz—
Tomb of Saadi—A moral tale—Omens—Incident at tomb
of Hafiz 270
CHAPTER XXVI.
SHIRAZ—PERSIAN CUSTOMS.
The Tazzia—Persian pulpit—Prince’s flirtations—Month of 279
 mourning—Details of performance—Breast-beaters—
Hymn in honour of the king—The performers—
Processions—Detail of the tragedy—Interludes—
Rosehkhaneh—The Ramazan—The fast—Hospitalities
—Zalābi—Religious affectation—Reading poetry—A
paraphrase—A quotation—Books and their covers—
Calamdans—Writing a letter—Sealing—Specimen of an
ordinary letter—Apparent piety—The evil eye—
Talismans—I procure one
CHAPTER XXVII.
SHIRAZ.
Bagh-i-Takht—Jews’ burial-ground—Christians’ cemetery—
Its desecration—Sergeant Collins’s murder—Capture
and execution of the robbers—How it was brought home
to them—Memorial to Collins—Health of the staff—
Persians as servants—Persian cuisine—Kabobs,
varieties of—English dinners—Confectionery—Fruits—
Vegetables—Pickles, etc.—Cook-shops—Trotters—
Mode of selling meat—Game—Eggs—Wild vegetables—
Potatoes—Disinclination to use new seeds, and its
cause—Narcissus—General use of flower decoration—
Tame birds—Wild birds—White ants—Damaging the line
—Hamilton poles 292
CHAPTER XXVIII.
BEASTS, BIRDS, FRUITS, AND FLOWERS.
Tamed pigs—“Marjahn”—Mongoose—Persian cats—Their
value—Van cats—A fierce cat—How to obtain a Persian
cat—Grey-hounds—Toolahs—Watch-dogs—Monkeys—
Tame lions—Tame and cage birds—Superstition
concerning house-snakes—I kill a clockwinder—Wild ass
—Fighting rams—Tame partridges—Gardening—
Ordinary flowers—The broom-plant—Vine-culture—
Quinces and pomegranates—Orchards—Garden parties 302
CHAPTER XXIX.
 PERSIAN CHARACTER, COSTUMES, AND MANNERS.
Character of the Persians—Exaggeration—Mercifulness—
Anecdote—Costumes of men—Hair—Beards—Arms—
Costumes of women—Jewellery—Glass bangles—Nose-
rings—Painting of the face—Tattooing—Hair—Out-door
costume—Dress of children—Their manners—Strange
custom—Love of mothers—The uncle—Cousins—
Slaves—Servants—Slavery 314
CHAPTER XXX.
TRAVELLING—ART WORK—FOODS.
Travelling—Difficulties of posting—Saddles and bits—Cruel
joke—Old stories—Pastimes—Enamels—Persian
pictures—Curio buyer—Carvings—Metal-work—
Calligraphy—Kahtam—Incised work on iron—
Embroideries—Silver-work—Washing of linen—Ironing—
Needlework—The bath—Washing the hair with clay—
Bread and baking—Unleavened bread—Other kinds—
Travellers’ food—Inordinate appetites—Food of the poor 328
CHAPTER XXXI.
EDUCATION—LEAVE, AND RETURN VIÂ INDIA.
Education—Schools—Punishments—Love of poetry—
Colleges—Education of women—Religion—March to
Bushire—Extremes of cold and heat—Good luck—Go
home to England—Leave viâ India—The “Boys”—Lisbon
—Algiers—Port Said and Suez—Jeddah—Donkeys—
Coral reef—Sea-slugs—Aden—Madagascar oranges
—“Grimes”—Kurrachee—Drives—Visit to the alligators
at Muggerpir—Disgusting scene—A legatee—Black-
wood furniture—A lost bargain—Persian Gulf—Bushire
—Leave for Shiraz 337
CHAPTER XXXII.
FROM THE PERSIAN GULF TO ISPAHAN.
Our start for Shiraz—Camp out—Borasjūn—Spring at Dalliké 347
 —Kotuls—Kazerūn—Buy a horse—A tough climb—
Place of Collins’s murder—Arrive in Shiraz—Hire a
house—Settle down—Breaking horses—Night marching
—Difficulties of start—Mūrghab—Find our muleteer and
loads—Abadeh—Yezdikhast—Kūmishah—Mayar—Marg
—Arrive in Julfa
CHAPTER XXXIII.
JULFA.
Hire a house—Coolness of streets—Idleness of men—
Industry of women—Stone mortars—Arrack—Hire a
vineyard—A wily Armenian—Treasure-trove—The
“Shaking Minarets”—A hereditary functionary—A
permanent miracle—Its probable explanation—
Vaccination—Julfa priests—Arrack as an anæsthetic—
Road-making—Crops of firewood—Fire temple—Huge
trees—The racecourse—Disappearance of ancient brick
buildings—Donkeys—Healthiness of Julfa—Zil-es-Sultan
—His armoury—Prospects of the succession to the
throne—Bull-terriers—Mastiffs—Politeness and
rudeness of the prince 359
CHAPTER XXXIV.
JOURNEY TO AND FROM TEHERAN.
Proceed to Teheran—Takhtrowan—Duties—Gulhaek—Lawn- 368
tennis—Guebre gardener—A good road—The Shah—
Custom of the Kūrūk—M. Gersteiger—Cossack
regiments—Austrian officers—New coinage—Count
Monteforte—New police—Boulevard des Ambassadeurs
—English Embassy—Tile gates—Summer palaces—
Bazaars—Russian goods—Demarvend—Drive to
Ispahan—Difficulties of the journey—Accidents—Danger
of sunstroke—Turkeys—Keeping peacocks—Armenian
tribute of poultry—Burmese and Japanese embassies—
Entertainment and fireworks—Cruel treatment of Jews—
Oil paintings—Bahram and his queen—Practice makes
 perfect—Pharaoh and the Red Sea—Pharaoh and the
magicians
CHAPTER XXXV.
WE RETURN VIÂ THE CASPIAN.
New Year’s presents—Shiraz custom—Our cook’s
weaknesses—He takes the pledge—And becomes an
opium-eater—Decide to go home—Dispose of kit—Start
for Europe—Our own arrangements—Diary of our
journey home—Arrival 379
APPENDIX A.
Table of Post Stages and Ordinary Marches from Bushire,
Persian Gulf, to Teheran 410
APPENDIX B.
Duration of our Journey from Ispahan to London 412
APPENDIX C.
Travelling in Persia 413
APPENDIX D.
RUSSIAN GOODS VERSUS ENGLISH.
The Karūn River route—The best means of reaching the
Commercial Centres of Persia—Opinions of Experts—
Wishes of Merchants 417
Glossary of Persian Words 420
Index 429
LIST OF FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS.
SOLOMON IN ALL HIS GLORY Frontispiece.
PERSIAN BAND To face page 91
FEMALE DANCERS AND EQUILIBRIST ” 114
THE TOMBS OF THE KINGS (NAKSH-I-
RŪSTAM) ” 119
ARMENIAN WOMEN ” 132
THE BASTINADO ” 147
THREE SHOPS IN BAZAAR ” 189
THE PUL-I-KOJŪ ” 195
TENT LIFE—WANDERING TRIBES ” 262
A ROSEH-KHANA, OR PRAYER-MEETING ” 283
LION AND LUHLIS ” 307
MIDDLE-CLASS PERSIANS—PERSIAN BOY ” 317
OUTDOOR DRESS OF PERSIAN WOMEN ” 325
DR. WILLS’S HOUSE IN JULFA ” 360
A CHUPPER-KHANA, OR POST-HOUSE ” 386
 IN THE
LAND OF THE LION AND SUN.
 CHAPTER I.
I GO TO PERSIA.

Wanted, a doctor—The Director-in-chief—Doubt and distrust—Simple advice—Am

referred to ‘Hadji Baba’—My kit—Saddle for riding post—Vienna—Rustchuk—
Quarantine—Galatz—Kustendji—Constantinople—Turkish ladies—Stamboul
—I have my hair cut—“Karagews”—Turkish coffee—A philo-Turk—Shooting
party—The theatres—The Opera—Armenian theatre—Gambling-house—A
Bashi-bazouk—We leave, viâ the Black Sea—The Russian captain—
Unarmed vessels—White Crimean wine—Foreign wines in Russia—Deck
passengers—Sinope—Batoum—Poti—The post-house—Difficulty in getting
food—Travelling en tröika—Kutais—A tarantass—Apply for horses—An
itching palm—We start—Tiflis—Lecoq’s beer—A happy reprieve—The joys of
travel—Chief of the Telegraph in Tiflis—Uniforms—Persian Consulate—
Coffee and pipes—Smoking an art—Effects on the tyro—Tea—The Consul—
His age—Dyeing the hair—The Opera, varied costumes at—The Tiflis ballet—
Leave Tiflis—Erivan—The Pass—We lighten our load—Hotel—Washing—
Nakchewan—Julfa, the frontier of Persia.

I think that there is no more painful position than that of the young
medical man. I had “passed,” and had got my qualifications. An
assistant I did not wish to be, and I therefore consulted the
advertisement columns of the Lancet, and was prepared to go
anywhere, if I might see the world, and have what Americans call a
good time.
At my first attempt I came on an advertisement of three
appointments, under the Indian Government, in Persia; the address
was the Adelphi. Off I started for the Adelphi, which I had always
looked on as a neighbourhood full of mystery, and whose inhabitants
were to be mistrusted. Timeo Danaos.
A first-floor—this looked well. I knocked, was told to enter. Two
gentlemen, kneeling on the floor, looked at me in a disturbed
manner. The whole room is strewn with sheets of written foolscap,
and it appears that I have arrived inopportunely, as official
documents are being sorted. I am asked to take a seat, having
stated to the elder of the two that I am come to see the director on
business.
Now I couldn’t at that time fancy a director who knelt—in fact, my
only idea of one was the typical director of the novel, a stout,
bechained man—and my astonishment was great at being quietly
informed by one of the gentlemen that he was Colonel G⸺, and
should be glad to hear anything I had to communicate. I stated my
wish to obtain such an appointment as was advertised; the duties,
pay, &c., were pointed out, and I came to the conclusion that it would
suit me as a “pastime” till the happy day when I should have a brass
plate of my own. But if my ideas of a director were lofty, my ideas of
a colonel were loftier; and I said to myself, one who combines these
two functions, and can be polite to a humble doctor—must be an
impostor.
I was asked for my credentials. I gave them, and was told to call in
the morning, but distrust had taken hold of me; I got an ‘Army List,’
and, not finding my chief-that-was-to-be’s name in it, I, forgetting that
we had then an Indian as well as an English army, came to the
conclusion that he must be an impostor, and that I should be asked
for a deposit in the morning, which was, I believed, the general way
of obtaining money from the unwary.
With, I fear, a certain amount of truculent defiance, I presented
myself at the appointed hour, and was told that my references were
satisfactory, that a contract would be drawn up that I should have to
sign, and that I should be ready to start in a fortnight; but, rather to
my astonishment, no mention was made of a deposit. “I think there is
nothing more,” said Colonel G⸺.
This, I concluded, indicated the termination of the interview; and,
after considerable humming and hawing, I came to the point, and
blurted out that, after searching the ‘Army List,’ I couldn’t find any
Colonel G⸺, and that no one had ever heard of the Telegraph
Department in Persia.
Instead of being annoyed, the Colonel merely asked if I knew any
one at the War Office. As it happened I did. “Well, go to him, and he
will tell you all about it.”
Off I went to the War Office, found my friend, and, to his horror,
told him that I wanted to know if the Persian Telegraph Department
existed or not, and if the director was or was not a myth. He easily
satisfied me, and I felt that I had been stupidly suspicious.
I then announced to my friends and relatives my probably
immediate departure for Persia. Strange to say, they declined to see
it in any other light than a peculiarly elaborate and stupid joke.
Instead of congratulations, I was treated as an unamiable and tiring
lunatic, and from none of my friends was I able to get any
information as to Persia. One man had a son in Baghdad! but it was
no good his writing him, as it took six months to get an answer.
After a day or two I again presented myself at the office, and I had
the country described to me, and various recommendations as to
outfit given me, and I also was introduced to Major C⸺, the
assistant-director. His advice was delightfully simple. “You’ll be able
to wear out all your old clothes; don’t buy any new ones; have a
‘Dayrell’ bridle; get nothing but flannel shirts.” Colonel G⸺ certainly
took great trouble to explain to me all about the country, and, taking
me out to lunch with him, bought me Morier’s ‘Hadji Baba,’ saying,
“When you read this you will know more of Persia and the Persians
than you will if you had lived there with your eyes open for twenty
years.” This is going a long way; it is seventeen years since I went to
Persia, and I read ‘Hadji Baba’ now, and still learn something new
from it. As Persia was in Morier’s time so it is now; and, though one
sees plenty of decay, there is very little change.
Two other candidates came forward, to whom I was deputed to
explain matters. They accepted the conditions, and, the deeds being
prepared, we all three went to the India Office and signed a contract
for three years.
On going to the Adelphi I was told that a sum of one hundred
pounds had been handed to each of my two colleagues to take them
to Persia. But I was glad to seize the opportunity kindly given me by
Colonel G⸺ of travelling with him, and he told me to meet him in
Vienna on a certain day.
 I had now no time to lose, and proceeded to buy my kit; what that
kit was it is as well the reader should know.
I got enough ordinary clothing for three years, such as we use in
England for morning or country wear, also two pairs of riding-boots;
these fitted me, and were consequently useless, for I soon found that
in riding long distances boots much too big are the thing, as then the
foot is neither cold in winter or crippled in summer; a knife, fork, and
spoon, to shut up; a revolver; a small bradawl, with the point buried
in a cork, for boring holes in straps; a military saddle (hussar
officer’s), with wallet-holsters and a high cantle (this cantle keeps
one’s rugs off one’s back when riding post, which is the only way of
quick travelling in the country); a double-barrelled fowling-piece
(nearly useless). My kit was packed in a couple of bullock-trunks,
and my saddle sewn up in my rugs, which were thick and good. I
also had a blanket-lined waterproof sheet.
I gave myself a week in Paris previous to my nominal start, and
thence I proceeded to Vienna, to be ready to leave with Colonel G
⸺ as soon as he arrived there.
I went to the “Golden Lamb,” a very comfortable hotel which the
Colonel had chosen, and beguiled my time pleasantly enough in
going nightly to the theatre to hear Offenbach’s operas done in
German. I saw ‘Bluebeard,’ ‘La Belle Hélène,’ &c. I was a fortnight in
Vienna, and I began to pick up a smattering, for, of course, the
German learnt at school is useless; my Offenbach system I found
more effectual than the usual one of “the gardener’s wife has
brought the hat of the merchant’s little boy,” &c.
A week after the Colonel’s arrival our stay in Vienna ended. We
left for Basiatch (by rail twenty-seven hours); slept there, and started
early in the morning for Rustchuk by steamer. There we found that
passengers from up the river were in quarantine; and the letters
were taken with a pair of tongs, with immense precautions, for
fumigation; we were advised not to land, as we should certainly have
to go to the lazaretto; and we were told that if we quietly went on to
Galatz, and said nothing, we could return the next day as from a
healthy port.
 We were lucky in taking the advice, as a passenger did venture on
to the lighter, and was, willy-nilly, marched off to what we learnt
afterwards was a six weeks’ quarantine.
We went on to Galatz, which we reached the next day.
Galatz is like a rural Wapping, but muddier. We went to bed, to find
ourselves under weigh in the morning. We soon got to Tchernavoda,
which seemed a mere village. There we landed, and thence, by a
very slow train indeed, to Kustendji. At this place we heard the
ravages of the cholera had been very great. We slept there that
night, and started at noon next day for Constantinople by steamer.
It blew hard, and we were very glad indeed to find ourselves in the
Bosphorus. There the scenery became splendid; no description of
mine can do justice to the castles and palaces hanging on the
water’s edge; the crowded picturesque villages that were reflected in
the clear blue water; the shoals of porpoises that accompanied the
ship at full speed, ploughing the water with a loud noise, and then, in
their course, leaping, still continuing the race, from the water; and
then entering it again amid a shower of spray. This wonderful scene
continued for eighteen miles. At 5 p.m. we anchored in the Golden
Horn. The scene was indescribable; all I had ever seen or read of
paled before it. We were too late to land, as one cannot do so after
sunset.
Next morning we went ashore in a caique, rowed by very
picturesque boatmen in white kilts, passed the Custom House, and
went straight to Misseri’s, preceded by our baggage, borne by three
porters. These “hammals” bear gigantic burdens, and as in most
Eastern towns there are no carriage-roads, they are of great use,
and generally form a distinct corporation.
At Misseri’s the Colonel was well known, having stayed there
several times before. In Constantinople, happily for me, instead of
going on at once, my chief was delayed by orders from home for
nearly two months; and I was enabled to see a good deal of the
town.
 Great was my delight to watch the Turkish ladies, their muslin
yashmaks lending a fictitious delicacy to their complexions, going
about in handsome carriages. Innumerable were the mysterious
stories I heard after table d’hôte of these veiled beauties. Many a
time have I gone on long expeditions into Stamboul with Mr. Ayrton,
a brother of “Board of Works Ayrton,” who, with a thorough
knowledge of Turkey and the Turk, took me under his wing in his
daily pilgrimages to the most unsavoury but interesting nooks of the
Mahommedan portion of the city. We went to coffee-houses, and
listened to story-tellers; we dined on savoury kabobs; and, alas! I
well remember my philo-Turk friend persuaded me to have my hair
cut by a Turkish barber. It was only too well done; when the satisfied
shaver handed me the glass I was as a sheep before the shearer,
dumb, but with horror; my head was pink, so closely was it cropped,
and my only consolation was the remark of my introducer to oriental
life, that “in the East they generally did things thoroughly.”
I saw too the Turkish Punch (“Karagews”), a most immoral puppet;
and the mildest and most favourable description of him was that “his
manners were none, his customs disgusting,” but then my mentor
said he was “very oriental”—perhaps the terms mean much the
same thing.
As the coffee seemed particularly delicious in the native cafés, I,
after some trouble, ascertained the real receipt for coffee à la Turca
(not à la Turque), as they call it. Here it is; for each tiny cup (about a
small wineglassful), a teaspoonful of coffee fresh roasted, and
ground at once while hot to a fine powder in a brass hand-mill, or at
times pounded in a mortar, is thrown into a small and heated
saucepan; add the required quantity of boiling water. Place on the
embers; when it threatens to boil over, remove; replace, and remove
a second and a third time; serve. All the dregs go to the bottom. No
sugar or milk used—never clean the saucepan!
At these cafés long chibouques with yellow clay heads are
smoked, the heads being rested on a brass tray. A ball of live
charcoal is placed on the long-cut Samsoon tobacco (or if the
customer be liberal, Macedonian), the stem is jasmine or cherry
wood, and the grander the pipe the longer the stem; rich customers
bring their own mouth-pieces, which have a long inner conical tube
that fits any stem. These mouth-pieces are of amber, and are
frequently ornamented with a hoop of brilliants. The pieces of amber
are two in number, and if of large size and of good colour cost two
pounds, upwards to even five-and-twenty: the ordinary fashion is to
separate these two pieces by a thin circle of lapis-lazuli or other
stone.
The narghilé is also much used. It will be fully described as the
“kalian” further on. In it is smoked the tumbaku of Persia. A few
pence is charged for the whole entertainment of coffee, smoke,
shelter, and music, such as it is, generally a guitar or flute-player,
who is glad to play to order for a cup of coffee. The customers sit on
little low stools like the French church chairs without their backs. In
some of the grander cafés divans, and even chairs, are provided.
Mr. Ayrton had spent many years in Egypt. He wore a coat made
by a Turkish tailor, a shawl waistcoat and a fez, and with his cropped
grey hairs (it was his barber who operated on me) and his big
chibouque with the amber mouth-piece (he had a large collection of
them) with the ring of diamonds, he looked a thorough Turk, and I
fancy posed and was treated as such. I remember myself thinking
that the get-up was assumed for the purpose of getting a deeper
insight into Turkish life. From what I know now, I merely suppose
that, from his wearing the fez, he was, or had been, in Turkish
employ; all government servants in Turkey have to wear it. Dr.
Millengen, in whose arms Byron died, and who was an old
government employé (physician to three Sultans), wore it; so did his
son, who was in the Turkish Government Telegraph; and another son
of his, I afterwards met in the Turkish Quarantine Service at Teheran,
told me he wore it always while in Turkey.
I was introduced to a M. la Fontaine, a most enthusiastic
sportsman, and his many nephews, and by him I was given a day’s
cock-shooting, and there was plenty of it. As for me, I was an utter
muff and cockney, or rather town-reared; but had I not a new pin-fire
breechloader, and was it not my first day’s real shooting? And as I
really did shoot two brace, I returned a delighted but tired youth. That
night will be ever memorable. I ate my first pillaw, with fowls boiled to
rags in it, and followed by curds with thick cream on the top called
“yaourt.” How we all ate!
We had come from Pera, crossing in a steamer, and had to ride
some twenty miles on rough little ponies to the sleeping place, and—
horror of horrors!—on Turkish saddles. Now to the timid rider a
Turkish saddle is at first a delight, for to leave it without great effort is
impossible, and there is a pommel which is so high that it appears
the height of folly not to cling to it; but when one’s knees are in one’s
mouth, when one’s saddle is hard as iron and cuts like a knife, when
one has new and heavy shooting-boots on, and one’s
unmentionables have a tendency to ruck, besides having the glory of
carrying a forty-guinea gun slung (oh, demon cockney gun-maker!)
by a sling that slips along the barrel, and was highly recommended,
with the addition of one hundred loaded cartridges distributed over
the many pockets of a very new shooting-coat, in the sun, with a fur
cap on—is it to be wondered at that the sufferings of the tortured
Indian at the stake were child’s-play to what I endured without a
groan, and repeating constantly assurances of my delight and
enjoyment?—and remember, reader, we went at a brisk canter all
the time.
How glad I was to lie down! How grieved I was, at 4.30 a.m. the
next day, to be called, and, after a hurried wash, to start in the half
dawn in my tight and heavy boots! But the firing began; I forgot the
tightness of my boots, the stiffness of my back. Do you remember
how stiff you felt after your first riding lesson, my friend? and you
hadn’t one hundred loaded cartridges about you, and an intermittent
garotte with your knees in your mouth; and I thanked Heaven I need
not sit down, for weighty reasons.
Of course I fired wildly; of course I missed continually, but it was
my first day, and I never enjoyed anything so much in my life. I
hobbled bravely on till there was no more daylight, but I did feel
thoroughly done on getting in, and I did not enjoy my ride back the
next day.
I used to try and learn Persian in my idle hours, and I soon
mastered the printed character and could read fluently, but without
the slightest idea of meaning. Kind Colonel G⸺ gave me many a
lesson, but I fear that loafing in Stamboul by day and going to the
French or Italian theatre in the evening had greater attractions.
I was always passionately fond of the stage, and, as we were
always going in a day or two, I used, on the principle that I might
never be able to go to the play again, to go every evening.
Of course there was only a third-rate French company, but how
very good they were! The term “stick,” so justly applied to many of
our actors, could not be attached to any player in the little band. All
were good, and all were good all round, and though the leading man
might be everything in the drama, yet he didn’t object to play the
lover in the little vaudeville, and played it well. An Englishman, in the
event of anything so dreadful happening to him, would soon let his
audience see that he was only doing it under protest.
At the Opera the prima donna was ridiculously fat, and to a man
unmusical this somewhat destroys the illusion—but then the fauteuils
d’orchestre only cost ten francs. I also went to an Armenian theatre,
but it had the national characteristics, squalor and misery, and I did
not repeat the visit. I failed even to see an Armenian piece (if such a
thing exists), but sat out a fearful edition of ‘The Chiffonier of Paris;’
and I was told that all the pieces played in Constantinople (Pera) in
Armenian were mere translations.
Even the delights of gaming were permitted in Pera. A few doors
from Messeri’s was the Café “Flam,” as it was affectionately called
by the Pera youth. “Café Flamand” was, I fancy, its real title. Here
were played “pharaon” and roulette. I was recommended the former
game, for economical reasons—it took longer to lose a napoleon.
Nobody seemed to win at either game, but pharaon certainly “took
longer.” I was not tempted to make frequent visits, as I had played
for some small sums at Baden-Baden a year or two before. There
one was at least cheated fairly; here the robbery was open.
A few days after the New Year the Colonel told me that we should
really leave for Persia by the very first opportunity. I bid farewell to all
the kind friends I had made, had my photo taken in breeches, boots,
and revolver at Abdullah’s—a weakness every Englishman who
reaches Constantinople is guilty of. It does not do to be too oriental.
At Abdullah’s I purchased a fearful-looking type, marked a Bashi-
bazouk, and found it out afterwards to be the portrait of a man whose
acquaintance I made in Persia, the Dutch Consul in Bushire; but he
made a very good type, being a big man; and he literally bristled with
weapons, and seemed capable of any atrocities.
One fine afternoon, on January 5th, 1867, we were rowed on
board the Russian steamer Oleg. We had an English-speaking
captain, who was genial and communicative. My chief was confined
to his cabin; and as there was nothing to read and nothing to do, I
saw a good deal of the Russian. He told me that all the commanders
of their mail-boats were naval officers, and that all the mail-boats
could be turned into war-steamers at a few hours’ notice, merely
requiring the guns to be put into them: “so that, as you English don’t
let us have war-vessels on the Black Sea, we run a superior class of
mail-boat” (built, however, on the Clyde). And a very superior boat
she was.
I was told by the captain to avoid the high-priced wines, and stick
to white Crimean. This was a particularly delicious light wine, like a
good Sauterne; and I find, from after experience of Russian railway
buffets, which far exceed anything of the sort we have in grandeur,
that, as a rule, the liquor is simply fair red and white country wine,
the only difference being in price and label.
In some of these labels the Muscovite imagination fairly runs riot.
You see “Château d’Yquem,” “Schloss Johannisberg,” &c., but
nobody ever seems to drink them, and they are mere table
ornaments. The rich drink nothing but champagne of known and
expensive brands, and bottled stout; while the middle classes stick to
“piver” (Russian beer) and vodki.
Tea, in tumblers, was continually being served, with a big slice of
lemon in it. The deck passengers, among whom were many rough
Circassians, all armed to the teeth, cuddled down into the nooks of
the cargo, and managed to keep themselves warm as best they
could. They too always were drinking tea, but they adopted a plan to
economise sugar that I have noticed constantly among the Russian
poor: a bit of sugar is placed in the cheek, and then the tea is
swallowed in gulps; the poor fellows thus keeping up a sort of
delusion that they are swallowing sweet and hot tea, though the
mouth only, and not the tea, is really sweetened. There was none of
the exclusiveness of the Englishman. A made tea, and regaled B, C,
and D; then B treated the rest, and so on; when not asleep, eating,
or tea-drinking, the deck people were card-playing and smoking. The
short pipe was a good deal used, and passed from hand to hand,
while the trader class smoked the cigarette. All the men, and most of
the women, wore a sort of rough butcher-boot; and, from the state of
the roads at Poti, any other foot clothing for pedestrians would have
been impossible.
We lay to off Sinope on the 7th (here the Russians, our little
captain took care to remind me, destroyed the Turkish fleet), but
could not land passengers, a gale blowing. We changed steamers at
Batoum on the 10th.
The scenery at Batoum is very fine; the sea, without a wave, of a
deep blue; well-wooded hills and the Elburz range of the Caucasus
covered with snows forming the horizon. So warm was it here that
we lay on the beach throwing stones into the tranquil sea.
At last we arrived at Poti, being the fifth day from Constantinople.
We were put on a lighter with our baggage, and taken direct to the
Custom House; thence we got on a little steamer that was to take us
up the Riom river, and of this we had some twelve hours, the great
part of the time being occupied in getting aground, and getting off
again.
From Poti to Merand we went in a telega, en tröika, some sixty
versts, over what was rather a track than a road, in thirteen hours.
A telega, or road-waggon, is easily described as an oblong box on
wheels, and of the severest simplicity. The box is about five feet by
three feet six inches at the top, and five feet by three feet at the
bottom, with a plank in the front for the driver. There are no attempts
at springs; strength and lightness are all that is aimed at; these are
attained—also the maximum of discomfort. To this machine are
harnessed three horses: one trots in the shafts with a yoke four feet
high, the other two, in traces at either side, gallop. The harness is
rope, the driver often drunk.
Travelling thus is monotonous, and after a time very painful. To the
Russian officer, with his big pillow, little or no luggage, and plenty of
hay, a tröika is comparatively comfortable, for he can lie stretched
out, and be tolerably free from bruises, but, doing as we did, we
suffered grinding torments. One telega was full of our luggage, and
in the other we sat on a portmanteau of the Colonel’s; at each jolt we
were obliged to clutch the edge of the machine to prevent knocking
one against the other, and there was no support of any kind. To
people accustomed to ride on springs our sufferings would only be
apparent if they had once tried what it was to travel in this way for
many hours over the roughest roads, day and night and at full speed,
and without springs of any kind. When our hands got painfully
bruised we changed sides, and bruised the other ones, for we were
forced to hold on. When we were lucky enough to get a broadish
telega we got some hay, and sat on it, thus resting our knees.
On our way we only saw one woman and, say, a hundred men.
The country seemed to me very thinly populated after teeming
England. On our arrival at the post-house at Merand we were shown
a room with two plank bedsteads and a fireplace. I little thought that
in Persia the post-houses hadn’t even the plank bedsteads.
Neither of us could speak one word of the language; we tried
French, German, Italian, Turkish, Persian—all of no avail—and we
had no food. At last we obtained fire and a samovar, or Russian tea
urn; the first by pantomime, the second by looking fierce and
repeating the word.
We pointed to our mouths, heads were shaken (perhaps they
thought we wanted a dentist); at last I had a happy thought, and, by
drawing a hen and egg, and hopping about the room clucking, the
postmaster’s wife at last produced the required eggs; they then
brought bread and sausage, the latter much decomposed.
Colonel G⸺ was taken ill in the night, and I feared we could not
proceed. But by 8 a.m. (of the 12th) we were again on the road, and
did the thirty-four versts on a good military road by noon. The 12th is
with Russians New Year’s Day, and we found the town of Kutais for
the most part drunk and letting off its firearms.
Here our landlord informed us that there was an opportunity to buy
a tarantass, which we could dispose of when we reached the
Persian frontier or at Tiflis.
I was greatly delighted when the Colonel decided on purchasing
this very primitive carriage. Fancy an old-fashioned open carriage to
hold two, with cushions stuffed in prehistoric ages with hay, a
tarpaulin apron, a huge hood provided with a leather curtain which,
when dropped, plunged the traveller into black darkness, but kept
the wind and rain out; a gigantic box and boot, the whole slung on a
perch from four posts by thick straps, and having very small fore and
very large hind wheels, a plumb-line dropped from the top of the
latter being quite a foot beyond the bottom. But it kept us warm and
dry, would hold all the luggage, and would in theory enable us to
travel with three horses instead of six. We found out afterwards that
we had to take five, when we were lucky enough to get them.
I fancy the whole machine cost one hundred and fifty roubles, or,
at the then exchange, fifteen pounds. Then came a wheelwright, and
he took some seven hours at the wheels. At length, about five, all
was pronounced ready, and we sent our “padoroschna,” or permit to
take post-horses, to the postmaster for horses. Reply: “None just at
present; would send them over as soon as they came in.” To lose no
time, we carefully filled the boot with our luggage, and my bullock-
trunks were firmly roped on behind.
We took tea preparatory to our start, and laid in provisions of
bread, beer, &c., with a couple of fowls; for we were told we should
find nothing but black bread and hot water on the road. Still no
horses.
We went to the post-house, where we found nine beasts, but were
told that these were all reserved for special service. The Colonel
then smelt a rat; but what were we to do? the postmaster (a major)
was dining out, and no one knew where he was.