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Brief Contents
Part i Database systems 2

1 The Database Approach 5
2 Data Models 34
3 Relational Model Characteristics 70
4 Relational Algebra and Calculus 119
Part ii Design Concepts 162

5 Data Modelling with Entity Relationship Diagrams 165
6 Data Modelling Advanced Concepts 233
7 Normalising Database Designs 271
Part iii Database Programming 318

8 Beginning Structured Query Language 320
9 Procedural Language SQL and Advanced SQL 426
Part iV Database Design 522

10 Database Development Process 525
11 Conceptual, Logical, and Physical Database Design 578
Part V Database transactions and Performance

tuning 632
12 Managing Transactions and Concurrency 635
13 Managing Database and SQL Performance 672
Part Vi Database Management 706

14 Distributed Databases 709
15 Databases for Business Intelligence 750
16 Big Data and NoSQL 826
17 Database Connectivity and Web Technologies 860
Glossary 912
Index 938
Appendices (Available online)

Appendix A: Designing Databases with Visio Professional: A Tutorial
Appendix B: The University Lab: Conceptual, Logical, and Physical Database Design
Appendix C: Global Tickets Ltd: Conceptual, Logical, and Physical Database Design
iv Brief Contents
Appendix D: Converting an ER Model into a Database Structure

Appendix E: Comparison of ER Modelling Notations
Appendix F: Client/Server Systems
Appendix G: Object-Orientated Databases
Appendix H: Databases in e-Commerce
Appendix I: The Hierarchical Database Model
Appendix J: The Network Database Model
Appendix K: Database Administration
Appendix L: Data Warehouse Implementation Factors
Appendix M: Creating a New Database Using Oracle 12c
Appendix N: A Guide to Using SQL Developer with Oracle 12c
Appendix O: Building a Simple Object-Relational Database Using Oracle Objects
Appendix P: Microsoft Access Tutorial
Appendix Q: Working with MongoDB
Appendix R: Working with Neo4j
Contents
Preface xiii
Changes to the Third Edition xv
Acknowledgements xvi
About the Authors xvii
Walk Through Tour xviii
Dedication xx
Teaching and Learning Support Resources xxi
Parti Databasesystems 2
Business Vignette: The Relational Revolution An Historical Journey 3
1 the Database Approach 5

Preview 5
1.1 Data vs information 6
1.2 Introducing the database and the DBMS 8

1.3 Why database design is important 13
1.4 Historical roots: files and data processing 13
1.5 Problems with file system data management 17
1.6 Database systems 21

1.7 Preparing for your database professional career 28
Summary 30
Key terms 30
Further reading 31
Review questions 31
Problems 32
2 Data Models 34
Preview 34
2.1 The importance of data models 35
2.2 Data model basic building blocks 36
2.3 Business rules 37
2.4 The evolution of data models 39

2.5 Degrees of data abstraction 58
Summary 64
Key terms 65
Further reading 65
Review questions 65
Problems 66
vi Contents
3 relational Model Characteristics 70

Preview 70
3.1 A logical view of data 72
3.2 Keys 78
3.3 Integrity rules 83
3.4 The data dictionary and the system catalogue 85
3.5 Relationships within the relational database 87
3.6 Data redundancy revisited 98
3.7 Indexes 101
3.8 Codds relational database rules 103
Summary 104
Key terms 104
Further reading 104
Review questions 105
Problems 108
4 relational Algebra and Calculus 119

Preview 119
4.1 Relational operators 121
4.2 Joins 133
4.3 Constructing queries using relational algebraic expressions 141
4.4 Relational calculus 148
Summary 153
Key terms 154
Further reading 155
Problems 157
Partii Design Concepts 162

Business Vignette: Using Data to Improve the Lives of Children and Women 163
5 Data Modelling with entity relationship Diagrams 165

Preview 165
5.1 The entity relationship (ER) model 167

5.2 Developing an ER diagram 196
5.3 Database design challenges: conflicting goals 212
Summary 215
Key terms 216
Further reading 216
Problems 220
6 Data Modelling Advanced Concepts 233

Preview 233
6.1 The extended entity relationship model 234
6.2 Entity clustering 242
Contents vii
6.3 Entity integrity: selecting primary keys 244

6.4 Design cases: learning flexible database design 249
6.5 Data modelling checklist 255
Summary 256
Key terms 257
Further reading 257
Problems 258
Case studies 261
7 normalising Database Designs 271

Preview 271
7.1 Database tables and normalisation 272
7.2 The need for normalisation 272
7.3 The normalisation process 276
7.4 Improving the design 284
7.5 Surrogate key considerations 289
7.6 Higher-level normal forms 290
7.7 Normalisation and database design 296
7.8 Denormalisation 302
Summary 303
Key terms 306
Further reading 306
Problems 308
Part iii Database Programming 318

Business Vignette: Open Source Databases 319
8 Beginning structured Query Language 320

Preview 320
8.1 Introduction to SQL 321
8.2 Data definition commands 324
8.3 Data manipulation commands 339
8.4 Select queries 347
8.5 Advanced data definition commands 361
8.6 Advanced select queries 369
8.7 Virtual tables: creating a view 383
8.8 Joining database tables 385
Summary 392
Keyterms 393
Further reading 393
Problems 401
viii Contents
9 Procedural Language sQL and Advanced sQL 426

Preview 426
9.1 Relational set operators 428
9.2 SQLjoin operators 438
9.3 Subqueries and correlated queries 446
9.4 SQL functions 459
9.5 Oracle sequences 468
9.6 Updatable views 472
9.7 Procedural SQL 475
9.8 Embedded SQL 495
Summary 500
Key terms 501
Further reading 502
Problems 503
Case 515
PartiV Database Design 522

Business Vignette: EM-DAT:TheInternational DisasterDatabasefor DisasterPreparedness523
10 Database Development Process 525

Preview 525
10.1 The information system 527
10.2 The systems development life cycle (SDLC) 529
10.3 The database life cycle (DBLC) 532
10.4 Database design strategies 552
10.5 Centralised vs decentralised design 553
10.6 Database administration 555
Summary 573
Key terms 574
Further reading 575
Problems 576
11 Conceptual, Logical, and Physical Database Design 578

Preview 578
11.1 Conceptual design 580
11.2 Logical database design 594
11.3 Physical database design 603
Summary 625
Key terms 626
Further reading 627
Problems 628
Contents ix
Part V Databasetransactions and Performance

tuning 632
Business Vignette: From Data Warehouse to Data Lake 633
12 Managing transactions and Concurrency 635

Preview 635
12.1 What is a transaction? 637
12.2 Concurrency control 646
12.3 Concurrency control withlocking methods 651
12.4 Concurrency control with time stamping methods 659
12.5 Concurrency control with optimistic methods 660
12.6 ANSI levels of transaction isolation 661
12.7 Database recovery management 662
Summary 666
Key terms 668
Further reading 668
Problems 669
13 Managing Database and sQL Performance 672

Preview 672
13.1 Database performance-tuning concepts 673

13.2 Query processing 678
13.3 Indexes and query optimisation 682
13.4 Optimiser choices 683
13.5 SQL performance tuning 685
13.6 Query formulation 688
13.7 DBMS performance tuning 689
13.8 Query optimisation example 692
Summary 699
Key terms 700
Further reading 700
Problems 701
Part Vi Database Management 706

Business Vignette: The FacebookCambridge Analytica Data Scandal andthe GDPR 707
14 Distributed Databases 709

Preview 709
14.1 The evolution of distributed database management systems 710

14.2 DDBMS advantages and disadvantages 712
14.3 Distributed processing and distributed databases 714
x Contents
14.4 Characteristics of distributed database management systems 715

14.5 DDBMS Components 717
14.6 Levels of data and process distribution 719
14.7 Distributed database transparency features 722
14.8 Distribution transparency 723
14.9 Transaction transparency 726
14.10 Performance and failure transparency 732
14.11 Distributed database design 733
14.12 The CAP theorem 740
14.13 Database security 742
14.14 Distributed databases within the cloud 742
14.15 C.J. Dates 12 commandments for distributed databases 744
Summary 745
Key terms 746
Further reading 746
Problems 747
15 Databases for Business intelligence 750

Preview 750
15.1 The need for data analysis 751
15.2 Business intelligence 751
15.3 Decision support data 762
15.4 The data warehouse 767
15.5 Star schemas 777
15.6 Data analytics 789
15.7 Online analytical processing 794
15.8 SQL analytic functions 805
15.9 Data visualisation 811
Summary 818
Key terms 819
Further reading 820
Problems 821
16 Big Data and nosQL 826

Preview 826
16.1 Big data 827
16.2 Hadoop 833
16.3 NoSQL databases 840
16.4 NewSQL databases 848
16.5 Working with document databases using MongoDB 849
16.6 Working with graph databases using Neo4j 853
Summary 857
Key terms 858
Contents xi
17 Database Connectivity and Web technologies 860

Preview 860
17.1 Database connectivity 861
17.2 Database internet connectivity 873
17.3 Extensible markup language (xML) 884
17.4 Cloud computing services 898
17.5 The semantic web 907
Summary 908
Key terms 909
Further reading 909
Problems 910
Glossary 912
Index 938
Appendices (Available online)

Appendix A: Designing Databases with Visio Professional: A Tutorial
Appendix B: The University Lab: Conceptual, Logical, and Physical Database Design
Appendix C: Global Tickets Ltd: Conceptual, Logical, and Physical Database Design
Appendix D: Converting an ER Model into a Database Structure
Appendix E: Comparison of ER Modelling Notations
Appendix F: Client/Server Systems
Appendix G: Object-Orientated Databases
Appendix H: Databases in e-Commerce
Appendix I: The Hierarchical Database Model
Appendix J: The Network Database Model
Appendix K: Database Administration
Appendix L: Data Warehouse Implementation Factors
Appendix M: Creating a New Database Using Oracle 12c
Appendix N: A Guide to Using SQL Developer with Oracle 12c
Appendix O: Building a Simple Object-Relational Database Using Oracle Objects
Appendix P: Microsoft Access Tutorial
Appendix Q: Working with MongoDB
Appendix R: Working with Neo4j
PrefACe
We are excited to introduce the third edition of Database Principles, which is designed to provide a
solid and practical foundation for the design, implementation and management of database systems.
This foundation is built on the notion that, while databases are very practical things, their successful
creation depends on understanding the important concepts that define them.
This edition is suitable for a first course in databases at undergraduate level and will also provide
essential material for conversion postgraduate courses. Providing comprehensive and practical coverage
of core database concepts, it is an ideal text not only for those studying database management systems
in the context of computer science, but also those on courses in the areas of business technology,
introductory data science and data analytics.
The Approach: Continued Emphasis on the Stages of Design

As the title suggests, Database Principles: Design, Implementation, and Management covers three
broad aspects of database systems. However, for several important reasons, special attention is given
to database design:
The availability of excellent database software enables even database-inexperienced people to

create databases and database applications. Unfortunately, the create without design approach
usually paves the way to any number of database disasters. In our experience, many, if not most,
database system failures are traceable to poor design and cannot be solved with the help of even
the best programmers and managers. Nor is better DBMS software likely to overcome problems
created or magnified by poor design. Using an analogy, even the best bricklayers and carpenters
cant create a good building from a bad blueprint.
Most difficult problems associated with database system management seem to be triggered
by poorly designed databases. It hardly seems worthwhile to use scarce resources to develop
excellent and extensive database system management skills in order to exercise them on crises
induced by poorly designed databases.
Design provides an excellent means of communication. Clients are more likely to get what they
need when database system design is approached carefully and thoughtfully. In fact, clients may
discover how their organisations really function once a good database design is completed.
Familiarity with database design techniques promotes ones understanding of current database
technologies. For example, because data warehouses derive much of their data from operational
databases, data warehouse concepts, structures, and procedures make more sense when the
operational databases structure and implementation are understood.
Because the practical aspects of database design are stressed, we have covered design concepts and
procedures in detail, making sure that the numerous end-of-chapter problems are sufficiently challenging
for students to develop real and useful design skills. We also make sure that students understand
the potential and actual conflicts between database design elegance, information requirements, and
transaction processing speed. For example, it makes little sense to design databases that meet design
xiv Preface
elegance standards while they fail to meet end-user information requirements. Therefore, we explore
the use of carefully defined trade-offs to ensure that the databases are capable of meeting end-user
requirements while conforming to high design standards.
This edition retains the use of UML (Unified Modelling Language) notation for data modelling.
Continual development by the Object Management Group has led to UML becoming an International
Standard (UML 2.5.1 is available as the 2017 edition standard: ISO/IEC 19505-1 and 19505-2), which
is continually reviewed. In keeping with the second edition, UML has continued to be used to produce
entity relationship models within this third edition. However, as organisations still use both Chen and
Crows Foot notation approaches to data modelling in order to maintain legacy systems, it is important
that familiarity is maintained. Appendix E, Comparison of ER Modelling Notations, contains coverage
of both these notations.
ChAnges to the thirD eDition
In this third edition, we have added some new features and continued to strengthen the already strong
database design coverage. Here are just a few of the highlights:
To support the growth of Big Data and NoSQL technology, we have added a new Chapter 16: Big
Data and NoSQL. The chapter focuses in greater depth on the characteristics of Big Data and the
technologies that have been developed to support its use, including Hadoop and MongoDB.
New and expanded coverage of data visualisation tools and techniques in Chapter 15, Databases
for Business Intelligence.
New and updated Business Vignettes to provide topical discussion points in the classroom.
Coverage of MongoDB with hands-on exercises for querying MongoDB databases (Appendix Q).
An additional appendix containing coverage of Neo4j with hands-on exercises for querying graph
databases (Appendix R).
ACknoWLeDgeMents
The publisher acknowledges the contribution of the following lecturers, who provided invaluable
feedback on the second and third editions:
Emilia Mwim, UNISA
Patricia Alexander, University of Pretoria
Judy van Biljon, UNISA
Casper Wessels, Central University of Technology
Theo Macdonald, University of the Free State
Ismael Essop, University of Greenwich
Chris Jakeman, Peterborough Regional College
Andy Davies, Blackburn College
Mick Ridley, University of Bradford
Ray Turner, University of Essex
Mark Green, Oxford Brookes University
Duncan McPhee, University of Glamorgan
For this edition, I would like to say a special thanks to Pamela Quick, who previously worked as a
Senior Lecturer in the School of Computing, Maths and Digital Technology at Manchester Metropolitan
University. Her years of experience within the database field have been very valuable, specifically the
coverage of relational algebra.
On this third edition, I have been lucky to work with a very patient, supportive and professional
Publisher, Marinda Louw. Marinda provided fantastic support in answering all my emails. It has been
a pleasure working with you.
Last, and certainly not least, thank you to my family (my ohana) for your patience and support.
Keeley Crockett
January 2020
ABout the Authors
Carlos Coronel is currently the Lab Director for the College of Business Computer Labs at Middle
Tennessee State University. He has over 25 years of experience in various fields as a Database
Administrator, Network Administrator, Web Manager and Technology Specialist, and has taught
courses in Web development, database design and development, and data communications at the
undergraduate and graduate levels.
Steven Morris completed his Bachelor of Science and PhD from Auburn University. He has taught
Database Design and Development, Database Programming with Advanced SQL and PL/SQL, Systems
Analysis and Design, and Principles of MIS at Middle Tennessee State University. Steven has published
many articles, and currently serves on the review boards of several journals.
Dr Keeley Crockett is a Reader in Computational Intelligence in the School of Computing, Mathematics

and Digital Technology at Manchester Metropolitan University. She gained a BSc Degree (Hons) in
Computation from UMIST in 1993, and a PhD in the field of machine learning in 1998 entitled Fuzzy
Rule Induction from Data Domains. She has been teaching within the field of database systems
and data engineering for 20 years to both undergraduate and postgraduate students. She leads the
Computational Intelligence Research Lab, which has established a strong international presence for its
research into Adaptive Psychological Profiling using artificial intelligence, fuzzy systems, and natural
language dialogue systems. She has published over 125 refereed conference papers and journal articles
in major international conferences and journals. She is an active volunteer in the IEEE undertaking many
roles such as being a member of the IEEE Women in Engineering Leadership committee, and IEEE
Women in Computational intelligence subcommittee among many other roles. Keeley is also proud to
be a STEM Ambassador with a passion for outreach in computer science in rural schools.
Dr Craig Blewett has been researching and teaching in the area of Information Systems and Technology
in South Africa for over 25 years. His Masters explored the application of Artificial Intelligence to
database transaction management. His PhD, in education technology, resulted in the development of
the Activated Classroom Teaching (ACT) model, a unique approach to teaching with technology. Craig
is the founder of multiple technology companies and is the author of numerous books covering topics
such as computer literacy, database systems, teaching with technology, running, and active living. He
is also an internationally acclaimed speaker who is using his innovative approaches to help change
education in our rapidly changing digital world.
WALk-through tour
CHAPTER 1
The Database Approach
IN THIS CHAPTER, YOU WILL LEARN:
The difference between data and information
BUSINESS VIGNETTE What a database is, what the different types of databases are, and why they are
valuable assets for decision making
The importance of database design
THE RELATIONAL REVOLUTION How modern databases evolved from file systems
About flaws in file system data management

AN HISTORICAL JOURNEY
What the database systems main components are and how a database system
differs from a file system

Until the late 1970s, databases stored large amounts of data in structures that were inflexible and
difficult to navigate. Programmers needed to know what clients wanted to do with the data before The main functions of a database management system (DBMS)
the database was designed. Adding or changing the way the data were stored or analysed was
The role of open source database systems
time-consuming and expensive.

The importance of data governance and data quality
In 1970, Edgar Ted Codd, a mathematician employed by IBM, published a groundbreaking
article entitled A Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks. At the time, nobody
realised that Codds theories would spark a technological revolution on par with the development
of personal computers and the internet. Don Chamberlin, co-inventor of SQL, the most popular
database query language today, explains: There was this guy Ted Codd who had some kind of PREVIEW
strange mathematical notation, but nobody took it very seriously.
Then Ted Codd organised a symposium, and Chamberlin listened as Codd reduced complicated
five-page programs to one line. And I said, Wow, Chamberlin recalls. The symposium convinced
Good decisions require good information, which is derived from raw facts known as
IBM to fund System R, a research project that built a prototype of a relational database, which
data. Data are likely to be managed most efficiently when they are stored in a database.
would eventually lead to the creation of SQL and DB2. IBM, however, kept System R on the back
In this chapter, you learn what a database is, what it does and why it yields better
burner for a number of years, which turned out to be a crucial decision, because the company
results than other data management methods. You will also learn about different types
had a vested interest in IMS, a reliable, high-end database system that had been released in 1968.
of databases and why database design is so important.
At about the same time as System R started up, two professors from the University of California
Databases evolved from computer file systems. Although file system data
at Berkeley, who had read Codds work, established a similar project called Ingres. The competition
management is now largely outmoded, understanding the characteristics of file systems

between the two tight-knit groups fuelled a series of papers. Unaware of the market potential of
is important because they are the source of serious data management limitations. In
this research, IBM allowed its staff to publish these papers. Among those reading the papers was
this chapter, you will also learn how the database system approach helps eliminate
Larry Ellison, who had just founded a small company called Software Development Laboratories.
most of the shortcomings of file system data management.

Recruiting programmers from System R and Ingres, and securing funding from the CIA and the
Navy, Ellison was able to market the first SQL-based relational database in 1979, well before IBM.
By 1983, the company (Software Development Laboratories) had released a portable version
of the database, had grossed over 3 910 000 annually, and had changed its name to Oracle.
Business Vignettes illustrate the parttopics with a Chapter Previews setthe scenefor the chapter and
genuine scenario and show how the subject integrates with provide an overview of the chapters contents.
the real world.
20 PART I Database Systems
CHAPTER 3 The criticisms of field definitions and naming conventions shown in the file structure of Figure 1.3
1 are not unique to file systems. Because such conventions will prove to be important later, they are
introduced early. You will revisit field definitions and naming conventions when you learn about database
design in Chapter 5, Data Modelling with Entity Relationship Diagrams, and in Chapter 6, Data Modelling
Relational Model Advanced
Conceptual,
Concepts;
Logical and
and
Physical
when you
Database
learn about
Design.
database
Regardless
implementation
of the data environment,

issues in
the
Chapter
design
11,
Characteristics whether
needs and
it involves
the end users

a file system
reporting
or
and
a database
processing
must
requirements.
always reflect
Both
the
types
designers
of needs
documentation
are best served
by adhering to proper field definitions and naming conventions.
IN THIS CHAPTER, YOU WILL LEARN:

Online Content Appendices A to P are available on the online platform accompanying
That the relational database model takes a logical view of data this book.
That the relational models basic components are relations implemented through
tables in a relational DBMS
How relations are organised in tables composed of rows (tuples) and columns
(attributes)
NOTE
Key terminology used in describing relations
About the role of the data dictionary, and the system catalogue
No naming convention can fit all requirements for all systems. Some words or phrases are reserved for
How data redundancy is handled in the relational database model

the DBMSs internal use. For example, the name ORDER generates an error in some DBMSs. Similarly,
Why indexing is important your DBMS might interpret a hyphen (-) as a command to subtract. Therefore, the field CUS-NAME would
be interpreted as a command to subtract the NAME field from the CUS field. Because neither field exists,
you would get an error message. On the other hand, CUS_NAME would work fine because it uses an
underscore.
PREVIEW
1.5.3 Data Redundancy

In Chapter 2, Data Models, you learnt that the relational data models structural
and data independence allow you to examine the models logical structure without
The file systems structure and lack of security make it difficult to combine data from multiple sources.
considering the physical aspects of data storage and retrieval. You also learnt that the
The organisational structure promotes the storage of the same basic data in different locations.
ERM may be used to depict entities and their relationships graphically through an ERD.
(Database professionals use the term islands of information for such scattered data locations.) As
In this chapter, you will learn some important details about the relational models logical
it is unlikely that data stored in different locations will always be updated consistently, the islands of
structure and more about how the ERD can be used to design a relational database.
information often contain different versions of the same data. For example, in Figures 1.3 and 1.4, the
You will learn how the relational databases basic data components fit into a
agent names and phone numbers occur in both the CUSTOMER and the AGENT files. You need only
logical construct known as a table. You will discover that one important reason for the
one correct copy of the agent names and phone numbers. Having them occur in more than one place
relational database models simplicity is that its tables can be treated as logical rather
produces data redundancy. Data redundancy exists when the same data are stored unnecessarily at
than physical units. You will also learn how the independent tables within the database
different places.
can be related to one another.
Uncontrolled data redundancy sets the stage for:

After learning about tables, their components and their relationships, you are
introduced to the basic concepts that shape the design of tables. Because the table is
Data inconsistency. Data inconsistency exists when different and conflicting versions of the same
such an integral part of relational database design, you will also learn the characteristics
data appear in different places. For example, suppose you change an agents phone number or
of well-designed and poorly designed tables. address in the AGENT file. If you forget to make corresponding changes in the CUSTOMER file,
Finally, you are introduced to some basic concepts that will become your gateway the files contain different data for the same agent. Reports will yield inconsistent results depending
to the next few chapters. For example, you will examine different kinds of relationships on which version of the data is used.
and the way in which those relationships might be handled in the relational database
Poor data security. Having multiple copies of data increases the chances of a copy of the data
environment.
being susceptible to unauthorised access.
Learning Objectives appear at the start of each chapter Online Content boxes draw attention to relevant material
to help you monitoryour understandingand progress onthe online platformfor this book.
through each chapter. Each chapter also ends with a Notes highlight important facts about the concepts
summary section that recaps the key content for revision introduced in the chapter.
purposes.
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
User queries can be written as relational algebraic expressions. In order to write such as an
TABLE 2.3 Levels of data abstraction

expression, the following steps should be taken:
? List all the attributes we need to give the answer.
Model Degree of Focus Independent of
? Select all the relations we need, based on the list of attributes.

Abstraction
2
? Specify the relational operators and the intermediate results that are needed.
External High End-user views Hardware and software
Relational calculus is a formal language based upon a branch of mathematical logic called
Conceptual Global view of data Hardware and software
predicate calculus.
(independent of database model)
Tuple relational calculus allows users to describe what they want, rather than how to compute it,
Internal Specific database modelHardware
and underlines the appearance of Structured Query Language (SQL). Expressions in tuple
4
Physical Low Storage and access methods Neither hardware nor software
relational calculus return tuples for which a given predicate is true.
Domain relational calculus is different from tuple relational calculus as it uses domain variables
that take on values from an attribute domain.
SUMMARY TABLE 4.1 Summary of relational operators
Relational Operator Symbol Description

A data model is a (relatively) simple abstraction of a complex real-world data environment.
Database designers use data models to communicate with applications programmers and end SELECT s Selects a subset of tuples from a relation.
users. The basic data-modelling components are entities, attributes, relationships and constraints.
PROJECT P Selects a subset of columns from a relation.
Business rules are used to identify and define the basic modelling components within a specific DIFFERENCE - Selects tuples in Relation1 but not in Relation2*.
real-world environment.
INTERSECT Selects tuples in Relation1 or in Relation*.
The hierarchical and network data models were early models that are no longer used, but some of
UNION Selects tuples in Relation1 and Relation2, excluding duplicate tuples*.
the concepts are found in current data models.

CARTESIAN PRODUCT X Computes all the possible combinations of tuples.
The relational model is the current database implementation standard. In the relational model,
THETA JOIN u Allows two relations to be combined using one of the comparison operators
the end user perceives the data as being stored in tables. Tables are related to each other by { 5, ,, ,5, .5, , .}. When the operator is 5 the operator is known as an
means of common values in common attributes. The entity relationship (ER) model is a popular
EQUIJOIN.
graphical tool for data modelling that complements the relational model. The ER model allows
NATURAL JOIN |X|A version of the EQUIJOIN which selects those tuples where
database designers to visually present different views of the data as seen by database designers,
Relation1Tuple.Y 5 Relation2Tuple.Y. Y is a set of common attributes to
programmers and end users and to integrate the data into a common framework.
both relations which must share the same domain. Duplicate columns are
removed.
The object-orientated data model (OODM) uses objects as the basic modelling structure. An
object resembles an entity in that it includes the facts that define it. But unlike an entity, the object OUTERJOIN Based on the u-JOIN and natural JOIN, the OUTERJOIN in addition selects
also includes information about relationships between the facts as well as relationships with other all the tuples in Relation1 that have no corresponding values in the relation
Relation2.
objects, thus giving its data more meaning.
DIVIDE 4 Selects tuples in Relation1 that match every row in Relation2.

The relational model has adopted many object-orientated (OO) extensions to become the extended
relational data model (ERDM). At this point, the OODM is largely used in specialised engineering EXISTENTIAL ' A formula must be true for at least one instance
and scientific applications, while the ERDM is primarily geared to business applications. Although UNIVERSAL The formula must be true for all instances
;
the most likely future scenario is an increasing merger of OODM and ERDM technologies, both are
* in the case of these operators, relations must be union-compatible.
overshadowed by the need to develop internet access strategies for databases.
NoSQL databases are a new generation of databases that do not use the relational model and
KEY TERMS
are geared to support the very specific needs of Big Data organisations. NoSQL databases offer
distributed data stores that provide high scalability, availability and fault tolerance by sacrificing data
closure natural join SELECT

consistency and shifting the burden of maintaining relationships and data integrity to the program
difference PROJECT safe expression

code.
DIVISION predicate calculus set theory
Data modelling requirements are a function of different data views (global vs local) and the
domain relational calculus relational algebra theta join
level of data abstraction. The American National Standards Institute Standards Planning and
equijoin relational algebraic expression tuple relational calculus
Requirements Committee (ANSI/SPARC) describes three levels of data abstraction: external,

INTERSECT relational schema UNION
conceptual and internal. There is also a fourth level of data abstraction (the physical level). This
join column(s) RESTRICT union-compatible
lowest level of data abstraction is concerned exclusively with physical storage methods.
left outer join right outer join
Summary Eachchapter ends witha comprehensive Key Terms arelisted atthe end ofthe chapter and
summary that provides a thorough recap of the issues in explained in full in a Glossary at the end of the book,
each chapter, helping you to assess your understanding and enabling you to find explanations of key terms quickly.
revise key content.
CHAPTER 1 The Database Approach 31 32 PART I Database Systems
query single-user database transactional database PROBLEMS

1 1
query language social media workgroup database
query result set structural dependence XML database
record structural independence Online Content The file structures you see in this problem set are simulated
semi-structured data Structured Query Language (SQL) in a Microsoft Access database named Ch01_Problems, available on the online
platform for this book.
FURTHER READING Given the file structure shown in Figure P1.1,

P1 answer
1answer Problems
Problems1 1-4. 4
1 How many records does the file contain, and how many fields are there per record?
Codd, E.F. The Capabilities of Relational Database Management Systems. IBM Research Report, RJ3132, 1981.
Date, C.J. The Database Relational Model, A Retrospective Review and Analysis: a Historical Account and 2 What problem would you encounter if you wanted to produce a listing by city? How would you
Assessment of E.F. Codds Contribution to the Field of Database Technology. Addison Wesley, 2000.
solve this problem by altering the file structure?
Date, C.J. An Introduction to Database Systems, 8th edition. Addison Wesley, 2003.
Date, C.J. Date on Database: Writings 20002006. Apress, 2006.

FIGURE P1.1 The file structure for Problems 14
Online Content Answers to selected Review Questions and Problems for this chapter PROJECT_ PROJECT_ MANAGER_ MANAGER_ADDRESS PROJECT_BID_
are available on the online platform accompanying this book. CODE MANAGER PHONE PRICE
21-5Z Holly B. Naidu 33-5-59200506 180 Boulevard Dr, Phoenix, 64700 13 179 975.00
25-2D Jane D. Grant 0181-898-9909 218 Clark Blvd., London, NW3 9 787 037.00
TRY
REVIEW QUESTIONS
25-5A Menzi F. Zulu 0181-227-1245 124 River Dr., Durban, 4001 25 458 005.00
1 Discuss each of the following terms:
25-9T Holly B. Naidu 33-5-59200506 180 Boulevard Dr, Phoenix, 64700 16 887 181.00
a data
27-4Q Menzi F. Zulu 0181-227-1245 124 River Dr., Durban, 4001 8 078 124.00
b field
29-2D Holly B. Naidu 33-5-59200506 180 Boulevard Dr, Phoenix, 64700 20 014 885.00
c record
31-7P William K. Moor 39-064885889 Via Valgia Silvilla 23, Roma, 00179 44 516 677.00
d file
2 What is data redundancy and which characteristics of the file system can lead to it?
3 If you wanted to produce alisting of the file contents by last name, area code, city, county or
3 Discuss the lack of data independence in file systems. postal code, how would you alter the file structure?
4 What is a DBMS, and what are its functions?
4 What data redundancies do you detect, and how could those redundancies lead to anomalies?
5 What is structural independence, and why is it important?
FIGURE P1.2 The file structure for Problems 58

6 Explain the difference between data and information.
7 What is the role of a DBMS, and what are its advantages?
PROJ_ PROJ_ EMP_ EMP_NAME JOB_ JOB_CHG_ PROJ_ EMP_PHONE
8 List and describe the different types of databases. NUM NAME NUM CODE HOUR HOURS
1 Hurricane 101 John D. Dlamini EE 65.00 13.3 31-20-6226060

9 What are the main components of a database system?
1 Hurricane 105 David F. Schwann CT 40.00 16.2 0191-234-1123

10 What is metadata?
1 Hurricane 110 Anne R. Ramoras CT 40.00 14.3 34-934412463
11 Explain why database design is important.
2 Coast 101 John D. Dlamini EE 65.00 19.8 31-20-6226060
12 What are the potential costs of implementing a database system?

2 Coast 108 June H. Ndlovu EE 65.00 17.5 0161-554-7812
13 Use examples to compare and contrast structured and unstructured data. Which type is more 3 Satellite 110 Anne R. Ramoras CT 42.00 11.6 34-934412463
prevalent in a typical business environment?

3 Satellite 105 David F. Schwann CT 6.00 23.4 0191-234-1123
14 What are the six levels on which the quality of data can be examined? 3 Satelite 123 Mary D. Chen EE 65.00 19.1 0181-233-5432
3 Satellite 112 Allecia R. Smith BE 65.00 20.7 0181-678-6879

15 Explain what is meant by data governance.
Further Reading allows you to explore the subject further, Problems become progressively more complex as
and acts as a starting pointfor projects and assignments. students draw onthe lessons learnt from the completion of
Review Questions help reinforce and test your knowledge preceding problems.
and understanding, and provide a basis for group
discussions and activities.
DeDiCAtion
To my son, Kona, of whom I am so proud keep following your dreams.
To Craig, my best friend and patient husband. Thank you for supporting my crazy busy life without
you nothing would be possible. In memory of my father, Frank Crockett, who inspired me to be the
person I am today. To my mother, Norma Crockett, who is the angel in my life. Thank you for always
being there for me.
To my mother-and father-in-law Jackie and Bill Smith who have provided me with much love and
support.
In memory of Leslie Crockett, a true gentleman and much-loved uncle.
To my family and friends, all of whom have painted rainbows in my life.
Much love and aloha to you all.
Keeley Crockett
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DATABASE
PRINCIPLES
PartI
DATABASE
SySTEmS
1 The
Database
Approach
2 Data
Models
3 Relational
Model
Characteristics
4 Relational
Algebra
andCalculus
BuSINESS VIgNETTE
THE RELATIONAL REVOLuTION

AN HISTORICALjOuRNEy
Until the late 1970s, databases stored large amounts of data in structures that wereinflexible and
difficult to navigate. Programmers needed to know what clients wanted to do with the data before
the database was designed. Adding or changing the way the data were stored or analysed was
time-consuming and expensive.
In 1970, Edgar Ted Codd, a mathematician employed by IBM, published a groundbreaking
article entitled A Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks. At the time, nobody
realised that Codds theories would spark atechnological revolution on par with the development
of personal computers and the internet. Don Chamberlin, co-inventor of SQL, the most popular
database query language today, explains: There was this guy Ted Codd who had some kind of
strange mathematical notation, but nobody took it very seriously.
Then Ted Codd organised a symposium, and Chamberlin listened as Codd reduced complicated
five-page programs to one line. And I said, Wow, Chamberlin recalls. The symposium convinced
IBM to fund System R, a research project that built a prototype of a relational database, which
would eventually lead to the creation of SQL and DB2. IBM, however, kept System R on the back
burner for a number of years, which turned out to be a crucial decision, because the company
had a vested interest in IMS, areliable, high-end database system that had been released in 1968.
At about the same time as System Rstarted up, two professors from the University of California
at Berkeley, who had read Codds work, established a similar project called Ingres. The competition
between the two tight-knit groups fuelled a series of papers. Unaware of the market potential of
this research, IBM allowed its staff to publish these papers. Among those reading the papers was
Larry Ellison, who had just founded a small company called Software Development Laboratories.
Recruiting programmers from System R and Ingres, and securing funding from the CIA and the
Navy, Ellison was able to market the first SQL-based relational database in 1979, well before IBM.
By 1983, the company (Software Development Laboratories) had released a portable version
of the database, had grossed over 13 910 000 annually, and had changed its name to Oracle.
Spurred on by competition, IBM finally released SQL/DS, its first relational database, in 1980.1
In 2008, a group of leading database researchers metin Berkeley and issued a report declaring
that the industry had reached an exciting turning point and was on the verge of another database
revolution.2
In 2010, Oracle acquired MySQL as part ofits acquisition of Sun. It has since maintained the
free open-source MySQL Community Edition while providing several versions (Standard Edition,
Enterprise Edition and Cluster Edition) for commercial customers. In 2019, the release of MySQL
Document Store brought together the SQL and the NoSQL languages, enabling developers to link
SQL relational tables to schema-less NoSQL databases.3 Oracles latest offering is Oracle Database
19c, where the c represents cloud; new versions now come out every year.
In our historical journey, we must also mention PostgreSQL, developed in1986 as part of the
POSTGRES project at the University of California at Berkeley. PostgreSQL4 is afree, open source,
object-relational database that extends the traditional SQL language by allowing creation of new
datatypes and functions, and the ability to write code in different programming languages. It is a
strong competitor to MySQL, given that it has had over 33 years of active development.
Analysts, journalists and business leaders continually see new developments with data
acquisition and its management, such as the explosion of unstructured data, the growing
importance of business intelligence, and the emergence of cloud technologies, which may require
the development of new database models. Although traditional relational databases meetrigorous
standards for data integrity and consistency, they do not scale unstructured data as well as new
database models such as NoSQL. NoSQL is also known as a non-relational database, which
allows the storage and retrieval of unstructured data using a dynamic schema. A key question
asked by database developers today is whether they need a NoSQL database or an SQL database
for their application. For example, Twitter and Facebook, which do not require high levels of data
consistency and integrity, have adopted NoSQL databases. In 2019, businesses are opting for
SQL and NoSQL multiple database combinations, which suggests that one size does not fit all.
As of March 2019, the most popular database management systems worldwide were Oracle,
MySQL, Microsoft SQL and PostgreSQL.5 So, whatis the future? Disruptive database technologies
are required for business to remain competitive and the key is real-time data. Alternative database
models such as cloud database platforms, which have the capability for real-time data analytics,
are for certain. Big data has a role to play as additional data sources must be processed using
data pipelines, all in accordance with the new General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) data
regulations. The relational model will survive, but it will also adapt at unprecedented speed.
1 IBM and Oracle Trade Barbs over Databases, https://phys.org/news/2007-05-ibm-oracle-barbs-databases.html
2 Rakesh Agrawal et al.,The Claremont Report on Database Research, http://db.cs.berkeley.edu/claremont/

claremontreport08.pdf.
3 MySQL Editions, www.mysql.com/products/
4 PostgreSQL, www.postgresql.org/about/
5 Top 10 Databases for 2019, The Database Journal, www.databasejournal.com/features/oracle/slideshows/
top-10-2019-databases.html
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
CHAPTER
1
The Database Approach
IN THIS CHAPTER, yOu wILL LEARN:

The difference between data and information
What a database is, what the different types of databases are, and why they are
valuable assets for decision making
The importance of database design
How modern databases evolved from file systems
About flaws in file system data management
What the database systems main components are and how a database system
differs from a file system
The main functions of a database management system (DBMS)
The role of open source database systems
The importance of data governance and data quality
Preview
Good decisions require good information, which is derived from raw facts known as
data. Data are likely to be managed most efficiently when they are stored in a database.
In this chapter, you learn what a database is, what it does and why it yields better
results than other data management methods. You will also learn about different types
of databases and why database design is so important.
Databases evolved from computer file systems. Although file system data
management is now largely outmoded, understanding the characteristics of file systems
is important because they are the source of serious data management limitations. In
this chapter, you will also learn how the database system approach helps eliminate
most of the shortcomings of file system data management.
Another random document with
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³ In Joshua xxi. 18, Almon.
60. of Benjamin; Geba] In Joshua xxi. 17 Gibeon and her suburbs

is inserted before Geba. Compare the Critical Note above. Geba was
situated by the pass of Michmash, some six miles from Jerusalem;
compare 1 Samuel vi. 9 ff.
Allemeth] In Joshua xxi. 18, Almon.
thirteen cities] Compare the Critical Note above.
61‒65 (compare Joshua xxi. 26, 33, 40).

Distribution of thirty-five other cities to the rest of the
Levites.
⁶¹And unto the rest of the sons of Kohath were

given by lot, out of the family of the tribe, out
of the half tribe, the half of Manasseh, ten
cities.
61. the rest of the sons of Kohath] i.e. the Kohathites who were
not sons of Aaron (verse 54).
out of the family ... Manasseh] read out of the families of the
tribe of Ephraim and out of the tribe of Dan and out of the half
tribe of Manasseh. See the Critical Note on verses 54‒81.
⁶²And to the sons of Gershom, according to

their families, out of the tribe of Issachar, and
out of the tribe of Asher, and out of the tribe of
Naphtali, and out of the tribe of Manasseh in
Bashan, thirteen cities.
62. the tribe of Manasseh in Bashan] i.e. the half tribe of
Manasseh beyond Jordan.
⁶³Unto the sons of Merari were given by lot,

according to their families, out of the tribe of
Reuben, and out of the tribe of Gad, and out
of the tribe of Zebulun, twelve cities. ⁶⁴And the
children of Israel gave to the Levites the cities
with their suburbs.
63. twelve cities] The total number of Levitic cities (verse 60
thirteen, verse 61 ten, verse 62 thirteen, verse 63 twelve) was forty-
eight (so Joshua xxi. 41), of which the Kohathites, as the largest
division (compare xv. 5, note), received twenty-three or nearly half.
⁶⁵And they gave by lot out of the tribe of the

children of Judah, and out of the tribe of the
children of Simeon, and out of the tribe of the
children of Benjamin, these cities which are
mentioned by name.
65. by lot] as a means of gaining Divine sanction for the
assignment of cities. This verse (= Joshua xxi. 9) is plainly
unsuitable in its present context. In Joshua it is the introduction to
the list of Aaronic cities (here verses 54‒60). The Chronicler, having
rearranged the material of his source, nevertheless preferred to
transcribe this verse, despite the lack of harmony with the context; or
possibly, if verses 66‒81 are an addition to the original text of
Chronicles (see the head-note on verses 54‒81), verse 65 may also
be a later insertion intended to help as a connecting link between
verses 64 and 66 ff.
66‒81.
Cities of the Levites.
66‒70 (= Joshua xxi. 20‒25).
The [ten] cities of the non-Aaronite Kohathites.
⁶⁶And some of the families of the sons of

Kohath had cities of their borders out of the
tribe of Ephraim.
66. of their borders] rather, as Joshua xxi. 20, of their lot (the
difference in Hebrew is very slight).
⁶⁷And they gave unto them the cities of refuge,

Shechem in the hill country of Ephraim with
her suburbs; Gezer also with her suburbs;
67. the cities of refuge, Shechem] Read (a slight change in
Hebrew) the city of refuge, Shechem. Compare verse 57, note.
Shechem] Genesis xii. 6, xxxiii. 18; Joshua xxiv. 1; Judges ix. 1; 1

Kings xii. 1. Shechem is the modern Nabulus, situated almost in the
middle of Palestine.
Gezer] Joshua xvi. 3; Judges i. 29; 1 Kings ix. 16. It is the

modern Tell Jezer about 18 miles north-west of Jerusalem. The site
has recently been excavated with excellent results—see Macalister,
The Excavation of Gezer, or Driver, Modern Research Illustrating the
Bible (Schweich Lectures, 1908).
⁶⁸and ¹ Jokmeam with her suburbs, and Beth-

horon with her suburbs;
¹ See Joshua xxi. 22‒39, where some of the names are
different.
68. Jokmeam] In Joshua xxi. 22, Kibzaim. The two words

resemble one another more closely in Hebrew, and are to be taken
as various readings of the same name. Nothing is known of a
Kibzaim in Ephraim. A Jokmeam is mentioned 1 Kings iv. 12.
Beth-horon] Joshua x. 10, 11, xvi. 3, 5; 1 Maccabees iii. 24.

There were two cities, a lower and an upper Beth-horon, the modern
Beitur, “near the head and the foot respectively of the ascent from
the Maritime Plain to the plateau of Benjamin.”
⁶⁹and Aijalon with her suburbs, and Gath-

rimmon with her suburbs:
69. and Aijalon] Aijalon and Gath-rimmon were in Dan near the
Jaffa road some 13 miles from Jerusalem; compare Joshua xxi. 23,
24. See also the Critical Note on verses 54‒81.
⁷⁰and out of the half tribe of Manasseh; Aner

with her suburbs, and Bileam with her
suburbs, for the rest of the family of the sons
of Kohath.
70. the half tribe of Manasseh] the western half tribe; the eastern
is mentioned verse 71.
Aner] Read probably Taanach, as in vii. 29; Joshua xxi. 25;

Judges v. 19. Taanach was situated in the plain of Esdraelon, some
four miles south of Megiddo.
Bileam] read Ibleam, compare Judges i. 27; 2 Kings ix. 27. In

Joshua xxi. 25, Gath-rimmon, an error of dittography.
for the rest ... Kohath] a fragment of Joshua xxi. 26.
71‒76 (= Joshua xxi. 27‒32).

The thirteen cities of the sons of Gershom.
⁷¹Unto the sons of Gershom were given, out of
the family of the half tribe of Manasseh, Golan
in Bashan with her suburbs, and Ashtaroth
with her suburbs:
71. Golan] a city of refuge, Joshua xxi. 27. The name of this city
is still preserved in Jolan (Jaulan), the name of a district east of
Jordan extending from Hermon to the Jarmuk.
Ashtaroth] mentioned with Edrei in Joshua ix. 10 as the capital of

Og, king of Bashan. The name testifies to the worship of Ashtoreth.
⁷²and out of the tribe of Issachar; Kedesh with

her suburbs, Daberath with her suburbs;
72. Kedesh] Read Kishion with Joshua xxi. 28 (so Joshua xix.
20).
Daberath] the modern Dabūriyeh at the foot of Mount Tabor.
⁷³and Ramoth with her suburbs, and Anem

with her suburbs:
73. Ramoth] Jarmuth, Joshua xxi. 29; or perhaps Remeth,
Joshua xix. 21.
Anem] Read En-gannim with Joshua xxi. 29. Probably the

modern large village of Jenîn on the edge of the plain of Esdraelon.
⁷⁴and out of the tribe of Asher; Mashal with her

suburbs, and Abdon with her suburbs;
74. Mashal] Mishal, Joshua xxi. 30 (compare Joshua xix. 26,
Revised Version).
⁷⁵and Hukok with her suburbs, and Rehob with
her suburbs:
75. Hukok] Read Helkath with Joshua xxi. 31 (compare Joshua
xix. 25).
⁷⁶and out of the tribe of Naphtali; Kedesh in

Galilee with her suburbs, and Hammon with
her suburbs, and Kiriathaim with her suburbs.
76. Kedesh in Galilee] called Kedesh-naphtali in Judges iv. 6; it is
the modern Kedes, situated on a lofty plateau overlooking the waters
of Ḥūleh (Merom). It was a city of refuge, Joshua xxi. 32.
Hammon ... Kiriathaim] In Joshua xxi. 32, Hammoth-dor ...

Kartan.
77‒81 (= Joshua xxi. 34‒39).

The [twelve] cities of the sons of Merari.
⁷⁷Unto the rest of the Levites, the sons of

Merari, were given, out of the tribe of Zebulun,
Rimmono with her suburbs, Tabor with her
suburbs:
77. Rimmono ... Tabor] Read Rimmon or Rimmonah. Against
these two names there are four in Joshua xxi. 34, 35; Jokneam,
Kartah, Dimnah and Nahalal. As regards the number of the cities the
text of Joshua is certainly right. See Critical Note on verses 54‒81.
Tabor] No city, but only a mountain named Tabor is known to us,

as having certainly existed in Old Testament times. A city however
named Tabor existed on the mountain as early as 218 b.c., and it
may have been as old as the times of the Chronicler. Mount Tabor
was in Issachar near the border of Zebulun. For Nahalal, the reading
in Joshua, compare Joshua xix. 15; Judges i. 30. Compare Bädeker,
Palestine⁵, p. 250.
⁷⁸and beyond the Jordan at Jericho, on the

east side of Jordan, were given them, out of
the tribe of Reuben, Bezer in the wilderness
with her suburbs, and Jahzah with her
suburbs, ⁷⁹and Kedemoth with her suburbs,
and Mephaath with her suburbs:
78. at Jericho] The crossing-place of the Jordan nearest to
Reuben was at Jericho. For the phrase Jordan at Jericho compare
Joshua xvi. 1.
in the wilderness] further defined by the addition in the table-land

(Deuteronomy iv. 43, Revised Version margin). Bezer was among
the high pasture lands of Reuben. It was a city of refuge.
Jahzah] also called Jahaz. Compare Judges xi. 20; Isaiah xv. 4.
⁸⁰and out of the tribe of Gad; Ramoth in Gilead

with her suburbs, and Mahanaim with her
suburbs,
80. Ramoth in Gilead] a city of refuge, Joshua xxi. 38. See 1
Kings xxii. 3; 2 Kings ix. 1.
Mahanaim] Genesis xxxii. 2.
⁸¹and Heshbon with her suburbs, and Jazer

with her suburbs.
81. Heshbon] Numbers xxi. 25, 26; Isaiah xv. 4.
Jazer] Numbers xxi. 32 (Revised Version); Isaiah xvi. 8.

Note on the Levites.
The priestly organisation known to the Chronicler represents the

latest stage of a system, the development of which can to some
extent be traced in the Old Testament records. (1) It appears from
the earliest sources that the great “priestly” duty of sacrifice at one
period did not require a priest for its due performance but might be,
and was, undertaken by any responsible male. For example in
Exodus xxiv. 5, an occasion of the deepest solemnity, sacrifices are
spoken of as offered by “young men of the children of Israel.” In
Exodus xxxiii. 7‒11 it is clear that the other great function of early
religion, charge of the responses given by the Divine oracle, is
regarded as being under the control of Moses. In fact it would seem
that in the earlier period there were neither priests nor Levites as a
religious order; at any rate, as an order exercising a monopoly in the
religious functions which they afterwards claimed the sole right of
discharging. (2) In course of time those who administered the oracle
and offered sacrifices at the manifold shrines and high places of
Palestine gained importance and were recognised as a distinct
religious class, priests; and persons claiming descent from Levi were
numerous or prominent among them. But the right of offering
sacrifices was still by no means confined to these priests of the
shrines. The priesthood of the various shrines was often hereditary,
passing on from father to son; and, even apart from that fact, it was
most natural that members of this religious order, or perhaps one
should say “profession,” should be thought of as connected by
blood-relationship. Eventually they were all reckoned descendants of
Levi. (3) After the exile and the suppression of the local shrines of
Judah, the pre-eminence of the priests or Levites of Jerusalem was
definitely established, and (as Ezekiel had suggested) such priests
of the local shrines as were satisfied to migrate to Jerusalem
became subordinate to the original ministers of the Temple there. All
were accounted sons of Levi; but only the original Jerusalem priests,
who traced their descent through the Levitical family of Aaron, were
entitled to rank as priests: the rest were Levites but not priests. Thus
there arose a distinction in the ranks of the religious officials.
(4) Finally, the functions and privileges of priests as distinct from
Levites were carefully discriminated, and the tradition that their origin
as a religious order was due to Moses became firmly established,
whilst the complex system of their organisation, in particular the
subdivisions of the Levites as singers and doorkeepers, was
confidently ascribed to David. Chronicles consistently represents this
latest stage of development. For a concise statement of the facts see
MᶜNeile, Numbers, pp. xiv ff. in the present series; and for further
discussion the appropriate articles in the Dictionaries; especially
Cook in Encyclopedia Britannica¹¹, s.v. Levites.
Chapter VII.
1‒40.
Genealogies of Six Remaining Tribes.
The treatment of the several tribes in this chapter is very unequal.

In the case of Issachar (1‒5), Zebulun (6‒12, see note verse 6), and
Asher (30‒40), genealogies are given and the number of fighting-
men of each tribe is stated. To Naphtali is devoted a single verse
(13), giving only the names of his sons. For Manasseh and Ephraim
(14‒29) genealogies are given and their possessions are shortly
enumerated. The mention of Dan is obliterated, owing to the state of
the text of verse 12.
1‒5.
The Genealogy of Issachar.
¹And of the sons of Issachar; Tola, and

Puah ¹, Jashub, and Shimron, four.
¹ In Genesis xlvi. 13, Puvah, and Iob.
1. the sons of Issachar] Genesis xlvi. 13; Numbers xxvi. 23, 24.
verses 2‒5 are from an unknown source, or from the Chronicler
himself.
Tola] the name of one of the minor Judges (Judges x. 1). He is

there described as “Tola the son of Puah, dwelling [Hebrew josheb]
in Shamir.” No descendants are mentioned from Puah, Jashub, and
Shimron, but only from Tola; and it has been suggested that these
four sons of Issachar are imaginary, being simply deduced from the
statement in Judges—Jashub = josheb, and Shimron = Shamir. This
is very ingenious but by no means convincing.
Puah] In Genesis and Numbers Puvah (Revised Version).
Jashub] So in Numbers, but in Genesis Iob.
²And the sons of Tola; Uzzi, and Rephaiah,

and Jeriel, and Jahmai, and Ibsam, and
Shemuel, heads of their fathers’ houses, to
wit, of Tola; mighty men of valour in their
generations: their number in the days of David
was two and twenty thousand and six
hundred.
2. of their fathers’ houses] i.e. clans or families; see note on v. 13.
in their generations] Render, after (or according to) their

generations, the rendering given to the same phrase in Genesis x.
32, xxv. 13.
their number] i.e. of the divisions which claimed Tola as ancestor.
in the days of David] xxi. 1 ff. (= 2 Samuel xxiv. 1 ff.).
³And the sons of Uzzi; Izrahiah: and the sons

of Izrahiah; Michael, and Obadiah, and Joel,
Isshiah, five: all of them chief men.
3. five] i.e. reckoning the four grandsons as sons.
⁴And with them, by their generations, after

their fathers’ houses, were bands of the host
for war, six and thirty thousand: for they had
many wives and sons.
4. by their generations] i.e. according to descent. Each head
commanded men that were his kinsfolk.
⁵And their brethren among all the families of

Issachar, mighty men of valour, reckoned in all
by genealogy, were fourscore and seven
thousand.
5. fourscore and seven thousand] In Numbers ii. 6 Issachar is
reckoned at 54,400, and in Numbers xxvi. 25 at 64,300.
6‒12.
The Genealogy of Zebulun.
6‒12. According to the existing text these verses are a genealogy

of Benjamin; but, as such, they present most serious difficulties.
Notice (1) that the customary “sons of” is lacking in the Hebrew text
before Benjamin: (2) that the sons of Benjamin here number three,
whereas in Numbers xxvi. 38, 39, they are five (five also in 1
Chronicles viii. 2!), and in Genesis xlii. 21 ten; and further that one of
the sons here mentioned, Jediael, is nowhere else referred to as a
Benjamite: (3) that the sons of Bela (verse 7) are entirely different in
viii. 3: and (4) that in general the names in the list (with only three
certain exceptions and two of them place-names) are not elsewhere
found in lists of Benjamite names—a startling fact. (5) Finally and
most important of all, a genealogy of Benjamin is given in chapter
viii., exactly where we might expect to find it according to the order in
which the Chronicler describes the tribes.
The first of these points could be (and has usually been)

explained by the elision of some letters; for the words “the sons of”
(Bᵉnê) in Hebrew writing most closely resemble “Ben” the first
syllable of Benjamin. For a few other minor difficulties tentative
suggestions have been put forward, but are very unsatisfying, whilst
for most of the features noted above, and especially for the most
important of them, no proper explanation can be given on the
supposition that the list really is a genealogy of Benjamin. It is
therefore most probable that the view urged by Curtis, Chronicles, p.
127, should be adopted. He finds in these verses the genealogy of
Zebulun, the absence of which otherwise is a striking feature of the
genealogies in these chapters. The letters which are now taken to be
the first part of the word Benjamin should be read Bᵉnê (i.e. the sons
of), and the following letters are a corruption of Zebulun, which was
originally followed by the names of Zebulun’s three sons, Sered and
Elon and Jahleel, as given in Genesis xlvi. 14. The changes involved
by this suggestion may seem violent in English, but they are by no
means so in the Hebrew, and moreover it must be understood that
they all follow inevitably or at least most naturally upon the slight
initial error whereby “the sons of Zebulun” was corrupted into
“Benjamin.” The development and details of Curtis’ reasoning cannot
be set forth except in connection with the Hebrew text, and it must
therefore suffice here to indicate the one essential point, and to
remark that the convincing feature of his hypothesis is that it
furnishes a clear and natural explanation of all the difficulties noted
above.
⁶The sons of Benjamin; Bela, and Becher,

and Jediael, three.
6. Bela, and Becher, and Jediael] Contrast viii. 2. Read, following
Genesis xlvi. 14, Sered and Elon and Jahleel.
⁷And the sons of Bela; Ezbon, and Uzzi, and

Uzziel, and Jerimoth, and Iri, five; heads of
fathers’ houses, mighty men of valour; and
they were reckoned by genealogy twenty and
two thousand and thirty and four.
7. the sons of Bela] Contrast viii. 3; and read instead the sons of
Sered. These are differently stated in viii. 3‒5.
⁸And the sons of Becher; Zemirah, and Joash,

and Eliezer, and Elioenai, and Omri, and
Jeremoth, and Abijah, and Anathoth, and
Alemeth. All these were the sons of Becher.
⁹And they were reckoned by genealogy, after
their generations, heads of their fathers’
houses, mighty men of valour, twenty
thousand and two hundred.
8. Becher] Read Elon.
Anathoth, and Alemeth] both names of places in Benjamin; vi. 60

(45, Hebrew, “Allemeth”); Jeremiah i. 1. These are the only place-
names in the list, and they are admittedly Benjamite: as to the
significance of this fact see note on Ehud, verse 10.
¹⁰And the sons of Jediael; Bilhan: and the

sons of Bilhan; Jeush, and Benjamin, and
Ehud, and Chenaanah, and Zethan, and
Tarshish, and Ahishahar.
10. Jediael] or rather Jahleel.
Benjamin, and Ehud] The error in verse 6 by which this

Zebulunite list becomes ostensibly Benjamite must have been very
early. When once it had arisen, the tendency to introduce names
which were to be expected in a Benjamite genealogy was inevitably
strong. This is the ground on which the names Anathoth and
Alemeth (verse 8) are to be explained, as also Shuppim and Huppim
(verse 12). Most clearly, however, is the tendency illustrated by the
present verse, where the reading Benjamin and Ehud most probably
has its origin in a marginal addition “and Ehud the Benjamite” (from
Judges iii. 15) which was later inserted in the text as two separate
names.
Tarshish] It is said of Zebulun in Genesis xlix. 13 that he shall be

“a haven for ships,” and Tarshish, absolutely unknown as a Hebrew
personal name, is regularly used in the Old Testament in connection
with ships and commerce by sea. It would be astonishingly out of
place in a genealogy of Benjamin, but is appropriate in one of
Zebulun (compare Genesis xlix. 13 “Zebulun shall dwell at the haven
of the sea”).
¹¹All these were sons of Jediael, according to

the heads of their fathers’ houses, mighty men
of valour, seventeen thousand and two
hundred, that were able to go forth in the host
for war.
11. able to go forth] the total number of warriors is here 59,434;
compare 50,000 in xii. 33; and compare Numbers i. 37, xxvi. 41.
¹²Shuppim ¹ also, and Huppim, the sons of Ir ²,

Hushim, the sons of Aher ³.
¹ In Numbers xxvi. 39, Shephupham and Hupham.
² In verse 7, Iri. ³ In Numbers xxvi. 38, Ahiram.
12. Shuppim also, and Huppim] for the spelling compare viii. 5,
Numbers xxvi. 39, and Genesis xlvi. 21. These Benjamite names are
an addition, and illustrate the tendency referred to above in the note
on Benjamin and Ehud, verse 10.
12b.
The Genealogy of Dan.
Ir] compare verse 7, Iri. But see following note.
Hushim, the sons of Aher] In Aher (literally “another”) some

commentators find the word Dan. More probably Ir is a corruption for
Dan, and the word Aher an error for “one” (the differences are small
in Hebrew). Following the indication of Genesis xlvi. 23 and the
LXX., read therefore the sons of Dan, Hushim his son, one.
13. (= Genesis xlvi. 24).

The Genealogy of Naphtali.
¹³The sons of Naphtali; Jahziel ¹, and Guni,

and Jezer, and Shallum ², the sons of Bilhah.
¹ In Genesis xlvi. 24, Jahzeel.
² In Genesis xlvi. 24, Shillem.
13. Jahziel ... Shallum] In Genesis Jahzeel ... Shillem.
14‒19.
The Genealogy of Manasseh.
A difficult section. The text is much disturbed in verses 14, 15;

and there is hardly any material available for the illustration of verses
16, 17.
¹⁴The sons of Manasseh; Asriel, whom ¹ his

wife bare: (his concubine the Aramitess bare
Machir the father of Gilead:
¹ Or, according to the Septuagint, whom his concubine the
Aramitess bare; she bare &c.
14. Asriel, whom his wife bare: (his concubine the Aramitess
bare] Compare Numbers xxvi. 31. Probably, however, the name is
due to an error of dittography. Read simply as margin, following
LXX., whom his concubine the Aramitess bare; she bare, etc.
his concubine the Aramitess] The inhabitants of Gilead were thus

in part Arameans (Syrians) by descent. A different tradition is
preserved in Genesis 1. 23.
¹⁵and Machir took a wife of ¹ Huppim and

Shuppim, whose ² sister’s name was Maacah;)
and the name of the second was Zelophehad:
and Zelophehad had daughters.
¹ Or, for. ² Or, and his.
15. took a wife of Huppim and Shuppim] i.e. allied himself by

marriage to these two families.
whose sister’s name] Render, and his (Machir’s) sister’s name.

The statement regarding Maacah is ethnographical, and means that
the people of Maacah (a district at the foot of Hermon) were related
by blood to Machir (the Eastern Manassites).
Zelophehad had daughters] Numbers xxvii. 1‒11.
¹⁶And Maacah the wife of Machir bare a son,

and she called his name Peresh; and the
name of his brother was Sheresh; and his
sons were Ulam and Rakem.
16. wife of] But in verse 15, Maacah is sister of Machir. The text
of verses 15, 16 has probably suffered some disturbance.
¹⁷And the sons of Ulam; Bedan. These were
the sons of Gilead the son of Machir, the son
of Manasseh.
17. the sons of Ulam] Sons of Ulam are mentioned (viii. 40)
among the descendants of Benjamin: a variation in the tradition of
their descent.
¹⁸And his sister Hammolecheth bare Ishhod,

and Abiezer ¹, and Mahlah.
¹ In Numbers xxvi. 30, Iezer.
18. Abiezer] Gideon’s family; Judges vi. 11; compare Joshua xvii.
2.
¹⁹And the sons of Shemida were Ahian, and

Shechem, and Likhi, and Aniam.
19. Shechem] This name represents the Israelite portion of the
inhabitants of Shechem: the rest of the inhabitants were Hivites or
Canaanites. See Judges ix.
20‒27.
The Line of Ephraim to Joshua.
20‒27. The section presents several difficulties, arising either

from the attempt to combine various threads of traditions or possibly
from textual corruption. Note that Ezer and Elead, who in verse 21
are removed by several generations from Ephraim, are in verse 22 f.
treated as his immediate sons.
²⁰And the sons of Ephraim; Shuthelah, and

Bered his son, and Tahath his son, and
Eleadah his son, and Tahath his son,
20. Shuthelah ... Bered ... Tahath ... Eleadah] These four names
appear to correspond with Shuthelah ... Becher ... Tahan ... Eran in
Numbers xxvi. 35, 36.
²¹and Zabad his son, and Shuthelah his son,

and Ezer, and Elead, whom the men of Gath
that were born in the land slew, because they
came down to take away their cattle.
21. the men of Gath that were born in the land] i.e. the Philistine
population.
they came down] This phrase suits a descent from the hills of
Ephraim into the Philistine lowlands. The raid presumably took place
after the period of the Exodus and the settlement of Israel in
Canaan. Yet it is also possible that the story should be classed with
certain traditions which ignore the narrative of the Egyptian sojourn
and the Exodus—see Cook, Encyclopedia Britannica¹¹, s.v. Genesis,
p. 584, col. 2.
²²And Ephraim their father mourned many

days, and his brethren came to comfort him.
22. And Ephraim their father] i.e. the tribe, or district, to which the
clans, Ezer and Elead, belonged.
²³And he went in to his wife, and she

conceived, and bare a son, and he called his
name Beriah, because it went evil with his
house.
23. Beriah, because it went evil] Hebrew Beri‘ah because it
went berā‘ah, a play on the sound of the name. This is a feature
characteristic of the patriarchal narratives in Genesis, compare
Genesis xxx. 11, etc. It is interesting to find it in the tradition upon
which the Chronicler here depends. Compare also iv. 9 (note).
²⁴And his daughter was Sheerah, who built

Beth-horon the nether and the upper, and
Uzzen-sheerah. ²⁵And Rephah was his son,
and Resheph, and Telah his son, and Tahan
his son; ²⁶Ladan his son, Ammihud his son,
Elishama his son; ²⁷Nun ¹ his son, Joshua his
son.
¹ Hebrew Non.
24. Beth-horon] See vi. 68, note.
28, 29.
Settlements of the Sons of Joseph.
The writer of these verses does not intend to give a full list of the
seats of Ephraim (verse 28) and Manasseh (verse 29); but
apparently to indicate the area and position of their territory by the
mention of towns on the borders.
²⁸And their possessions and habitations were

Beth-el and the towns ¹ thereof, and eastward
Naaran ², and westward Gezer, with the towns
thereof; Shechem also and the towns thereof,
unto Azzah ³ and the towns thereof:

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Part i Database systems 2

Part ii Design Concepts 162

Part iii Database Programming 318

Part iV Database Design 522

Part V Database transactions and Performance

Part Vi Database Management 706

Appendices (Available online)

Appendix D: Converting an ER Model into a Database Structure

1 the Database Approach 5

1.1 Data vs information 6

1.2 Introducing the database and the DBMS 8

1.4 Historical roots: files and data processing 13

1.5 Problems with file system data management 17

1.6 Database systems 21

2.2 Data model basic building blocks 36

2.3 Business rules 37

2.4 The evolution of data models 39

3 relational Model Characteristics 70

4 relational Algebra and Calculus 119

Partii Design Concepts 162

5 Data Modelling with entity relationship Diagrams 165

5.1 The entity relationship (ER) model 167

6 Data Modelling Advanced Concepts 233

6.1 The extended entity relationship model 234

6.2 Entity clustering 242

6.3 Entity integrity: selecting primary keys 244

7 normalising Database Designs 271

Part iii Database Programming 318