Case Studies in Building Rehabilitation

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Building Pathology and Rehabilitation

J. M. P. Q. Delgado Editor

Case Studies
in Building
Rehabilitation
Building Pathology and Rehabilitation

Volume 13

Series Editors
Vasco Peixoto de Freitas, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
Aníbal Costa, Aveiro, Portugal
João M. P. Q. Delgado , University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
This book series addresses the areas of building pathologies and rehabilitation of the
constructed heritage, strategies, diagnostic and design methodologies, the appropri-
ately of existing regulations for rehabilitation, energy efficiency, adaptive rehabil-
itation, rehabilitation technologies and analysis of case studies. The topics of
Building Pathology and Rehabilitation include but are not limited to - hygrothermal
behaviour - structural pathologies (e.g. stone, wood, mortar, concrete, etc…) -
diagnostic techniques - costs of pathology - responsibilities, guarantees and
insurance - analysis of case studies - construction code - rehabilitation technologies -
architecture and rehabilitation project - materials and their suitability - building
performance simulation and energy efficiency - durability and service life.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/10019

J. M. P. Q. Delgado
Editor

Case Studies in Building

Rehabilitation

123
Editor
J. M. P. Q. Delgado
CONSTRUCT-LFC, Department of Civil
Engineering
University of Porto
Porto, Portugal

ISSN 2194-9832 ISSN 2194-9840 (electronic)

Building Pathology and Rehabilitation
ISBN 978-3-030-49201-4 ISBN 978-3-030-49202-1 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-49202-1
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2021
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and
transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar
or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained
herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard
to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface

Building pathology is the scientific study of the nature of building failure and its
causes, processes, development and consequences, to help create the right remedial
and management resolutions. Rehabilitation is a strategic area that is concerned not
only with the monumental heritage and historic buildings, but also with other
buildings that have been in use for some time and need to be adapted to the
demands of the present. The evolution of degradation can be interpreted as the
continuous reduction in performance over time.
The main purpose of this book, Case Studies in Building Rehabilitation, is to
provide a collection of recent research works, case studies and real-life experiences
of building pathology, to contribute to the systematization and dissemination of
knowledge related to building pathologies (structural and hygrothermal), durability
and diagnostic techniques and, simultaneously, to show the most recent advances in
this domain. It includes a set of new developments in the field of building pathology
and rehabilitation, bridging the gap between current approaches to the surveying of
buildings and the detailed study of defect diagnosis, prognosis and remediation. It
features a number of case studies and a detailed set of references and further
reading.
The book is divided into six chapters that intend to be a resume of the current
state of knowledge for the benefit of professional colleagues, scientists, students,
practitioners, lecturers and other interested parties to network. At the same time,
these topics will be going to encounter a variety of scientific and engineering
disciplines, such as civil, materials and mechanical engineering.

Porto, Portugal J. M. P. Q. Delgado

v
Contents

Rehabilitation of K. G. Road Complex at New Delhi, India . . . . . . . . . . 1

Prafulla Parlewar
Characterization of Ancient Mixed Masonry Structures of Brickwork
Infilled by Cobblestone Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
I. Lombillo, Y. Boffill, J. Pinilla, E. Moreno, and H. Blanco
Rehabilitation of Historic Chancery Building, Yangon,
Myanmar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Prafulla Parlewar
Rehabilitation Operations in Residential Buildings in La Mina
Neighborhood (S. Adrià del Besòs, Barcelona) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
C. Díaz and C. Cornadó
Repair of Face Brick Facades Sustained in Reinforced
Concrete Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
C. Díaz and C. Cornadó
Influence of Environmental Factors on Deterioration of Mural
Paintings in Mogao Cave 285, Dunhuang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
D. Ogura, T. Hase, Y. Nakata, A. Mikayama, S. Hokoi, H. Takabayashi,
K. Okada, B. Su, and P. Xue

vii
Rehabilitation of K. G. Road Complex
at New Delhi, India

Prafulla Parlewar

Abstract The Kasturba Gandhi (K. G.) road residential complex is a prestigious
building located at the New Delhi, India. This building suffered structural deteri-
oration due to the damaged rainwater and drainage system. This research mainly
looks into the reasons for the decay of the building, method adapted for the structural
analysis and proposed methods of retrofitting. In particular, this research includes
assessment of the structural condition for the future viability of the building. Assess-
ment studies were conducted on the building through geometric survey and struc-
tural testing. Building was not found suitable for habitation based on the results of
assessment. Furthermore, the retrofitting was proposed to strengthen the structure
with various methods like use of micro concrete, mild steel jacketing and repair of
spalling.

1 Introduction

The Kasturba Gandhi (K. G.) road residential complex is a prestigious building
located at New Delhi, India. This five storied building is known for its architectural
significance in the contemporary architecture of New Delhi. However, because of
damaged drainage system, the building’s structural system deteriorated with the
passage of time. The research here looks into the reasons for the deterioration of the
building. Then, it delineate the assessment methodology for structural analysis of
the building by identifying the correct studies and testing methods. Finally, the paper
look into the method of retrofitting for the building with use of latest technology for
rehabilitation. The building is assessed for its structural conditions in two sections:
(1) geometric studies, and (2) structural testing. The geometric studies documented
the damages on each floor of building. The structural testing includes: (a) rebound
hammer test, (b) laboratory tests, (c) endoscopic survey, and (d) masonry mortar

P. Parlewar (B)
City Development Corporation (P) Ltd., Mumbai, India
e-mail: citycorporationindia@gmail.com

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license 1
to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
J. M. P. Q. Delgado (ed.), Case Studies in Building Rehabilitation, Building Pathology
and Rehabilitation 13, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-49202-1_1
2 P. Parlewar

Fig. 1 a Front view of complex b Block view of complex

test. In this research, the geometric studies are illustrated through drawings and
photographs for severity of damages.
The geometric studies are based on the field survey conducted to document
the building and its damages. Severities of damages were assessed based on the
visual observations undertaken in field. These were further documented through
photographs and drawings. Rebound hammer test is basically a surface hardness
test to measure the compressive stress in concrete. In this research, detail results of
rebound hammer test are taken for assessment of the building. Moreover, the core
samples are taken from R.C.C. slab and masonry. These samples were submitted
to the testing laboratory. It was found that the columns were severely damaged at
various locations. Also, the slabs and beam were damaged at various locations. The
rebound hammer test results were compiled to show the compressive strength of con-
crete. The results of rebound hammer test had indicated poor compressive strength
of concrete on all floors in the building (Fig. 1).

2 Geometric Studies

The geometric studies for the building includes: (a) physical measurements of the
building, and (b) visual studies of damages. In physical measurements, the building
documentation was undertaken for floor wise arrangement of rooms, beams, columns,
slabs, staircases and other elements. This documentation was undertaken on physical
map to analyse severity of damages. In case of visual studies, the photographs of the
damaged structural part were taken to identify the severity of damage.
Rehabilitation of K. G. Road Complex at New Delhi, India 3

2.1 Physical Measurements

The procedure for physical measurement was based on using ultrasonic measuring
equipment to document the structural system of the building. A system of floor wise
documentation was carried out on site with engineers and architects. Then, drawings
were prepared based on these physical measurements.
Following are the salient points of the structural system of the building (Figs. 2, 3,
4, 5, 6 and 7): (1) The building is Reinforce Cement Concrete (R.C.C.) construction
with three wings. One wing has two room residential units with attached pantry and
toilet. Second wing has single room units with toilet. Third wing is separate on the
rear side with attached pantry and toilet. The building wings make an arrangement of
larger block in front and smaller part at rear part of plot. (2) Ground floor is having
reception and pantry with staircase core in the center of the building. A small staircase
is also found at the one end of the building. The top of the central staircase is having
water tanks which damaged the slab of the building. (3) The structural columns are
at center to center span of 5.0 meters at the main part of the building. The existing
column size is 500 MM × 340 MM and beam size is 500 MM × 340 MM. (4) In the
original design of the building, the column numbers C02, C03, C07, C09, C47 and
C49 are around two ducts of toilet and pantry. Water supply and sanitary pipes are
located in these ducts. It was found that the leakage in water supply and sanitation
has resulted into the severe damage to columns C02, C03, C07, C09, C47 and C49.
Also, we predicated that the foundation below these columns may be damaged due
to water leakages in the ducts. Hence, the water leakages in the duct was found to be
major reason for the deterioration of the building (Fig. 8).

Fig. 2 Ground floor plan

4 P. Parlewar

Fig. 3 First floor plan

Fig. 4 Second floor plan

2.2 Visual Assessment of Damages

The visual assessment of building includes visually identifying the damages of the
building. These damages are recorded through photographs to identify the severity of
damages. The floor wise damages are as follows: (a) Ground floor: At the ground floor,
the structural damages are observed in the columns, beams and slab. Our geometric
studies documented damages in following location: (a) Ground floor damages were
Rehabilitation of K. G. Road Complex at New Delhi, India 5

Fig. 5 Third floor plan

Fig. 6 Fourth floor plan

found in columns C02, C06, C09, C11, C12, C24, C25, C38, C61, C42, C47 and C49
(Fig. 2). The damages of columns are shown in hatch circle. (b) First Floor: The first
floor damages were observed in the columns, beams and slab. These damages were
in columns C02, C06, C09, C11, C12, C24, C25, C38, C61, C42, and C49 (Fig. 3).
(c) Second Floor: The second floor damages were observed in the columns, beams
and slab. The damages are in columns C02, C04, C08, C07, C09, C11, C12, C18,
C44, C47, C43 and beam C43–C4 (Fig. 4). (d) Third Floor: The third floor damages
were observed in the columns, beams and slab. These damages are in columns C02,
6 P. Parlewar

Fig. 7 Fifth floor plan

Fig. 8 Damages on ground floor (a, b) and first floor (c, d)

C04, C06, C07, C09, C11, C18, C38, C40, C42, C47, and C49 (Fig. 5). (e) Fourth
Floor: The fourth floor damages were observed in the columns, beams and slab.
These damages in columns are C02, C04, C06, C07, C09, C10, C11, C12, C37, C38,
C43, C44, C47 and C49 (Fig. 6). (f) Fifth Floor: On the fifth floor severe damages
were observed in the columns, beams and slab. These damages are found in columns
C02, C04, C05, C07, C08, C09, C11, C18, C37, C38 and beams in span C05–C08
and C38–C16 (Fig. 7). (g) Terrace Floor: On the terrace floor severe damages were
observed in the columns, beams and slab. These damages are found in columns C02,
C04, C06, C07, C08, C09, C11, C18, C37 and C38 (Fig. 9).

2.3 Endoscopic Studies

The endoscopic studies were conducted with an endoscopic instrument on the dam-
aged columns. An endoscopy instrument is 1.3 Mp waterproof inspection camera.
Following are the findings of endoscopic studies: (1) The concrete was corroded
severely inside the columns. It can be inferred that the reinforcement corrosion is
Rehabilitation of K. G. Road Complex at New Delhi, India 7

Fig. 9 Damages on ground floor (a, b) and first floor (c, d)

Fig. 10 Endoscopic studies on ground floor

Fig. 11 Endoscopic studies on ground floor

in between 50% and 80%. (2) Endoscopy results shown in Figs. 10 and 11 clearly
shows that the reinforcements are fully damages. (3) The endoscopy results inferred
that there is no bonding between the concrete and the reinforcement. (4) The stirrups
were broken at many location. Stirrups are also fully damaged inside as shown in
Fig. 11. (5) The endoscopy show that the concrete was in grey and white color. This
colorization also indicates the damages in concrete. (6) Moreover, many cracks were
found inside the columns in endoscopy studies.
8 P. Parlewar

3 Structural Testing

3.1 Non-destructive Test (NDT)—Rebound Hammer Test

(RHT)

The rebound hammer test (IS-13311 Part II 1992, reaffirmed 2004) is principally
a surface hardness test. It works on the principle that the rebound of an elastic
mass depends on the hardness of surface against which the mass impinges. Rebound
hammer test (RHT) gives us a tentative idea about the surface strength of concrete.
The variation of 25% is found between the strength of specimen tested by RHT and
by convention method. This is because, the results of RHT are affected by factors
like surface and internal moisture, carbonation of concrete, age of concrete and type
of aggregates. More moisture gives less rebound number.

3.1.1 Rebound Hammer Test (RHT) for Building

The rebound hammer test (RHT) was conducted to understand the general condition
of the residential complex building. This test was conducted on structural members
like R.C.C. columns and walls with nine points at one location. These nine points
were taken on members in a square area to get accurate results. The average results
of this nine rebound points were calculated for compression strength of concrete.
This test was conducted at 334 locations in the building with nine points each. The
Figs. 12, 13 and 14 shows the graphical representation of the results of RHT.

Fig. 12 Rebound Hammer Test (RHT) results

Rehabilitation of K. G. Road Complex at New Delhi, India 9

Fig. 13 Rebound Hammer Test (RHT) results

Fig. 14 Rebound Hammer Test (RHT) results

3.2 Laboratory Tests

To understand the structural damages the laboratory tests were conducted on the
concrete. These tests include: (1) compressive test of core samples of slabs, (2) test
of reinforcement, and (3) brick tests. Because of severity of damages, it was only
possible to take the core sample of slab. On site, it was difficult to remove the sample
for beams and columns because of severe damages. However, the testing inference
on the core sample of the slab gave a clear understanding on the composition and
compressive strength of the concrete.

3.2.1 Compressive Test of Core Sample of Slab

As per the IS: 456–2000, the minimum three cores samples were tested for the
compressive strength of the concrete. The core testing was conducted as per the IS
516:1959. The following are the criteria for the accepting the strength for the core
strength of the concrete members: (a) the average corrected core strength shall not be
less than 85% of the equivalent cube strength and (b) the strength of the individual
members shall not be less than the 75% of equivalent cube strength.
10 P. Parlewar

Fig. 15 a Concrete Core Samples b Bricks Sample

3.2.2 Core Drilling

A core was cut by means of rotary cutting tool having diamond bits. The machine
was firmly supported and braced against the concrete to prevent relative movement
which results in distorted and broken core. This process included lubricating the
cutter with water supply (Fig. 15).

3.2.3 Length and Diameter of Core

The three samples of the core of following length were taken for laboratory test: (1)
100.70 mm, (2) 106.40 mm and (3) 108.40 mm (Fig. 15). The weight for these core
samples are 0.780, 0.895 and 0.880 respectively. The core of diameter 66.5 mm was
cut from the slab. The ratio of length to diameter in the core sample was 1: 1.58
(Table 1).

3.2.4 Density of Core

As per the IS 456: 2000, the density of concrete shall be 2500 Kg/m3 . The table below
shows the density of the tested cores (Table 2). The average density of concrete was
2329.25 Kg/Cu. M. As the density was found lesser than required, it can be inferred
that strength of concrete is reduced in the building.

Table 1 Length and diameter S/N Length (mm) Diameter (mm)

of core samples
1 100.70 66.50
2 106.40 66.50
3 108.40 66.50
Rehabilitation of K. G. Road Complex at New Delhi, India 11

Table 2 Weight, volume and density of core samples

S/N Weight (Kg) Volume (Cu. mm) Density (Kg/Cu.m)
1 0.780 349831.80 2229.64
2 0.895 369633.60 2421.31
3 0.880 376581.60 2336.81

Table 3 Results of compressive test of core sample

S/N Length (mm) Diameter Weight (mm) Area (sq.mm) Remark
(mm)
1 100.70 66.50 0.780 3474 OK
2 106.40 66.50 0.895 3474 OK
3 108.40 66.50 0.880 3474 OK

Table 4 Percent decrease in strength of concrete

S/N Percentage decrease in Average percentage in strength
strength over equivalent cube over equivalent cube strength
strength
1 25.00
2 25.00 25.00
3 25.00

3.2.5 Testing of Core

Before test, the core was keept in water for 48 h at 24–30 ◦ C. The core test was
undertaken by applying Load of 0.2N/(mm2 /s) to 0.42N/(mm2 /s) at constant rate for
calculating compressive strength of concrete. Following are the results of the concrete
core tests (Tables 3 and 4): (1) The average corrected core strength is less than 85%
of the equivalent cube strength. (2) The strength of the individual members is 75%
of equivalent cube strength. (3) The density of the concrete is found to be reduced
in the core sample. (4) Thus the compressive strength of concrete is insufficient.

3.3 Test of Reinforcement

The laboratory test of three reinforcement samples of 1.0 M length was conducted to
understand the content of Carbon, Sulphur, Manganese and Phosphorus. Following
are the observation of test of reinforcement (Table 5): (1) The carbon content in the
sample is 0.35%. The higher carbon content of 0.3% and above makes the steel
bar brittle. Thus, there is reduction in the tensile strength of the reinforcement. (2)
12 P. Parlewar

Table 5 Percentage of carbon, sulphur, manganese and phosphorus

S/N Carbon Sulphur Manganese Phosphorus
1 0.35 0.06 0.85 0.0775

Table 6 Compressive S/N Result Average

strength of bricks
1 11.80
2 12.50
3 10.90 11.98
4 12.00
5 11.98

The content of Sulphur also makes the reinforcement brittle. In the test 0.06% of
Sulphur was found in reinforcement. (3) The higher content of Manganese increases
the tensile strength of the reinforcement. The Manganese content is 0.85% in the
reinforcement. (4) The content of Phosphorus also increases the brittleness of the
reinforcement. Thus, reducing the tensile strength of reinforcement.

3.4 Test of Bricks

The sample bricks were tested for its strength. The three brick samples were removed
from the building. The procedure of the testing included keeping the sample immersed
in water for five days. Then, axial load of 14 N/mm2 was uniformly applied on the
bricks. The test was conducted as per IS: 3495–1992(P-I). The strength of bricks was
found to be sufficient in the building. The test results are shown in Table 6.

4 Recommendations for Structural Retrofitting

The structural members of the building were proposed to strengthen through fol-
lowing methods: (a) structural strengthening with micro concrete, (b) jacketing and
collaring, and (c) repair of spalling and swellings.

4.1 Structural Strengthening with Micro Concrete Jacketing

The structural members strengthening was proposed by use of Micro Concrete. The
micro concrete is a dry power which requires addition of clean water. This is a ready
Rehabilitation of K. G. Road Complex at New Delhi, India 13

to use dry power which produces a free flowing non shrink repair. This combined with
additives provide controlled expansion of concrete with minimum demand of water.
It provides high compressive strength than the regular concrete. This also provides
high early strength in concrete which give strength in the deteriorated structural
member. Moreover, it offers excellent resistance to water. Thus it makes the member
highly durable.
The retrofitting was proposed in following steps:
1. Prop Supports: The prop were proposed for providing sufficient structural sup-
port in slab and floor. These props will provide support to load carrying members
like beams, columns etc.
2. Removal of Surrounding brick works: In the first step, the brickwork on the
sides of the structural member was proposed to be removed to make space for
shuttering.
3. Surface Preparation of Concrete: In this step, all reinforcement bars were pro-
posed to be exposed by chipping the original concrete on the damaged member.
This chipping will be to minimum depth of 10 mm behind the reinforcing bars.
4. Cleaning of Reinforcement: The reinforcement was proposed to be cleaned with
rust remover made up of zinc rich epoxy based coating with zinc content greater
than 84% to existing reinforcement.
5. Provision of extra reinforcement: Additional reinforcement is proposed with an
anchor in the concrete by providing adequate shear connectors.
6. Shear Connectors: The shear connectors of 8.0 mm diameter were proposed in
holes of 14.0 mm diameter and 75 mm deep at 500 mm c/c on all the faces of the
beams. These connectors were proposed be fixed in holes by using polyester
resin anchor grout.
7. Primer coating of reinforcement: The Epoxy Zinc Polymer of 40 micron was
proposed on the new reinforcement.
8. Epoxy Bonding Agent: The Epoxy resin based bonding was proposed to be
applied on the dry concrete substrate using stiff nylon brush uniformly on the
surface. This shall be applied before the elapse of time mentioned in the speci-
fications.
9. Formwork and shuttering: The form work was proposed to pour micro concrete.
This formwork was proposed to be leak proof and will not permit the flow of
micro concrete.
10. Mixing of micro concrete: The micro concrete was proposed as per the man-
ufacturer specifications. The concrete was proposed be mechanically mixed to
get homogeneous mix.
11. Pouring of Micro Concrete: The micro concrete mixture will be poured in form-
work by use of funnel or hose pipe with good compaction.
12. Curing: The curing needed to be done as per the standard procedure by use of
curing compound in water.
13. Tests for effectiveness of repair: It was recommended to check the compressive
strength of retrofitted concrete members through rebound hammer test after 28
days.
14 P. Parlewar

14. Jacketing and Collaring in Metal or Pre-cast Members: The structural members
were proposed to be jacketed and collared by use of metal or pre-cast members
anchored with the beam, column or slab.
15. Repair of Spallings and Swellings: It was suggested to repair these damages
by re concreting the ceiling with following method: (A) the loose mortar shall
be removed from the surrounding from spalled surface. Sufficient cleaning was
proposed of surrounding area with brush. (B) Two coats of anti-corrosive paint
was proposed to be applied on the exposed reinforcement surfaces. One coat of
polymer bonding agent need to be applied over the entire area of steel and con-
crete. (C) Above this polymer, 1:3 cement mortars was proposed to be applied
over the reinforcement. This concrete was proposed to be cured for minimum
15 days. (D) A water proofing coat was proposed to be applied before finishing
of this ceiling surface.

5 Conclusion

The following are the conclusion of structural assessment and rehabilitation of the
residential complex based on visual studies and structural testing:
1. It was found through visual studies and structural testing that the severity of
damages were high in the columns and beams.
2. The shear cracks, flexural cracks etc. were found in columns and beams of the
structure.
3. The design load required for the building is 20 N/mm2 for compressive strength
of M 20 grade of concrete as per IS 456: 2000.
4. The compressive strength of concrete members like beam, columns, and slabs
were found to be poor in compression. This strength was less than the design load
of 20 N/mm2 . So the strength of R.C.C. members in compression is insufficient.
5. The core test has indicated insufficient compressive strength. The average cor-
rected core strength was less than 85% of the equivalent cube strength. As per IS
516:1959, the corrected core strength shall not be less than 85%.
6. As per the endoscopic studies, the reinforcements were corroded at many loca-
tions. It can be assume that reinforcement corrosion was between 50% and 80%.
This has resulted into poor tensile strength of reinforcement.
7. The laboratory test for reinforcement had also indicated into poor tensile strength
of reinforcement.
8. The building is situated in Seismic Zone 4. As per the IS 13920 (1993) for ductile
design code, spacing of stirrups shall be minimum 100 mm center to center. But
during survey, the spacing was found to be 175–200 mm center to center. More-
over, based on visual studies and structural testing, the failure of structure was
possible in event of earthquake.
9. The structural retrofitting was proposed for columns and beams by using micro
concrete and mild steel jacketing. Inspection and strengthening of foundation was
Rehabilitation of K. G. Road Complex at New Delhi, India 15

also proposed to investigate damages and uneven settlement in the foundation. The
proposed retrofitting could provide long term strength in the structural members.
Thus based on above assessment, residential complex was declared unfit for
habitation. Moreover, the urgency for retrofitting was proposed after vacating the
premises. Further, similar approach for research is undertaken for buildings deterio-
rated by rain and weather conditions in Myanmar. Similar research methodology is
adapted to analyse historic buildings in downtown Yangon in Myanmar.
Characterization of Ancient Mixed
Masonry Structures of Brickwork
Infilled by Cobblestone Wall

I. Lombillo, Y. Boffill, J. Pinilla, E. Moreno, and H. Blanco

Abstract A great part of the Architectural Heritage is constructed with masonry

walls. Certain interventions in this Heritage make it necessary to characterize the
mechanical properties of these load-bearing elements. This article has the aim of
proposing and using several complementary methods applicable to the characteriza-
tion of the materials forming historical masonry structures, applying them to mixed
masonry made up of bricks, lime mortars and cobblestones. In this research, tests
were carried out on a building constructed in two clearly differentiated periods,
15–18th century and 19–20th century. A sample-taking campaign was done on
bricks, mortars and portions of masonry, for later physical-chemical-morphological-
mechanical testing in laboratory, and an in situ experimental minimally-intrusive
campaign using techniques such as flat-jack, sclerometer and penetration-meter on
mortars. The mechanical results obtained enabled the evaluation of the validity
of some experimental formulas for estimating the strength of masonries from the
strength of their component materials (brick and mortar), when applying them to
historical constructions. In the same way, the physical-chemical characterization
tests carried out enabled the justification, economically and minimally intrusively,
the differentiation of the materials employed in the two construction periods.

I. Lombillo (B) · Y. Boffill · H. Blanco

University of Cantabria, Civil Engineering School, 39005 Santander, Spain
e-mail: ignacio.lombillo@unican.es
Y. Boffill
e-mail: yosbel.boffill@unican.es
H. Blanco
e-mail: haydee.blanco@unican.es
J. Pinilla · E. Moreno
Polytechnic University of Madrid, School of Architecture, 28040 Madrid, Spain
e-mail: javier.pinilla@upm.es
E. Moreno
e-mail: esther.moreno@upm.es

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license 17
to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
J. M. P. Q. Delgado (ed.), Case Studies in Building Rehabilitation, Building Pathology
and Rehabilitation 13, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-49202-1_2
18 I. Lombillo et al.

Keywords Masonry structures · Architectural heritage · Laboratory experiments ·

In situ campaign

1 Introduction

Within the intervention process, previous knowledge is fundamental when choosing

the most suitable techniques and materials applicable in preservation and damage
prevention in Cultural Heritage (Binda et al. 1999, 2009). Therefore, the refur-
bishment process should be based in precise previous investigation (Binda et al.
2008).
The masonry structures are composed of petrous or ceramic pieces joined in
most cases by a conglomerate. The mechanical strength of the masonry depends
on several factors such as the strength of the pieces and of the conglomerate, the
size of the pieces, the humidity content, the emplacement method, etc. (Martínez
et al. 2001). Specific interventions on architectural heritage presuppose a modifi-
cation of the forces on the load-bearing walls, so in many cases it is necessary to
know their mechanical properties when establishing the most suitable intervention
criterion. There are diverse ways of obtaining the mechanical properties and strength
of masonry, from in situ N-MDT (Non-Minor Destructive Techniques) (Binda et al.
2000; Lombillo et al. 2013), experimental approximations based on breaking samples
in the laboratory, or through the use of formulas. Thus, numerous attempts have
been made to obtain empirical formulas that provide the masonry strength from
the geometrical and mechanical characteristics of the components. Among the most
notable are: Hendry and Malek (1986), the one proposed in Eurocode 6 (EN 1996-1-
1:2005), BD 21/93 (1993) or ACI 530/99 (1999). There are also phenomenological
formulas that have the advantage over the empirical ones of adapting to distinct
typologies of masonries and materials, and not only the conditions under which the
empirical formulas were obtained. Among these, Olher’s formula (Hendry 1998)
and the UCI one (1995) should be mentioned. The most rigorous way of obtaining
the properties of the historical masonries is through the use of in situ diagnostic
techniques, such as the techniques based on flat jacks, given that they enable the
masonries to be tested under real conditions, avoiding the extraction of samples
for later testing in the laboratory, a process that can significantly affect the results
obtained. In fact, the existing formulas require the extraction of samples for testing
the pieces and the mortar of the masonry.
In the case of ceramic bricks, their compressive strength depends on the density,
which in turn depends on the raw material and the temperature of manufacture.
Thus, the physical-chemical characterization of the materials is a tool that helps in
the interpretation of the results obtained in the mechanical tests.
As for the mortars, their strength can be estimated indirectly through tests such as
rebound index or penetration index. The compressive strength of mortar depends on
multiple factors such as the density, the type of conglomerate, the water/conglomerate
ratio and the conglomerate/aggregate ratio or the curing conditions.
Characterization of Ancient Mixed Masonry … 19

This research aims to evaluate the validity of different techniques and methods
generally applied in assessment of existing masonry buildings, applying them to the
specific case of mixed masonry structures of brickwork infilled with lime mortar and
cobblestones, a construction type which has been studied very little by the scientific
community. Therefore, as a practical application, the characterization tests carried
out on the load-bearing walls of a historical building, ‘Los Aragoneses’ mill, are
reported. Its current structure is the result of the union of two different volumes with
diverse reforms, Fig. 1. The oldest dates from the middle of the 15th century, having
being rebuilt some years later. The second part was attached to the first around 1780
with the aim of providing a new production module with a mill and a chapel. What
is more, at the end of the 18th century the whole building was remodeled, with no
information about whether remains of the original building were maintained. Finally,
between the 19 and 20th century, a neo-mudejar-style back building was added, to
house a steam engine press.
Independently of the construction era, the load-bearing walls of the building,
both exterior and interior, are of mixed masonry structures of brickwork infilled
with lime mortar and cobblestones, Fig. 2, with variable thicknesses between 35 and
80 cm, composed of:
• Masonry of brick and lime-based mortar: in vertical pilasters every 4–5 m and at
the corners, in horizontal rows every 1–1.5 m, and in the edges of windows and
doors. The bricks are solid of dimensions 28 × 14 × 3–5 cm, with bed joints of
mortar ranging from 3–6 cm.

Fig. 1 General perspective of the emplacement of the ‘Los Aragoneses’ mill, Monachil (Spain)
20 I. Lombillo et al.

Fig. 2 Mixed masonry of

brickwork infilled with
cobblestones and lime mortar

• Masonry of infilled cobblestones and lime-based mortar outlined by bricks.

A total of 4 manual trial pits were made to verify the conditions of the founda-
tions of the load-bearing walls. Thus, what could be original foundations of the first
construction are made of lime mortar and cobblestone masonry of depths ranging
from 60–80 cm, while the more modern ones are made of brick masonry of depths
greater than 90–120 cm.
In the physical-chemical-morphological characterization of materials, the
following tests have been used: hydric to establish physical properties, X-Ray
Diffraction (XRD) to find the crystalline structure, Polarized Optical Microscopy
(POM) to obtain information about mineralogy, Scanning Electron Microscopy
(SEM) for chemical and morphological characterization, and Thermal Gravimetric
Analysis (TGA/DTA) to find out the proportion of each component. Moreover,
several compressive strength tests were carried out on pieces, mortars, and portions
of masonry in the laboratory and various in situ N-MDT tests were done (flat
jack, sclerometry and mortar penetration tests) oriented to estimate the mechanical
characterization of the masonry structure.

2 Materials and Methods

This section describes the tests used with the aim of obtaining useful information
about the physical, chemical, morphological and mechanical characterization of the
materials used in the existing masonries, and the methodologies used in situ for the
mechanical characterization of the masonry walls.
Characterization of Ancient Mixed Masonry … 21

The walls, pieces and mortars in the building have been denominated according
to the date of construction figuring in the historical studies, thus, being either of the
period 15–18th or 19–20th.

2.1 Characterization of Materials in the Laboratory

Twenty-three samples of materials were extracted manually (6 corresponded to

complete brick samples, 12 samples of mortars, 3 of stone and 2 of brickwork)
and 7 cylindrical samples of walls were obtained using a hollow-crown coupled to a
perforator.

2.1.1 Physical-Chemical-Morphological Characterization of Materials

Hydric tests were carried out, with a hydrostatic balance, to calculate the apparent
density, the coefficient of absorption and the accessible porosity. The real volume
was also obtained using the Le Chatelier volumenometer, calculating the real density
of the samples.
With the aim of finding the crystalline phases in the samples analyzed and, there-
fore, their chemical composition, X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) techniques were used
(Lombillo et al. 2013; Middendorf et al. 2005; Isebaert et al. 2016; Arizzi et al. 2013;
Van Hees et al. 2004; Nóbrega De Azeredo et al. 2015; Franzoni et al. 2017). For this
purpose, a Bruker D8 Advance powder diffractometer was used fitted with a high-
stability copper anode X-Ray supply, and a SOL-X detector of energy dispersion and
large active area for X-Ray diffraction, enabling a shorter measurement time than
other detectors combined with a low background level.
Using a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) (Lombillo et al. 2013; Middendorf
et al. 2005; Arizzi et al. 2013; Van Hees et al. 2004; Nóbrega De Azeredo et al.
2015; Franzoni et al. 2017; López-Arce et al. 2016) a morphological examination
of the topographical structure of the fracture planes of the samples was performed.
Moreover, managing a range of augmentation scales, a view of both the whole element
and of the details was obtained. In the same way, coupling a dispersive energy X-
Ray spectrometer, the elemental analysis of the samples was made possible. The
study was done with a Jeol JSM-820 microscope operating at 20 kV and equipped
with Oxford EDX analysis. The samples were covered with Au (Emitech K550X
metalizer) to ensure good conductivity of a beam of electrons. Complementarily,
using a Polarized Optical Microscope (POM) (Middendorf et al. 2005; Arizzi et al.
2013; Van Hees et al. 2004), information was obtained about the mineralogy of
the samples under study (petrographic analysis). Thus, to identify aggregates and
binder through observation of thin laminas, a Kyowa, mod. BIO-POL, transmitted
and polarized light petrographic microscope was used. The photographs were taken
with a 5Mpixel Moticam, model 2300.
22 I. Lombillo et al.

Finally, Thermal Gravimetric Analysis (TGA) and Differential Thermal Analysis

(DTA) (Middendorf et al. 2005; Nóbrega De Azeredo et al. 2015; Franzoni et al. 2017;
Verstrynge et al. 2011) enabled the estimation of the proportion of each component,
so the dosage of the mortars and presence of unfired clays could be estimated.

2.1.2 Mechanical Characterization

Mechanical compression tests were performed using a hydraulic press on a part of

the samples extracted (7 bricks, 4 of mortar and 4 masonry testpieces). To this end,
the samples were cut with a circular saw and capped with Betolevel 15 CT-C30-F6
self-leveling mortar whose compressive strength is over 30 MPa. The testing machine
used for the tests on bricks and masonry testpieces was an Ibertest MIB-60 servo-
hydraulic press in accordance with the norm UNE-EN 772–1 (2011). The breaking
of mortars was done with two test presses, an Autotest 200–10 SW and another
Wykeham Farrance, in accordance with the norm UNE EN 1015-11 (2007).

2.2 In Situ Experimental Campaign

2.2.1 Flat Jack Test

The flat jack technique was developed by the Italian researcher Paolo Rossi in the
early 1980s (Rossi 1982), although it was not until 1985 that the first application
in situ took place on the brick walls of the ‘Palazzo della Ragione’ de Milan (Rossi
1985). Later, tests were performed on other construction types (Lombillo 2010) such
as ashlars, irregular rubblestones and even rammed-earth (Lombillo et al. 2014),
which contributed to the progressive calibration of this technique.
Following the criterion for characterizing the masonry walls of the constructions
built in the 15–18th and 19–20th centuries, the tests were performed at the points
shown in Fig. 3.

2.2.2 Sclerometer and Penetrometer Tests on Mortars

The use of a pendulum sclerometer provides a rapid qualitative indication of the

quality of mortar through the correlation with the energy absorbed by the mortar
during the impact (Tavares et al. 2008; Tavares and Veiga 2007). It is considered as
a low-impact test for monitoring the quality of mortars through the evaluation of its
surface hardness. The equipment utilized in this study was a SCHMIDT PM-type
pendulum hammer.
Another test used for the in situ characterization of mortars was the penetrometer
technique, for which a portable PNT-G penetrometer was utilized. The penetrometry
of mortars used, based on the PNT-G method developed by Gucci and Barsotti (1995),
Characterization of Ancient Mixed Masonry … 23

Fig. 3 Floorplan of emplacement of the flat jacks. SFJ-01 and DFJ-01 were performed in the semi-
basement of SE wall of the 19–20th century building, while SFJ-02 and DFJ-02 were performed
on the ground floor of the SW wall of the 15th century building, supposedly remodelled in the 18th
century

Gucci and Sassu (2002), provides a rapid qualitative indication of the compres-
sive strength of the material through the correlation with the energy necessary for
performing a standardized perforation.
The procedures followed to carry out the previous tests are included in the RILEM
MS-D.7 (1997) and RILEM MDT. D.1 (2004) recommendations respectively.

3 Results

Table 1 details the experimental campaign carried out. The stones analyzed
correspond to the columns of the central patio and the ashlars of the main wall.
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