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Advancing Inclusive and Special Education
in the Asia-Pacific

Mantak Yuen
Wendi Beamish
V. Scott H. Solberg Editors

Careers for Students

with Special
Educational Needs
Perspectives on Development and
Transitions from the Asia-Pacific Region
Advancing Inclusive and Special Education
in the Asia-Pacific

Series Editors
Mantak Yuen, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
James Basham, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, USA
Wu Ying Hsieh, University of Northern Iowa, Cedar Falls, USA
Wendi Beamish, Griffith University, Mt Gravatt, Australia
Policies and practices of inclusion in education were adopted in the Asia-Pacific
region somewhat later than in the West; and they are still evolving as schools,
colleges and universities are coming to grips with the challenge of addressing
increasing diversity among students. There is a growing awareness in the region
that there is a need for improved channels of communication for academics and
researchers to share more effectively their findings in order to influence
developments in the field of inclusive and special education.
Many institutions in the region have academic groups working and researching in
this field, often in semi-isolation. For example, the following institutions are all
separately involved: University of Hong Kong, the Chinese University of Hong
Kong, The Education University of Hong Kong, University of Queensland,
University of Monash, University of Canterbury, Beijing Normal University,
National Taiwan Normal University, University of Macau, Nangyang Technological
University, and the Korean University, and as well as other universities. The
academics concerned are eager for an outlet for their publications, and for ongoing
communication with other professions in different countries and cities. Equally
important, teachers, students on graduate courses, special education practitioners,
counsellors, school psychologists, and school principals are eager to obtain
information and guidance on meeting student’s diverse educational and personal
needs. Inclusive education has been described as ‘…a multifaceted practice that
deals with value and belief systems, invites and celebrates diversity and difference
arising from family background, social class, gender, language, socio-economic
background, cultural origin or ability, with human rights and social justice at its core’
(Agbenyega & Deku, 2011, p. 1). Inclusion is thus a core part of the notion of
‘education for all’ agenda; and it is far more than the placement of students with
special educational needs in regular classrooms (UNESCO, 2003). That is also the
view that will be presented consistently within these books.
Book proposals for this series may be submitted to the Publishing Editor: Melody
Zhang E-mail: melodymiao.zhang@springer.com

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/15999

Mantak Yuen Wendi Beamish
• •

V. Scott H. Solberg
Editors

Careers for Students

with Special Educational
Needs
Perspectives on Development and Transitions
from the Asia-Pacific Region

123
Editors
Mantak Yuen Wendi Beamish
University of Hong Kong Griffith University
Hong Kong, China Mt Gravatt, Australia

V. Scott H. Solberg
Boston University
Boston, MA, USA

ISSN 2524-8219 ISSN 2524-8227 (electronic)

Advancing Inclusive and Special Education in the Asia-Pacific
ISBN 978-981-15-4442-2 ISBN 978-981-15-4443-9 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4443-9
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained
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to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721,
Singapore
Preface

The pathway to employment and a meaningful career has never been more difficult
to map for all youth as they prepare for a transition to adulthood and the world of
work. The rapid growth in technology, together with worldwide economic uncer-
tainty, has changed forever the range of options available for employment. Many
previous opportunities for employment have simply vanished, and transition from
school to work has never been more challenging. As a result, teachers and other
personnel working in education now have the responsibility to identify fresh ways
of preparing students with special needs for today’s world. The material in this
book tackles some of the emerging issues of transition and career direction
throughout the Asia-Pacific region. In doing so, the book offers a wide range of
innovative policies, programs, strategies, and tools to assist in preparing students
with special needs for work in their local communities.
The book is divided into four main parts, with each part addressing a particular
topic. As indicated in the list of contents, the parts together cover key issues in
career development and transition; strategies for personnel preparation, parent
education, and disability-specific issues; effective policies, programs, and approa-
ches in the Asia-Pacific region; and useful tools for assessment and intervention.
Part I includes four chapters, which provide a historical overview of career
development and transition planning for students with special educational needs
and disabilities. Definitions and legislations are clarified, and the authors present the
philosophical and practical underpinnings of intervention in career education.
Issues and challenges associated with work preparation and transition to work for
these students are highlighted, and some of these matters are addressed in more
detail in later chapters.
Part II contains five chapters summarizing common strategies used in teacher
preparation, counselor training, and parent education. Issues addressed include
competencies and knowledge relevant for supporting career development and
transitions for students with special needs or disabilities. Practical strategies
applicable to specific types of disability or special need are described.

v
vi Preface

Part III has eight chapters covering examples of effective programs and
approaches for career development and transitions of these students in the
Asia-Pacific region. Issues in program development and evaluation of outcomes are
highlighted.
The final part contains four chapters reviewing useful assessment tools and
innovative interventions for teachers and other special education personnel.
We hope that school staff (including teachers, principals, counselors, psychol-
ogists), policy-makers, and researchers find ideas of practical value within this book
to assist them in providing the best possible support and services to students with
special educational needs as they prepare to transit from school to post-school life
and employment.

Hong Kong, China Mantak Yuen

Mt Gravatt, Australia Wendi Beamish
Boston, USA V. Scott H. Solberg
Contents

Part I Issues in Career Development and Transitions

1 Career Development Policy Strategies for Supporting Transition
of Students with Special Educational Needs and Disabilities . . . . . . 3
V. Scott H. Solberg, Jennifer Lillis, Weiran Zhang,
and Judith L. Martin
2 Career Development of Students with Intellectual Disability:
A Systems Theory Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Mary McMahon and Monica Cuskelly
3 Considering the Fourth Industrial Revolution in the Preparation
of Learners with and without Disabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
James D. Basham, Kyounggun Han, Ling Zhang, and Sohyun Yang
4 Webs of Supportive Relationships: A Positive Youth
Development Approach to Career and Workforce
Development with Risk-Immersed Youth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Sean K. Flanagan, Jonathan F. Zaff, Shannon M. Varga,
and Max Margolius
5 Career Development of Twice-Exceptional Individuals: Present
and Future Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Jae Yup Jung

Part II Strategies for Personnel Preparation, Parent Education,

and Disability-Specific Issues
6 Strategies to Promote Effective Secondary Special Education
and Transition Content into Teacher Preparation Coursework . . . 83
Kendra L. Williams-Diehm, Amber E. McConnell, Mindy Lingo,
and Belkis Choiseul-Praslin

vii
viii Contents

7 Training Teachers to Become Effective Life Design

‘Agents of Change’: Suggestions and Directions
for Future Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Lea Ferrari and Teresa Maria Sgaramella
8 Social Workers’ Strategies for Supporting Career Transition
for Disadvantaged Girls with SEN: A Hong Kong Case Study
of a Class in Digital Drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Victor Wong and Toby C. Y. Yip
9 The Power of Parent Education: Transition Planning
for Students with Moderate to Severe Disabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Lusa Lo

Part III Effective Policies, Programs, and Approaches for Career

Development and Transitions in the Asia-Pacific Region
10 Creating New Narratives to Give Hope and Optimism to At-Risk
Students in Singapore: A Case for Vocational Guidance
and Career Counselling Intervention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Jenn Yeoong Leong
11 Views of Parents on a Career and Life Planning Program
for Junior Secondary Students with Special Educational Needs:
A Qualitative Study in Hong Kong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Yiu Bun Chung and Mantak Yuen
12 Career Guidance for Gifted Students in Hong Kong . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Joe Y. C. Tsui and Mantak Yuen
13 Career Guidance for High School Students with Specific
Learning Difficulties: Hong Kong Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Flora S. Y. Yau and Mantak Yuen
14 Career Guidance for Students with Special Educational Needs
in New Zealand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
David Mitchell and Colin Gladstone
15 Improving Transition-Focused Education for Students
with Special Educational Needs: An Australian Approach . . . . . . . 217
Wendi Beamish, Denis Meadows, Mike Davies, and Annalise Taylor
16 Support for Students with Special Educational Needs
in Universities in Hong Kong: An Overview of the Issues . . . . . . . . 233
Beina L. F. Chan and Patcy P. S. Yeung
17 School-to-Work Transition: Support for Students
with Moderate-to-Severe Special Educational Needs
in Singapore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Meng Ee Wong, Suet Ling Chong, and Herk Low Ng
Contents ix

Part IV Useful Tools for Assessment and Intervention

18 Transition Assessment and Goal Generator (TAGG): Useful Tool
to Assess Non-academic Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Amber E. McConnell, Kendra L. Williams-Diehm, Tracy Sinclair,
Andrea Suk, and Donna Willis
19 Utilising Screen Reader to Support the Transitions of Learners
with Visual Impairment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Kevin Shing-Chi Chan, Allan H. K. Yuen, Patcy P. S. Yeung,
and Fay Wong
20 Life Design, Inclusion, and Sustainable Development: Constructs,
Dimensions and New Instruments to Stimulate a Quality Future
Design for All . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Sara Santilli, Ilaria di Maggio, Maria Cristina Ginevra, Laura Nota,
and Salvatore Soresi
21 Assessing Career Life Skills Self-efficacy of Students with Special
Educational Needs: A Comparative Study in Hong Kong . . . . . . . . 313
Lan Yang, Mantak Yuen, Hui Wang, Zhuoying Wang,
and Kuen Fung Sin
 Part I
Issues in Career Development
and Transitions
Chapter 1
Career Development Policy Strategies
for Supporting Transition of Students
with Special Educational Needs
and Disabilities

V. Scott H. Solberg, Jennifer Lillis, Weiran Zhang, and Judith L. Martin

Abstract This chapter explores model career and workforce development policies
and practices that enable youth with special educational needs and disabilities (SEN)
to develop the academic and employability competencies needed to effectively tran-
sition from secondary education. The US Workforce Innovation and Opportunity
Act (WIOA) is identified as an important policy example with regard to its focus
on individualized career planning. At a more regional and local level, the use of
individualized learning plans and model policy language derived from these person-
alized career and academic plan strategies are described. Examples from Asia of
personalized career and academic plan strategies are also provided.

Keywords Career development · Disability · Policy

Introduction

This chapter examines career and workforce development policies designed to sup-
port successful transitions into tertiary education and decent work for youth with
special education needs and disabilities (SEN). Drawing from the United Nations
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (United Nations 2006) and

V. S. H. Solberg (B) · J. Lillis · J. L. Martin

Boston University, Boston, MA, USA
e-mail: ssolberg@bu.edu
J. Lillis
e-mail: jlillis@bu.edu
J. L. Martin
e-mail: jlmart@bu.edu
W. Zhang
East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
e-mail: weiranzhang17@gmail.com
V. S. H. Solberg · J. L. Martin
Department of Counseling and Applied Human Development, Wheelock College of Education
and Human Development, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 3

M. Yuen et al. (eds.), Careers for Students with Special Educational Needs, Advancing
Inclusive and Special Education in the Asia-Pacific,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4443-9_1
4 V. S. H. Solberg et al.

the UN Sustainability Development Goals (United Nations n.d.), the aim of these
programs and services is to build capacity for SEN students to gain access to decent
work. “Career development” refers to programs and services that enable youth to
identify their career and life goals based on their talent and skills and develop per-
sonalized plans for how to gain access to the learning opportunities (both education
and work-based learning) needed to pursue those goals (Solberg et al. 2018). “Transi-
tion programming” refers to a broad range of academic and workforce development
opportunities that are designed to enable SEN students to become successful adults
(NTACT 2018).
The chapter is divided into two sections. The first section explores the US Work-
force Innovation and Opportunity Act (2014) which includes provisions that support
transition and access to decent work for youth with disabilities. This policy guides
how federal funding can be used by states and organizations as well as the career
and workforce development outcomes that are expected to result. The second section
describes how policies related to the use of individualized learning plans (ILPs) are
being mandated or encouraged throughout the USA and internationally as a career
development strategy that helps youth proactively identify career and life goals and
develop the navigation skills needed to pursue those goals (Solberg et al. 2012b).
It is understood that careful considerations of context and societal privileges should
be considered when engaging in comparative policy efforts (Robertson 2012). The
policies and career development and transition strategies described in this chapter
were developed within a knowledge-based economic context (e.g., OECD 2018)
that includes a large formal labor market as well as access to a wide range of tertiary
education and workforce development opportunities. While many knowledge-based
economies and newer economically developed countries may share many of these
contextual characteristics, it cannot be assumed that the policies and practices will
generalize to all countries. One final caution is that the policies described in this
chapter should in no way infer that efforts to help individuals build their capacity
to pursue access to decent work will alone solve the many challenges facing work-
force transitions among SEN youth. Gaining access to quality tertiary education
and training as well as inclusive employment settings remain a significant chal-
lenge to whether youth with disabilities will ultimately gain access to employment
opportunities offering livable wages.

WIOA, Career Development and Transition Readiness

In examining the economic development policies among its 34-member countries,

OECD (2018) reports that many countries are strengthening policies that help SEN
and other high-risk youth populations complete their secondary education as well as
some form of tertiary education or training program. These policies also advocate for
increasing employer engagement in offering access to work-based learning oppor-
tunities and establishing career advising opportunities. For example, in 2014, the
USA enacted the Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA), a federal law
1 Career Development Policy Strategies for Supporting Transition … 5

designed to revitalize the public workforce system to meet the demands of a twenty-
first century economy. What is remarkable about WIOA is that the policy language
moves away from employment as the critical outcome by emphasizing long-term,
individualized career development as the overarching workforce development strat-
egy. Whereas former policy language focused almost exclusively on employment
outcomes, WIOA establishes a range of shared outcomes such as educational attain-
ment, participation in tertiary education, and job training. Additionally, WIOA places
particular emphasis on populations that face barriers to employment, including youth
with disabilities and disconnected youth (US Department of Labor 2016). Specific
provisions within WIOA address key challenges youth with disabilities face in their
transition to adulthood. This section describes how WIOA shifts focus from jobs to
career development, describes key provisions related to youth with disabilities, and
explores how these provisions may impact youth transition.
Focus on Career Development. A shift from employment-focused workforce devel-
opment to career-focused workforce development is evident when you compare
WIOA to its predecessor the Workforce Investment Act of 1998 (WIA). WIA, the
earlier law, was responsible for institutionalizing one-stop career centers or public
employment offices where job seekers could go to receive a range of employment-
related services under one roof. However, under WIA not all participants were eligible
for the full range of employment supports. Services were provided as a graduated
sequence, and participants were required to complete initial core services before
being eligible for more intensive services or training (Bird et al. 2014). This statu-
tory language in WIA, in coordination with guiding documents from the department
of labor, led to a “work-first” orientation where education and training opportunities
were considered a last resort, reserved only for individuals who could not obtain
employment with very basic services (Barnow and King 2005). In contrast, WIOA
combines the previously separated sequence of “core” and “intensive” services into
a new category called “career services.” The “career services” category includes a
broader range of activities that all job seekers can access. It also emphasizes education
and training, prioritizing training programs that lead to a postsecondary credential
within high demand occupations. The more comprehensive and individualized ser-
vices included in WIOA such as assessments and individual plan for employment,
career counseling, and skill development in combination with an emphasis on post-
secondary education constitute a greater commitment to quality career development
services.
Individualized Career Planning. WIOA also places significant emphasis on career
pathways approaches that require planning and support that extend beyond short-
term employment opportunities. The term “career pathway,” which was not present
in WIA, is defined in detail under WIOA. The definition includes a variety of com-
prehensive supports such as counseling, education, and training that lead to the
obtainment of individual career goals and career advancement within a specific, in-
demand occupation. Organizations receiving WIOA funding are directed to provide
career counseling services that enable youth and adults to develop personalized or
individualized career pathways. WIOA funded youth programs are expected to help
them not only identify career pathways but also develop a detailed plan to pursue the
6 V. S. H. Solberg et al.

career pathway. State and local workforce development boards are required to lead
efforts to develop and implement career pathways that meet local market demands.
For example, project Right Turn is a federally funded project that provides technical
assistance to community-based organizations that serve court-involved and at-risk
youth, a high proportion of whom have emotional or learning disabilities (Institute
for Educational Leadership n.d.). Right Turn prescribes that their organizations use
an “individualized career development plan” (ICDP) to help youth identify career and
life goals. Recidivism rates for the over 800 participants were 2% and the majority
were either completing or completed secondary education, 70% were participating
in job training and placement services, and over half were preparing to enter or were
participating in tertiary education (Institute for Educational Leadership n.d.). Right
Turn demonstrates WIOAs focus on providing integrated and intensive services that
looks beyond short-term employment opportunities to prepare an individual for a
lifelong career with opportunities for advancement in their field.
Focus on Disability. The specific career development needs of young adults with dis-
abilities are addressed in multiple sections of WIOA. Title 1 of WIOA expands youth
eligibility for services, focusing especially on youth with barriers to employment.
For out-of-school youth, WIOA makes youth with a disability a separate eligibil-
ity criterion. This means that all youth with disabilities who are 16–24 years and
not attending school are eligible for services under WIOA. This change from WIA
reflects the data showing particularly poor postsecondary outcomes for youth with
disabilities and the significant overlap between youth with disabilities and other risk
factors such as involvement in the juvenile justice system or in foster care (Reingle
Gonzalez et al. 2016). WIOA demonstrates significant commitment to these youth
by raising the minimum percentage of funds that need to be spent on out-of-school
youth from 30 to 75%. WIOA also requires that at least 20% of youth formula
funds go toward paid and unpaid work experiences that incorporate academic and
occupational education.
Youth with disabilities gain increased eligibility for career development services
under Title I of WIOA, but additionally, they are also impacted by Title IV which
amends the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. Through these amendments, WIOA places a
strong emphasis on improving postsecondary education and employment outcomes
for youth with disabilities. This reflects national concern about the postsecondary
outcomes experienced by youth with disabilities, who are less likely than their non-
disabled peers to transition into postsecondary education or employment after high
school. For example, there are significant differences in employment rates and wage
offers for youth with and without disabilities (Mann and Wittenburg 2015). In 2014,
the Bureau of Labor Statistics found that 43.9% of 20–24-year-olds with disabilities
were employed compared with 71.9% of their non-disabled peers. A 2003 US Gov-
ernment Accountability Office (GAO) report specifically examined the role of VR
agencies and WIA programs in transition for youth with disabilities and articulated
several barriers including lack of income eligibility for students with disabilities, lack
of expertise at workforce centers in serving youth with disabilities, long waitlists for
VR services causing deferred access for youth, and lack of awareness about WIA
centers and services (US GAO-03-773). A 2012 report reiterated concerns about
1 Career Development Policy Strategies for Supporting Transition … 7

delayed access to VR services due to waitlists and cited limited opportunities to gain
work experiences while in school as well as lack of coordination between various
agencies as factors negatively impacting postsecondary outcomes for youth with
disabilities (US GAO-12-594).
WIOA attempts to address these concerns, specifically related to youth with
disabilities, in Title IV. The changes in Title IV support coordinated, long-term
career development strategies to improve postsecondary outcomes. According to a
Rehabilitation Services Administration (RSA) presentation (2014), WIOA increases
opportunities for youth with disabilities to practice workplace skills, to explore and
develop their career interests, and to gain real world work experience, all important
components of career development.
Focus on Increasing Access to Services and Resources. VR agencies are the
primary government agency that assists individuals with disabilities in obtaining
employment (National Council on Disability 2017). Traditionally, VR agencies have
primarily served adult populations and had not been expected to work with youth
populations (US Rehabilitation Services Administration 2014). Title IV of WIOA
calls for an expansion of VR services for students with disabilities, specifically requir-
ing that 15% of each state’s funding for VR services must go to transition services
for youth with disabilities. WIOA also identifies required pre-employment transition
services (Pre-ETS) that VR agencies must provide for youth. The pre-employment
transition services are designed to provide young adults with disabilities more oppor-
tunities to get real-world work experience, practice work-related skills, and identify
their interests in a supported context. They include five required services: (1) job
exploration and counseling, (2) work-based learning experiences, (3) counseling
related to postsecondary education, (4) workplace readiness training, and (5) self-
advocacy instruction. These pre-employment transition services are a completely
new category and guide state VR agencies on how to prioritize services for youth.
They indicate a need for a cohesive set of services that prepare students for lifelong
careers rather than just job training programs.
Focus on Cross-Sector Collaborations. WIOA also stresses increased interagency
collaboration among state and local agencies as a tool for better serving young adults
with disabilities. For example, state VR agencies must coordinate with schools to
implement transition services and with employers to develop meaningful work oppor-
tunities for youth. Under WIOA, transition planning becomes a shared responsibility
between VR agencies and schools. VR agencies should attend Individualized Educa-
tion Program (IEP) meetings when invited and are able to initiate services for poten-
tially eligible youth—especially those with significant disabilities—even if a case
has not been initiated by the school. The goal of this collaboration is to provide a more
seamless transition from school to adult life. For both in-school and out-of-school
youth, VR agencies now share in the responsibility of providing quality career devel-
opment services to improve postsecondary education and employment outcomes. To
provide examples of interagency collaboration, the Disability Employment Initiative
(DEI n.d.) allocated funding for cross-sector collaboration demonstration projects to
states on a competitive basis. WIOA also emphasizes engagement with employers
to assist in providing work-based learning opportunities such as internships.
8 V. S. H. Solberg et al.

Competitive integrated employment is a key element of WIOA and an important

service delivery goal. WIOA includes a clearly articulated definition of competitive
integrated employment with three key components: (1) individuals with significant
disabilities must be paid at least minimum wage and receive compensation/benefits
that are no less than compensation/benefits of other employees doing similar work,
(2) individuals must work in inclusive settings and alongside their peers without
disabilities, and (3) individuals must have opportunities for advancement. WIOA’s
definition of competitive integrated employment is important because previous def-
initions were vague which allowed for a wide range of regulations and policies
(Jorgensen Smith et al. 2016).
Focus on Customized Integrated Employment. Regulations in WIOA attempt to
create a more comprehensive federal strategy to reduce employment barriers and
create clear expectations around competitive integrated employment. For example,
under WIOA, VR agencies must explain how they will work with employers to iden-
tify competitive integrated employment opportunities. Significant restrictions are
placed on entering into contracts with agencies that allow youth with disabilities to
be employed at subminimum wage. Additionally, WIOA places specific emphasis on
employment opportunities for youth with significant disabilities, designating half of
supported employment service funds for this population. For youth with significant
disabilities, competitive integrated employment may include customized employ-
ment or supported employment but should not occur in sheltered, non-integrated
settings except on a short-term basis (no more than 12 months) during which time
evidence must be provided for how the youth is making significant progress toward
competitive integrated employment.
WIOA’s emphasis on competitive integrated employment responds to widely
documented low employment and low wages for individuals with more signifi-
cant disabilities. These individuals have often been placed into sheltered workshops
where they are isolated and receive subminimum wages. Although sheltered work-
shops have been presented as prevocational training opportunities, they rarely lead
to more competitive or integrated employment opportunities (Advisory Committee
on Increasing Competitive Integrated Employment for Individuals with Disabilities
2016). In contrast, WIOA reflects the belief that all individuals with disabilities, even
those with significant disabilities can achieve high quality, competitive integrated
employment if they have access to the appropriate supports and services.

State and Local Level Career Development and Transition

Policy Strategies

Nature and Value of ILPs

WIOA’s emphasis on individualized career pathways shares many characteristics

with the recent popularity of individualized learning plans (ILPs; Solberg et al.
1 Career Development Policy Strategies for Supporting Transition … 9

2012b). ILPs are popular in the USA as well as internationally. In the USA, ILPs are
referred to by a range of names (e.g., Academic and Career Plans, Wisconsin; My
Career and Academic Plan, Massachusetts; Education and Career Action Plan, Ari-
zona; Individual Career and Academic Plan, Colorado, Oklahoma). The Colorado
Department of Education (CDE) offers an excellent description of the nature of ILPs:
[ILPs] are a multi-year process that intentionally guides students as they explore career,
academic, and postsecondary opportunities. With the support of adults, students develop
their awareness, knowledge, attitudes, and skills to create their own meaningful and powerful
pathways to be career and college ready. [ILPs] help students imagine a future career and
helps them design the way to get there. Students have a chance to look inside—to determine
their interests and passions and outside—to explore and experience career opportunities.
With greater knowledge, they can imagine and then craft their individual career pathway to
success. (CDE 2014, p. 7)

A report developed by National Association for College Admission Counseling

indicated that ILPs characteristics include: “self-identified academic, career, and
personal goals; a career exploration tool; and the capacity to update ILPs annually;
resume builders; personality and learning style assessments; and referrals for learning
support” (NACAC 2015, p. 8). A national multi-study, multi-method investigation
concluded that ILPs offer a promising transition strategy for youth with and without
disabilities (Solberg et al. 2014). Specifically, the research found that engaging in
quality ILPs helps youth with and without disabilities improve their school engage-
ment, academic achievement, career decision making readiness, and stress and health
management (Solberg et al. 2012a, 2014).
In reflecting on the relevance for serving youth with disabilities, state and district
leaders reported that ILPs resulted in youth selecting into more rigorous courses
(Solberg et al. 2014) and parents and teachers report that ILPs provides youth with
disabilities with significant career development tools and activities (Skaff et al. 2016).
Examples of ILPs as a personalized career and academic planning strategy can also
be found in Hong Kong and Singapore. In Hong Kong, the Chinese University of
Hong Kong has created a program title Career and Life Adventure Program that they
refer to as CLAP for Youth @ JC (n.d.). CLAP offers online career resources as
well as a structured personalized career development process that is closely aligned
to ILPs. Funded by the Hong Kong Jockey Club, CLAP shares a number of similar
aspirations for the nature and value of engaging youth in career development.
At CLAP, we believe that career and life planning is an adventure rich of opportunities for
young people to explore. During their adventures, young people, as the owner of their career
and life planning, will discover their real self, interest, potential and confidence, and develop
the necessary competence to make informed choices about their career path and life goals.
It is our objective to provide these adventurous opportunities for young people to explore
their life journeys.

The Education and Guidance Branch at the Singapore Ministry of Education

created MySkillsFuture as an online portal that aligns to their ECG Developmental
Model (Singapore Ministry of Education n.d.). The ECG Developmental Model
divides the transition process into four developmental phases beginning with building
awareness in elementary and middle school (ages 9–12), exploration and career
10 V. S. H. Solberg et al.

planning in secondary (ages 13–17), transition skills in early postsecondary (ages 17

and 18), and finally establishing and managing one’s career in adulthood (Singapore
Ministry of Education 2018).

How Do ILPs Align with IEPs?

In schools in the USA, youth with disabilities receive an Individualized Education

Program (IEP) articulates the accommodations and supports needed to fully partic-
ipate in learning. IEPs provide opportunities for youth with disabilities, families,
educators, school administrators, and related service personnel to work together to
improve teaching, learning, and educational results for youth with disabilities. “The
Individualized Education Program is the cornerstone of a quality education for each
child with a disability” (U.S. Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services
2000, p. 1).
The IEP is federally mandated while ILPs mandated or encouraged at the state
level. Usually by age 14, youth with disabilities must add a postsecondary “transition”
plan to their IEP. In this way, the IEP and ILP share a common goal of preparing youth
with the college and career readiness competencies needed to successfully transition
into adulthood. ILPs complement the transition plan within IEPs in a number of
ways. The IEP meeting occurs once a year, whereas ILP activities engage youth
with disabilities in career exploration and planning throughout the year. This enables
youth with disabilities to practice self-advocacy and self-determination by entering
the annual IEP meeting with a clear idea of their career and life goals as well as
the tertiary education and/or career pathways they wish to pursue. State and district
leaders also report that ILPs have facilitated the cross-sector and cross-departmental
collaboration among administrators and staff such that general education and career
and technical education teachers are becoming stronger advocates for students with
disabilities (Solberg et al. 2014).
ILPs are identified as a promising strategy for students with disabilities when (a)
general and special education officials and educators work together to ensure accessi-
bility of ILP resources and activities; (b) ILP implementation begins in middle school
and engages families in the process so that students and families can be stronger advo-
cates in designing the transition plan section of their IEP and in having the accom-
modations they view as necessary to achieving future career goals put in place; and
(c) staff responsible for ILPs and IEPs collaborate and are equipped with knowl-
edge and skills to assist students in developing goals and identifying skills, inter-
ests, and accommodation-related needs in both plans (Massachusetts Department of
Elementary and Secondary Education 2016b).
1 Career Development Policy Strategies for Supporting Transition … 11

Sample Policy Recommendations for Using ILPs to Support

Postsecondary Transition Planning

In 2016, the Council of State Governments and National Conference of State Legis-
latures used the research demonstrating the promise and value of ILPs to design
transition policy recommendations (Council of State Governments and National
Conference of State Legislatures 2017). This report recommends that policy-makers
consider three ILP-related transition and workforce readiness options when devel-
oping their state policies. For each policy option, the report identifies a number of
corresponding strategy recommendations (Table 1.1).
Policy Recommendation #1, Promote comprehensive education and career devel-
opment plans that capitalize on youths’ skills, abilities, and career and academic
goals, strategies encourage states to adopt ILPs to ensure that all youth create a
“coordinated, person-centered approach in the development and implementation of
education and career development plans.” The Work Matters report highlights exist-
ing policy language in Kentucky that transition plan development for youth receiving
IEPs must be aligned to the postsecondary goals and plans identified in the student’s
ILP. To help the special education community understand the nature and value of
ILPs, Connecticut has generated a policy crosswalk to demonstrate specific ways that
ILPs support the design and implementation of a number of federal and state policies
impacting youth with disabilities (Connecticut State Department of Education 2014).
Policy Recommendation #2 focuses on the need to begin the ILP process early so
that youth with disabilities become aware of how their skills, interests, and values
align to the world of work beginning in elementary school. It is critical that youth
with disabilities receive consistent encouragement to consider career opportunities
throughout childhood and adolescence. In addition to Connecticut and Kentucky,
the Work Matters report recognizes a number of states including Arizona, Colorado,
Delaware, and Wisconsin that have specifically adopted language supporting the need
to include transition readiness for youth with disabilities into their state mandated
ILP policies.
Policy Recommendation #3 is perhaps the most important because state and dis-
trict leaders have lamented the fact that without funds to support professional devel-
opment and helping all educators realize the value of ILPs, career development
mandates are not being effectively implemented at the school level (Solberg et al.
2013). The Massachusetts Department of Elementary and Secondary Education,
for example, received funding from the Council of Chief State School Officers to
engage in a statewide professional development strategy whereby 160 school teams
receive three professional development sessions to help design and implement ILPs
(Massachusetts Department of Elementary and Secondary Education 2016a).
12
Table 1.1 Work Matters report policy recommendations for ILPs (Council of State Governments
and National Conference of State Legislatures 2017)
Policy recommendation
1. “Promote comprehensive education and
career development plans that capitalize on
youths’ skills, abilities, and career and
academic goals. Upon graduation, these
comprehensive plans should result in the
conferring of meaningful credentials that
provide access to and prepare youth for their
postsecondary education or career goals”
(p. 47)
2. “Include youth with disabilities in a
sustained, meaningful manner in the career
readiness and development process, beginning
at an early age” (p. 49)
3. “Strengthen the capacity of education and
career development professionals to design
and implement evidence-based, inclusive
programs and strategies”
V. S. H. Solberg et al.
Corresponding strategies
a. “Facilitate the inclusion of school and
community learning opportunities in
education and career development plans (e.g.,
IEPs, individualized learning plans or ILPs,
etc.)
b. Ensure a coordinated, person-centered
approach in the development and
implementation of education and career
development plans. This may include
alignment of any IEPs, ILPs, etc., developed
for youth with disabilities” (p. 48)
c. “Facilitate the implementation and adoption
of inclusive design concepts for education and
career development-related services and
systems to ensure they are accessible to all
youth. In addition, encourage the provision of
appropriate supports and accommodations for
youth with disabilities where necessary to
ensure inclusion to the fullest extent possible”
(p. 48)
a. “Afford youth and young adults with
disabilities opportunities to identify their
strengths, explore interests and engage in
valuable learning experiences prior to entering
the workforce. People with disabilities are
often sheltered from risk and not afforded the
opportunity to explore career development
opportunities and learning experiences
b. Allow for continuity of services past the age
of majority, which may include the provision
of needed accommodations and supports
c. Initiate the career readiness process at the
start of formal education (i.e., kindergarten) to
expose youth to learning opportunities at an
early age and empower them to make
informed career development choices tied to
course selection and transition planning efforts
d. Begin the transition planning process for
youth with disabilities at the earliest stages of
education, ideally aligned with the age or
grade-level at which the student begins the
career readiness and development process”
(p. 50)
a. “Provide statewide professional
development opportunities on family
engagement and person-centered career
planning for professionals serving youth”
(p. 51)
1 Career Development Policy Strategies for Supporting Transition … 13

Complimentary Career and Workforce Development Efforts

to Support Youth with Disabilities

There are complimentary efforts designed to support the business and industry sec-
tor’s ability to create quality internship, apprenticeship, and employment opportuni-
ties for youth. The Job Accommodation Network (JAN n.d.-b) is national technical
assistance center sponsored by the US Department of Labor. Their JAN Workplace
Accommodation Toolkit (JAN n.d.-a) offers an interactive Web site for employers
to use in reviewing their inclusive policies and practices. Their Searchable Online
Accommodation Resource (JAN n.d.-c) offers a number of accommodation ideas
for addressing specific disability populations. Transcripts of monthly webcasts pro-
vide case examples and ideas for addressing a range of concerns. For example, the
“Cognitive Team” offers access to a recorded webcast, presentation materials, and
webcast transcript that addresses different strategies for helping employers identify
and manage the accommodation needs of employees presenting with cognitive chal-
lenges (e.g., attending deficit, brain injuries, and intellectual disabilities; Wetzel and
Small 2018). The combination of resources and access to support services offers a
robust method for disseminating ideas on how to effectively design inclusive work
settings.
As a compliment to federal and state efforts to support disability transition policies,
two national efforts are noteworthy. Disability:IN (n.d.) offers a range of support the
business to support their inclusion policies and practice. Disability:IN uses a Disabil-
ity Equality Index to businesses with respect to the quality of their inclusion practices.
Businesses with scores above 80 receive designation as being one of the “Best Places
to Work for Disability Inclusion.” The ratings are based primarily on the following:
culture and leadership, enterprise-wide access, employment practices, community
engagement, supplier diversity. Disability:IN also works with companies to improve
the quality of their inclusion policies and practices. Their NextGen Leaders program
helps individuals with disabilities with the leadership skills, access to mentorship,
and a two-day talent accelerator experience.

Summary

This chapter has focused on exploring policies and practices that show promise in
helping SEN students develop the competencies needed to gain access to decent work.
Access to decent work has been identified as a critical issue by the United Nations
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (United Nations 2006) and
the UN Sustainability Development Goals (United Nations n.d.). Specifically, the
chapter reviewed career and workforce development policy language and practices
that emphasize helping youth identify their own career and life goals and to develop
personalized career and academic plans to pursue those goals (Solberg et al. 2018).
The US Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act was offered as an important
14 V. S. H. Solberg et al.

example of federal policy that places an emphasis on personalized career plans as a

key element in supporting workforce development. Individualized learning plans and
language provided by the Council of State Governments and National Conference
of State Legislatures (2017) was used as examples of promising career development
policy for supporting the transition needs of SEN youth.

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Chapter 2
Career Development of Students
with Intellectual Disability: A Systems
Theory Perspective

Mary McMahon and Monica Cuskelly

Abstract The focus of this chapter is on the application of systems thinking to

the career development, transitions and inclusion of young people with intellectual
disability. In essence, intellectual disability refers to difficulty learning and under-
standing. The special educational needs of young people with intellectual disability
result in their transitions from school being more challenging than those of most
other students, and their futures, in terms of paid employment and independent liv-
ing, being less certain. More than people with any other disability, people with
intellectual disability have lower participation in the labour market. This chapter
provides an overview of intellectual disability and considers the importance of work
and purposeful activity in people’s lives. Drawing on the Systems Theory Framework
of career development, the chapter uses systems mapping and systems thinking to
consider the career development and transition from school of a fictional case study
of a young Australian woman with intellectual disability.

Keywords Intellectual disability · Career development · School transition ·

Systems thinking · Systems theory

Introduction

Individuals with special educational needs comprise a diverse group. While it is

important to avoid assumptions about the life of any individual, the group with the
most negative life outcomes tends to be those with intellectual disability. They are less
likely to be in paid employment, to have completed an educational qualification or to
be in post-school education. They are also more likely to be socially excluded than
those with other types of disability and those who do not have a disability (Gray et al.
2014). In the Australian census of 2012, 39% of persons with intellectual disability

M. McMahon (B)
School of Education, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
e-mail: marylmcmahon@uq.edu.au
M. Cuskelly
The University of Tasmania, Launceston, Australia
e-mail: Monica.Cuskelly@utas.edu.au
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 17
M. Yuen et al. (eds.), Careers for Students with Special Educational Needs, Advancing
Inclusive and Special Education in the Asia-Pacific,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4443-9_2
18 M. McMahon and M. Cuskelly

were in the workforce compared with 55% of those with a disability of another
type and 83% of the general population without a disability (Australian Bureau of
Statistics [ABS] 2014a). Of those who were employed, the vast majority were in part-
time roles. Completion of Year 12 (the final year of secondary schooling in Australia)
showed a similar pattern of disadvantage with 25%, 28% and 59%, respectively, of
those over 18 having this qualification (ABS 2014a).

Intellectual Disability

A number of definitions of intellectual disability are used in research and to determine

eligibility for government services. These are quite similar but are not identical in all
particulars. Generally, the definitions include an IQ score that is two or more standard
deviations below the mean, difficulties in adaptive behaviour, and a requirement that
these are apparent in the developmental period (e.g., Schalock et al. 2010). The
definition used by the ABS (2014b) is simply “difficulty learning or understanding
things”, and this reflects the common understanding of the nature of this impairment.
Intellectual disability occurs in approximately three per cent of the population (ABS
2014a).
The notion of adaptive behaviour is very germane to the issue of transition from
school to adult life, as it refers to the skills and understandings required for living
successfully within one’s community. Adaptive behaviour is therefore determined by
cultural expectations associated with age, gender and other socially constructed roles
related to status. Adaptive behaviour is characterized by three broad areas: conceptual
skills (e.g., language, literacy, numeracy), social skills (e.g., interpersonal skills,
following social conventions) and the practical skills required for the successful
negotiation of daily life (e.g., occupational skills, use of devices such as mobile
telephones). Successful transition from school to adult lives is predicated on young
people having sufficient skills in these three broad areas.
Adult lives comprise a variety of aspects—and when 12 young adults with Down
syndrome were asked about what they regarded as a “good life” they identified
a number of elements they desired in their lives (Scott et al. 2014). Employment
was a desirable outcome, together with engagement in leisure activities. They also
identified positive relationships with family, friends, partners and work colleagues
as important aspects of a good life. Autonomy in decision-making and independent
living away from parents was central to the life these young adults wished to lead.
Similarly, in a small qualitative study in Spain, Pallisera et al. (2016) found that the
young people with intellectual disability whom they interviewed identified a job, a
home, a partner and children as things they hoped for in the future, although their
plans about how to obtain these were generally vague or absent. These ambitions
were also identified in a large study in the USA in which Bouck and Joshi (2016)
used data from the National Longitudinal Transition Study (phase 2) to investigate
the goals held by the young people with intellectual disability. As is evident from
2 Career Development of Students with Intellectual … 19

these studies, the aspirations of young people with intellectual disability are similar
to those of young people without a disability.

Supporting the Transition from School to Adult Life

Schools are well placed to assist young people to transition to a successful and satis-
factory adult life. In particular, school-based career development practitioners have
responsibility for assisting students to progress through school and transition from
school to further learning or work. Career development is widely understood to be a
complex process through which people manage their life, learning and work across
the lifespan (Ministerial Council for Education, Early Childhood Development and
Youth Affairs [MCEECDYA] 2010). Evident from this view of career development
is that contemporary understandings of the term “career” are broader than simply
pathways through work or to an occupational title. Career refers to the work roles
(paid and unpaid) undertaken by people throughout their lifetime and includes life
roles, leisure activities, learning and work (MCEECDYA 2010). Career develop-
ment practitioners may offer career development programs and interventions that
assist their students to develop the skills, knowledge and attitudes needed to manage
their learning and work independently in the context of their life (Canadian Career
Development Foundation 2002). Career management skills can be learnt. Career
development practitioners and support people such as teachers and parents can assist
young people to develop career management skills.
Career development occurs in complex, interconnected familial, social, commu-
nity and sociopolitical contexts and is, consequently, subject to a myriad of influ-
ences. Disability is one such influence and operates at both the individual level and
at the level of each of the components of the system in which the individual oper-
ates. The attitudes held by potential employers and co-workers, the opportunities
and support towards inclusion within the community, including the workplace, all
contribute to the career development of young adults with intellectual disability.
Contemporary career theories acknowledge the importance of considering career
development in context; taking an “individual in context view” of career develop-
ment is widely accepted in the field to avoid oversimplifying career decision-making
and career development (McMahon et al. 2014, p. 30). Career theories, however,
have devoted little attention to disability despite its profound influence on a person’s
career development (Athanasou 2015).
20 M. McMahon and M. Cuskelly

Conceptualizing Career Development and Transition

Through Systems Thinking

Systems thinking offers a way of considering individuals in the dynamic complex

contexts in which their career development occurs. Systems thinking is founded in
systems theory which was first developed in the early 1900s to facilitate a better
understanding of complexity in biology (von Bertalanffy 1968). Systems theory
has influenced a range of disciplines such as ecology, philosophy, psychology and
engineering and is evident in terms such as education systems, computer systems
and transport systems.
A number of career theories incorporate systems thinking in their conceptualiza-
tions (e.g., chaos theory of careers [Pryor and Bright 2011]) and some are derived
specifically from systems theory (e.g., Vondracek et al.’s [2014] Living Systems
Theory of Vocational Behavior and Development [LSVD]; Patton and McMahon’s
[2014] Systems Theory Framework of career development [STF]). The Systems
Theory Framework provides the theoretical perspective for this chapter because it
visually depicts a range of influences on career development in a “systems map” that
stimulates systems thinking as a way of conceptualizing career development and
transition.
The focus of this chapter is on the contribution that systems thinking can make
to the consideration of career development and transition from school for those
with intellectual disability. Intellectual disability, more than other forms of disabil-
ity, results in lower labour market participation rates in Australia (ABS 2014b).
Transition from school may be more difficult for students with intellectual disabil-
ity than their peers. The applications of systems theory, in particular, the Systems
Theory Framework of career development, systems mapping and systems thinking
may facilitate a comprehensive understanding of the complexity of transition from
school of young people with an intellectual disability, thus allowing the identifica-
tion of potential intervention points. Following a brief description of the Systems
Theory Framework, systems mapping and systems thinking, the fictional case study
of Annie, a young woman with an intellectual disability, will be considered from a
systems perspective.

Career Development and Work: Systems Thinking

and Systems Mapping

The Systems Theory Framework (Patton and McMahon 2014) portrays visually, in
a systems map, the many interconnected influences on career development. Systems
maps are diagrams that holistically illustrate, and thus support examination of, the
interrelationships between the various elements of the system surrounding a partic-
ular topic (Király et al. 2016). The focus topic of the Systems Theory Framework
Another random document with
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 THE ELEPHANT WANTS TO GO HOME.

If he had known what he ought to do, he would have turned on

those darkies and chased them about half a mile. In that way he
would have managed very soon to relieve himself of his troublesome
pursuers. They would have gone home quite as rapidly as he wanted
to go to his home.
Colonel Myles staid in Africa nearly a year and sometimes had a
good deal of exciting hunting, and at other times weeks would pass
when he was obliged to stay in some native village for want of
transportation and guides.
Sometimes too, he found himself in a part of the country where
there was no large game worth mentioning.
He tried hard to find a gorilla, but never succeeded. He often
heard lions in the night, and once came upon a big fellow who was
lying down by the side of a fallen tree in the very road over which he
and his followers were traveling. The tree was of a yellowish brown
color and the lion was of very much the same color, so the Colonel
did not see him until he came quite near to him.
As quickly as possible he jerked his rifle from his shoulder, but his
horse started and reared, and the lion sprang to his feet, and giving
one hasty look at the advancing party, disappeared in the bushes.
The Colonel was very much disappointed at this mishap, and it
was shortly after he had made up his mind that he never would get a
good shot at a lion, that he concluded to go to India.
A party of traders were on their way to the coast, and the Colonel
joined them.
Reaching the coast he found a vessel nearly ready to sail, and in it
he took passage to Bombay.
He was in India nearly two months before he had an opportunity to
try his favorite rifle on any large game.
He preferred to hunt tigers, for tigers are such scourges to the
localities in which they are found that he felt justified in killing as
many of them as he could. But it turned out that his first hunt was a
buffalo hunt—and not only his first but his second and third, and a
good many after that.
He got in a part of the country in which there were a good many
buffaloes, and as they were needed as food it paid very well to hunt
them, and there were always natives enough who were willing to
help if they might have a large share of the meat.
One day one of these natives had a little more buffalo hunting than
he wanted. The colonel perceived a very large fine bull buffalo
standing in an open space and was just about to take a good aim at
him when the animal began to trot off towards a dense thicket. The
colonel was afraid of losing him and so he fired too quickly. If he hit
the buffalo at all he merely wounded him very slightly, for he dashed
off into the thicket.
The native attendant, however, was quite sure that the buffalo had
been fairly hit and would soon drop, so off he rushed to find him.
 While he was pushing his way through the thicket he heard a
crashing noise, and looking around saw the savage bull charging
down upon him from a little eminence where there was a
comparatively open space.
The man had a gun, but it was not loaded. There was no chance
of his running away, for the bushes and reeds were too close and
strong to allow of that. There was no tree near but one very thick
one, up which he had no time to climb.
The bull stopped for an instant, and then put down his head for
another charge.
The man had no time to do much thinking. Whatever he did in self-
defence must be done quickly, that he knew well. So he darted
behind the tree, and jerking his blanket from his back he put it on his
gun-barrel and waved it about.
The buffalo immediately accepted the challenge, and came at him
full tear. He rushed at the cloth, and as he passed he took it away on
his horns. Then the native hurried off as fast as he could go in the
opposite direction.
The colonel, who had loaded up and was waiting for his attendant
to return, was very much astonished to see a buffalo rush out of the
thicket with a blanket twisted about his horns.
The animal evidently did not notice him, and so he raised his rifle
and shot him dead without the slightest trouble.
 THE NATIVE’S TRICK.
As soon as the buffalo was quite dead, the native appeared from
the thicket and immediately began to boast of the share he had had
in killing the animal.
It is quite certain that had he not succeeded in his very clever trick
the buffalo would either have killed him or would have got away
safely.
A week or two after this the Colonel was invited by an officer in the
English army, named Major Alden, to go wild boar-hunting with him.
The Colonel was quite willing, and so they set out together for the
river, some three miles away, where they expected to find a wild boar
or two. A crowd of natives preceded them, beating up the bushes to
drive out the boars.
Our hunters were both well mounted and armed with long spears
instead of guns. The Major, who wore an undress uniform, carried
also a short sword.
 They had scarcely reached the river-bank when they saw a boar
rush out of some underbrush and make rapidly for the river.
Both horsemen dashed off in pursuit, Major Alden in advance. Just
as he reached the edge of the high bank the Major thought that he
had better rein up, but he did not think soon enough. He stopped
quite near the brink of the bank, and was on the point of turning
back, when the earth caved in beneath his horse, and down into the
water and mud, some ten feet below, went horse and rider!
Fortunately the river was not very deep at that place, but it was
deep enough. The Major went head foremost over his horse’s neck
into the water, and the horse with a tremendous splash, went into the
mud as far as his legs would let him go.
Just in time, our Colonel reined up, and below him he beheld a
doleful sight.
The Major had risen to his feet but was dripping with mud and
water that fell in little cascades from his face, head, and hands and
every part of his body.
The horse was plunging wildly in the river and the poor Major did
not seem to be able to see how to find his way to dry land.
 THE MAJOR’S TUMBLE.

If the Colonel had been a boy he would have had a good laugh at
this mishap of his companion, but as he was a man he tried not to
add to the discomfiture of the Major by making fun of him. But when
the native beaters came up they set up a shout of laughter, and that
made the Major angry enough, and as he wobbled slowly to shore
he growled out to the “black rascals” a command to stop their noise,
and get his horse out.
The black rascals, although they did see a good deal of fun in this
unfortunate tumble, proved themselves very useful, for they cleaned
the horse and saddle, and while the Major took a bath in the river, (at
a place where it was deeper and with a better bottom) they dried his
clothes and brushed them with bunches of twigs until they looked
quite presentable, and in the afternoon they all set out again on their
hunt.
But the Major seemed doomed to misfortune that day. He had no
spear, for his weapon had been broken in the fall of the morning, and
he had sent one of the men back to the village to get him another.
But before the man returned a boar was started up and Colonel
Myles started off in pursuit. The boar dashed into the underbrush,
the Colonel and a dozen natives after him full tilt, and the farther that
boar ran the madder he got.
He didn’t like being chased, and I suppose no sensible boar would
like it.
Directly he made a sharp turn and rushed out of the bushes to the
river bank where the Major was sitting on his horse waiting for his
spear.
Seeing a man on a horse the boar very naturally thought that he
must be the person who had been after him, and so, full of
vengeance, he dashed at him at full speed, his horrid tusks
glistening in the sunlight.
Instantly the Major pulled his feet out of the stirrups and drew his
sword. There was no time to ride away.
But the sword was short, and the boar was very close to the horse,
who snorted and plunged so that the Major could scarcely keep his
seat, much less get a fair crack at the boar.
 THE MAJOR AND THE BOAR.
If the savage beast had succeeded in getting under the horse he
would have wounded him desperately.
But Major Alden was a cool and a brave man. He kept the horse
away from the boar as well as he could, and at last he got a good
chance, and down came his sword on the boar’s neck.
But this cut did not seem to cool the boar’s courage very much.
The savage animal still charged, the horse plunged and the Major
slashed, and so the fight went on—charge, plunge, slash, until the
Colonel came riding up with his spear, and soon put an end to the
career of the ferocious boar.
The next time the Major and Colonel Myles went out to hunt they
went after tigers.
Tiger hunting is very popular among the white residents of India,
and it is well that it is, for the natives do not often succeed so well in
their hunts after tigers, as the tigers succeed in their hunts after the
natives.
It is astonishing to read, in the government reports, how many
people are annually killed by tigers in some parts of India.
The Colonel’s first tiger hunt was not a very ambitious one. He did
not go out into the jungle on an elephant in company with forty or fifty
natives, but he and the Major, with two or three followers, started off
on foot. They walked a long distance without seeing a sign of tigers,
although they were in a place where two bullocks had been killed by
these animals the previous night.
Towards noon, however, one of the natives discovered the plain
tracks of a tiger, and the party followed the trail until they lost it in a
mass of rocks. In these rocks, however, was a large cave, and the
natives assured them that they would find the animal in this cave.
No one was particularly anxious to go into it to see if the tiger was
there, but, peering carefully in at the entrance of the cave, the
Colonel was sure that he saw something gleaming far back in the
darkness, and he thought that the bright spot must be one of the
tiger’s eyes.
To be sure, unless it was a one-eyed tiger, he ought to see two
bright spots, but he did not stop to consider this point, but took
deliberate aim at the spot and fired.
Nothing happened. No tiger jumped out.
 Then the Major fired, although he was not quite certain that he did
see a shining spot. Still there was no sign of a tiger having been
shot. Even if the beast had been fairly hit by either of the shots, it is
likely that he would have made some disturbance inside the cave, for
tigers are very hard to kill.
Several other shots were fired without effect, and the hunters
came to the conclusion that there was no tiger in the cave.

OUT OF THE CAVE SPRANG AN ENORMOUS TIGER.

However, they consented to let the natives try a plan that they
suggested. This was to smoke the tiger out of his hole. So great
quantities of dried leaves and twigs were collected, and thrust into
the mouth of the cave. While this work was going on, the men were
very enthusiastic about it, and ran up with their arms full of leaves
and sticks, seeming to entirely forget what a predicament they would
be in if a tiger should be within, and if he should make up his mind to
come out before they had finished their job.
When all was ready the dry stuff was fired, and very soon a great
smoke arose, and as the wind blew towards the rocks, most of the
smoke went into the cave.
In about three minutes a horrid growl was heard, and every darkey
took to his heels, one of them making about five jumps towards a
distant tree, up which he climbed like a monkey.
And they were none too quick. Out of the cave sprang an
enormous tiger.
The two white men had their rifles to their shoulders in an instant,
and they fired almost simultaneously. The tiger did not stop,
however, but rushed on, apparently after one of the natives. But
before he reached him the Colonel fired the second barrel of his rifle,
and rolled the beast over. One or two more shots finished him.
This hunt was considered a great success, for the tiger was a very
large one, and was no doubt, the murderer of the bullocks. The
natives were delighted, and went to work to take off the skin, which
was awarded to our Colonel, who had fired the decisive shot.
While in the cave the tiger had probably been lying behind some
rocks, with only part of his head exposed. He had not cared to leave
his entrenchments while they were firing at him, but he evidently did
not like smoke.
The next time the Colonel and Major Alden went out after tigers
they were on an elephant. They rode in a large wooden box on the
elephant’s back, in which they could stand and fire without much fear
of a tiger getting at them. They had wonderful success, for they
came upon no less than five tigers, out in an open space. One of
these was soon killed, and the others ran away in different
directions, like enormous kittens.
But before they got entirely away another was shot dead, and two
more, that ran behind some great rocks, were followed up, and killed
before night.
But one very large one slipped off, growling savagely, into some
reeds by the river bank, and was lost. This tiger was the largest and
most dangerous of the lot, and the man who drove the elephant said
he knew him very well.
 He asserted that this tiger was a man-eater, as a tiger is called
that has once killed a human being. Ever afterward, according to the
native traditions, he has a strong liking for a man for dinner.

THEY CAME UPON NO LESS THAN FIVE TIGERS.

The driver said he had seen him kill a man, and that he knew him
by his peculiar markings. Whether this story was true or not, it was
evident that this was a very large and dangerous beast, and ought to
be killed, if such a thing should prove possible.
So, a few days afterwards, a large hunt was organized, having for
its object the destruction of this particular tiger. The party went out
mounted on three elephants—two men in each howdah or box, and
a driver on each elephant’s neck. Besides the riders, there were
about fifty natives on foot, who went along to beat up the bushes and
make themselves generally useful.
The Colonel and Major Alden were not together this time, but were
on different elephants. Colonel Myles’ companion was a military man
who was a very good shot and quite a noted tiger hunter. His name
was Captain Harrison, and our friend was very glad to go with him,
because he had the best elephants and was likely to see the best
sport.
There is a very great difference in the elephants that are taken on
tiger hunts. Some of them will get frightened and run away the
moment they see or hear a tiger, and then the hunters on their backs
have not much of a chance to get a shot at the beasts. But others
will stand their ground bravely, and the elephant that carried the
Colonel was said to be one of these.
They rode on, close to the river bank for many a mile under a
dreadfully hot sun, and, a little after noon one of the men who had
mounted a tall tree shouted out that he had seen the tiger among the
reeds on the river bank not very far from the spot where our hunting
party sat quietly on their elephants.
Stones were now thrown into the bushes and several shots were
fired by the native hunters. But no tiger made his appearance. The
thicket was full of thorns and was very dense, and there were other
reasons for not entering it—one very good one.
So the shouting and the stone-throwing were continued, and that
was about all that was done for fifteen or twenty minutes.
Then one of the followers, who had a gun, crept on his hands and
knees to the edge of the thicket and peeped in under the bushes.
He looked all about and could see nothing, and then he cast his
eyes to one side, and there lay the tiger not ten feet from him!
It is amazing how quickly he drew back, jumped up, and ran off at
the top of his speed. As soon as he reached what he thought was a
safe distance he turned and fired at the spot where he had seen the
tiger.
And what was very astonishing indeed, he hit it.
Up jumped the beast in a rage, and in an instant he bounded out
of the thicket into the open field.
He was all ready for a big fight, and he growled and gnashed his
teeth in a way that would have made your blood run cold.
 Every body leveled their guns at him, but he did not give them time
to take a good aim, for he charged at headlong speed right for the
foremost elephant. The animal on which the Colonel and his friend
were mounted was a brave one, but he did not fancy such a tiger as
this, and he turned to run away.
But he was not quick enough. The tiger bounded at him like a flash
and had him by the trunk before he could lift it out of harm’s way.
The driver on the elephant’s neck drew up his legs in a hurry, and
the hunters leaned over their box to try and get a shot. But the
elephant’s head was in the way, and they could not get a fair sight at
the tiger.
As for the poor elephant, he did not at all fancy having a tiger
chewing away at his trunk. So he bellowed and floundered about at a
great rate, but that did not seem to inconvenience the tiger, who held
on like a good fellow.
The other elephants and hunters were coming up, but they did not
come fast enough. The elephants seemed to be a little particular
about their trunks, and were in no haste to get near the beast that
was hanging so grimly to their big brother.
 THE TIGER SEIZES THE ELEPHANT BY THE TRUNK.
Then our elephant got tired of this sport. He gave his trunk a swing
under him at the same time that he made a step forward.
This brought the tiger just in front of his right foreleg.
Down knelt the elephant with one great knee directly upon the
tiger’s body.
The elephant weighed tons, and there was a dead tiger under his
knee in less than twenty seconds.
So here was a dangerous and noted tiger killed without a shot
from the brave hunters who went out after him. But they were none
the less brave for that.
The only man who did hit him was a coward, and the elephant that
killed him, would have run away if he could. Things turn out this way
sometimes.
 I can only tell of one more of Colonel Myles’ hunts. He spent many
months in India and killed a good many tigers, for which he had the
thanks of the people and the approval of his own conscience—two
things that hunters do not always have, I can assure you.
His last hunt, as far as we are concerned, was a bear hunt. He
heard that a large bear had been seen a short distance from the
place where he was then encamped, and early the next day after
receiving the news, he went out with one native follower to see if he
could find it. They followed the tracks of the beast until they reached
a place where there were some very high rocks.
Mounting to the top of these they peeped over and saw, at the
bottom of a ravine beneath, the mouth of a cave that appeared to
extend under the rocks a short distance.
In this cave, lying with his head on his paws, they distinctly saw a
large bear, fast asleep. He was, however, in such a position that it
would be very hard to get a good shot at him.
The Colonel then thought of a plan to make him come out. To be
sure they might have hurled stones at him or shouted, but in either
case the bear might have been frightened and drawn himself into his
cave, entirely out of sight, or he might have rushed up the rocks
faster than they would like to have him come.
The Colonel wanted him to come out of his cave, but to stay down
at the bottom of the ravine.
So he whispered to his man to unroll his long turban and to get out
on the branches of a tree that overhung the mouth of the cave. Then
he was to lower the turban down and tickle the bear’s nose.
The man did as he was told, and, as the turban was just long
enough to reach the bear’s nose, he was able to tickle him nicely.
At first the bear just fidgeted a little and then he made a dab with
his paw at the supposed fly that was worrying him.
But the turban continued to tickle him, and at last he woke up with
a start. When he saw the turban hanging before him he made a snap
at it, and then the man jerked it away.
 THE BEAR GAVE THE TURBAN A VIGOROUS PULL.
Up jumped the bear, just like a cat after a handkerchief. He made
a bound after the turban and seized it with his paws and teeth.
He jumped so suddenly and gave the turban such a vigorous pull
that the man came very near being jerked out of the tree, which
might have been bad for him, but our Colonel, who was ready with
his rifle, fired and killed the bear instantly. He was a big fellow and
had a splendid skin.
When the Colonel sailed for home he carried with him half a dozen
bear and tiger skins. They were all fine ones, but the best of them, a
magnificent skin that had once belonged to a very large and savage
Bengal tiger, was a particular favorite with him, and he now has it on
his library floor, just before the big grate where he sits and reads on
winter evenings.
And yet he did not kill the tiger to which the skin belonged. He
cannot point to it as an evidence of his bravery and skill in the
jungles of India.
It is the skin of the tiger that the elephant killed with his knee.
 A SUGAR CAMP.

When I was a boy I knew no more about a “sugar camp” than I

knew of a molasses-candy fort.

THE SUGAR CAMP.

In fact I would probably have thought one as ridiculous as the
other, if it had been mentioned to me.
This was because I did not live in a maple-sugar country. I had
eaten maple-sugar, but I had no idea how it was made, and when I
first saw a sugar-camp, out in the woods, I was both surprised and
interested.
In the first place it was not a camp at all—according to my idea—
for what the people at the farm-house where I was visiting, called the
camp was a house—a very rough one, but still a house. I expected
to find tents and big camp-fires under the trees. I found a fire, but it
was in the house.
It was in February that I went out to the camp, and although there
was still snow on the ground, the day was mild and pleasant.
The men were all at work when I arrived, and I wandered about,
looking at everything and asking questions.
The camp was in the middle of a large grove of sugar-maple trees,
and in each of the large trees a hole had been bored, and a little
spout, made of a piece of elder wood, with the pith scooped out, had
been inserted in each hole. Through these spouts the sap was
dripping into pans and wooden troughs, placed at the foot of each
tree.
As fast as these pans and troughs were filled they were taken to
the house and emptied into boilers that were suspended over the
fire. Here the sap boiled away at a great rate, and the men took turns
in stirring it so that it should not burn.
I found that this sugar-making was quite a tedious operation, as
the sap had to be boiled twice, and a great deal of care and time was
spent upon it before it cooled down into the hard, light-brown maple
sugar of which most boys and girls are so fond.
But I saw enough to make me understand the principles of the
business.
I found that when the sap began to rise in the trees, in the early
spring, there was always enough of it to supply the needs of the tree,
and a good deal besides to supply the needs of the sugar-makers.
I watched all the processes, and tasted the sap when it first flowed
from the tree and in all its different stages. And when I went back to
the farm-house, early in the afternoon, I thought that it would be a
great thing to have a grove of sugar-maples, and to be able to make
one’s own sugar, and to be independent, in that respect at least, of
the grocery-store.