Energy Environment and Sustainability

ENERGY,
ENVIRONMENT,
AND SUSTAINABILITY
SECOND EDITION
Saeed Moaveni
MINNESOTA STATE UNIVERSITY, MANKATO
Australia • Brazil • Canada • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States
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Contents
Preface vii
About the Author xiii
Digital Resources xiv
PART 1
Basic Concepts 2
1 Introduction to Energy, Environment, and Sustainability 4
1.1 Basic Human Needs 5
1.2 Energy 16
1.3 Environment 20
1.4 Sustainability 26
Summary 32
Problems 33
2 Fundamental Dimensions and Systems of Units 36

2.1 Fundamental Dimensions and Units 38
2.2 Systems of Units 44
2.3 Dimensional Homogeneity and Unit Conversion 54
2.4 Components and Systems 59
Summary 61
Problems 63
3 Evidence-Based Data Analysis 66

3.1 Evidence-Based Analysis 68
3.2 Linear Models 69
3.3 Probability and Statistics 75
3.4 Statistics—Basic Ideas 77
3.5 Frequency Distribution 78
3.6 Mean, Median, and Standard Deviation 81
3.7 Normal Distribution 83
Summary 86
Problems 87
4 Electronic Spreadsheets 90
4.1 Microsoft Excel Basics 92
4.2 Excel Functions 101
4.3 Plotting with Excel 107
Summary 115
Problems 117
iii
iv CONTENTS
PART 2
Energy 122
5 Energy and Power 124

5.1 Energy and Work 125
5.2 Forms of Energy 128
5.3 Difference Between Energy and Power 137
5.4 Energy Content (Heating Values) of Fuels 142
Summary 148
Problems 151
6 Electricity 154
6.1 Current, Voltage, and Electric Power—Basic Concepts 156
6.2 Residential Power Distribution and Consumption 162
6.3 Lighting Systems 170
6.4 Electric Power Generation, Transmission, and Distribution 176
Summary 185
Problems 187
7 Thermal Energy: Heat Loss and Gain in Buildings 190

7.1 Temperature Difference and Heat Transfer—Basic Concepts 192
7.2 Modes of Heat Transfer 193
7.3 Daylighting 206
7.4 Degree Days and Energy Estimation 209
Summary 214
Problems 216
8 Energy Consumption Rates and Non-Renewable Energy Sources 220

8.1 World Energy Consumption Rates 222
8.2 United States Energy Consumption Rates 230
8.3 Fossil Fuels 240
8.4 Nuclear Energy 252
Summary 254
Problems 256
9 Renewable Energy 260

9.1 Solar Energy 261
9.2 Solar Systems 270
9.3 Wind Energy 281
9.4 Hydro-Energy 289
9.5 Biomass 294
9.6 World Renewable Energy 297
Summary 300
Problems 302
CONTENTS v
PART 3
Environment 306
10 Air and Air Quality Standards 308

10.1 Atmosphere, Weather, and Climate 309
10.2 Outdoor Air Quality Standards in the United States 320
10.3 Indoor Air Quality Standards in the United States 324
10.4 Global Air Quality Issues 328
Summary 329
Problems 331
11 Water Resources, Consumption Rates, and Quality Standards 334

11.1 Water—Basic Concepts 335
11.2 Personal Water Consumption 342
11.3 Water Consumption in Agriculture, Commercial, and Industrial Sectors 348
11.4 Drinking Water Standards in the United States 352
11.5 Global Water Quality Issues 355
Summary 359
Problems 361
12 Understanding the Materials We Use in Our Daily Lives 364

12.1 Earth—Our Home 366
12.2 The Phases of Matter and Properties of Materials 369
12.3 Metals 374
12.4 Plastics, Glass, Composites, and Wood 382
12.5 Concrete 387
Summary 390
Problems 393
13 Municipal and Industrial Waste and Recycling 396

13.1 Municipal Waste 398
13.2 Industrial Waste 411
13.3 Recycling and Composting 413
Summary 424
Problems 425
PART 4
Sustainability 428
14 Sustainability 430
14.1 How Does One Define Sustainability? 431
14.2 The Earth Charter 437
vi CONTENTS
14.3 Key Sustainability Concepts, Assessments, and Tools 439

14.4 Apply What You Have Learned—Knowledge Is Power 442
Summary 457
Problems 458
Appendix A: A Summary of Formulas 460

Appendix B: Conversion Factors 462
Appendix C: Some Useful Data 463
Appendix D: The Earth Charter 468
Index 472
Preface
We all realize the importance of understanding fundamental concepts deal-

ing with energy, environment, sustainability, and their relationships, as they
affect the quality of our lives. We also agree that a functioning democracy
requires well-educated responsible citizens. Unfortunately, the vast majority
of students today graduate from high school and college without developing
any understanding of the role energy plays in their daily lives and how energy
consumption and waste impact the environment and future generations.
This book is an attempt to lay down the foundation for the development
of responsible citizens with a clear understanding of contemporary issues
dealing with energy, environment, and sustainability. Great care has been
exercised to use real-world examples to get important points across, foster
critical thinking, and use evidence-based analyses. The content is designed not
only to develop the ability of students to go beyond mere understanding of
the concepts but to also quantify their energy and environment footprints in
order to determine whether their actions are sustainable. The content is also
presented with a simple conversational tone with many visual aids to keep
today’s students engaged. The level of mathematical requirements is kept low
so that the topics can be taught to all students. If students can add, subtract,
and multiply, then they will be able to follow the examples presented in this
textbook, solve the homework problems, and determine their environmental
footprints. Moreover, in order to reach out to as many students as possible, the
content is prepared as a general education course that can be taught at a com-
munity college or a university by instructors with various backgrounds, includ-
ing physics, science, or engineering. When it comes to energy, environment, and
sustainability, we must realize that we are all in this together!
Changes in the Second Edition

The Second Edition, consisting of fourteen chapters, includes several new
additions, changes, and features that were incorporated in response to
adopters’ comments, as well as pedagogical and sustainability advances. The
major changes include:
• A new chapter on evidence-based data analysis introducing
students to an approach that is based on basic scientific principles
and easy-to-understand mathematical and statistical models
• A new chapter on electronic spreadsheets which are commonly used to
record, organize, and analyze data using formulas, as well as to present
the results of an analysis in graph form
• Over 50 new problems
vii
viii P R E FA C E
• Greater focus on global interdependency and global data, critical

thinking, complex problem-solving, and application of knowledge in
real-world settings
• Greater emphasis on a blended model where collaborative
problem-solving and community engagements are encouraged
Organization
This book is organized into four parts and 14 chapters; each chapter begins by stat-
ing the learning objectives (LO) and concludes by summarizing what the student
should have gained from studying the chapter. Relevant, everyday examples, with
which students can associate easily, are provided throughout the book. Many
hands-on problems conclude each chapter, asking the student to gather and ana-
lyze information. Moreover, these problems require students to make brief reports
and presentations so that they learn the importance of good written and oral com-
munication skills. To emphasize the significance of teamwork and to encourage
group participation, many of the problems also require group work; some require
the participation of the entire class. The main parts of the book are described below.
Part One: Basic Concepts

In Part One, consisting of Chapters 1 through 4, we introduce the students to
the importance of understanding basic concepts such as human needs, energy,
environment, sustainability, and the fundamental dimensions and units that we
use every day in our lives. As good global citizens, it is also important to follow
a systematic approach to sort carefully through information that is presented
to us when we are confronted with a complex problem. We need to make deci-
sions that are based on sound scientific principles, scientific research, scientific
data, and mathematical and statistical models.
Chapter 1 provides an introduction to the current state of our world. It intro-
duces the students to world population and its trends, basic human needs, and
why it is important to understand concepts of energy, environment, and sustain-
ability. We explain the traits of good global citizens and the importance of devel-
oping good communication skills–all essential for a well-educated democratic
society. We also emphasize that responsible citizens must have a good grasp of
issues related to energy and environment and take active roles in their communi-
ties. We point out that although the activities of good citizens can be quite varied,
there are some personality traits and involvement practices that typify them:
• Good citizens are well informed and have a firm grasp of current issues,
particularly issues related to energy, environment, and sustainability.
• Good citizens have a desire to be life-long learners. For example, they
are well read; they attend community meetings and presentations to stay
abreast of new events and innovations in technologies and understand
how new developments may affect their lives.
• Good citizens have good written and oral communication skills.
• Good citizens have time management skills that enable them to work
productively, take good care of their families, and be active in their
communities.
• Good citizens generally work in a team environment where they consult
each other to solve complex problems that affect all of us.
P R E FA C E ix
Chapter 2 explains the role and importance of fundamental dimensions

(e.g., length, time, mass, temperature) and systems of units (e.g., foot, meter,
second, pound, kilogram, degree Fahrenheit, degree Celsius) in our daily lives.
We emphasize to the students that they have been using these concepts all
their lives; we now define them in a formal way, so that students can under-
stand and quantify more intelligently their own environmental impact, water
and energy consumption rates, and waste.
In Chapter 3, we introduce students to evidence-based analysis, an
approach that is based on scientific principles, scientific research, scientific
data, and mathematical and statistical models. In recent years, the use of this
systematic approach in a wide range of topics, including sustainability, has
resulted in more reliable decisions. We also discuss linear models, as they are
the simplest form of equations used to describe a range of situations. Basic
concepts dealing with probability and statistics are also discussed. Probability
deals with the branch of science that attempts to predict the likelihood of an
event to occur, and statistics is the area of science that deals with the collec-
tion, organization, analysis, and interpretation of data.
Spreadsheets are used to record, organize, and analyze data using formulas.
They are also used to present the results of an analysis in chart forms. Chapter 4
covers Microsoft Excel, which offers a large selection of built-in functions that
students can use to analyze data. Excel also offers many choices when it comes
to creating charts. We also show how to use Excel to find an equation that best
fits a set of data and forecasts future trends.
Part Two: Energy

In Part Two, consisting of Chapters 5 through 9, we introduce students to
the importance of understanding the basics of conventional and renewable
energy; its sources and production; and consumption rates in homes, buildings,
transportation, food production and manufacturing. Chapter 5 explains the
basic concepts related to energy and efficiency. These are concepts that every
college graduate, regardless of their area of interest, should know. We need
energy to build shelter, to cultivate and process food, to make goods, and to
maintain our living places at comfortable settings. To quantify the require-
ments to build things, move or lift objects, or to heat or cool buildings, energy
is defined and classified into different categories. We discuss what we mean
by mechanical energy and thermal energy. The units of energy and power,
including kilowatt-hour, Btu, kilowatt, and horsepower, are also discussed in
this chapter. Chapter 6 covers the basic concepts of electricity and electric
power production. We also cover residential power consumption, particularly
lighting systems, because lighting accounts for a major portion of electricity
use in buildings; lighting systems have received much attention recently due
to the energy and sustainability concerns. Chapter 7 covers the fundamentals
of heat transfer, and heat loss and gain in buildings. Space heating and air
conditioning account for nearly fifty percent of energy use in homes in the
United States. Chapter 8 provides a comprehensive coverage of energy sourc-
es including gasoline, natural gas, coal, and wood, as well as their consumption
rates. We detail how much energy we consume in our homes, buildings, and in
the transportation and manufacturing sectors. Chapter 9 explains renewable
energy and its sources as well as the basic concepts related to solar energy,
wind energy, and hydro-energy.
x P R E FA C E
Part Three: Environment

In Part Three, consisting of Chapters 10 through 13, we focus on the environ-
ment and introduce students to air and water and the anatomy of earth, its
natural resources, and rates of consumption and waste. We emphasize that our
earth has finite resources. Chapter 10 provides general information about the
atmosphere, weather and climate, along with outdoor and indoor air quality
standards. Chapter 11 covers water resources, quality standards, and consump-
tion rates in our homes, in agriculture, and in the industrial and manufactur-
ing sectors of our society. Chapter 12 provides a detailed understanding of
common materials that are used to make products and structures. Chapter 13
discusses waste and recycling.
Part Four: Sustainability

In Part Four, consisting of Chapter 14, we introduce key sustainability concepts,
methods, and tools. Every college graduate must develop a keen understanding
of the Earth’s finite resources, environmental and socioeconomic issues related
to sustainability, ethical aspects of sustainability, and the necessity for sustainable
development. Students should also know about life-cycle based analysis, resource
and waste management, and environmental impact analysis, and be familiar with
sustainable-development indicators such as the U.S. Green Building Council
(USGBC) and Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) rating
systems. Finally, in Chapter 14, we have included several personal and communi-
ty-based projects to promote responsible citizenship and sustainability.
Active Learning Features

This book includes numerous features intended to promote active learning.
These features include: (1) Learning Objectives (LO), (2) Discussion Starters,
(3) Before You Go On, (4) Highlighted Key Concepts, (5) Summary, (6) Key
Terms, (7) Apply What You Have Learned, and (8) Life-long Learning.
Learning Objectives (LO)

Each chapter begins by stating the learning objectives (LO), enabling students
to identify the most important concepts to take away from that chapter. These
objectives are revisited throughout the chapter and are also highlighted within
the chapter summary.
Discussion Starters
Pertinent facts and articles serve as chapter openers to promote meaningful
discussion and engage students. They provide a means to understanding the
importance of what students are about to learn. A good way for the instructor
to use a Discussion Starter is by giving students a few minutes to read it at the
beginning of a class and then ask the students about their thoughts.
P R E FA C E xi
Before You Go On
This feature encourages students to test their comprehension and understand-
ing of the material discussed in a section by answering questions before they
continue to the next section.
Vocabulary
It is essential for students to understand the importance of developing a
complete vocabulary to converse correctly about today’s pressing issues. This
feature promotes understanding of basic terminology by asking students to
state the meaning of new terms that are covered in a section.
Key Concepts
Key Concepts are highlighted and defined in special boxes throughout the
book.
Summary
Each chapter concludes by summarizing what the student should have gained
from the chapter. These summaries are designed to help students comprehend
and become proficient with the materials.
Key Terms
At the end of each chapter, key terms are indexed so that students can use
them for review or check back in the chapter for their meaning.
Apply What You Have Learned

This feature, designed to highlight practical applications of course concepts,
encourages students to apply what they have learned to an interesting prob-
lem or a situation. To emphasize the importance of teamwork and to encour-
age group participation, many of these problems require group work.
Life-Long Learning Problems that depict and apply concepts that are criti-
cal for life-long learning are clearly denoted by to draw attention to their
importance.
Supplements
Additional instructor resources for this product are available online. Instruc-
tor assets include a Solution Answer Guide, Image Library, and PowerPoint®
slides. Sign up or sign in at www.cengage.com to search for and access this
product and its online resources.
xii P R E FA C E
Acknowledgments
I am thankful to all the reviewers who offered general and specific comments
during the conception of this book, including Louis D. Albright, Cornell
University; Paul Dawson, Boise State University; John Gardner, Boise State
University; Thomas Ortmeyer, Clarkson University; William Rauckhorst,
Miami University; Malcolm M. Sanders, The University of Vermont; Chiang
Shih, Florida State University; and Sesha Srinivasan, Tuskegee University.
I also wish to thank Karen Chou of Northwestern University, Melinda Huff of
Harding University, and Ali Razban of Indiana University–Purdue University
Indianapolis for their feedback on the first edition.
I wish to acknowledge and thank the Global Engineering team at Cengage
for their dedication to this new book: Timothy Anderson, Senior Product
Manager; MariCarmen Constable, Learning Designer; Alexander Sham,
Content Manager; and Simeon Lloyd-Wingard, Product Assistant. Thanks are
also due to Rose P. Kernan of RPK Editorial Services. They have skillfully
guided every aspect of this text’s development and production to successful
completion.
Thank you for considering this book, and I hope you enjoy it.
—Saeed Moaveni
About the Author
Saeed Moaveni is a successful engineer, author, and educator. Dr. Moaveni is a

licensed professional engineer in the State of New York and has over 35 years
of experience in practice, teaching, and research. He has held faculty appoint-
ments at several universities, including University of South Carolina, Syracuse
University, and Minnesota State University, and has served as a graduate
program coordinator, department chair, and dean. He is the former Dean of
the David Crawford School of Engineering at Norwich University—one of the
oldest engineering schools in the country (founded in 1819).
As a well-known educator and researcher, Professor Moaveni has
received numerous awards throughout his career, including the Jack Cermak
Distinguished Professor Fellowship, the American Society for Engineering
Education Outstanding Young Faculty Award, the International Network
for Engineering Education & Research Recognition Award, and the Global
Citizen Award from Minnesota State University.
Professor Moaveni’s various textbooks have been translated into many
languages, including traditional Chinese, simplified Chinese, Portuguese,
Farsi, and Korean. He has been invited abroad as a visiting scholar at
numerous universities, including Kyushu University (Japan), National Chiao
Tung University (Taiwan), National Cheng Kung University (Taiwan), the
Institute of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics at National Taiwan University,
Shanghai University of Engineering Science, and Kwame Nkrumah University
of Science and Technology (Ghana).
xiii
Digital Resources
New Digital Solution for Your Classroom

WebAssign is a powerful digital solution designed by educators to enrich the
teaching and learning experience. With a robust computational engine at its
core, WebAssign provides extensive content, instant assessment, and superior
support.
WebAssign’s powerful question editor allows instructors to create their
own questions or modify existing questions. Each question can use any com-
bination of text, mathematical equations and formulas, sound, pictures, video,
and interactive HTML elements. Numbers, words, phrases, graphics, and sound
or video files can be randomized so that each student receives a different ver-
sion of the same question.
In addition to common question types such as multiple choice, fill-
in-the-blank, essay, and numerical, you can also incorporate robust answer
entry palettes (mathPad, chemPad, calcPad, physPad, Graphing Tool) to input
and grade symbolic expressions, equations, matrices, and chemical structures
using powerful computer algebra systems.
WebAssign Offers Instructors the Following
• The ability to create and edit algorithmic and numerical exercises.

• The opportunity to generate randomized iterations of algorithmic and
numerical exercises. When instructors assign numerical WebAssign
homework exercises, the WebAssign program offers them the ability
to generate and assign their students differing versions of the same
exercise. The computational engine extends beyond and provides the
luxury of solving for correct solutions/answers.
• The ability to create and customize numerical questions, allowing
students to enter units, use a specific number of significant digits, use a
specific number of decimal places, respond with a computed answer, or
answer within a different tolerance value than the default.
Visit www.webassign.com/instructors/features/ to learn more. To create an
account, instructors can go directly to the signup page at www.webassign.net/
signup.html.
xiv
D I G I TA L R E S O U R C E S xv
WebAssign Features for Students

• Review Concepts at Point of Use
Within WebAssign, a “Read It” button at the bottom of each question links
students to corresponding sections of the textbook, enabling access to the
MindTap Reader at the precise moment of learning. A “Watch It” button
allows a short video to play. These videos help students understand and review
the problem they need to complete, enabling support at the precise moment
of learning.
• My Class Insights
WebAssign’s built-in study feature shows performance across course topics
so that students can quickly identify which concepts they have mastered and
which areas they may need to spend more time on.
• Ask Your Teacher

This powerful feature enables students to contact their instructor with ques-
tions about a specific assignment or problem they are working on.
MindTap Reader
Available via WebAssign and our digital subscription service, Cengage Unlim-
ited, MindTap Reader is Cengage’s next-generation eTextbook for students.
The MindTap Reader provides more than just text learning for the student.
It offers a variety of tools to help our future good global citizens learn chapter
concepts in a way that resonates with their workflow and learning styles.
xvi D I G I TA L R E S O U R C E S
• Personalize their experience

Within the MindTap Reader, students can highlight key concepts, add notes,
and bookmark pages. These are collected in My Notes, ensuring they will have
their own study guide when it comes time to study for exams.
• Flexibility at their fingertips

With access to the book’s internal glossary, students can personalize their
study experience by creating and collating their own custom flashcards. The
ReadSpeaker feature reads text aloud to students so they can learn on the
go—wherever they are.
D I G I TA L R E S O U R C E S xvii
The Cengage Mobile App

Available on iOS and Android smartphones, the Cengage Mobile App pro-
vides convenience. Students can access their entire textbook anyplace and
anytime. They can take notes, highlight important passages, and have their text
read aloud whether they are online or off.
To learn more and download the mobile app, visit www.cengage.com/
mobile-app/.
All-You-Can-Learn Access with Cengage

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ENERGY,
ENVIRONMENT,
AND SUSTAINABILITY
SECOND EDITION
Basic Concepts
PA RT
1
I
n Part One of this book, we introduce you to the importance of understanding basic
concepts such as human needs, energy, environment, and sustainability. Good citizens are
well informed and have a firm grasp of current issues, particularly those related to popula-
tion trends, energy, environment, and sustainability; these are all essential for a well-educated
democratic society. Responsible citizens also take active roles in their communities; have a
desire to be life-long learners; stay abreast of innovations in technologies and understand how
new developments affect their lives; have time management skills that enable them to work
productively, take good care of their families, and be active in their communities; and work
in a team environment where they consult each other to solve problems that affect all of us.
In Part One, we also explain the role of fundamental dimensions such as length, time, mass,
and temperature and systems of units such as the foot (or meter), second, pound (kilogram),
and degree Fahrenheit (Celsius) in our daily lives. You have been using these concepts all your
lives; however, here we define them in a formal way so that you can use them to quantify your
own environmental impact, water and energy consumption rates, and waste.
As a good global citizen, it is also important to follow a systematic approach to sort care-
fully through information presented to you when you are confronted with a complex problem.
In Part One, you will also be introduced to concepts related to evidence-based analysis: an
approach that is based on scientific principles, scientific research, scientific data, and math-
ematical and statistical models. In recent years, the use of this systematic approach in a wide
range of topics including sustainability has resulted in more reliable decisions.
Spreadsheets are commonly used to record, organize, and analyze data using formulas, and
to present the results of an analysis in graph form. In this part of the book, we will also discuss
the use of spreadsheets in solving problems.
CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Energy, Environment, and Sustainability

CHAPTER 2 Fundamental Dimensions and Systems of Units
CHAPTER 3 Evidence-Based Data Analysis
CHAPTER 4 Electronic Spreadsheets
CHA P T E R
1
Introduction to Energy,
Environment, and Sustainability
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
LO1 Basic Human Needs: understand the basic human
needs, including clean air, clean water, food, and
shelter
LO2 Energy: understand that it takes energy to address
basic human needs and be familiar with energy
consumption rates and sources in your daily life
LO3 Environment: explain what we mean by environment
and be familiar with its main components
LO4 Sustainability: define sustainability and its role in
your daily life
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Mayer/Shutterstock.com
Discussion Starter
W
e all want to make the world a better
place, but how do we do it, and where
do we start? Leo Tolstoy, a Russian nov-
elist and philosopher, once said:
“Everyone thinks of changing the world, but no
one thinks of changing oneself.”
Increasingly, because of worldwide socio-
economic trends, environmental concerns, and
the Earth’s finite resources, more is expected of
all of us. As responsible global citizens, we are
expected to consider the link among the Earth’s
finite resources and environmental, social, ethical,
technical, and economical factors as we make
decisions regarding the services that we use and
the products we consume. This book is designed “What befalls the Earth befalls all the sons (and
to introduce you—a college student—regardless daughters) of the Earth. This we know: the Earth
of your area of study, personal interests, and future does not belong to man, man belongs to the
career path, to important issues such as energy, Earth. All things are connected like the blood
environment, and sustainability that affect all of that unites us all. Man does not weave this web
us. A quote often attributed to Chief Seattle of the of life. He is merely a strand of it. Whatever he
Dkhw’Duw’Absh (1786–1866) says it best: does to the web, he does to himself.”
To the Students: What does all this mean to you? Have you thought about
changing the world (or yourself)? Where do you start?
LO1 1.1 Basic Human Needs

During the past decades, much has been said about vital issues related to
energy, the environment, and sustainability. What are these issues, and why is
it important for you to understand them? Increasingly, because of worldwide
socioeconomic trends, environmental concerns, and the Earth’s finite resources,
more is expected of all of us. As responsible global citizens, we are expected to
consider the link among the Earth’s finite resources and environmental, social,
ethical, technical, and economical factors as we make decisions in our daily
lives. In our decision-making process, we are expected to consider our energy
and environment footprints and take into account factors such as the natural
resources that were consumed to make a product. We also need to consider
how much energy it takes to manufacture, transport, use, and finally dispose
of the product.
6 CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Energy, Environment, and Sustainability
This book is an attempt to introduce you to these important issues that

affect all of us. Currently, there is great international competition for Earth’s
finite resources as each nation works to address their own energy, water, and
food security needs. However, it is important to develop a global view of
our needs. A human body is made of many interacting parts that work well
together and share resources effectively. Furthermore, when a part of our
body—even as small as a tooth—is in pain, the body as a whole is uncomfort-
able until the pain is gone. We should develop a similar, holistic view of our
societies: one that increases commonality of human purpose, and one that
gives a greater meaning to life beyond the walls of our homes, beyond the
boundaries of our cities, and beyond our own countries. It is imperative that
we all understand that we are all in this together, and in order to address our
energy, clean air and water, and food security needs intelligently, we must
work together and be well educated in topics such as energy, environment, and
sustainability. It is only then that we can consume resources in such a way that
meets our present needs without compromising the ability of future generations
to meet their needs.
We as people, regardless of where we live, need the following things: clean
air, clean water, food, and shelter. In our modern society, we also need various
modes of transportation to get to different places. We also like to have some
sense of security, to be able to relax, and to be entertained. We desire to be liked
and appreciated by our friends and family as well. Some people have a good
standard of living, while many (especially
those who live in developing countries) do
not. You will probably agree that our world
would be a better place if every one of us had
clean air and water; enough food to eat; a
comfortable and safe place to live; meaning-
ful work to do; and some time for relaxation,
family, and friends.
At the turn of the 21st century, there
were approximately six billion of us inhab-
iting the Earth; as a means of comparison,
the world population about 100 years ago, at
the turn of the 20th century, was one billion.
Think about this! It took us since the begin-
ning of human existence to year 1900 CE
to reach a population of one billion. Then it
only took 100 years to increase the popula-
tion fivefold.
According to the latest estimates and
projections of the United Nations, the world
population will reach 9.7 billion people by
Rawpixel.com/Shutterstock.com the year 2050. Not only will the number of
people inhabiting the Earth continue to rise,
but the age structure of the world population will also change. The
It is expected that the world world’s senior population—people at least 65 years of age—will
population will reach 9.7 billion more than double in the next 30 years (see Figure 1.1).
people by the year 2050. How is this information relevant? Well, let’s start with our most
essential need, clean air; without it, we cannot live.
9,735,000,000
6,143,497,000
1,000,000,000
Year-1900 Year-2000 Year-2050
10
9
8
Population (billions)
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050
Year
(a)
2020 728
Year
2050 1,549
0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,400 1,600

Over 65 population (millions)
(b)
FIGURE 1.1 (a) The latest projection of world population growth. (b) The latest estimate of U.S.
senior population growth.
Source: United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2019)
We Need Clean Air Every day, human activities through stationary and mobile
sources contribute to the pollution of outdoor air. Power plants, factories, and
dry cleaners are examples of stationary sources that create outdoor air pollution.
Mobile sources of air pollution, such as cars, buses, trucks, planes, and trains,
also add to the level of outdoor air pollution. In addition to these human-made
sources, natural air pollution also occurs due to forest fires, windblown dust,
and volcanic eruptions. Moreover, because most of us spend approximately
90 percent of our time indoors, indoor air quality is also very important to our
short-term and long-term health. In recent years, we have used more synthetic
materials in newly built homes that can give off harmful vapors. We also use
more chemical pollutants, such as pesticides and household cleaners.
Liukov/Shutterstock.com
We Need Clean Water Our next essential need is water. Droughts

are good reminders of how significant water is to our daily lives. In
addition to quantity, quality is also a concern. As you would expect,
human activities and naturally occurring microorganisms contribute
to the contaminant level in our water supply. In agriculture, for
example, pollutants such as fertilizers, pesticides, and animal
waste from large cattle, pig, or poultry farms contribute to water
pollution. Other human activities such as mining, construction,
manufacturing goods, landfills, and waste water treatment plants
are also major contributors to water pollution.
We Need Food To lead a normal active life, we need to consume

a certain number of calories that come from eating meat, fish,
eggs, dairy products, fruits, bread, vegetables, and the like. In the
American diet, carbohydrates, protein, and fat are the main sources
of calories.
The total number of food calories a person needs each day to lead
an active and healthy life depends on factors such as gender, age, height,
weight, and level of physical activity. Moreover, in order to maintain
a healthy body weight, calories consumed from food and drinks must
Ilya Andriyanov/Shutterstock.com equal calories expended through daily activities. Therefore, if you
consume more calories than you expend,

you will gain weight. As we later explain
in Chapter 2, the energy content of food
is typically expressed in Calories (with an
uppercase C). For example, a banana has
about 100 Calories, whereas a medium
serving of French fries has around
400 Calories. One Calorie is equal to
1,000 calories (with a lowercase c), and
one calorie is formally defined as the
amount of energy required to raise the
temperature of one gram (1 g) of water
monticello/Shutterstock.com by one degree Celsius (18C). For now,
don’t worry if you don’t fully understand
what one calorie represents; this and other important concepts will be
To maintain a healthy body weight, explained in greater detail in Chapters 2 and 5.
calories consumed from food In the United States, by law, dietary guidelines for Americans are
and drinks must equal calories reviewed and published every five years by the U.S. Department of
expended through daily activities. Agriculture (USDA) and the U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services (HHS).
ODPHP, 2020–2025 Dietary Guidelines for Americans, www.dietaryguidelines.gov/

resources/2020-2025-dietary-guidelines-online-materials
Table 1.1 shows the estimated total Calorie needs for weight maintenance based
on age, gender, and physical activity level. This data is from the Dietary Guidelines
for Americans 2015 USDA and HHS report. As shown in Table 1.1, adult women
TA B L E 1 . 1 Estimated Calorie Needs per Day by Age, Gender, and Physical Activity Level
Estimated amounts of Caloriesa needed to maintain Calorie balance for various gender and age groups at three
different levels of physical activity. The estimates are rounded to the nearest 200 Calories for assignment to a
USDA food pattern. An individual’s Calorie needs may be higher or lower than these average estimates.
Male Femalec
Activity Moderately Moderately
Levelb (Age) Sedentary Active Active Sedentary Active Active
2 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000
3 1,200 1,400 1,400 1,000 1,200 1,400
4 1,200 1,400 1,600 1,200 1,400 1,400
5 1,200 1,400 1,600 1,200 1,400 1,600
6 1,400 1,600 1,800 1,200 1,400 1,600
7 1,400 1,600 1,800 1,200 1,600 1,800
8 1,400 1,600 2,000 1,400 1,600 1,800
9 1,600 1,800 2,000 1,400 1,600 1,800
10 1,600 1,800 2,200 1,400 1,800 2,000
11 1,800 2,000 2,200 1,600 1,800 2,000
12 1,800 2,200 2,400 1,600 2,000 2,200
13 2,000 2,200 2,600 1,600 2,000 2,200
14 2,000 2,400 2,800 1,800 2,000 2,400
15 2,200 2,600 3,000 1,800 2,000 2,400
16 2,400 2,800 3,200 1,800 2,000 2,400
17 2,400 2,800 3,200 1,800 2,000 2,400
18 2,400 2,800 3,200 1,800 2,000 2,400
19–20 2,600 2,800 3,000 2,000 2,200 2,400
21–25 2,400 2,800 3,000 2,000 2,200 2,400
26–30 2,400 2,600 3,000 1,800 2,000 2,400
31–35 2,400 2,600 3,000 1,800 2,000 2,200
36–40 2,400 2,600 2,800 1,800 2,000 2,200
41–45 2,200 2,600 2,800 1,800 2,000 2,200
46–50 2,200 2,400 2,800 1,800 2,000 2,200
51–55 2,200 2,400 2,800 1,600 1,800 2,200
56–60 2,200 2,400 2,600 1,600 1,800 2,200
61–65 2,000 2,400 2,600 1,600 1,800 2,000
66–70 2,000 2,200 2,600 1,600 1,800 2,000
71–75 2,000 2,200 2,600 1,600 1,800 2,000
761 2,000 2,200 2,400 1,600 1,800 2,000
a
Based on Estimated Energy Requirements (EER) equations, using reference heights (average) and reference weights (healthy) for each age-gender group.
For children and adolescents, reference height and weight vary. For adults, the reference man is 5 feet 10 inches tall and weighs 154 pounds. The reference
woman is 5 feet 4 inches tall and weighs 126 pounds. EER equations are from the Institute of Medicine, Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber,
Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids, Washington D.C.: The National Academies Press, 2002.
b
Sedentary means a lifestyle that includes only the light physical activity associated with typical day-to-day life. Moderately active means a lifestyle that
includes physical activity equivalent to walking about 1.5 to 3 miles per day at 3 to 4 miles per hour, in addition to the light physical activity associated with
typical day-to-day life. Active means a lifestyle that includes physical activity equivalent to walking more than 3 miles per day at 3 to 4 miles per hour, in
addition to the light physical activity associated with typical day-to-day life.
c
Estimates for females do not include women who are pregnant or breastfeeding.
Source: Based on the Institute of Medicine, Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids,
Washington D.C.: The National Academies Press, 2002
need to consume between 1,800 and 2,400 Calories per day, while adult men may
require 2,400 to 3,200 Calories. The low values represent caloric intake for seden-
tary conditions, whereas the higher values are for active individuals.
Not all Americans are able to follow the dietary guidelines. Here are some
facts about American caloric imbalance that are worth noting:
• According to the USDA Economic Research Service, in recent years
nearly 15 percent of American households have been unable to get
enough food to meet their daily Calorie needs.
• At the other end of the spectrum, many Americans (among all subgroups
of the population) are overweight or obese because their daily Calorie
intake exceeds their activity level needs.
• In an article entitled “U.S. Lets 141 Trillion Calories of Food Go to Waste
Each Year,” Eliza Barclay writes that “The sheer volume of food wasted
in the U.S. each year should cause us some shame, given how many people
are hungry both in our own backyard and abroad.” This is happening in
America, while 1 in 9 people in the world (data from the World Food
Programme Organization) do not have enough food to lead a normal life.
The 141 trillion Calories that represent approximately 1,250 Calories per
person per day in the United States are the result of nearly 130 billion
pounds of food that is lost. Moreover, it is important to understand that
the wasted food is worth over $100 billion. According to USDA, the top
three food groups lost (in a recent year) were dairy products (25 billion
pounds, or 19 percent of all the lost food); vegetables (25 billion pounds,
or 19 percent); and grain products (18.5 billion pounds, or 14 percent). The
USDA’s Economic Research Service also points out that, if we were to
reduce this waste, the price of food worldwide might go down. In addition,
most of us do not realize that a vast amount of energy is spent in the food
supply chain, and when food is wasted, valuable resources such as water
and fossil fuels (that go into growing, processing, and transporting the
food) are also wasted.
Have you ever thought about how much energy it takes to feed you every
day? Let’s start with a simple example and assume that you had some cereal
for breakfast this morning. Now think about what it takes to grow a cereal crop
such as corn and wheat (incidentally, corn, wheat, and soybeans make up the
majority of field crop inputs to the U.S. food supply). Think about the energy
that needs to be spent to plant the seeds, make and apply fertilizers, irrigate the
field, harvest the crop, and finally transport it to a processing plant. Next con-
sider how much energy it takes to process the corn into the cereal, make plastic
bags and attractive boxes to contain it, and deliver the cereal boxes to the super-
markets. Moreover, we like to have some milk with our cereal; this requires
additional energy to make the cattle feed, run the milking machines, produce
milk containers, and build and operate refrigerated trucks. After the milk gets
to the supermarket, it needs to be placed in cold storage, requiring energy to
maintain its low temperature. Once you bring the milk home, you need to store
it in a refrigerator, which also consumes energy. You get the picture! Now, think
about all of the other food and drinks that you consume in a single day. In
Chapters 2 and 5 through 9, we explain important concepts related to energy
and power that every good global citizen should understand.
Now let us consider what happens to a dollar spent on food. According to
the USDA, for a typical dollar spent (in a recent year) by U.S. consumers on
domestically produced food (including both grocery store and eating-out pur-
chases), 7.6 cents went to farm production, 14.7 cents to food processing, 2.3
cents to packaging, 3.4 cents to transportation, 8.4 cents to a wholesale trader,
12.1 cents to the food retailer, 38.5 cents to services provided by food service
establishments, 4.1 cents to energy costs, 3 cents to finance and insurance costs,
and 5.9 cents to pay for activities such as advertising, legal, and accounting
services (see Figure 1.2).
As you can see, if you were to buy a loaf of bread in the United States, say for
$1, approximately 14 cents goes to the actual cost of the flour and the remaining
86 cents goes to paying for processing, packaging, transportation, advertising,
and so on. But if the price of wheat doubles from 14 cents to 28 cents, assuming
no changes in other costs, the bread will cost only an additional 14 cents, which
is an increase of 14 percent in total cost. The share of U.S. household consumer
expenditures by major categories for 2019 is shown in Figure 1.3. In contrast,
in developing countries, some people may spend as much as 80 percent of their
income on food.
Consequently, many people in developing countries cannot afford to buy
processed, cooked, or packaged food. For example, instead of buying already-
baked bread, they buy flour and make the bread themselves. So for these people,
when the price of wheat doubles, the cost of bread is also doubled—an increase
of 100 percent! The 2020 world hunger map is shown in Figure 1.4. The next time
you are about to waste food, think carefully!
FIGURE 1.2 The food dollar.

Note: “Other” includes two industry groups: Advertising plus Legal & Accounting
Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture
Education, reading, 2.4%

Apparel, 3.0% Other, 3.1%
Savings, 3.2%
Entertainment, alcoholic
beverages, 5.8%
Housing,
Healthcare, 8.2% 32.8%
Personal
insurance,
pensions,
11.4%
Transportation,
Food, 17.0%
13.0%
FIGURE 1.3 The share of U.S. household consumption expenditures

by major categories, 2019.
Note: “Other” includes personal care products, tobacco, and miscellaneous
expenditures
Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Consumer Expenditures Report 2019
FIGURE 1.4 The 2020 World Hunger Map.

Source: United Nations, World Food Programme, Hunger Map 2020
We Need Natural Resources to Make Goods and Provide Services In

addition to our need for clean air, water, and food, we as a society create and
use products and services that make our lives better (Figure 1.5). Think about
all the products that we use in our everyday lives, such as cars, computers, smart
phones, clothing, home appliances, heating and cooling equipment, healthcare
devices, and the tools and machines used to make these products. Also think
about our infrastructure; for example, homes, malls, commercial buildings,
highways, airports, communication systems, mass-transit systems, and the power
plants that supply the power to maintain this framework. We often forget that
there are many people behind the scenes who are responsible for finding
suitable ways and designing the necessary equipment to extract raw materials,
petroleum, and natural gas from the Earth.
When we use a product, such as a smart phone, electronic tablet, car, wash-
ing machine, oven, or refrigerator, we need to be mindful of what type of
materials went into making the product, where the materials came from, how
much energy it took to produce the product, and eventually, what it would take
to recycle or dispose of it. We will discuss common materials used in making
products and infrastructure in Chapter 12.
WHAT IS YOUR SMART PHONE MADE OF?

To make smart phones, manufacturers use precious raw materials that must be extracted and
processed. This consumes natural resources and energy that can affect our air, land, and water,
as well as plants and animals.
A smart phone is made up of many parts

which use these materials, such as:
LCD DISPLAYS: Glass, plastic

(made from crude oil),
and liquid crystalline
CIRCUIT BOARDS: Copper, gold,

lead, silver, and palladium
RECHARGEABLE BATTERIES:
Lithium metallic oxide
Source: Based on EPA
arka38/Shutterstock.com vovan/Shutterstock.com Alexandru Nika/Shutterstock.com Oleksandr Delyk/Shutterstock.com
FIGURE 1.5 Examples of products used in our daily lives.
What Happens to Products When They Are Disposed? As a good global

citizen, it is also important to understand what happens to products when we
discard them. Each year, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency collects
and reports data on the generation and disposal of waste in the United States.
According to the latest available data, in 2018, people in the United States
generated 292 million tons of trash (approximately 4.9 pounds per person per
day) of which only 93.9 million tons were recycled or composted. We will discuss
municipal and industrial waste and recycling in Chapter 13.
kanvag/Shutterstock.com
Evan Lorne/Shutterstock.com
Before You Go On
Answer the following questions to test your understanding of the preceding section:
1. What are the basic human needs?

2. In your own words, describe energy, environment, and sustainability.
3. What are some of the consequences of an increasing world population?
LO2 1.2 Energy

Without energy, we cannot do anything! Therefore, energy should be the start-
ing point for a better understanding of our environmental footprint. We need
energy to keep our homes comfortable, to make goods, and to provide services
that allow us to enjoy a high standard of living. We use energy in our homes for
space heating and cooling, hot water, lighting, appliances, and electronics. We
also use energy in our cars for personal and business travel. In addition to our
personal energy requirements, we need energy for businesses and industry to
make and transport all kinds of products and food; to make materials for and to
erect buildings; and to build and maintain our infrastructure (roads, bridges, rail-
road systems, airports, etc.). To understand your daily energy needs, tomorrow
morning when you get up, just look around you and think carefully. During the
night, your bedroom was kept at the right temperature thanks to the heating or
cooling system in your place of residence. When you turn on the lights or your
TV, be assured that thousands of people at power plants around the country
are making certain the flow of electricity remains uninterrupted. When you are
hans engbers/Shutterstock.com
1.2 Energy 17
getting ready to take your morning shower, think about the clean water you are
about to use: Where did it come from, and how is it heated? That water could
be coming to your place thanks to a network of piping systems and water treat-
ment facilities. Moreover, the water could be heated by natural gas, electricity,
or fuel oil that is brought to your home thanks to the work and effort of many
people behind the scenes. When you dry yourself with a towel, think about what
types of machines were used and how much energy was consumed to produce
the towel. Think about the machines used to plant and pick the cotton, transport
it to a factory, clean it, and dye it a color that is pleasing to your eyes. Think
about other machines that were used to weave the fabric and send it to sewing
machines. Also, think about where the towel was made and all of the energy
consumed to transport it to the store from which you purchased it. The same is
true of the clothing you are about to put on. Next, let’s say you are about to have
some cereal. As mentioned previously, the milk was kept fresh in your refrigera-
tor and the cereal was made available due to the efforts of farmers and people
in a food processing plant; each requires energy to produce and transport to
grocery stores. Now you are ready to get into your car, take a bus, or ride the
subway. Think about the amount of materials and energy needed to make your
transportation system and to move it along. Clearly, there is nothing that you
do in your daily life that does not involve energy. As we have been emphasizing,
there are certain concepts that every citizen, regardless of their area of interest,
should know. As a good global citizen, you need to have a firm grasp of energy,
including its sources, generation, and consumption rates.
The world energy consumption by fuel type is shown in Figure 1.6. In 2018
(the most recent available data), 599 quadrillion Btu of energy was consumed
worldwide, and as shown in Figure 1.6, petroleum, coal, and natural gas made
up nearly 85 percent of all the fuel used to generate energy. One quadrillion is
equal to 1015 or 1,000,000,000,000,000, and Btu denotes British thermal units.
One Btu represents the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature
of one pound of water by 1 degree Fahrenheit (18F). For example, to take a
nice long shower, you need to raise the temperature of 20 gallons of water
(approximately 170 pounds of water) from 70 to 1208F (a temperature increase
of 508F). The amount of energy required to achieve this task is about 8,500 Btu.
Total consumption: 599 quadrillion Btu

33%
28%
24%
11%
4%
Petroleum Coal Natural gas Nuclear Renewable

electricity
FIGURE 1.6 World energy consumption by fuel type (the most recent
available data).
Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration (2018)
If you were to multiply this number by 365 days, you would obtain the annual
amount of energy used for showering, which is nearly 3.13 million Btu. This
example gives you a sense of how much energy it takes for just one of your daily
activities and a better understanding of the relative magnitude of the Btu value
shown in Figure 1.6. As is the case with any new concepts you learn, energy has
its own terminology that you should familiarize yourself with. We will explain
energy and power-related concepts in detail in Chapter 5.
In 2018, the five countries with the largest energy consumptions were
China, the United States, Russia, India, and Japan, as shown in
Figure 1.7. The per capita consumption for these countries is shown
The United States Energy
in Figure 1.8. Note that the United States has the largest per capita
Information Administration
energy consumption in the world with a value of 310 million Btu.
(EIA) classifies the energy
In the United States, to keep track of how we consume energy in
consumption rates by major our society, the Energy Information Administration (EIA) c lassifies
sectors of our economy: Industrial, the energy consumption rates by major sectors of our economy. These
Transportation, Residential, and sectors are organized into industrial, transportation, residential, and
Commercial. commercial. The percentage of energy consumed by major sectors
of the economy is depicted in Figure 1.9.
25%
17%
6% 5%
3%
China United States Russia India Japan
FIGURE 1.7 World energy consumption by the top five countries.

310
229
151
103
23
United States Russia Japan China India
FIGURE 1.8 Per capita consumption of selected countries.

Unit: million Btu.
1.2 Energy 19
40%
34%
26%
Residential and Industrial Transportation

commercial
FIGURE 1.9 Share of energy consumed by major sectors of the

economy.
Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Monthly Energy Review
(March 2021)
• The residential sector accounts for energy use in homes and

apartments. Think about the space heating and cooling equipment;
lighting systems; electronic devices; and appliances, such as
refrigerators, freezers, ovens, washers, and dryers that are used in our
homes every day.
• The commercial sector keeps track of energy use in schools, municipal
buildings, hospitals, hotels, shopping malls, restaurants, police stations,
places of worship, and warehouses. As shown in Figure 1.9, in 2020, the
residential and commercial sectors accounted for 40 percent of total
energy used in the United States.
• The industrial sector accounted for 34 percent of the total energy used in
the United States. This value represents the share of total energy needed
for all of the facilities and equipment for construction, mining, agriculture,
and manufacturing.
• The transportation sector, which includes energy use by all types
of vehicles (motorcycles, cars, trucks, buses, trains, subways, aircraft,
boats, barges, ships, etc.) to transport people and goods, accounted for
26 percent of the total energy used in 2020. Think about all of the cars,
buses, trains, planes, and subway systems that are used to transport
people. Also, consider all of the trucks, trains, barges, and planes that
are used every day to carry goods. According to the EIA, most of our
transportation energy is consumed by automobiles and light trucks;
gasoline and diesel fuel account for nearly 75 percent of energy
consumed by vehicles.
Now that you have a good idea about the share of energy use in the indus-
trial, transportation, residential, and commercial sectors of our economy, let
us look at the types of fuel, such as petroleum, natural gas, and coal, that are
used to generate energy. Figure 1.10 shows the total energy consumption in
the United States by fuel/energy source. As shown in Figure 1.10, fossil fuels
(petroleum, natural gas, and coal) make up 79 percent of the total fuel/energy
source.
In Chapter 8, we discuss in greater detail energy sources, such as gasoline,
natural gas, coal, and wood, along with their consumption rates. We will also
explain in more detail how much energy we consume in our homes and build-
ings as well as for transportation and manufacturing.
Total energy consumption: 93 quadrillion Btu

35% 34%
12%
10% 9%
Petroleum Natural gas Coal Renewable Nuclear
FIGURE 1.10 Total energy consumption in the U.S. by fuel/energy

source (the most recent available data).
Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Monthly Energy Review
(March 2021)
Before You Go On
1. Why do we need energy?

2. According to the Energy Information Administration, what are the major sectors of the
economy that consume energy?
3. How do we consume energy at home?
4. What types of fuel are used in the residential sector?
Vocabulary—It is important for you (as a good global citizen) to understand that you
need to develop a comprehensive vocabulary to communicate effectively. Throughout
this book, we ask you to define the meaning of new words. This feature promotes your
vocabulary growth. State the meaning of the following terms:
Btu
Quadrillion
LO3 1.3 Environment

Environment is one of those terms that mean different things to different people.
For example, as a computer user, we may talk about the desktop environment,
which means the user interface of the computer: icons, windows, folders, tool-
bars, etc. On the other hand, to a civil engineer or a construction manager,
the built environment refers to human-made structures, such as roads, water
piping networks, fuel distribution piping networks, buildings, or electric power
networks. Often when we talk about environment, we mean the natural envi-
ronment, which includes all living (plants, animals) and non-living (air, water,
rocks) things that exist on or within the Earth. It is also important to realize that
1.3 Environment 21
each one of these categories could be further subdivided.

For example, water could be grouped as above ground (riv-
ers, ponds, lakes, seas, oceans) or below ground (aquifers).
As you learned in school, our home, the Earth, is the
third planet from the Sun. As you also know, over 70 percent
of the Earth’s surface is covered with bodies of water: the
oceans, seas, lakes, and rivers. Oceans play an important role
in moderating the Earth’s surface temperature. Because of
the abundance of water on its surface, the Earth appears
blue when viewed from space; hence, it is called the blue
planet. Moreover, to better represent the Earth’s structure,
it is divided into major layers that are located above and
below its surface. Atmosphere represents the air that cov-
ers the surface of the Earth. The air extends approximately
90 miles from the surface of the Earth to a point called “the
edge of space.” The solid portion of the Earth itself is made
robert_s/Shutterstock.com up of different layers with different characteristics. Its mass
is composed mostly of iron, oxygen, and silicon (approxi-
mately 32 percent iron, 30 percent oxygen, and 15 percent silicon). The Earth
also contains other elements, such as sulfur, nickel, magnesium, and aluminum.
The structure below the Earth’s surface is generally grouped into four layers:
crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core (see Figure 1.11). This classification is
Crust
Atmosphere 140 km
Above the surface of the Earth

Atmosphere: 0290 miles (02140 km)
6,400 km
Mantle Outer
Inner
core
core
Inner core
Outer core
Thickness of different layers (approximate values) Mantle
Crust: 0225 miles (0240 km) Crust

Mantle: 2521,800 miles (4022,900 km)
Outer core: 1,80023,200 miles (2,90025,200 km)
Inner core: 3,20024,000 miles (5,20026,400 km)
FIGURE 1.11 The structure of the Earth.
based on the properties of materials and the manner by which the materials
move or flow in each layer. We explain the Earth’s structure in greater detail in
Chapter 12. However, at this point, it is important for you to understand that
the raw materials that make up the products that we use in our daily lives come
from the Earth’s crust. The crust makes up about 0.5 percent of the Earth’s total
mass and 1 percent of its volume. We also discuss common materials used in
making products and building our infrastructure in Chapter 12.
Air
We all need air to sustain life. The Earth’s atmosphere, which we refer to as air,
is a mixture of approximately 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen, and a very
small amount of argon and other gases, such as carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide,
and nitrogen oxide. The atmosphere also contains water vapor in the form of
clouds, which allow for the transport of water from the oceans to land by way of
rain and snow. At higher altitudes, the Earth’s atmosphere also contains ozone.
Even though gases such as carbon dioxide make up only a small percentage
of the Earth’s atmosphere, they play a significant role in maintaining a ther-
mally comfortable environment for us and other living species. For example,
the ozone absorbs most of the ultraviolet radiation arriving from the sun that
can harm us. Carbon dioxide plays an important role in sustaining plant life;
however, if the atmosphere contains too much carbon dioxide, it will not allow
the Earth to cool down effectively.
Ciprian Stremtan/Shutterstock.com
Greenhouse Gases
Air is a mixture of mostly
nitrogen, oxygen, and small When solar energy passes through the Earth’s atmosphere, some of
amounts of other gases, such it is absorbed; some of it is scattered; and some of it is reflected by
as argon, carbon dioxide, sulfur clouds, dust, pollutants, and different types of gases or water vapor
dioxide, and nitrogen oxide.
in the atmosphere. The solar energy that reaches the Earth’s sur-
face warms the Earth, and eventually, some of the absorbed energy
Carbon dioxide plays an important
is radiated back toward space as the Earth’s surface cools down
role in sustaining plant life;
in the evenings. Many gases present in the atmosphere trap some
however, if the atmosphere of this heat and consequently prevent the Earth’s surface and its
contains too much carbon dioxide, atmosphere from cooling (Figure 1.12). The gradual warming of the
it will not allow the Earth to cool Earth’s atmosphere is commonly referred to as the greenhouse effect,
down effectively. and the gases that cause the warming are called greenhouse gases
(Figure 1.12).
1.3 Environment 23
Some of the infrared radiation

passes through the atmosphere,
and some is absorbed and reemitted
Some solar radiation is in all directions by greenhouse gas
reflected by the Earth and molecules. The effect of this is to
the atmosphere. warm the Earth’s surface and
lower atmosphere.
Solar radiation
passes through the
clear atmosphere.
Most radiation is absorbed Infrared radiation is

by the Earth’s surface and emitted from the
warms it. Earth’s surface.
FIGURE 1.12 The greenhouse gas effect.

Source: Based on U.S. Energy Information Administration
28%
15%
7%
5%
3%
China United States India Russia Japan
FIGURE 1.13 Carbon dioxide emissions of the top five emitters.

Source: Global Carbon Project (2020)
The five countries with the largest carbon dioxide emissions are shown in
Figure 1.13. At present, China is the largest emitter, followed by the United
States. We discuss air, air quality standards, and our individual roles in contrib-
uting to indoor and outdoor air pollution in Chapter 10.
Water
Every living thing also needs water to sustain life. In addition to drinking water,
we need water for many of our daily activities, including cooking, grooming,
and washing. It is also a key resource when fighting fires. Water is not only
Dmitry Naumov/Shutterstock.com
transported to homes for our domestic use, but it also has many other applica-
tions. We need water to grow fruits, vegetables, nuts, cotton, trees, and so on.
Water is commonly used in the mining industry, as a cooling or cleaning agent
in a number of food processing plants, and in many other industrial operations.
Water also is used in all steam power-generating (thermoelectric) plants to
produce electricity. Here are some important data related to water, agriculture,
and food security as reported by the United Nations.
World population Total world water resources
9.7 Billion
200,000 km3 200,000 km3
7.8 Billion
2020 2050 2020 2050
• The daily drinking water requirement per person is 2 to 4 liters, but it

takes 2,000 to 5,000 liters of water to produce one person’s daily supply of
food.
• It takes 1,000 to 3,000 liters of water to produce just one kilogram of rice
and 13,000 to 15,000 liters to produce one kilogram of grain-fed beef.
• In 2019, the estimated number of undernourished people worldwide was
690 million.
• By 2050, the world’s water will have to support the agricultural systems
that will feed and create livelihoods for an additional 1.9 billion people.
1.3 Environment 25
• The extent of land under irrigation in the world is 275 million hectares,
about 20 percent of which is cropland. Rain-fed agriculture is practiced on
the remaining 80 percent of the arable land.
• Irregular or inadequate rainfall affects crops and food supply. From 2006
to 2016, nearly 65 percent of crop production and 44 percent of fisheries
and aquaculture production were damaged by floods; 86 percent of
livestock was negatively affected by drought.
In the data mentioned previously, one liter is approximately equal to a quar-
ter of a gallon (1 liter < 1 4 gallon), and one kilogram is equal to 2.2 pounds.
We will explain systems of units in greater detail in Chapter 2.
To better understand the water cycle, see Figure 1.14. Radiation from the
sun evaporates water, water vapors form into clouds, and eventually, under
favorable conditions, water vapor turns into liquid water or snow and falls back
on the land and into the ocean. On land, depending on the amount of precipita-
tion, part of the water infiltrates the soil, part of it may be absorbed
by vegetation, and part of it runs as streams or rivers and collects
The total amount of water on the into natural reservoirs called lakes. Surface water refers to water in
Earth is constant—we don’t lose or reservoirs, lakes, rivers, and streams. Groundwater, on the other hand,
gain water on the Earth. refers to the water that has infiltrated the ground; surface water and
groundwater eventually return to the ocean, and the water cycle is
FIGURE 1.14 The water cycle.

Source: U.S. Department of the Interior
completed. In addition to understanding the water cycle, it is also important to

realize that the amount of water that is available to us on the Earth is constant.
Even though water can change phase from liquid to vapor or from liquid to ice,
the total amount remains constant—we don’t lose or gain water on the Earth.
For example, when you take a shower, the water you used could end up else-
where and be used for an entirely different purpose, such as cooking (of course,
after it has been treated and filtered). We discuss water resources, consumption
rates, and quality standards in Chapter 11.
Before You Go On
1. What does the word environment mean to you?

2. What are the major layers of the Earth?
3. What are the main gases that make up air?
4. In your own words, describe the greenhouse gas effect.
5. In your own words, describe the water cycle.
Vocabulary—State the meaning of the following terms:
Air
Greenhouse gases
LO4 1.4 Sustainability

As we mentioned previously, much has been written or said
Sustainability could be defined about “sustainability.” But what does it mean to you, and why
as consuming resources in such a is it important for you to have a good grasp of this concept?
way that meets our present needs To start with, it is important to know that there is no universal
without compromising the ability definition for sustainability. It means different things to different
of future generations to meet professions. However, one of the generally accepted definitions
their needs. is “design and development that meets the needs of the pres-
ent without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs.” This statement originates from the 1987
United Nations Brundtland Commission Report.
We all agree that we need to design and produce goods and services to
enjoy a high standard of living and to advance health care. We also need to
address our infrastructure and energy needs and food security. However, as a
global community, we are expected to address our needs while also address-
ing serious environmental and sustainability concerns. Because of this fact,
we need good global citizens who understand the link among the Earth’s
finite resources and our environmental, social, ethical, technical, and eco-
nomical factors. The shortage of citizens who understand the concept of
sustainability—people who can apply the sustainability concepts, methods,
and tools to their problem-solving and decision-making processes—could
have serious negative consequences for our future. To address this concern,
many institutions of higher education and organizations have recently come
out in support of sustainability education. As you study this book, you will
gradually learn more details about sustainability concepts, methods, and tools.
Hopefully, you will apply them to your decision-making process to make the
world a better place for all of us!
Attributes of Good Global Citizens

Now that you have a general sense of why you need to know about energy, envi-
ronment, and sustainability, you may be wondering about how to get involved
and how to become a good global citizen. As good global citizens, we need to
realize that the choices we make in our everyday lives affect all of us. We need
to change our behaviors, especially with respect to the way we consume energy
and use the finite resources available to us. Computers, smart electronic devices,
and computer-controlled machines are continuously reshaping our way of life.
Such tools influence the way we do things and help provide us with the neces-
sities of our lives—clean water, food, and shelter. We need to become lifelong
learners so that we can make informed decisions and anticipate and react to the
global changes caused by technological innovations as well as population and
environmental changes. Although the activities of good citizens may be varied,
ESB Professional/Shutterstock.com
there are some personality traits and practices that typify most of today’s good
global citizens.
• Good citizens are well informed and have a firm grasp of basic concepts
and current issues, particularly issues related to energy, the environment,
and sustainability.
• Good citizens have a desire to be life-long learners. For example, they are
well read, attend community and town meetings to stay abreast of new
events, and learn about how innovations and new technologies may affect
their lives.
• Good citizens have good written and oral communication skills.
• Good citizens have time management skills that enable them to work
productively, take good care of their families, and be active in their
communities.
• Good citizens generally work well in a team environment where they
consult each other to solve complex problems that affect all of us.
Communication
As good global citizens, you need to develop good written and oral com-
munication skills in order to express your thoughts, present concepts, pro-
vide analyses of problems and their solutions, and show your findings from
a research project. Starting right now, it is important to understand that the
ability to communicate your solution to a problem is as important as the solu-
tion itself. You may spend weeks on a project, but if you cannot effectively
communicate to others, the results of all your efforts may not be understood
and appreciated. In this book, to emphasize that a good global citizen should
have good communication skills, we ask you to write reports and give presenta-
tions. These reports might be lengthy and contain charts and graphs, or they
Fizkes/Shutterstock.com
may take the form of a brief memorandum. These forms of communication

are explained next.
Written Reports One type of written report is a progress report. Progress

reports are a means of communicating to others in an organization or to the
sponsors of a project how much progress has been made and which of the main
objectives of the project have been achieved to date. Based on the total time
period required for a project, progress reports may be written for a period of
a week, a month, several months, or a year. The format of the progress report
may be dictated by a manager in an organization or by the project’s sponsors.
In your case, your instructor will specify how often you need to write a progress
report for say, a term project.
Short memos are yet another way of conveying information in a brief
way to interested individuals. Generally, short memos are under two pages in
length. A general format for a short memo header is shown below. The header
of the memo contains information such as the date, who the memo is from,
to whom it is being sent, and a subject line. This is followed by the main body
of the memo.
Date: May 3, 2015
From: Mr. John Doe
To: Members of Project X
Re: Proposed Wind Energy Farm
As the name implies, detailed reports are comprehensive and provide a great
deal of information. These reports generally contain the following items: title,
abstract, objectives, analysis, data and results, a discussion of results, conclusions
and recommendations, and references. Whenever you write a report, you must
include a list of references that show the reader where you obtained some of
the information. For the references, you may want to use the following format
styles:
For Books: Author, title (italicized), publisher, place of publication, date
(year), and page(s).
For Journal Articles: Author, “title of article” (enclosed in quotation
marks), name of journal, volume number, issue number, year, and
page(s).
For Internet Materials: Author (or company), title (or page tab), date
accessed, and URL address.
Oral Presentations Some of the problems in this book require you to give
oral presentations. You already communicate orally with others all the time.
Informal communication is part of our daily life. We may talk about sports,
the weather, what is happening around the world, or a homework assignment.
However, when it comes to formal presentations, there are certain rules and
strategies that you need to follow. Your oral presentation may show the results
of all your efforts regarding a project that you may have spent weeks or months
to develop. If the listener cannot follow you, then all of your efforts will go to
waste. It is very important, therefore, that all information be conveyed in a
manner easily understood by the listener.
lightpoet/Shutterstock.com
An oral technical presentation in many ways is similar to a written one, as

you need to be well organized and have an outline of your presentation ready. It
may be a good idea to write down what you are planning to present. Remember,
it is harder to erase or correct what you say after you have said it than to write
it down on a piece of paper and correct it before you say it. You want to make
every effort to ensure that what is said (or sent) is what is understood (or
received) by the listener.
Rehearse your presentation before you deliver it formally. You may want to
ask a friend to listen and provide helpful suggestions about your style of pre-
sentation, delivery, content, and so on. Present the information in a way that will
be understood easily by your audience. Avoid using terminology or phrases that
may be unfamiliar to listeners. If you have to give a longer talk, then you may
want to add some humor or tell some interesting, relevant stories to keep your
audience’s attention. Maintain eye contact with everyone in your audience, not
just one or two people. Use good visual aids. When possible, incorporate charts,
graphs, animated drawings, short videos, and models. You may also want to have
copies of the outline, along with notes on the important concepts and findings,
ready to hand out to interested audience members. In summary, when giving
an oral presentation, be organized, be well prepared, get right to the point, and
consider the needs and expectations of your listeners.
Teamwork
Some of the projects in this book require teamwork. Therefore, it is important to
say a few words about teamwork and conflict resolution. A team may be defined
as a group of individuals with complementary expertise, problem-solving skills,
and talents who work together to solve a problem or achieve a common goal.
A good team is one that gets the best out of each other. The individuals mak-
ing up a good team know when to compromise for the good of the team and
its common goal. Communication is an essential part of successful teamwork.
The individuals making up the team need to clearly understand the role of each
team member and how each task fits together.
Common Traits of Good Teams More and more, employers are looking for
individuals who not only have a good grasp of contemporary issues but can
also work well with others in a team environment. Successful teams have the
following components:
• The team members should all understand and accept the goals of the
project, which should be clear and realistic.
• The team should be made up of individuals with complementary
expertise, problem-solving skills, backgrounds, and talents.
• The team should have a good leader.
• The team leadership and the environment in which discussions take place
should promote openness, respect, and honesty.
• Team needs and goals should come before individual needs and goals.
Conflict Resolution When a group of people work together, conflicts

sometimes arise. Conflicts can be the result of miscommunication, personality
differences, or the way events and actions are interpreted by a member of a
team. Managing conflicts is an important part of a team dynamic. When it comes
to conflict management, a person’s response may be categorized in one of the
following ways.
• There are those in a team environment who try to avoid conflicts.
Although this may seem like a good approach, it demonstrates
low assertiveness and a low level of cooperation. Under these
conditions, the person who is most assertive will dominate the
team, making progress as a whole difficult. Accommodating team
members are highly cooperative, but their low assertiveness could
result in poor team decisions. This is because the ideas of the most
assertive person in the group may not necessarily reflect the best
solution.
• Compromising team members demonstrate a moderate level of
assertiveness and cooperation. Compromised solutions should be
considered as a last resort. Again, by compromising, the team may have
sacrificed the best solution for the sake of group unity.
• A better approach is the collaborative “conflict resolution” approach,
which demonstrates a high level of assertiveness and cooperation by the
team. With this approach, instead of pointing a finger at someone and
blaming an individual for the problem, the conflict is treated as a problem
to be solved by the entire team. The team proposes solutions, means of
evaluation, and (when appropriate) combines solutions to reach an ideal
solution. Furthermore, in order to reach a resolution to a problem, a plan
with clear steps must be laid out.
Good communication is an integral part of any conflict resolution. One of
the most important rules in communication is to make sure that the message
sent is the message received—without any misunderstanding. Team mem-
bers must listen to each other. Good listeners do not interrupt; they allow the
speaker to feel at ease, do not get angry, and do not criticize. You also may
want to ask relevant questions to let the speaker know that you really are
listening.
Before You Go On
1. Why is it important for all of us to understand and apply sustainable practices to our
everyday lives?
2. What are common traits of good global citizens?
3. State the differences between these written communications: progress report, short memo,
and detailed technical report.
4. What do we mean by team and teamwork?
5. Explain how you would resolve a conflict that may arise when working in a team
environment.
S U M M A R Y
LO1 Basic Human Needs LO2 Energy

You should have a good understanding of basic You should have a good understanding of the signifi-
human needs and the growing world population. At cant role energy plays in our daily lives and realize
the turn of the 21st century, there were approximately that without energy we cannot keep our homes warm
six billion of us inhabiting the Earth. According to and well lit; move our cars; make products and struc-
the latest estimates, the world population will reach tures; grow food; or have easy access to water, shelter,
9.7 billion people by the year 2050. We need clean air, and other essential needs. You should be familiar with
clean water, food, and shelter. As a society, we create energy consumption rates in our society. You should
and consume many different products and services. also know that coal, natural gas, and petroleum still
Think about all the products and services that you provide the majority of our energy needs, and real-
used yesterday. ize that the majority of the coal mined in the United
We need energy to address our needs, such States is used for generating electricity. So don’t waste
as building structures, growing food, and access- electricity!
ing clean water. The energy use per capita in the
world has been increasing steadily as the economies LO3 Environment
of the world grow. Added to these concerns is the By environment we mean our natural environment,
expected rise in the world population from the cur- which includes all living (plants, animals) and non-
rent 7.8 billion to about 9.7 billion people by the living (air, water, rocks) things that exist on or within
mid-21st century! Stationary, mobile, and natural the Earth. It is also important to realize that each
sources contribute to outdoor air pollution. Human one of these categories can be subdivided further.
activities, such as mining, construction, manufactur- For example, water can be grouped as above ground
ing goods, and agriculture, contribute to water pol- (rivers, ponds, lakes, seas, oceans) or below ground
lution. In order to address our needs and maintain (aquifers). You should understand what we mean
a good standard of living, we as a society are faced by greenhouse gases and how you can reduce the
with the problems of finding energy sources and amount of greenhouse gases that are produced due
reducing pollution and waste. to your everyday activities.
Problems 33
LO4 Sustainability health care while considering the links between the
It is very important for us to understand that, because Earth’s finite resources and environmental, social,
of worldwide socioeconomic trends, environmen- ethical, technical, and economical factors. One of
tal concerns, and Earth’s finite resources, more the generally accepted definitions of sustainability is
is expected of each one of us. As a society, we are “design and development that meets the needs of the
expected to design and provide goods and services present without compromising the ability of future gen-
that increase the standard of living and advance erations to meet their own needs.”
K E Y T E R M S
Air 22 Energy 16 Residential Sector 19

Atmosphere 21 Environment 20 Surface Water 25
Commercial Sector 19 Greenhouse Gases 22 Sustainability 26
Earth’s Crust 21 Groundwater 25 Team 30
Earth’s Inner Core 21 Industrial Sector 19 Transportation Sector 19
Earth’s Outer Core 21 Mantle 21 Water Cycle 25

This is a possible term project for your class. Prepare a website for waste
reduction, greenhouse gas reduction, and energy-saving measures that
ecyclin
could be used on your campus. Elect a group leader, and then divide up R
g
the tasks among yourselves. Think about ways to measure the success of
the project. As you work on the project, also take note of both the plea-
sures and problems that arise from working in a team environment. Write
a brief report about your experiences working as a team on this project.
What are your recommendations for others who may work collaboratively
on similar projects? Saves Energy
P R O B L E M S
Problems that promote life-long learning are denoted by
1.1 Each of you is to ask an older adult (for products and services would be available today.
example, your grandparents) to think back To get your conversation started, here are a
to when they graduated from high school or few examples: smart phones, online banking,
college and to create a list of products and electronic tablets, self-checkout scanners at the
services that are available in their everyday supermarket, and so on. Ask them to explain
lives now that were not available to them then. how these products have made their lives
Ask them if they ever imagined that these better (or worse).
1.5 Estimate the amount of copy or printing

paper that you use every year. A 500-sheet
ream of copy paper has an approximate
mass of 5 pounds (2.27 kg). How much of
this consumption is truly necessary, and how
much of your own paper consumption could
be avoided? State your assumptions.
1.6 Estimate how much water you consume each
year when showering. To determine your
shower water consumption:
a. Obtain a container of a known volume (for
example, an empty gallon-size water or
wavebreakmedia/Shutterstock.com
milk container) and then time how long it
takes to fill the container.
b. Calculate the volumetric flow rate in
gallons or liters per minute.
c. Measure the time that you spend on
average when taking showers. Calculate
the volume of the water consumed taking
a shower on a daily basis.
d. Multiply the daily value by 365 to get the
yearly value.
1.7 Estimate how much gasoline you consume
each year for driving around town, doing
errands, going to school, traveling to and from
Dmitry Kalinovsky/Shutterstock.com work, or just traveling from place to place.
1.2 Use your imagination to compile a list of 1.8 Estimate how much food you consume
products and services that are not available annually for breakfast, lunch, dinner, and
now that you think will be readily available in snacks. For a period of one week, maintain
the next 20 years. Present the list to the class a daily log to keep track of what and how
and explain which products and services you much you eat each day. Based on this analysis,
most look forward to using. estimate your annual food consumption. State
all your assumptions.
1.3 Record how much trash you generate each
week. For a period of one week, maintain 1.9 Electric motors, which are found in many
a daily logbook to keep track of what and appliances and devices around your home,
how much you throw away and recycle each consume lots of energy. Identify at least five
day. Suggest ways you can reduce waste and products at home that use electric motors.
increase your own recycling. Compile your Could you get by without using any of them
findings into a report and present it to the as often as you do now?
class. 1.10 Identify at least five different energy-
1.4 Estimate how many cans of soda or other consuming products or practices at home and
beverages you drink each year and calculate suggest ways to reduce consumption, such as
the amount of aluminum (in pounds or turning off the light when you leave a room.
kilograms) that was used to make the cans. 1.11 Electronic communication is becoming
A 12-ounce (355 milliliters) empty aluminum increasingly important. In your own words,
can has a mass of 0.0445 pound (20.18 grams). identify the various situations under which
State your assumptions, and explain your you should write a letter, send an e-mail,
calculations. send a text message, make a telephone call,
Problems 35
or talk to someone in person. Explain why an hour) instead of driving their cars. What
one particular form of communication is would be the reduction in pounds of carbon
preferable to the others available. dioxide released into the atmosphere on a
1.12 In a brief report, discuss why we need yearly basis?
various modes of transportation. How did 1.19 Make a list of clothing, shoes, and accessories
they evolve? Discuss the roles of public that you purchased last year. List the
transportation, water transportation, highway materials that you think were used to
transportation, railroad transportation, and make these items. Discuss the origin of the
air transportation. materials.
1.13 Visit the U.S. Department of Energy website 1.20 Look around your home and estimate how
and collect energy consumption data for each many feet (or meters) of visible copper wire
sector of the economy for the most recent are in use for extension and power cords for
year. Prepare a brief report discussing your common items such as a hairdryer, TV, phone
findings. charger, laptop computer, or lamp. Write a
1.14 In order to increase public awareness about brief report and discuss your findings.
the importance of energy, the environment,
and sustainability and to promote global
citizenship education among the younger
generation, prepare and give a 15-minute
presentation for a middle or high school class.
1.15 If this class has a term project, present your
final work, on the date set by your instructor,
at your school dining hall or during half-
time of a sporting event. If the project has
a competitive component, hold the design
competition at the suggested locations as well.
1.16 Prepare a 15-minute oral presentation about
energy and its use in our everyday lives. The
next time you go home, present it to the
juniors at your old high school.
1.17 Investigate how much trash is generated on
your campus each week. Suggest ways to
reduce waste and increase recycling. Compile
your findings in a brief report and present it
to the class. State all your assumptions.
1.18 A gallon (3.8 liters) of gasoline that Fred Stein Archive/Contributor/Archive Photos/Getty Images
weighs 6.3 pounds (2.85 kg) can produce “Education is what remains
20 pounds (9.1 kg) of carbon dioxide. Yes,
20 pounds (9.1 kg) of carbon dioxide! after one has forgotten
Assume 100 million people with cars everything he learned in
(with 20 miles/gallon (10.6 km/liter)
gasoline consumption rates) decide to walk school.”—Albert Einstein (1879–1955)
3 miles (4.8 km) a day (for approximately
CHA P T E R
2
Fundamental Dimensions and
Systems of Units
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
LO1 Fundamental Dimensions and Units: explain what
they mean and give examples
LO2 Systems of Units: know what systems of units
represent and give examples of International
(metric) and U.S. Customary units for length, time,
mass, force, and temperature
LO3 Dimensional Homogeneity and Unit Conversion:
know how to check for dimensional homogeneity
and convert data from SI or the metric system of
units to U.S. Customary units and vice versa
LO4 Components and Systems: explain what they mean
and give examples of their use
Danny Smythe/Shutterstock.com, Iurii Kachkovskyi/Shutterstock.com,

pixinoo/Shutterstock.com, TerryM/Shutterstock.com
D iscussion Starter 37
Discussion Starter
Yuganov Konstantin/Shutterstock.com Africa Studio/Shutterstock.com
F
undamental dimensions play important world, we use seven fundamental dimensions to
roles in our everyday lives. Throughout correctly express ourselves in our surroundings
history, human beings have realized that we today. They are length, mass, time, temperature,
need only a few physical dimensions or quanti- electric current, amount of substance, and luminous
ties to describe our surroundings and events. For intensity.
example, we need a length dimension to describe The other important concept we have learned
how tall, how long, or how wide something is. We is that not only do we need to define these physi-
also use two or more length dimensions to calcu- cal dimensions to describe our surroundings, but
late and describe the area and volume of some- we also need some way to scale or divide them
thing. Time is another physical dimension that we into units. For example, the dimension time can be
need to answer questions such as: “How old are divided into both small and large portions, such
you?”, “When are you coming over?”, or “When is as seconds, minutes, hours, days, months, years,
the next test?” Based on what we know about our and so on.
To the Students: Take a few minutes and think about the previously mentioned
dimensions. Consider how frequently you used them in your daily life activities
during the past week. Did you use the length dimension or its related quantities
such as area or volume? How about the time dimension, the mass dimension, or the
temperature dimension? How did you use these dimensions? To get you started,
during the past seven days, did you purchase any food, drink, or gasoline? If so,
what amounts (express units) did you buy? Did you discuss the weather conditions
with anyone?
38 CHAPTER 2 Fundamental Dimensions and Systems of Units
LO1 2.1 Fundamental Dimensions and Units

In this section, we introduce you to the concepts of dimensions and units. You
have been using these concepts all your life; here we define them in a formal
way. For example, when asked, “How tall are you?” you may respond with, “I
am 6 feet (183 centimeters) tall.” When asked, “What is the temperature outside
today?”, you could answer with something like, “Extremely hot; I heard it might
reach 107 degrees Fahrenheit (428Celsius)!”
LStockStudio/Shutterstock.com TerryM/Shutterstock.com
In this chapter, you are introduced to some very important concepts that you
need as a foundation to understand other materials in the subsequent chapters.
Read this chapter carefully, and remind yourself that a good understanding
of fundamental dimensions and units is very important in understanding our
energy and environmental footprints. We all want to be good global citizens, so
we need to learn these concepts well. Don’t be intimidated by definitions and
numbers. You can do it!
The evolution of the human intellect
has taken shape over a period of thousands
of years. People from all over the world
observed and learned from their surround-
ings. They used the knowledge gained from
their observations of nature to design,
develop, test, and fabricate tools, shelter,
weapons, water transportation, and the
means to cultivate and produce more food.
Moreover, people realized that they needed
only a few physical quantities called dimen-
sions to fully describe natural events and
their surroundings.
A dimension is a physical quantity, such
as length, mass, time, or temperature, that
StockLite/Shutterstock.com makes it possible for us to communicate
about and analyze our surroundings and events. For example, the
length dimension describes how tall, how long, or how wide some-
thing is. People also realize that some things are heavier than other
things, so there is a need for another physical quantity (dimension)
to describe that observation: the concept of mass and weight. Early
humans did not fully understand the concept of gravity; conse-
quently, the distinction between mass and weight, which is a force,
was made later in history.
Mass represents the amount of matter that makes up all things.
Then what is force? The simplest form of a force that represents the
interaction of two objects is a push or a pull. When you push or pull
on a vacuum cleaner, that interaction between your hand and the
vacuum cleaner is called force. In this example, the force is exerted
by one object (your hand) on another object (the vacuum cleaner)
by direct contact.
Not all forces result from direct contact. For example, gravita-
tional force is not exerted by direct contact. If you hold this book,
say, 3 feet above the ground and let it go, what happens? It falls!
iStockPhoto/JackF This is due to the gravitational force that is exerted by the Earth
on the book. Gravitational forces act at a distance. The weight
of an object is the force that is exerted on the object by the
Earth’s gravity.
Time is another physical dimension that humans need to
understand in order to explain their surroundings and answer
questions such as, “How old are you?” or “How long does it take
to go from here to there?” The response to these questions in
the past may have been something like, “I am many full-moons
old,” or “It takes two days to go from our village to the village
on the other side of the mountains.”
To describe how cold or hot something is, humans need yet
another physical quantity, or physical dimension, that we now
refer to as temperature. Think about the important role of tem-
perature in your everyday life to describe the various states of
things. Do you know the answers to some of these questions?
What is your deep body temperature?

rangizzz/Shutterstock.com What is the room air temperature?
What is the temperature of the water that you used this
morning to take a shower?
What is the temperature of the air inside your refrigerator
that keeps the milk cold overnight?
What is the temperature inside the freezer section of your
refrigerator?
What is the temperature of the air coming out of your hair
dryer?
Once you start thinking about the role temperature plays in

quantifying what goes on in our surroundings, you realize that
you could ask hundreds of similar questions.
Let us now examine what we mean by temperature more
closely. Temperature provides a measure of the molecular activ-
Vitaliy Netiaga/Shutterstock.com ity of an object. All objects and living things are made of matter,
and matter itself is made up of atoms, or chemical elements. Moreover, atoms

are combined naturally or in a laboratory setting to create molecules. For exam-
ple, as you already know, water molecules are made of two atoms of hydrogen
and one atom of oxygen. Temperature represents the level of molecular activity
of a substance. The molecules of a substance at a high temperature are more
active than those at a lower temperature.
Early humans relied on their sense of touch or vision to measure how cold
or how warm something was. In fact, we still rely on touch today. When you
are planning to take a bath, you first turn the hot and cold water on and let
the bathtub fill with water. Before you enter the tub, however, you first touch
the water to feel how warm it is. Basically, you are using your sense of touch
to get an indication of the temperature. Of course, by using touch alone, you
can’t quantify the temperature of water accurately. You cannot say, for example,
that the water is at 1048 F (408C). Another example of how people rely on their
senses to quantify temperature is the way blacksmiths use their eyes to esti-
mate how hot a fire is. They judge the temperature by the color of the burning
fuel before they place an iron piece in the fire. From these examples, you see
that our senses are useful in judging how cold or hot something is, but they are
limited in accuracy and cannot quantify a value for a temperature. Thus, we
need a measuring device that can provide information about the temperature
of something more accurately and effectively. This need led to the development
of thermometers, which are based on the thermal expansion or contraction of
a fluid, such as alcohol, or a liquid metal, such as mercury.
Today, based on what we know about our physical world, we use seven
fundamental dimensions to correctly express ourselves in our surroundings.
They are length, mass, time, temperature, electric current, amount of substance,
and luminous intensity. With the help of these base dimensions, we can present
all other necessary physical quantities that describe how things work.
By now you understand why we need to formally define physical
variables using fundamental dimensions. The other important fact
Dimension is a physical quantity, you need to realize is that early humans needed not only physical
such as length, time, mass, dimensions to describe their surroundings, but also some way to scale
and temperature, that makes it or divide these physical dimensions. As such, we have developed
possible for us to describe our standard units to scale and measure these dimensions. For example,
surroundings and events. time is considered a physical dimension, but it can be divided into
both small and large portions (units), such as seconds, minutes, hours,
sirtravelalot/Shutterstock.com McCarthy’s PhotoWorks/Shutterstock.com
days, months, years, decades, centuries, millennia, and so on. Today, when some-
one asks you how old you are, you reply by saying, “I am 19 years old.” You don’t
say that you are approximately 6,939 days, or 170,000 hours old, even though
these statements may very well be true at that instant! Or to describe the dis-
tance between two cities, we may say that they are 100 miles (161 kilometers)
apart; we don’t say the cities are 528,000 feet (161,000 meters) apart. The point
of these examples is that we use appropriate divisions of physical dimensions
to keep numbers manageable. We have learned to create an appropriate scale
for these fundamental dimensions and divide them properly so that we can
describe particular events, the size of an object, the thermal state of an object,
or an object’s interaction with its surroundings correctly, and we do so without
much difficulty.
12
11
10
iStockPhoto/VSanandhakrishna
Physical Laws
As we mentioned earlier, people all over the world observe and learn from
their surroundings. They use the knowledge gained from their observations of
nature to design, develop, test, and fabricate all kinds of products to address
their needs. Let us now say a few words about how significant observations are
formulated into physical laws, so they can be used to help design products that
we use in our daily lives. You likely have a pretty good idea of what we mean
by mathematics, but what do we mean by a physical law? Well, the universe,
including the Earth that we live on, was created a certain way. There are differ-
ing opinions as to the origin of the universe, but what is important here is that
we have learned through our own observation and by the collective effort of
those before us that things work a certain way in nature. For example, if you
let go of something that you are holding in your hand, it will fall to the ground.
That is an observation that we all agree upon. We can use words to explain our
observations or use another language, such as mathematics and formulas, to
express our findings. Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727) formulated that observation
into a useful mathematical expression that we know today as the universal law
of gravitational attraction. Our understanding of this and other physical laws has
allowed us to design things such as escalators, elevators, parachutes,
planes, and satellites.
Physical laws are based on Another important law that all of you have heard about is
observation and experimentation Newton’s second law of motion. If you place a book on a smooth
and are expressed using table and push it hard enough, it will move. This is simply the way
mathematical formulae. things work. Newton observed this and formulated his o bservation
into what we call Newton’s second law of motion. This is not to say
that other people had not made this simple observation before, but Newton
took it a few steps further. He noticed that, as he increased the mass of the
object being pushed while keeping the magnitude of the force constant
(pushing with the same effort), the object did not move as quickly. Moreover,
he noticed that there was a direct relationship between the magnitude of the
push, the mass of the object being pushed, and the acceleration of the object.
He also noticed that there was a direct relationship between the direction of
the force and the direction of the acceleration. Newton’s second law of motion
now forms the basis for a discipline called mechanics, which is used to design
and predict the behavior of all types of moving things such as the atmosphere,
rivers, cars, and planes.
Again, an important point to remember is that the physical laws are based
on observations. Moreover, we use mathematics and basic physical quanti-
ties to express our observations in the form of a law. Even so, to this day we
may not fully understand why nature works the way it does; we just know it
works. There are physicists who spend their entire lives trying to understand
on a more fundamental basis why nature behaves the way it does. As another
example, when you place a hot object in contact with a cold object, the hot
object cools down, while the cold object warms up, until they both reach an
equilibrium temperature somewhere between the two initial temperatures.
From your everyday experience, you know that the cold object does not get
colder while the hot object gets hotter! Why is that? Well, it is just the way
things work in nature! The second law of thermodynamics, which is based
on this observation, simply states that heat flows spontaneously from a high-
temperature region to a low-temperature region. The object with the higher
temperature (more energetic molecules) transfers some of its energy to the
low-temperature (less energetic molucules) object. When you put some ice
cubes in a glass of warm soda, the soda cools down while the ice warms up
and eventually melts away. You may call this “sharing resources.” The second
law of thermodynamics, which is based on observation, is used to design all

kinds of everyday products, such as refrigerators and heating and cooling
systems.
Take the time to understand these and other upcoming topics in this book,
as they are meant to encourage you to think, evaluate, and analyze. A good
understanding of these topics will allow you to make good decisions at home
or work and in the way you interact with the environment. If you don’t take
the time to understand the basics, you are likely to make poor decisions that
indirectly will affect all of us!
Educated global citizens are also good bookkeepers. What do we mean
by this? Any of us with a checking account knows the importance of accu-
rate record keeping. In order to avoid problems, most of us keep track of the
transactions in terms of payments (e.g., credit card debits, rent, loan payments)
and deposits (paychecks, received loans). Good bookkeepers can tell you
instantly what the balance in their account is. They know they need to add to
Joshua Resnick/Shutterstock.com
the recorded balance whenever they deposit some money and subtract from
the balance with every withdrawal from the account. In a similar way, as good
global citizens, it is important to keep track of how much energy and mate-
rial we consume and how much waste we produce every day. Remember, the
way we treat our environment is judged by Mother Nature—a judge who is
unforgiving of our errors.
Before You Go On
1. Name at least four fundamental dimensions.

2. What is the difference between dimension and unit?
3. Name at least two units that you use every day.
4. What is the difference between mass and weight?
5. What do we mean by a physical law and what are such laws based on?
6. Give two examples of physical laws.
Dimension
Unit
Mass
Weight
LO2 2.2 Systems of Units

In the previous section, we explained that a dimension or physical quantity such
as time can be divided into small and large units or portions such as seconds,
hours, and days. Throughout the world, there are several systems of units in use
today. The most common are the International System (abbreviated as SI, from
French Système International d’Unités, which is also known as the metric system)
and the U.S. Customary System of units. Let us now examine these systems of
units in greater detail.
International System (SI) of Units

Meter, kilogram, second, Kelvin
(or degree Celsius), ampere, mole, We begin our discussion of systems of units with the International
System (SI) of units, because SI is the most common system of
and candela are units of length,
units used in the world. The origin of the present day International
mass, time, temperature, electric
System of units can be traced back to 1799 when the meter and
current, amount of substance,
kilogram were used as the first two base or fundamental units. It
and luminous intensity in the SI was not until 1946 that the proposal for the ampere as a base unit
System. for electric current (explained in more detail in Chapter 6) was
approved by the General Conference on Weights and Measures
(CGPM). In 1954, the CGPM included units of degree Kelvin (for
absolute temperature) and candela (for luminous intensity). The mole (for
amount of substance) was added as a base unit in 1971. A list of SI basic units
is given in Table 2.1.
You need not memorize the formal definitions of base units as provided
by the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (BIPM). From your every-
day life experiences, you likely have a pretty good idea about some of them.
For example, you know how short a time period a second is or how long a
period a year is. However, you may need to develop a “feel” for some of the
other base units. For example, how long is a meter? How tall are you? Are you
under 2 meters or above 2 meters? In general, most adults are between 1.6 and
2 meters tall. What is your body mass in kilograms?
Developing a “feel” for units will make you a better informed global citizen.
Also, when you travel abroad, the knowledge of these units could be quite
useful to you. In 1960, the first series of prefixes and symbols of decimal mul-
tiples of SI units were adopted. Over the years, the list has been extended to
include those listed in Table 2.2. When studying Table 2.2, note that nano (1029 ),
micro (1026 ) , centi (1022 ) , kilo (10 3 ), mega (10 6 ), giga (10 9 ), and tera (1012 ) are
examples of decimal multiples and prefixes used with SI units. You already use
some of these multiples and prefixes in your daily conversations. For example,
when describing an electronic file or a hard drive size, you may say megabytes,
gigabytes, or terabytes.
The units for other physical quantities that we use in our lives can be
derived from the base units. For example, the unit for force is the newton (N),
which is derived from Newton’s second law of motion. One newton
is defined as a magnitude of a force that, when applied to 1 kilo-
Nano (1029 ), micro (1026 ), centi gram of mass, will accelerate the mass (change its speed) at a rate of
(1022 ), kilo (103 ), mega (106 ), giga 1 meter per second squared ( m /s 2 ) . That is, 1 N 5 (1 kg)(1 m/s 2 ). As
(109 ), and tera (1012 ) are examples well-educated global citizens, it is also important to know the differ-
of decimal multiples and prefixes ence between mass and weight. As mentioned previously, the weight
used with SI units. of an object is the force that is exerted on the mass of the object by
the Earth’s gravity and is based on the universal law of gravitational
TA B L E 2 . 1 The SI Base Units

Physical Quantity
(Dimension) Name of SI Base Unit SI Symbol
Length Meter m
1.6 m–2.0 m
Range of height for many adults
Mass Kilogram kg
50 kg–120 kg
Range of mass for many adults
Time Fastest person can run Second s

100 meters in approximately
10 seconds
Thermodynamic Kelvin ºC or K
temperature
Ice water: 0ºC or 273 K

Comfortable room temperature: 22ºC
or 295 K
Electric current 120 watts Ampere A
Electrical
120 volts Electrical
device
1 amp
Amount of substance Uranium 238 One of the heaviest Mole mol

Gold 197 atoms known
Silver 108
Copper 64
Calcium 40
Aluminum 27
Carbon 12 Common carbon is
Helium 4 used as a standard
Hydrogen 1 Lightest atom
Luminous intensity Candela cd

A candle has luminous intensity
of approximately 1 candela
attraction. The following mathematical relationship shows the relationship

between the weight of an object, its mass, and the acceleration due to gravity.
weight 5 (mass)(acceleration due to gravity) 2.1
For example, an apple with a mass of 100 grams or 0.1 kilograms has an
approximate weight of 1 newton, or a one-liter bottle of water has a mass of
one kilogram and an approximate weight of 10 newtons, as shown in Figure 2.1.
TA B L E 2 . 2 List of Decimal Multiples and Prefixes Used with SI Base Units

Multiplication Factors Prefix SI Symbol
1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 5 10 24 yotta Y
1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 5 10 21 zetta Z
1,000,000,000,000,000,000 5 1018 exa E
1,000,000,000,000,000 5 10 15 peta P
1,000,000,000,000 5 10 12 tera T
1,000,000,000 5 10 9 giga G
1,000,000 5 10 6 mega M
1,000 5 103 kilo k
100 5 10 2 hecto h
10 5 10 1 deka da
0.1 5 1021 deci d
0.01 5 10 22 centi c
0.001 5 10 23 milli m
0.000,001 5 1026 micro μ
0.000,000,001 5 10 29 nano n
0.000,000,000,001 5 10 212 pico p
0.000,000,000,000,001 5 10215 femto f
0.000,000,000,000,000,001 5 10 218 atto a
0.000,000,000,000,000,000,001 5 10 221 zepto z
0.000,000,000,000,000,000,000,001 5 10 224 yocto y
1 liter
Weight = (mass)(acceleration due to gravity)

= (100 grams = 0.1 kg)(9.8 m/s2) Weight = (mass)(acceleration due to gravity)
≈ 1 newton = (1 kg)(9.8 m/s2)
1 kg
≈ 10 newtons
100 g
100 200
300
0
400 100 200
300
0 50 0
400
50
60
0 0 50
0
50
60
4 0
0
70
0
4
70
80
0
0
80
900
0
900
4
1
1100 1200
1
1100 1200
1300 1400
1300 1400
3500
Scale
1500
3500
Scale
1500
Kilograms (kg.) and grams (g.)

1600
Kilograms (kg.) and grams (g.)

1600
17
00
2
17
18
3
00
00
2
18
19
00 00 3
00
31 19
00 00
2900
2500 2100 31
2800 0 2300
2200
2900
2500 2100
2600 270 2400 2200
2800 2300
2700 2600 2400
FIGURE 2.1 The relationship between mass and weight.
This is a good place to say a few words about acceleration

due to the Earth’s gravity, which has an approximate value of
9.8 m/s 2 (or 9.81 m/s 2 to be more exact). To better understand
what this value represents, consider a situation where you let go
of something from the rooftop of a tall building (see Figure 2.2).
If you were to express your observation, you will note the fol-
lowing. At the instant the object is released, it has zero speed.
The speed of the object will then increase by 9.8 m/s each sec-
ond after you release it, resulting in speeds of 9.8 m/s after
1 second, 19.6 m/s after 2 seconds, 29.4 m/s after 3 seconds, and
so on. Moreover, when an object changes speed, we say it is
Africa Studio/Shutterstock.com accelerating. Weight represents an equivalent force that we must
exert to prevent the object from falling or accelerating toward
the ground. For example, when you are holding on to a suitcase above the
ground, you feel the force that your hand has to apply to prevent the suitcase
from accelerating and falling to the ground. To better understand the difference
between mass and weight, let us next consider the following example.
EXAMPLE 2.1
Consider a situation where an exploration vehicle having a mass of
250 kilograms on the Earth (gravity Earth 5 9.8 m/s 2 ) is sent to the Moon and
planet Mars to explore their surfaces. What is the mass of the vehicle on the
Moon where acceleration due to gravity is 1.6 m/s 2 and on Mars where it is
3.7 m/s 2? What is the weight of the vehicle on the Earth, on the Moon, and
on Mars?
The mass of the vehicle is 250 kg on the Moon and on Mars as well. The
mass of the vehicle is always 250 kg, regardless of where it is located. The
mass represents the matter that makes up the vehicle; since that does not
Michael Ransburg/Shutterstock.com
change, the mass remains constant.
However, the weight of the vehicle varies depending on the gravitational
pull of the location. On the Earth, the vehicle will have a weight of
m
weight on Earth 5 (250 kg)(9.8 ) 5 2,450 N
s2
whereas on the Moon and Mars, the weight of the vehicle on each is,
respectively,
m
weight on Moon 5 (250 kg)(1.6 ) 5 400 N
s2
m
weight on Mars 5 (250 kg)(3.7 ) 5 925 N
s2
As you can see, the vehicle will weigh the least on the surface of the moon,
and it would require the least amount of effort to lift it off the moon’s
surface.
Vi = 0 m/s
1s v = 9.81 m/s
2s v = 19.62 m/s
3s v = 29.43 m/s
4s v = 39.24 m/s
5s v = 49.05 m/s
6s v = 58.86 m/s
FIGURE 2.2 The change in the speed of a falling object as a function of time.
Let us now turn our attention to the SI units for temperature: Celsius and Kel-
vin. As we explained earlier, thermometers, which are based on thermal expansion
or contraction of a fluid (such as alcohol) or a liquid metal (such as mercury),
provide a quantitative measure of temperature. As you probably know, almost
everything will expand and its length will increase when you increase its tempera-
ture. Meanwhile, it will contract and its length will decrease when you decrease
its temperature. Most of you have seen a thermometer with a graduated glass rod
that is filled with mercury or alcohol. On the Celsius scale (under standard atmo-
spheric conditions), the value of zero was arbitrarily assigned to the temperature
at which water freezes, and the value of 100 was assigned to the temperature at
which water boils. It is important to understand that the numbers were assigned
arbitrarily. If someone had decided to assign a value of 100 to the ice water tem-
perature and a value of 1,000 to boiling water, we would have had a very different
type of temperature scale today! In fact, as you will see in the next section, in the
U.S. Customary system of units, on the Fahrenheit temperature scale (under stan-
dard atmospheric conditions), the temperature at which water freezes is assigned
a value of 32, and the temperature at which water boils is assigned a value of 212.
Because both the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales are arbitrarily defined, sci-
entists recognized a need for a better temperature scale. This need led to the
definition of absolute scales, the Kelvin and Rankine scales, which are based on
the behavior of a perfect gas, where at zero absolute temperature, all molecular
activities of the gas will stop.
In SI, the unit of temperature is expressed in degree Celsius (8C) or in terms
of absolute temperature Kelvin (K), and the relationship between Celsius and
Kelvin is given by
temperature (K) 5 temperature (8C) 1 273 2.2
In Chapters 5, 6, and 7, we discuss the physical meaning, significance, and

relevance of additional SI units, including those used to quantify energy, power,
electricity, and heat flow in our daily activities.
100 100 100 degrees Celsius = 212 degrees Fahrenheit
80 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
32 degrees Fahrenheit = 0 degree Celsius

0 0
Ice Water Boiling Water
U.S. Customary System of Units

Feet, pound mass, second, degree
Rankine (or degree Fahrenheit), In the United States, a system of units called U.S. Customary is used.
ampere, mole, and candela are units
In the U.S. Customary system, the unit of length is a foot (ft), which
is equal to 0.3048 meters; the unit of mass is a pound mass (lbm),
of length, mass, time, temperature,
which is equal to 0.4535 kg; and the unit of time is a second (s). The
electric current, amount of
unit of force is a pound force (lbf), and 1 lbf is defined as the weight
substance, and luminous intensity of an object having a mass of 1 lbm at a location where accelera-
in the U.S. Customary system. tion due to gravity is 32.2 ft/s 2 . One pound force is equal to 4.448
newtons (N).
Because the pound force is not defined using Newton’s second law and
lbm ? ft
Equation (2.1), the correction factor 32.2 must be used with mass in
lbf ? s 2
many formulas. The reason is that, as mentioned earlier, in the U.S. Customary
system, one pound mass is defined as having a weight of one pound force; so
if you were to use Equation (2.1) to calculate the weight of one pound mass,
you would get
weight 5 (mass)(acceleration due to gravity)

 ft  lbm ? ft
weight 5 (1 lbm)  32.2 2  5 32.2
 s  s2
lbm ? ft
According to this equation, one pound mass has a weight of 32.2 ,
s2
which numerically is not equal to 1 pound force as initially defined! So to avoid
this problem, we must first divide the value of the mass by the correction factor
lbm ? ft
32.2 , as shown here.
lbf ? s 2

mass
 
 1 lbm   ft 
weight 5  32.2 2  5 1 lbf
lbm ? ft   s 
 32.2 
lbf ? s 2 
Now because of the correction factor, the initial definition of one pound mass
having a weight of one pound force is upheld, and the distinction between mass
(pound mass) and weight (pound force) is also made. Many people find the
need for the correction factor confusing. Don’t worry too much! Just remember,
when using U.S. Customary units, the correction factor given for the mass must
be used in many formulas.
The unit of temperature in the U.S. Customary system is expressed in degree
Fahrenheit (8 F) or in terms of absolute temperature degree Rankine (8 R). The
relationship between Fahrenheit and Rankine is given by
temperature (8 R) 5 temperature (8 F) 1 460 2.3
And the relationships between the SI and U.S. Customary temperature

scales are given by
5
temperature (8C) 5 [temperature (8 F) 2 32] 2.4
9
or
9
temperature (8 F) 5 temperature (8C) 1 32 2.5
5
Next, we look at an example that demonstrates how to use these tempera-

ture relationships.
EXAMPLE 2.2
What is the equivalent value of T 5 508C in degrees Fahrenheit, Rankine,
and Kelvin?
To convert the value of temperature (T ) from degrees Celsius to Fahren-
heit, we use Equation (2.5) and substitute the value of 50 for the temperature
(8C) variable as shown.
9 9
temperature (8 F) 5 temperature (8C) 1 32 5 (50) 1 32 5 1228 F
5 5
And to convert the result to degree Rankine, we use Equation (2.3):
temperature (8 R) 5 temperature (8 F) 1 460 5 122 1 460 5 5828 R
Finally, to covert the value of T 5 508C to Kelvin, we use Equation (2.2):
T (K) 5 T (8C) 1 273 5 (50) 1 273 5 323 K
A list of U.S. Customary basic units is given in Table 2.3.

The relationships among magnitudes of length, mass, and temperature in SI
and U.S. Customary units are depicted in Figure 2.3. When examining Figure 2.3,
note that 1 meter is slightly larger than 3 feet, 1 kilogram is slightly larger than
2 pounds, and every 10 degrees Celsius difference is equal to an 18 degrees
Fahrenheit difference. Examples of both SI and U.S. Customary units used in
our everyday lives are shown in Table 2.4.
TA B L E 2 . 3 The U.S. Customary Base Units

Name of U.S. Customary U.S. Customary
Physical Quantity (Dimension) Base Unit Symbol
Length Foot ft
5 ft – 6.5 ft
Range of height for many adults
Mass Pound mass lbm

110 lbm – 265 lbm
Range of mass for many adults
Time Fastest person can run Second s

110 yards in approximately
10 seconds
Thermodynamic Rankine ºF or ºR
temperature
Ice water: 32ºF or 492ºR

Comfortable room temperature: 72ºF
or 532ºR
Electric current 120

12 watts Ampere A
120 volts Electrical
device
1 amp
Amount of substance Uranium 238 One of the heaviest Mole mol

Gold 197 atoms known
Silver 108
Copper 64
Calcium 40
Aluminum 27
Carbon 12 Common Carbon is
Helium 4 used as a standard
Hydrogen 1 Lightest atom
Luminous intensity Candela cd

A candle has luminous
intensity of approximately
1 candela
1 meter
1 foot 1 foot 1 foot
T(˚C) T(˚F)
0 32
10 50
1 pound 20 68
1 kilogram 30 86
1 pound 40 104
50 122
60 140
70 158
80 176
90 194
100 212
FIGURE 2.3 The relationships among magnitudes of various SI and U.S. Customary units. Note
that 1 m is slightly larger than 3 ft, 1 kg is slightly larger than 2 lbm, and every 108C
difference is equal to an 188F difference.
TA B L E 2 . 4 Examples of SI and U.S. Customary Units in Everyday Use
Examples of Usage SI Units Used

Medication dose such as pills 100 mg, 250 mg, or 500 mg
Sports:
Swimming 100 m breaststroke or butterfly stroke
Running 100 m, 200 m, 400 m, 5,000 m, and so on
Automobile engine capacity 2.2 L (liter), 3.8 L (1 liter 5 1,000 cm3 )
Light bulbs 60 W, 100 W, or 150 W
Electric consumption Kilowatt-hour (kWh)
Radio broadcasting:
Signal frequencies 88–108 MHz (FM broadcast band)
0.54–1.6 MHz (AM broadcast band)
Police, fire frequencies 153–159 MHz
Global positioning system signals 1,575.42 MHz and 1,227.60 MHz
Examples of Usage U.S. Customary Units Used
Fuel tank capacity of an automobile 20 gallons or 2.67 ft 3 (1 ft 3 5 7.48 gallons)
Sports (length of a football field) 100 yd (1 yard 5 3 feet)
Power capacity of an automobile 150 hp (1 hp 5 550 lb ? ft/s)
Distance between two cities 100 miles (1 mile 5 5,280 ft)
1 liter 1 liter As shown in Table 2.4, a com-

1 liter 1 liter
mon SI unit for volume is the
liter, which is equal to 1,000 cm 3
(cubic centimeters), and 1,000
liters is equal to 1 cubic meter (i.e.,
1,000 liters 5 1 m 3 ). Also, note
that 1 cubic foot is 7.48 gallons
(1 ft 3 < 7.5 gallons). Good num-
1 gallon
≈ bers to remember: a liter of water
has a mass of 1 kilogram, and
a gallon of water has a mass of
approximately 8.3 pounds.
The watt (W) and horsepower
fotomak/Shutterstock.com mihalec/Shutterstock.com
(hp) are units of power in the
SI and U.S. Customary systems,
respectively, and kilowatt-hour
(kWh) is an SI unit of energy. We discuss these units in greater detail in
Chapter 5 after we explain the different forms of energy and power. The units
of frequency are commonly expressed in kilohertz (kHz), megahertz (MHz),
or gigahertz (GHz). Frequency represents the number of cycles per second.
For example, the alternating electric current in a home in the U.S. is 60 cycles
per second or a hertz (Hz). Alternating current (ac) is the flow of electric
charge that periodically reverses. We discuss this concept in Chapter 6 when
we discuss electricity.
Before You Go On
1. What are the two most common systems of units?

2. What are the base SI units?
3. Name at least three prefixes and symbols of decimal multiples of SI units.
4. What are the units of mass and weight in U.S. Customary units?
5. What do we mean by absolute zero temperature?
Absolute zero temperature

Rankine temperature scale
Kelvin temperature scale
newton
LO3 2.3 Dimensional Homogeneity and Unit

Conversion
Another important concept that you need to understand is that all formulas
used in any analysis must be dimensionally homogeneous. What do we mean
by dimensionally homogeneous? Consider the following: Can you add some-
one’s height of 6 feet (183 cm) to their mass of 285 lbm (129 kg) and their
body temperature of 988 F (36.78C) ; that is, 6 1 285 1 98 5 389 (or in SI
units, 183 1 129 1 36.7 5 348.7 )? Of course not! What are the units of such a
calculation?
Therefore, if we were to use the formula L 5 a 1 b 1 c in which the vari-
able L on the left-hand side of the equation has a dimension of length, the
variables a, b, and c on the right-hand side of the equation also must have
dimensions of length. Otherwise, if variables a, b, and c had different dimensions,
such as length, mass, and temperature, respectively, the given formula would
be inhomogeneous, which would be like adding someone’s height to their mass
and body temperature.
Now you know why it is important to check for dimensional homogeneity in
a formula when performing an analysis. It is equally important to check for the
consistency of units in an analysis. Some of you may recall that not too long ago,
NASA lost a spacecraft called the Mars Climate Orbiter because two groups of
engineers working on the project neglected to correctly communicate their cal-
culations with appropriate units. According to an internal review conducted by
NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, “a failure to recognize and correct an error
in a transfer of information between the Mars Climate Orbiter spacecraft team
in Colorado and the mission navigation team in California led to the loss of the
spacecraft.” The peer review findings indicated that one team used U.S. Custom-
ary units (e.g., foot and pound) while the other used SI units (e.g., meter and
kilogram) for a key spacecraft operation. According to NASA, the information
exchanged between the teams was critical to the maneuvers required to place
the spacecraft in the proper Mars orbit. This waste of tax money could have been
averted easily. As you can see, when performing analyses, a need to convert from
one system of units to another arises. You don’t have to become an engineer
+ + =?
Mega Pixel/Shutterstock.com
iStockPhoto/Busracavus
iStockPhoto/Theasis
TA B L E 2 . 5 Systems of Units and Conversion Factors

System of Units Conversion
Dimension SI U.S. Customary Factors
Length meter (m) foot (ft) 1 m < 3.3 ft
1 ft < 0.3 m
Time second (s) second (s) none
Mass kilogram (kg) pound mass (lbm) 1 kg < 2.2 lbm
1 lbm < 0.45 kg
Force newton (N) One pound mass* 1 N < 0.225 lbf
 m weighs one pound force at sea level 1 lbf < 4.45 N
1 N < (1 kg)  1 2 
 s 
Temperature degree Celsius ( 8 C) or degree Fahrenheit ( 8F) or degree
Kelvin (K) Rankine ( 8R)
K 5 8 C 1 273 8R 5 8F 1 460
*The relationship between pound mass and pound force is not defined using Newton’s second law.
to learn to convert information from one system of units to another correctly.

Given today’s global economy, you may end up working in Europe or Asia, and
as a result find yourself in a situation where you need to convert some data from,
say, feet to meters or pound mass to kilograms. The conversion factors for units
commonly encountered in daily life are shown in Table 2.5. Example 2.3 shows
the steps that you need to take to convert from one system of units to another.
EXAMPLE 2.3
As we mentioned earlier, with today’s global economy, you could travel to
or end up working in Europe or Asia and find yourself in a situation where
you need to convert some data from, say, feet to meters or pound mass to
kilograms. In this example, we show the steps that you
need to take to convert information from U.S. Customary
to metric units. Make sure to study them carefully, as these
steps become important in subsequent chapters.
Consider a person who is 6 feet and 3 inches tall and
weighs 185 pounds (lbf) driving a car at a speed of 65 miles
per hour over a distance of 25 miles between two cities.
The outside air temperature is 808 F. Let us now convert
all of the values given in this example from U.S. Custom-
ary to SI units.
The steps to convert the person’s height from feet and
Ivan Kurmyshov/Shutterstock.com inches to meters and centimeters are explained below.
step 3
step 2
 step1 
  1 ft    0.3048 m 
height 5  6 ft 1 (3 in.)  5 1.905 m
 12 in.    1 ft 
 
or
step4
 100 cm 
height 5 (1.905 m)  5 190.5 cm
 1 m 
Step 1. Start with converting the 3-inch value into feet by realizing that
1 ft 
1 foot is equal to 12 inches. The expression  conveys the
 12 in. 
same fact, except when you write it in fraction form and multiply it
by the 3-inch value as

 1 ft 
(3 in. ) 
 12 in. 
the inch units in the numerator and denominator cancel out, and the
3-inch value is now represented in feet.
Step 2. Add the results of step 1 to 6 feet.
0.3048 m 
Step 3. Multiply the results of step 2 by  , because 1 foot (ft)
 1 ft 
is equal to 0.3048 meter, and the foot units in the numerator and
denominator also cancel out. This step leads to the person’s height
being expressed in meters as
 1 ft   0.3048 m 
(6 ft ) 1 (1 in. ) 
 12 in.   1 ft 
Step 4. To convert the result of step 3 from meters to centimeters, we
 100 cm 
multiply 1.854 m by  , because 1 meter is equal to 100 cm,
 1 m 
and this step cancels out the meters in the numerator and denominator.
The step to convert the person’s weight from pound force to

newtons is shown below.
step 5
 4.448 N 
weight 5 (185 lbf)  5 822.8 N
 1 lbf 
Step 5. To convert the person’s weight, multiply the 185-pound force value
by  4.448 N  , because 1 pound force (lbf) is equal to 4.448 newtons

 1 lbf 
(N). This leads to pound force units in the numerator and denomi-
nator canceling out and the person’s weight being expressed in
 4.448 N 
newtons as (185 lbf )  .
 1 lbf 
The steps to convert the speed of the car from miles per hour to
kilometers per hour are
step 8

step 7

step 6

 miles   5,280 ft   0.3048 m   1 km  km
speed 5  65        5 104.6
 h 1 mile 1 ft  1,000 m  h
Step 6. To convert the speed of the car from 65 miles per hour to kilo-
meters per hour, start by converting the 65 miles value to feet;
Since 1 mile is equal to 5,280 feet, multiply the 65 miles by 5,280.
 miles   5,280 ft   ft 
 65    5  (65)(5,280)  . This step cancels out the
h   1 mile  h
miles units in the numerator and denominator and results in the
speed value being represented in feet per hour (ft/h).
0.3048 m 
Step 7. Next, multiply the results of step 6 by  , because 1 foot
 1 ft 
is equal to 0.3048 meter. This step cancels out the foot units in the
numerator and denominator and leads to
 miles   5,280 ft   0.3048 m 

 65      5 104,607 m/h
h   1 mile   1 ft 
Step 8. To convert the result of step 7 from meters per hour (m/h) to kilome-
ters per hour (km/h), note that 1 kilometer is equal to 1,000 meters,
 m  1 km 
and multiply  104,607  by  to cancel out the meter
 h  1,000 m 
units in the numerator and denominator. The speed of the car is now
expressed in kilometers per hour (km/h).
The steps to convert the distance traveled between two cities
from miles to kilometers are similar to the steps discussed previously.
step 11

step 10

step 9

 5,280 ft   0.3048 m   1 km 
distance 5 (25 miles)  5 40.2 km
 1 mile   1 ft   1,000 m 
 5,280 ft 
Step 9. Convert the miles to feet by multiplying (25 miles )  .
 1 mile 
 5,280 ft   0.3048 m 
Step 10. Convert the feet to meters by (25 miles ) 
 1 mile   1 ft 
Step 11. Convert the meters to kilometers by
 5,280 ft   0.3048 m   1 km 
(25 miles ) 
 1 mile   1 ft  
 1,000 m 
To convert the air temperature from degrees Fahrenheit to Celsius, we

substitute for T(8 F) the value 80 in Equation (2.3).
5
T (8C) 5 [T (8 F) 2 32]
9
5
T (8C) 5 [80 2 32] 5 26.78C
9
EXAMPLE 2.4
You don’t have to lie about your mass! For those of us who might be slightly
massive (or as commonly said, overweight), it might be wiser to express our
mass in kilograms rather than in pound mass.
For example, a person who has a body mass of 150 pound mass (lbm)
would sound skinny if they were instead to convert this value and express
their body mass in kilograms (kg).
 1 kg   1 kg 
(150 lbm)  5 (150 lbm )  5 68 kg
 2.2 lbm   2.2 lbm 
To convert the mass from pound mass (lbm) to kilograms (kg), we note that
1 kg is equal to 2.2 lbm, and to obtain the result in kilograms, multiply the
“I’m not 1 kg
150 lbm by the conversion factor of , which reads 1 kg is equal to
overweight. 2.2 lbm
2.2 lbm. This step cancels out the pound mass units in the numerator and
I’m just nine denominator as shown.
inches too As you can see from the result, 150 lbm is equal to 68 kg, and therefore,
short.”—Shelley they are telling the truth about their body mass. So you don’t have to “fib”
about your body mass; knowledge of units can bring about instant results
Winters without any exercise or diet.
Before You Go On
1. Why is it important to know how to convert from one system of units to another?
2. What do we mean by dimensional homogeneity? Give an example.
3. Show the steps that you would take to convert your height from feet and inches to meters
and centimeters.
4. Show the steps that you would take to convert your weight from pound force to newtons.
Dimensional homogeneity
Unit conversion
2.4 Components and Systems 59
LO4 2.4 Components and Systems

As good global citizens, you should be mindful of the entire life cycle
Every product is considered a of a product when purchasing it. Think about the natural resources
system that serves a purpose. A that were used to make the product and how much energy it took to
system is made up of smaller parts produce, transport, use, and eventually dispose of it. As is the case with
called components. any new areas you explore, the concepts of energy, environment, and
sustainability have their own terminologies. Make sure you spend a
little time familiarizing yourself with these terms so you can follow
the related concepts later. Let us now focus on some terms that you may have
heard but do not fully understand. For example, what do we mean by a system
and its components?
Every product that you own or will purchase someday is considered a
system that is made of components. Let us start with a simple example, one
that many of us are familiar with, to demonstrate what we mean by a system
and its components. Consider a winter coat. First, note that the coat serves
a purpose. Its primary function is to offer additional insulation so that our
body heat does not escape as quickly and as freely as it would without pro-
tective covering.
The coat may be divided into smaller components: the fabric comprising
the main body of the coat, insulating material, a liner, threads, zipper(s), and
buttons. Moreover, each component may be further subdivided into smaller
components. For example, the main body of the jacket may be divided into
sleeves, a collar, pockets, the chest section, and the back section (see Figure 2.4).
Each component serves a purpose: The pockets were designed to hold things,
the sleeves cover our arms, and so on. The main function of the zipper is to
allow us to open and close the front of the jacket freely. It too consists of smaller
components. Hence, a well-designed coat not only looks appealing to the eyes,
but also has functional components, keeps us warm during the winter, and is
made of sustainable materials.
Collar
Sleeve
Zipper
Pocket
Insulation
material
FIGURE 2.4 A simple system and its components.
Other systems are similar to a winter coat. Any given product (system) can
be divided into smaller, manageable subsystems, and each subsystem can be
further divided into smaller and smaller components. The components of a
well-designed system should function and fit well together so that the primary
purpose of the product is attained. Let us consider another example. The pri-
mary function of a car is to move us from one place to another in a reason-
able amount of time. The car must provide a comfortable area for us to sit in.
Furthermore, it must provide some protection from the outside elements, such
as harsh weather and harmful objects.
The automobile consists of thousands of parts. When viewed in its entirety,
it is a complicated system; however, it may be divided into major subsystems,
such as an electrical system, body, chassis, power train, and a heating and/or
air conditioning unit (see Figure 2.5). Each major subsystem can be further
subdivided into smaller components. For example, the main body of the car
consists of doors, hinges, locks, windows, and so on; the electrical system of a
car consists of a battery, a starter, an alternator, wiring, lights, switches, radio,
microprocessors, and so on.
The next time you purchase a product, think of it in terms of a system and
its components. Again, be mindful of the entire life cycle of the product. Ask
yourself, “What natural resources were used to make the product?”, “How much
energy did it take to produce and transport the product?”, and “How much
energy would it take to use the product and eventually dispose of it?” We dis-
cuss the concepts of sustainability and life-cycle analysis in greater detail in
Chapter 14.
Wiper motor
system
Engine
Cooling system
Drive train Exhaust system

Brake system
FIGURE 2.5 A system and some of its main components.
Summary 61
Before You Go On
1. What is the difference between a component and a system?

2. What are the major components of a building?
3. How would you define the major components of a supermarket?
4. How would you define the major components of your college?
Component
System
S U M M A R Y
LO1 Fundamental Dimensions and Units way in nature. For example, if you let go of something
By now, you should understand the importance of that you are holding in your hand, it will fall to the
fundamental dimensions in everyday life, and why— ground. This is an observation that we all agree upon.
as a good global citizen—you should develop a good We can use words to explain our observations or use
grasp of them. As people, we have realized that we another language, such as mathematics and formulas,
need only a few physical dimensions or quantities to to express our findings. Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727)
describe our surroundings and events. For example, formulated that observation into a useful mathemati-
we need a length dimension to describe how tall, cal expression that we know as the universal law of
how long, or how wide something is. Time is another gravitational attraction.
physical dimension that we need to answer questions
such as, “How old are you?” or “How long does it LO2 Systems of Units
take to go from here to there?” You should also know The SI system of units (from French: Système Interna-
that, based on what we know about our world today, tional d’Unités) is the most common system of units
we need seven fundamental dimensions to correctly used in the world. You should be familiar with these
express ourselves in our surroundings. They are length, units of length (meter), time (second), mass (kilo-
mass, time, temperature, electric current, amount of gram), temperature (Kelvin or degree Celsius), elec-
substance, and luminous intensity. The other impor- tric current (ampere), amount of substance (mole),
tant concept that you should know is that not only and luminous intensity (candela). You also should
do we need to define these physical dimensions to have a good feeling for what these units represent
describe our surroundings, but we also need some way (for example, how much a kilogram is) and appreci-
to scale or divide them into units. For example, the ate their importance in your daily life. SI units also
time dimension can be divided into both small and make use of a series of prefixes and symbols of deci-
large portions, such as seconds, minutes, hours, days, mal multiples, such as mega, giga, kilo, etc., to expand
months, years, etc. on their representation.
You should also understand that physical laws The U.S. Customary System of units is used
are based on observation and experimentation. We only in the United States. You should also be famil-
have learned through observation and by the collec- iar with the U.S. Customary units of length (feet),
tive effort of those before us that things work a certain time (second), mass (pound mass), temperature
(degree Rankine or degree Fahrenheit), electric has a dimension of length, then the variables a, b, and
current (ampere), amount of substance (mole), and c on the right-hand side of the equation must also
luminous intensity (candela). You also should have have dimensions of length. This is common sense! It
a good feeling for what these units represent. The is also important (and useful) to know how to con-
U.S. Customary units also make use of some of the vert values from one system of units to another. For
SI prefixes and symbols of decimal multiples such as example, you should be able to convert SI data given
mega, giga, etc. in meters or kilograms to U.S. Customary units of feet
and pound mass and vice versa.
LO3 Dimensional Homogeneity and Unit
Conversion LO4 Components and Systems
You should know what we mean when we say an equa- Every product that you own or will purchase some
tion must be dimensionally homogeneous. For exam- day is considered a system that is made of compo-
ple, you already know that you cannot add someone’s nents. The next time you purchase a product, think
height to their mass and their body temperature; what of it in terms of a system and its components, and be
would be the result of such a calculation? Therefore, if mindful of the entire life cycle of the product. Could
you were to use the formula L 5 a 1 b 1 c, in which the components of the system be recycled and used
the variable L on the left-hand side of the equation for another purpose?
K E Y T E R M S
Ampere 44 Giga 44 Nano 44

Candela 44 Kelvin 48 Newton (N) 44
Celsius 48 Kilo 44 Physical Laws 41
Centi 44 Kilogram 44 Pound Force 49
Component 59 Mass 39 Pound Mass 49
Dimension 38 Mega 44 Rankine 48
Fahrenheit 48 Meter 44 System 59
Foot 49 Micro 44 Tera 44
Force 39 Mole 44 Units 40

You are planning a trip to Europe. In order to pre-
pare yourself for your visit, you need to convert
the following data from U.S. Customary units to SI
units: your height from feet and inches to meters
and centimeters; your mass from pound mass
to kilograms; your desired room-temperature
thermostat setting from Fahrenheit to Celsius;
one-half gallon of drinking water to liters; fifteen
gallons of gasoline to liters; and speed limits of
30, 40, 50, and 60 from miles per hour to kilome-
ters per hour. If you reside outside the U.S. and are
planning a trip to the U.S., convert your data from Oleksiy Mark/Shutterstock.com
SI to U.S. Customary units.
Problems 63
P R O B L E M S
2.1 Convert the information given in the 2.7 A barrel can hold 42 gallons of oil. How
accompanying table from SI units to U.S. many liters of oil are in the barrel?
Customary units. Show all steps of your 2.8 Express the kinetic energy [ 1 2 (mass)(speed)2 ]
solutions. See Example 2.3. of a car with a mass of 1,200 kg moving at a
speed of 100 km/h. First, you need to convert
Convert from SI To U.S. Customary the speed from km/h to the fundamental
Units Units units of m/s. Show the conversion steps. (Note:
We explain the concept of kinetic energy in
120 km/h miles/h and ft/s Chapter 5.)
100 m3 ft 3 2.9 A machine shop has a rectangular floor shape
with dimensions of 30 ft by 50 ft. Express the
80 kg lbm area of the floor in ft 2 , m 2, in 2, and cm 2 . Show
the conversion steps.
900 N lbf
2.10 A trunk of a car has a listed luggage capacity
9.81m/s 2 ft/s 2 of 18 ft 3. Express the capacity in in 3, m 3, and
cm 3. Show the conversion steps.
2.2 Convert the information given in the 2.11 An automobile has a 3.5-liter engine. Express
accompanying table from U.S. Customary to the engine size in in 3. Show the conversion
SI units. Show all steps of your solutions. See steps. Note that 1 liter is equal to 1,000 cm 3 .
Example 2.3.
2.12 The density of air that we breathe at standard
room conditions is 1.2 kg/m 3. Express the
Convert from U.S. To SI Units density in U.S. Customary units. Show the
Customary Units conversion steps.
65 miles/h km/h and m/s 2.13 On a summer day in Phoenix, Arizona, the
inside room temperature is maintained at
120 lbm/ft 3 kg/m3 688 F while the outdoor air temperature
is a sizzling 1108 F . What is the outdoor–
200 lbm kg
indoor temperature difference in degrees
200 lbf N (a) Fahrenheit and (b) Celsius?
2.14 A person who is 180 cm tall and weighs
2.3 Convert your age from years, months, weeks, 750 newtons is driving a car at a speed of
and days to hours. How old are you in hours? 90 kilometers per hour over a distance of
2.4 A house has a given floor space of 2,000 ft 2. 80 kilometers. The outside air temperature
Convert this area to m 2. is 308C and has a density of 1.2 kg/m 3.
Convert all of the values given from SI to U.S.
2.5 Calculate the volume of water in a large
Customary units.
swimming pool with dimensions of
50 m 3 25 m 3 2 m . Express your answer in 2.15 Convert the given values: (a) area A 5 16 in 2
liters, m 3, gallons, and ft 3 . to ft 2 and (b) volume V 5 64 in 3 to ft 3.
2.6 A 500-sheet ream of copy paper has a 2.16 The acceleration due to gravity g is 9.81 m/s 2.
thickness of 2.25 in. What is the average Express the value of g in U.S. Customary
thickness of each sheet in mm? units. Show all conversion steps.
2.17 Atmospheric pressure is the weight of the 2.18 The density of water is 1,000 kg/m 3 . Express
column of air over an area. For example, the density of water in lbm/ft 3 and lbm/gallon.
under standard conditions, the atmospheric (Note: 7.48 gallons 5 1 ft 3.)
pressure is 14.7 lbf/in 2. This value means that 2.19 Look up the given U.S. Customary
the column of air in the atmosphere above a specifications (body size, trunk size, engine
surface with an area of 1 in 2 will exert a force size, and gas consumption) for a car of your
of 14.7 lbf. Convert the atmospheric pressure choice and convert your findings to SI units.
in the given units to the requested units: If you live outside of the United States,
(a) 14.7 lbf/in 2 to lbf/ft 2 , convert the data from SI to U.S. Customary
(b) 14.7 lbf/in 2 to Pa, units.
(c) 14.7 lbf/in 2 to kPa, and 2.20 Look up the U.S. specifications (capacity and
dimensions) for a home appliance such as a
(d) 14.7 lbf/in to bars. 2
clothes washer. Convert your findings to SI
Show all of the conversion steps. [Note: units. If you live outside of the United States,
One Pascal (1 Pa) is equal to one newton convert the data from SI to U.S. Customary
per meter squared (1 Pa 5 1 N/m 2 ) and units.
1 bar 5 100 kPa .]
Problems 65
Everett Historical/Shutterstock.com
Historical/Scutterstock.com
“If I have seen farther than others, it is

because I have stood on the shoulders of
giants.”
—Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727)
CH A P T E R
3 Ask
Question
Research
Evidence
Assess
Evidence
Make
Decision
Evidence-Based Data Analysis
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
LO1 Evidence-Based Analysis: explain what is
meant by evidence-based analysis
LO2 Linear Models: explain the characteristics
of linear equations and how they are used
to describe various problems
LO3 Probability and Statistics: explain the basic
ideas of probability and give examples
LO4 Statistics—Basic Ideas: describe the basic
ideas of statistics and give examples
LO5 Frequency Distribution: know how to
organize data in such a way that important
conclusions can be drawn
LO6 Mean, Median, and Standard Deviation:
explain the ways by which we can measure
the dispersion of data
LO7 Normal Distribution: describe what we
mean by a probability distribution and the
characteristics of a probability distribution
that has a bell-shaped curve
Pew Research Center
Discussion Starter 67
Discussion Starter
How Americans See Climate Change and the Environment
Based on recent Pew
Research Center surveys,
two-thirds of U.S. adults say
the federal government is
doing too little to reduce
the effects of global climate
change. Similar views say
the government is doing
too little to protect water
(68%) and air quality (67%),
while the majority of people
say the same when it comes
to protecting animals and
their habitats (62%) and
protecting open lands in the
national parks (55%).
Compared with a decade
ago, more Americans also
say that protecting the
environment and dealing
with global climate change
should be top priorities for
the president and congress;
nearly two-thirds of U.S.
adults (64%) say protecting
the environment should be
a top priority, while about
half (52%) say the same
about dealing with global
climate change. These opin-
ions have grown consider-
ably since 2011.
Source: Pew Research Center
Source: Based on the article, “How Americans see climate change and the environment in 7 charts,” by Cary Funk and Brian Kennedy, April 21, 2020,
https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/
To the Students: What are your thoughts on climate change and the environ-
ment? Are your thoughts based on evidence? Are they based on scientific principles,
scientific research, scientific data, or mathematical and statistical models?
68 CHAPTER 3 Evidence-Based Data Analysis
LO1 3.1 Evidence-Based Analysis

Evidence-based analysis refers to an approach that is founded on scientific
principles, scientific research, scientific data, and mathematical and statistical
models. In recent years, the use of this systematic approach in a wide range of
topics, including sustainability, has resulted in more reliable decisions.
While information collected from quantitative research is most useful, one
can also resort to qualitative information that is derived from debates and dis-
cussions with others, although some caution is advised. For example, some may
argue that, for a given problem, there is enough data that suggests a proposed
action is justified. However, one must be careful when considering qualitative
information. The individual who is offering the information may have biased
positions that can give rise to manipulation, misinterpretation, or distortion of
data. Moreover, they can present the data in a way that chooses certain research
findings while ignoring other dissenting results to emphasize their viewpoints
for personal gains.
As a good global citizen, when confronted with a complex problem, it is
important to follow the systematic approach discussed previously to sort care-
fully through lots of information that is presented to you. Again, you need to
make decisions that are based on sound scientific principles, scientific research,
scientific data, and mathematical and statistical models.
There are usually three steps involved in a systematic approach. As a first
step in analyzing problems, we typically rely on our own knowledge and experi-
ence to make a decision, but how do we know if we have considered all of the
facts and are making a correct decision? As a second step, we can investigate
what experts, who are more familiar and knowledgeable with a problem than we
are, say about the solution. These experts can provide proper scientific knowl-
edge and experience to propose a solution to the problem. However, there
are times when even an expert’s proposed solution may be biased and driven
by personal motives or financial gain. The third step, which includes the most
reliable method, is based on a comprehensive literature review of the topic by
many experts. This way, all expert analyses are considered before a decision is
made. In fact, it is preferable to start with the literature review and work our way
back to our natural reliance on our knowledge and experience as the last step.
The decisions we make must also be ethical. Ethics refers to the study of
morality and the moral choices that we all must make in our lives. Professional
societies, such as medical and engineering ones, have long-established guidelines,
standards, and rules that govern the conduct of their members. As an example,
the preamble of the National Society of Professional Engineers Code of Ethics
reads in part:
“… As members of this profession, engineers

are expected to exhibit the highest standards of
honesty and integrity. Engineering has a direct and
vital impact on the quality of life for all people.
Accordingly, the services provided by engineers
require honesty, impartiality, fairness, and equity,

and must be dedicated to the protection of the
public health, safety, and welfare. Engineers must
perform under a standard of professional behavior
that requires adherence to the highest principles of
ethical conduct.”
You don’t have to be an engineer to follow principles such as honesty, impar-

tiality, fairness, and equity. When making decisions as good global citizens, we
all must be dedicated to these ethical principles.
In the following sections, we will also present some simple mathematical and
statistical tools to assist you with your evidence-based analysis.
LO2 3.2 Linear Models

Before we discuss linear mathematical models, let us first review some math-
ematical symbols and Greek alphabet characters that are useful when perform-
ing a review of and following the description of linear models. As you already
know, mathematics is a language that has its own symbols and terminology. In
elementary school, you learned about the arithmetic operational symbols, such
as plus, minus, division, and multiplication. Later, you learned about degree
symbols, trigonometry symbols, and so on. Over the next several years, some of
you will learn additional mathematical symbols and their meanings. Examples
of some math symbols are shown in Table 3.1.
T A B L E 3 . 1 Some Math Symbols

1 Plus or positive # Equal to or less than
2 Minus or negative $ Equal to or greater than
6 Plus or minus ∙x∙ Absolute value of x
3 or ? Multiplication [ Therefore
4 or / Division o Summation
Factorial, for example, 5! 5
; Ratio !
534333231
, Less than D Delta indicating difference
. Greater than p Pi, its value is 3.1415926…
,, Much less than ` Infinity
.. Much greater than 8 Degree
5 Equal to xc Parentheses
< Approximately equal to fg Brackets
Þ Not equal to hj Braces
; Identical with
The Greek Alphabet and Roman Numerals

As you take more mathematics classes or search the Internet to learn more
about energy, environment, and sustainability-related topics, you will see that
the Greek alphabetic characters are quite commonly used to express informa-
tion. Take a few moments to familiarize yourself with these characters. Knowing
these symbols will save you time in the long run when trying to comprehend
information contained in some articles. The Greek alphabet and the Roman
numerals are shown in Tables 3.2 and 3.3, respectively.
T A B L E 3 . 2 The Greek Alphabet

A α Alpha I ι Iota Ρ ρ Rho
B β Beta K κ Kappa Σ σ Sigma
G γ Gamma Λ λ Lambda T τ Tau
∆ δ Delta M μ Mu Υ υ Upsilon
E ε Epsilon N ν Nu Φ φ Phi
Z ζ Zeta Ξ ξ Xi Χ χ Chi or khi
H η Eta O ο Omicron Ψ ψ Psi
Θ θ Theta Π π Pi Ω ω Omega
T A B L E 3 . 3 Roman Numerals
I 51 XIV 5 14 XC 5 90
II 52 XV 5 15 C 5 100
III 53 XVI 5 16 CC 5 200
IIII or IV 54 XVII 5 17 CCC 5 300
V 55 XVIII 5 18 CCCC or CD 5 400
VI 56 XIX 5 19 D 5 500
VII 57 XX 5 20 DC 5 600
VIII 58 XXX 5 30 DCC 5 700
IX 59 XL 5 40 DCCC 5 800
X 5 10 L 5 50 CM 5 900
XI 5 11 LX 5 60 M 5 1,000
XII 5 12 LXX 5 70 MM 5 2,000
XIII 5 13 LXXX 5 80
Linear models are the simplest form of equations commonly used to

describe a wide range of situations. In this section, we first discuss some exam-
ples of problems where linear mathematical models are found. We then explain
the basic characteristics of linear models.
Temperature Distribution Across a Plane Wall

Temperature distribution across a plane wall is an example where a linear math-
ematical model describes how temperature varies along the wall (Figure 3.1).
The temperature distribution—how temperature varies across the thickness of
the wall—is given by
x
T1 T ( x) 5 (T2 2 T1 ) 1 T1 3.1
L
T2
Surface 1
where
Surface 2 T ( x) 5 temperature distribution (8 F or 8C)
T2 5 temperature at surface 2 (8 F or 8C)
T1 5 temperature at surface 1 (8 F or 8C)
x
x 5 distance from surface 1 (ft or m)
L
L 5 wall thickness (ft or m)
FIGURE 3.1
Now, let us consider a situation for which T1 5 68°F, T2 5 38°F,
and L 5 0.5 ft. For these conditions, the slope of the linear
model is given by (T2 2 T1)/L 5 260°F/ft, as shown in Figure 3.2. Note that
for the given conditions, the line that describes the relationship between the
temperature and position intercepts the temperature axis at the value of 68
(i.e., at x 5 0, T 5 68° F).
The relationship among various systems of units is also linear. Let us demon-
strate this fact using an example dealing with temperature scales. In Chapter 2,
we discussed the relationship between the two temperature scales Fahrenheit
and Celsius, which is given by
9
T (8 F) 5 T (8C) 1 32 3.2
5
We have plotted the relationship between the Fahrenheit and Celsius scales for
the temperature range shown in Figure 3.3. Note the slope of the line describing
the relationship is 9/5 5 1.8, and the line intercepts the Fahrenheit axis at 32
(i.e., T (°C) 5 0, T (°F) 5 32).
T1 5 68°F 80
T2 5 38°F
70
L 5 0.5 ft T 5 260x 1 68
x (ft) T (°F) 60
0 68 50
T (°F)
0.1 62 40
0.2 56
30
0.3 50
0.4 44 20
0.5 38 10
0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
x (ft)
F I G U R E 3 . 2 Temperature distribution along a wall.
T (°C) T (°F) T (°C) T (°F)

240 240 35 95
235 231 40 104
230 222 45 113
225 213 50 122
220 24 55 131
215 5 60 140
210 14 65 149 210
25 23 70 158 160
0 32 75 167
110
T (°F)
5 41 80 176
10 50 85 185 60
15 59 90 194 10
20 68 95 203
240
25 77 100 212 240 220 0 20 40 60 80 100
30 86 T (°C)
F I G U R E 3 . 3 The relationship between the Fahrenheit and Celsius scales.
Linear Equations and Slopes

Now that you realize the importance of linear models in describing certain situ-
ations, let us consider some of the basic characteristics of a linear model. As you
know, the basic form of a line equation is given by
y 5 ax 1 b 3.3
where
Dy change in y value
a 5 slope 5 5
Dx change in x value
b 5 y-intercept (the value of y at x 5 0)
Equation (3.3) is plotted and shown in Figure 3.4. Note that

y positive values were assumed for the y-intercept and the slope
in Figure 3.4. The slope of a linear model shows how much the
dependent variable y changes each time a change in the inde-
Dy pendent variable x is introduced. Moreover, for a linear model,
Dx Dy the value of the slope is always constant.
b Slope 5
Dx Comparing our previous models of situations to Equation (3.3),
y-intercept for the temperature-distribution model, the slope has a value
of 260°F/ft, and the y-intercept is given by the value of
x
68°F. For the temperature-scale example, when comparing
Equation (3.2) to Equation (3.3), note that T (°F) corresponds
F I G U R E 3 . 4 A linear model. to y, and T (°C) corresponds to x. The slope and y-intercept
for this linear model is given by 9/5 and 32, respectively. You can easily see this
from the values shown in Figure 3.3. The slope shows that, for any 5°C change,
the corresponding Fahrenheit scale change is 9°F, regardless of the position of
the change in the temperature scale.
9

Dy change in y value (231) 2 (240)
a 5 slope 5 5 5
Dx change in x value (235) 2 (240)

5

9 9

41 2 32 212 2 203 9
5 5 5
520 100
2 95
5
5 5
Linear models can have different forms with different characteristics. We

have summarized the characteristics of various linear models in Table 3.4. Make
sure to study them carefully.
T A B L E 3 . 4 A Summary of Linear Models and Their Characteristics

Linear Model Characteristics
y 5 ax 1 b y Slope a and y-intercept b.
Dy
Dy a5
b Dx Dx
x
y5b y Slope zero, y-intercept b, and horizontal line going through
point b on y axis.
b
x
x5c y Undefined slope, x-intercept c, and vertical line going
through point c on x axis.
x
c
c1x 1 c2 y 5 c3 y General form with x- and y-intercepts, slope 2c1/c2,
c3 c1 y-intercept c3/c2, and x-intercept c3/c1.
c2 Slope 5 2 c
2
x
c3
c1
Systems of Linear Equations

At times, the formulation of a problem leads to a set of linear equations that must
be solved simultaneously. There are many procedures for obtaining solutions to a
set of linear equations. Here, we will discuss a simple graphical method that you can
use to obtain the solution for a model that has two equations with two unknowns.
For example, consider the following equations with x and y as unknown variables.
2 x 1 4 y 5 10 3.4
4x 1 y 5 6 3.5
Equations (3.4) and (3.5) are plotted and shown in Figure 3.5. The intersec-
tion of the two lines represents the x solution, which is given by x 5 1 because,
as you can see, at x 5 1 both equations have the same y value. We then substi-
tute x into either Equation (3.4) or Equation (3.5) and solve for y, which yields a
value of y 5 2. This is also the value you get if you were to draw a perpendicular
line to the y-axis from the intersection point.
x y 5 (10 2 2x)/4 y 5 6 2 4x
0 2.5 6
y
0.5 2.25 4 10
1 2 2 2x 1 4y 5 10
5 4x 1 y 5 6
1.5 1.75 0
2 1.5 22
0 x
2.5 1.25 24
3 1 26 25
3.5 0.75 28
4 0.5 210 210
4.5 0.25 212

215
5 0 214
5.5 20.25 216 220
6 20.5 218 0 1 2 4 6 8
F I G U R E 3 . 5 The plot of Equations (3.4) and (3.5).
Before You Go On
Answer the following questions to test your understanding of the preceding sections.
1. Why is it important to know the mathematical symbols?

2. Why is it important to know the Greek alphabet?
3.3 Probability and Statistics 75
3. Give an example of a linear model.

4. What are the basic characteristics of a linear model?
Linear Model
Slope
Undefined Slope
LO3 3.3 Probability and Statistics

Every day we use probability and statistics to predict future events. We use
statistics to forecast weather and prepare for related emergencies, predict the
results of a political race, or evaluate the side effects of a new drug or a new
technology such as a social platform like Facebook or Snapchat and how fre-
quently we visit them. Statistical models also are used to predict future trends
related to sustainability issues and concerns. To develop a better understanding
of the role of probability and statistics in our daily lives, consider an issue that
you are all familiar with: distracted driving.
Source: Pew Research Center
The Issue and Its Consequences

Distracted driving is any activity that diverts attention from driving, including
talking or texting on your phone; eating and drinking; talking to people in your
vehicle; or fiddling with the stereo, entertainment, or navigation system—any-
thing that takes your attention away from the task of driving safely.
Texting is the most alarming distraction. Sending or reading a text takes
your eyes off the road for 5 seconds. At 55 mph, that’s like driving the length
of an entire football field with your eyes closed. You cannot drive safely unless
the task of driving has your full attention. Any nondriving activity you engage
in is a potential distraction and increases your risk of crashing.
In 2015 alone, 3,477 people were killed and 391,000 were injured in motor
vehicle crashes involving distracted drivers. During daylight hours, approxi-
mately 660,000 drivers are using cell phones while driving. That creates enor-
mous potential for deaths and injuries on U.S. roads. Teens were the largest
age group reported as distracted at the time of fatal crashes. More statistics on
distracted driving and other risky driving behaviors are available at www.nhtsa.
gov/risky-driving/distracted-driving.
Now that you have some understanding of the importance of probability
and statistics, we will begin by explaining some of their basic ideas. We will
then discuss frequency distributions, measure of central tendency (mean and
median), measure of variation within a data set (standard deviation), and nor-
mal distributions.
Probability—Basic Ideas
If you were to ask your instructor how many students are enrolled in this class
this semester, they could give you an exact number: say 30. On the other hand,
if you were to ask them how many students will be in the class next year, or the
year after, they would not be able to give you an exact number. Your instruc-
tor might have an estimate based on trends or other pieces of information, but
they cannot know exactly how many students will be enrolled in the class next
year. The number of students in the class next year, or the year after, is random.
For these types of situations, the best we can do is to predict outcomes using
probability models.
Probability has its own terminology; therefore, it is a good idea to spend
a little time to familiarize yourself with it. In probability, each time you
repeat an experiment is called a trial. The result of an experiment is called an
outcome. A random experiment is one that has random outcomes—random
outcomes cannot be predicted exactly. To gain a better understanding of
these terms, imagine a manufacturing setting wherein smart phones are being
assembled. You are positioned at the end of the assembly line, and in order
to perform a final quality check, you are asked to remove phones at random
from the assembly line and turn them on and off. Each time you remove
a phone and turn it on and off, you are conducting a random experiment.
Each time you pick up a phone is a trial, with a result that can
be marked as a good phone or a bad phone. Now, suppose in one
Probability is an area of science that day you check 200 phones, and out of these phones, you find five
deals with predicting (estimating) bad phones. Then, the relative frequency of finding bad phones
the likelihood of an event to occur. is given by 5/200 5 0.025. In general, if you were to repeat an
experiment n times under the same conditions, with a certain
3.4 Statistics—Basic Ideas 77
outcome occurring m times, the relative frequency of the outcome is given

by m/n. As n gets larger, then the probability p of a specific outcome is given
by p 5 m/n.
EXAMPLE 3.1
Each question on a multiple-choice exam has five answers listed. Knowing
that only one of the answers is correct, if you are unprepared for the exam,
what is the probability that you pick the correct answer?
1
p5 5 0.2
5
For those of you who follow sports, you may have noticed that some-
times the probability of a certain outcome is expressed in terms of odds.
For example, the odds in favor of your team winning may be given as 1 to 2.
What does “odds in favor of an event” mean? The odds in favor of an event
occurring are defined by probability (occuring)/probability (not occuring).
Therefore, if the probability of your team winning is given by 0.33, then the
odds in favor of your team winning is given by 0.33/0.66 5 1/2 or 1 to 2. On
the other hand, if the odds are expressed as x to y, then the probability of a
specific outcome is calculated from x/(x 1 y). For this example, as expected,
p 5 1/(1 1 2) 5 0.33.
As you take advanced classes in your area of interest, you may learn
more about the mathematical models that provide probabilities of certain
outcomes. Our intent here is to make you aware of the importance of prob-
ability and statistics in your everyday life, not to provide detailed coverage
of these topics.
LO4 3.4 Statistics—Basic Ideas

Statistics is the area of science that deals with the collection, organization,
analysis, and interpretation of data. Statistics also deals with methods and
techniques that can be used to draw conclusions about the characteris-
tics of something with a large number of data points—commonly called a
population—using a smaller portion of the entire data. For example, using
statistics, we can predict the outcome of an election in a state, say with two
million registered voters, by gathering information only from 1,000 people
about how they are planning to vote. As this example demonstrates, it is nei-
ther feasible nor practical to contact two million people to find out how they
are planning to vote. However, the sample selected from a population must
represent the characteristics of the population. It is important to note that
in statistics, population does not refer necessarily to people, but to all of the
data that pertain to a situation or a problem. For example, if a company is
producing 15,000 phones a day and they want to examine the quality of the
manufactured phones, they may select only 500 phones randomly for a quality
test. In this example, 15,000 phones is the population, and the 500 selected
phones represent the sample.
Statistical models are becoming common tools in the hands of people

to address energy, environment, and sustainability-related issues. At this
stage of your education, it is important to realize that in order to use
statistical models, you first need to completely understand the underly-
ing concepts. The next sections are devoted to some of these important
concepts.
LO5 3.5 Frequency Distribution

In the previous section, we defined what we mean by population and sam-
ples. In general, any statistical analysis starts with identifying the popu-
lation and the sample. Once we have defined a sample that
represents the population and have collected information
Statistics is an area of science that about the sample, we then need to organize the data in a cer-
deals with the collection, organization, tain way such that pertinent information and conclusions can
analysis, and interpretation of data. be extracted. To shed light on this process, consider the fol-
lowing example.
EXAMPLE 3.2
The scores of a test for an introductory sustainability class of 26 students are
shown here. Certainly, the scores of your class would be better than these!
We are interested in drawing some conclusions about how good this class is.
Scores: 58, 95, 80, 75, 68, 97, 60, 85, 75, 88, 90, 78, 62, 83, 73, 70, 70, 85, 65, 75,
53, 62, 56, 72, 79, 87
As you can see from the way the data (scores) are represented, we
cannot easily draw a conclusion about how good this class is. One simple
way of organizing the data better would be to identify the lowest and the
highest scores, and then group the data into equal intervals or ranges: say a
range of size 10, as shown in Table 3.5. When data are organized in the man-
ner shown in Table 3.5, it is commonly referred to as a grouped frequency
distribution.
T A B L E 3 . 5 Grouped Frequency Distribution

for Example 3.2
Scores Range Frequency
58, 53, 56 50–59 3
68, 60, 62, 65, 62 60–69 5
75, 75, 78, 73, 70, 70, 75, 72, 79 70–79 9
80, 85, 88, 83, 85, 87 80–89 6
95, 97, 90 90–99 3
The way the scores are now organized in Table 3.5 reveals some use-
ful information. For example, three students did poorly and three per-
formed admirably. Moreover, nine students received scores that were in
the range of 70–79, which is considered an average performance. These
3.5 Frequency Distribution 79
average scores also constitute the largest frequency in the given data set.
Another useful piece of information, which is clear from examining Table 3.5,
is that the frequency (the number of scores in a given range) increases from 3
to 5 to 9 and then decreases from 6 to 3. Another way of showing the range of
scores and their frequency is by using a bar graph (which is commonly called
a histogram). The height of the bars shows the frequency of the data within
the given ranges. The histogram for Example 3.2 is shown in Figure 3.6.
10
Frequency
6
0
50–59 60–69 70–79 80–89 90–99
Scores
F I G U R E 3 . 6 The histogram for the scores given in Table 3.5.
Cumulative Frequency
The data can be organized further by calculating the cumulative frequency. The
cumulative frequency shows the cumulative number of students with scores up
to and including those in the given range. We have calculated the cumulative
frequency for Example 3.2 and shown it in Table 3.6. For Example 3.2, eight
scores fall in the range of 50 to 69, and 17 students’ scores (the majority of the
class) show an average or below-average performance.
The cumulative frequency distribution can also be displayed
using a histogram or a cumulative frequency polygon, as shown
A histogram is a way to show the in Figures 3.7 and 3.8, respectively. These figures convey the same
range of data and their frequency. information as that contained in Table 3.6. However, it might be
The height of the bars shows the easier for some people to absorb the information when it is pre-
frequency of the data within the sented graphically. We use graphical communication when it is the
given ranges. clearer, easier, and more convenient way to convey information.
T A B L E 3 . 6 Cumulative Frequency Distribution for

Example 3.2
Range Frequency Cumulative Frequency
50–59 3 3 3
60–69 5 31558 8
70–79 9 3 1 5 1 9 5 17 or 8 1 9 5 17 17
80–89 6 3 1 5 1 9 1 6 5 23 or 17 1 6 5 23 23
90–99 3 3 1 5 1 9 1 6 1 3 5 26 or 23 1 3 5 26 26
30
26
25
23
20 17
15
10 8
5 3
0
50–59 50–69 50–79 50–89 50–99
Scores
F I G U R E 3 . 7 The cumulative-frequency histogram for Example 3.2.
30
25
20
15
10
0
50 60 70 80 90 100
Scores
F I G U R E 3 . 8 The cumulative-frequency polygon for Example 3.2.
Before You Go On
Answer the following questions to test your understanding of the preceding sections.
1. Describe the basic ideas of probability.

2. What does statistics entail?
3. Describe at least two ways to organize data such that useful information can be obtained.
Outcome
A Population
Frequency Distribution
Histogram
3.6 Mean, Median, and Standard Deviation 81
L06 3.6 Mean, Median, and Standard Deviation

In this section, we will discuss some simple ways to examine the central ten-
dency and variations within a given data set. Every college graduate should
have some understanding of the basic fundamentals of statistics and prob-
ability for analyzing important data that affects their daily lives. There are
always inaccuracies associated with all experimental observations. If several
variables are measured to compute a final result, then we need to know
how the inaccuracies associated with these intermediate measurements will
influence the accuracy of the final result. For example, suppose you were
to measure the boiling temperature of pure water at sea level and standard
pressure with a thermometer that reads 104°C. However, you know from
your physics background that the temperature of boiling water at standard
conditions is 100°C.
Suppose two groups of students in a class measured the density of water
at 20°C. Each group consisted of ten students. They reported the results
shown in Table 3.7. We would like to know if any of the reported data is
in error.
T A B L E 3 . 7 Reported Densities of Water at 20°C

Group A Findings Group B Findings
Density (kg/m ) 3
Density (kg/m3)
1,020 950
1,015 940
990 890
1,060 1,080
1,030 1,120
950 900
975 1,040
1,020 1,150
980 910
960 1,020
Average Density 51,000 Average Density 51,000
Let us first consider the mean (arithmetic average) for each group’s findings.
The mean of the densities reported by each group is 1,000 kg/m3. The mean
alone cannot tell us whether any student or which student(s) in each group
may have made a mistake. What we need is a way of defining the dispersion of
the reported data. There are a number of ways to do this. Let us compute how
much each reported density deviates from the mean, add up all the deviations,
and then take their average. Table 3.8 shows the deviation from the mean for
each reported density. As one can see, the sum of the deviations is zero for both
groups.
Therefore, the average of the deviations from the mean of the data set
cannot be used to measure the spread of a given data set. A common way
of measuring the dispersion of data is by calculating the standard deviation.
wv T A B L E 3 . 8 Deviations from the Mean

Group A Group B
Measured Measured Measured Measured
Density Density 2 Average Density Density 2 Average
Value of 1,000 Value of 1,000
1,020 120 950 250
1,015 115 940 260
990 210 890 2110
1,060 160 1,080 180
1,030 130 1,120 1120
950 250 900 2100
975 225 1,040 1 40
1,020 120 1,150 1150
980 220 910 290
960 240 1,020 120
Sum 5 0 Sum 5 0
This is calculated by taking the square root of the sum of the square of the
difference between each value and the average value and dividing it by the
number of data minus one, as shown in the following equation:
∑ (x
i 51
i 2 x )2 3.6
s5
n21
Don’t worry too much if you cannot fully follow the mathematical symbols.
Basically, you need to follow these steps:
Step 1. Calculate the difference between each value and the average value and
square it.
Step 2. Add up the values calculated in Step 1.
Step 3. Divide the results of Step 2 by the number of data points minus 1.
Step 4. Take the square root of Step 3. This number now represents the standard
deviation for the data set.
The standard deviations computed for each group of densities is shown
in Table 3.9. As you can see, group A has a standard deviation (34.56) that is
smaller than group B’s (95.22). This shows the densities reported by group A
are bunched near the mean (1,000 kg/m3), whereas the results reported by
group B are more spread out. The standard deviation can also provide infor-
mation about the frequency of a given data set. For the normal distribution
(discussed in Section 3.7) of a data set, approximately 68% of the data will
fall in the interval of (mean 2 s) to (mean 1 s), about 95% of the data should
fall between (mean 2 2s) to (mean 1 2s), and almost all data points must lie
between (mean 2 3s) to (mean 1 3s). In the explanations given previously, the
s variable denotes standard deviation.
T A B L E 3 . 9 Standard Deviation Calculation for Each Group

Group A Group B
Density 2 Average Density Density 2 Average Density
400 2,500
225 3,600
100 12,100
3,600 6,400
900 14,400
2,500 10,000
625 1,600
400 22,500
400 8,100
1,600 400
Sum of the square of the difference between each Sum of the square of the difference between each
value and the average value 5 10,750 value and the average value 5 81,600
S( r 2 ravg )2 10,750 S( r 2 ravg )2 81,600

s5 5 5 34.56 (kg/m3 ) s5 5 5 95.22 (kg/m3 )
n 21 10 2 1 n 21 10 2 1
L07 3.7 Normal Distribution

In Section 3.3, we explained what we mean by an experiment and outcome.
Recall that the result of an experiment is called an outcome. In many situ-
ations, we often perform experiments that could have many outcomes. To
organize the outcomes of an experiment, it is customary to make use of prob-
ability distributions. A probability distribution shows the probability values
for the occurrence of the outcomes of an experiment. To better understand
this concept, let us turn our attention to Example 3.2. If we were to consider
the class test as an experiment with outcomes represented by student scores,
then we can calculate a probability value for each range of scores by dividing
each frequency by 26 (the total number of scores). The probability distribu-
tion for Example 3.2 is given in Table 3.10. From examining Table 3.10, you
should note that the sum of probabilities is 1, which is true for any probability
distribution. The plot of the probability distribution for Example 3.2 is shown
in Figure 3.9. Moreover, if this was a typical test with typical students, then
we might be able to use the probability distribution for this class to predict
how students might do on a similar test next year. It is often difficult to define
what we mean by a typical class or a typical test. However, if we had a lot
more students take this test and incorporate their scores into our analysis, we
might be able to use the results of this experiment to predict the outcomes
of a similar test to be given later. As the number of students taking the
test increases (leading to more scores), the line connecting the midpoints of
scores shown in Figure 3.9 becomes smoother and approaches a bell-shaped
curve ( ). We use the next example to further explain this concept.
T A B L E 3 . 1 0 Probability Distribution
for Example 3.2
Range Frequency Probability (p)
3
50–59 3 0.115
26
5
60–69 5 0.192
26
9
70–79 9 0.346
26
6
80–89 6 0.231
26
3
90–99 3 0.115
26
Sum of probabilities 5 1
0.400
0.350
0.300
0.250
Probability
0.200
0.150
0.100
0.050
0.000
50–59 60–69 70–79 80–89 90–99
Scores
F I G U R E 3 . 9 Plot of probability distribution for Example 3.2.
EXAMPLE 3.3
In order to improve the production time, the supervisor of assembly lines
for a computer manufacturer has studied the time that it takes to assemble
certain parts of a computer at various stations. They measure the time
that it takes to assemble a specific part by 100 people at different shifts
and on different days. The record of their study is organized and shown
in Table 3.11.
Based on data provided, we have calculated the probabilities correspond-
ing to the time intervals that people took to assemble the parts. The prob-
ability distribution for Example 3.3 is shown in Table 3.11 and Figure 3.10.
Again, note that the sum of probabilities is equal to 1. Also note that if
we were to connect the midpoints of time results (as shown in Figure 3.10),
we would have a curve that approximates a bell shape. As the number of
data points increases and the intervals decrease, the probability-distribution
curve becomes smoother. A probability distribution that has a bell-shaped
curve is called a normal distribution. The probability distribution for many
situations is approximated by a normal distribution.
T A B L E 3 . 1 1 Data Pertaining to Example 3.3

Time That It Takes a Person to Probability
Assemble the Part (minutes) Frequency ( p)
5 5 0.05
6 8 0.08
7 11 0.11
8 15 0.15
9 17 0.17
10 14 0.14
11 13 0.13
12 8 0.08
13 6 0.06
14 3 0.03
Sum of frequencies 5 100 Σp 5 1
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
Probability
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Time (minutes)
F I G U R E 3 . 1 0 Plot of probability distribution for Example 3.3.
The detailed shape of a normal-distribution curve is determined

A probability distribution shows the by its mean and standard deviation values. For example, as shown
probability values for the occurrence in Figure 3.11, an experiment with a small standard deviation will
of the outcomes of an experiment. produce a tall, narrow curve, whereas a large standard deviation will
A probability distribution that has a result in a short, wide curve. However, it is important to note that since
bell-shaped curve is called a normal the normal probability distribution represents all possible outcomes
distribution. of an experiment (with the total of probabilities equal to 1), the area
under any given normal distribution should always be equal to 1. Also,
note that a normal distribution is symmetrical about the mean.
Mean Mean
Small standard Large standard

deviation deviation
F I G U R E 3 . 1 1 The shape of a normal distribution curve as determined

by its mean and standard deviation.
S U M M A R Y
LO1 Evidence-Based Analysis data points—commonly called a population—using a

Evidence-based analysis refers to an approach that is smaller portion of the entire data.
based on scientific principles, scientific research, sci-
LO5 Frequency Distribution
entific data, and mathematical and statistical models.
In recent years, the use of this systematic approach One simple way of organizing data (for drawing
in a wide range of topics, including sustainability, has conclusions) would be to identify the lowest and
resulted in more reliable decisions. the highest data points and then group the data into
equal intervals or ranges. When data is organized in
LO2 Linear Models this manner, it is commonly referred to as a grouped
frequency distribution. Another way of showing the
You should understand the importance of linear
range of scores and their frequency is by using a bar
models in describing problems and their solutions.
graph or a histogram. The height of the bars shows the
Linear models are the simplest form of equations
frequency of the data within the given ranges.
used to describe a range of situations. You should also
know the defining characteristics of these models and LO6 Mean, Median, and Standard Deviation
what they represent. For example, the slope of a lin-
You should have a good grasp of statistical measures
ear model shows how much the dependent variable y
of central tendency and variation. You should know
changes each time a change in the independent vari-
how to compute basic statistical information such as
able x is introduced. Moreover, for a linear model, the
mean, variance, and standard deviation for a set of
value of the slope is always constant.
data points. You also should understand that the value
of the mean alone does not provide useful informa-
LO3 Probability and Statistics tion about the dispersion of data; the standard devia-
By now, you should understand the important role of tion value gives a better idea about how scattered (or
probability and statistics in various areas and be famil- spread out) the data is.
iar with their terminologies. Probability deals with the
branch of science that attempts to predict the likeli- LO7 Normal Distribution
hood of an event to occur. In probability, each time A probability distribution shows the probability
you repeat an experiment is called a trial. The result values for the occurrence of the outcomes of an
of an experiment is called an outcome, and a random experiment, and a probability distribution that has a
experiment is one that has random outcomes—random bell-shaped curve is called a normal distribution. It is
outcomes cannot be predicted exactly. also important to know that the detailed bell shape
of a normal distribution curve is determined by its
LO4 Statistics—Basic Ideas mean and standard deviation values. An experiment
Statistics is the area of science that deals with the with a small standard deviation will produce a tall,
collection, organization, analysis, and interpretation narrow curve, whereas a large standard deviation will
of data. Statistics also deals with methods and tech- result in a short, wide curve. You should also know
niques that can be used to draw conclusions about the that the area under any given normal distribution
characteristics of something with a large number of should always be equal to 1.
K E Y T E R M S
Cumulative frequency 79 Math symbols 69 Probability 76

Greek alphabet 70 Mean 81 Random experiment 76
Grouped frequency distribution 78 Normal distribution 84 Slope 71
Histogram 79 Outcome 76 Standard deviation 81
Linear models 70 Population 77 Trial 76
Problems 87

The Body Mass Index (BMI) is a way of determining obesity and whether someone is overweight. It is
computed from
mass (in kg)
BMI 5
[height (in meters)]2
The BMI values in the range of 18.5 to 24.9, 25.0 to 29.9, and . 30.0 are considered healthy, overweight,
and obese, respectively.
Height (m) Mass (kg)

50 55 60 65 70 75 80
1.5 22.2 24.4 26.7 28.9 31.1 33.3 35.6
1.6 19.5 21.5 23.4 25.4 27.3 29.3 31.3
1.7 17.3 19.0 20.8 22.5 24.2 26.0 27.7
1.8 15.4 17.0 18.5 20.1 21.6 23.1 24.7
1.9 13.9 15.2 16.6 18.0 19.4 20.8 22.2
Your instructor will pass along a sheet in class wherein you can record your mass and height anony-
mously. Your instructor will then make the collected data available to
the entire class. Use the collected data to perform the following tasks:
1. Create histograms for height and mass.
2. Calculate the mean and standard deviation of the class height and
mass.
3. Calculate the probability distribution for the given height and mass
ranges, and plot the probability distribution curves.
4. Calculate the BMI values for the entire class, and group the results
into healthy, overweight, and obese.
Discuss your findings in a brief report.
P R O B L E M S
3.1 A driver wants to know how much CO2 Miles Driven Pounds of CO2 Emitted
their car might emit over its lifespan. The
100 4
relationship between miles driven and pounds
of CO2 emitted is shown in the accompanying 500 20
table. What is the equation for the given data? 1,000 40
How many pounds of CO2 will be emitted if 1,500 60
the owner of this car drives it for 64,000 miles 2,000 80
during a period of 4 years? 2,500 100
(Continues)
Miles Driven Pounds of CO2 Emitted Months Kilograms of CO2 Emitted

3,000 120 12 165
3,500 140 13 178.75
4,000 160 15 206.25
4,500 180 21 288.75
5,000 200 24 330
5,500 220 30 412.5
6,000 240 35 481.25
6,500 260 38 522.5
7,000 280 40 550
7,500 300 48 660
8,000 320
3.4 In order to predict the life expectancy of light
8,500 340 bulbs, a manufacturer conducted a series of
9,000 360 experiments on 135 light bulbs and gathered
9,500 380 the data shown in the table. Plot the data and
10,000 400 calculate the mean and standard deviation.
3.2 The relationship between kilowatt-hours of Number of Hours the

energy consumed at home and kilograms of Light Bulb Functioned
CO2 emitted in a power plant is shown in the before Failing Frequency
accompanying table. What is the equation for 700 15
the given data? How many kilograms of CO2 800 20
will be emitted if the homeowner consumes
900 34
41,000 kilowatt-hours of energy during a
1,000 28
period of 5 years?
1,100 22
Energy Consumed Kilograms of CO2 1,200 16
in Kilowatt-hours Emitted
4,000 3,200 3.5 For the data given in Problem 3.4, calculate
the probability distribution and plot the
4,300 3,440
probability distribution curve.
4,500 3,600
3.6 A drinking water-fountain manufacturer
6,000 4,800
collected the following data in order to test
6,300 5,040 the performance of their system. Plot the
7,000 5,600 data and calculate the mean and standard
8,000 6,400 deviation.
8,200 6,560
Milliliters of Water
9,000 7,200 in the Bottle Frequency
10,000 8,000
485 13
3.3 The relationship between the usage of a hot 490 17
water heater in months and kilograms of CO2 495 25
emitted by burning natural gas is shown in 500 40
the accompanying table. What is the equation 505 23
for the given data? How many kilograms of
510 18
CO2 will be emitted by the hot water heater
during a period of 60 months? 515 15
Problems 89
3.7 For the data given in Problem 3.6, calculate it down on a piece of paper. Your instructor
the probability distribution and plot the will then collect the data and share the
probability distribution curve. results with the class. Your assignment is
3.8 The scores of a test for a class of 30 students to organize the data per your instructor’s
are shown here. Organize the data in a suggestion and calculate the mean and
manner similar to Table 3.5 and create a standard deviation. Compute the probability
histogram. distribution. Does your data distribution
approximate a normal distribution? Answer
Scores: 57, 94, 81, 77, 66, 97, 62, 86, 75, 87, 91, 78, any additional questions that your instructor
61, 82, 74, 72, 70, 88, 66, 75, 55, 66, 58, 73, 79, 51, might ask.
63, 77, 52, 84 3.14 Your instructor will ask for a volunteer from
3.9 For the data given in Problem 3.8, calculate the class. You are to estimate their height
the cumulative frequency and plot a in inches (or in cm) and write it down on a
cumulative-frequency polygon. piece of paper. Your instructor will collect
the data and share the results with the class.
3.10 For the data given in Problem 3.8, calculate
Your assignment is to organize the data per
the mean and standard deviation of the class
your instructor’s suggestion and calculate
scores.
the mean and standard deviation of the
3.11 For the data given in Problem 3.8, calculate data. Compute the probability distribution.
the probability distribution and plot the Does your data distribution approximate a
probability distribution curve. normal distribution? Answer any additional
3.12 The next time you make a trip to a questions that your instructor might ask.
supermarket, ask the manager if you can 3.15 Your instructor will ask for a volunteer from
measure the mass of at least 10 cereal boxes the class. You are to estimate their mass in
of your choice. Choose the same brand lbm (or in kg) and write it down on a piece
and the same size boxes. Tell the manager of paper. Your instructor will then collect
this is an assignment for a class. Report the the data and share the results with the class.
average mass and standard deviation for Your assignment is to organize the data per
the cereal boxes. Does the manufacturer’s your instructor’s suggestion and calculate
information noted on the box fall within your the mean and standard deviation of the
measurements? data. Compute the probability distribution.
3.13 Your instructor will pass along an unopened Does your data distribution approximate a
bag of jellybeans. You are to estimate the normal distribution? Answer any additional
number of jellybeans in the bag and write questions that your instructor might ask.
CHA P T E R
4
Electronic Spreadsheets
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
LO1 Microsoft Excel Basics: understand the basics of
the Excel workbook environment, including cells
and their addresses (absolute, relative, and mixed),
ranges, and formulas
LO2 Excel Functions: know how to use Excel’s built-in
mathematical, trigonometric, statistical, and logical
functions
LO3 Plotting with Excel: know how to plot two sets of
data with different ranges on the same chart
lucadp/Shutterstock.com
In recent years, the use of spreadsheets as an analysis and analyze data, and to present the results of an analysis in
design tool has grown rapidly. Easy-to-use spreadsheets a graph or a bar chart form.
such as Microsoft Excel are used to record, organize, and
Discussion Starter
Workbook and VBA The Excel spreadsheet software consists of
two parts: the workbook and the Visual Basic for
An electronic spreadsheet is a tool that can be Applications (VBA). In the Excel workbook envi-
used to solve many problems. Spreadsheets are ronment, you can solve many simple problems.
commonly used to record, organize, and analyze The Excel VBA is a programming language that
data using formulas. Spreadsheets are also used allows you to use Excel even more effectively and
to present the results of an analysis in a graph solve more complicated problems. In this chapter,
form, as shown here. we will only cover the workbook part of Excel.
100% Renewables
90%
80%
70% Petroleum Delivered
60% as fuel
50% Natural gas
40%
30%
20% Coal Delivered
10% as electricity
0%
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Electricity’s share of U.S. delivered energy has risen significantly since 1950
To the Students: How proficient are you in the use of Excel? Do you know the
difference between absolute cell reference, relative cell reference, and mixed cell
reference? Do you know what is meant by a range? Can you use Excel to find a
function that best fits a set of data and predict future trends?
In this chapter, we will discuss the use of spreadsheets in solving problems.

The Excel workbook is easy to use to record, organize, and analyze data using
formulas that are input by the user. It can also be used to show the results of an
analysis in the form of charts.
This chapter begins by discussing the basic makeup of Microsoft Excel, a
common spreadsheet program. We will explain how a spreadsheet is divided
into rows and columns and how to input data or a formula into an active cell.
92 CHAPTER 4 Electronic Spreadsheets
We will also explain the use of other tools such as Excel’s mathematical, statisti-
cal, and logical functions. Plotting the results of an analysis using Excel is also
presented. If you are already proficient in using Excel, you can skip Sections
4.1 and 4.2 without loss of continuity.
LO1 4.1 Microsoft Excel Basics

We will begin by explaining the basic components of Excel; once you have a
good understanding of these concepts, we will use Excel to solve some prob-
lems. As is the case with any new areas you explore, the spreadsheet has its own
terminology. Therefore, make sure you spend a little time at the beginning to
familiarize yourself with the terminology so you can follow the examples later.
A typical Excel window is shown in Figure 4.1. The main components of the
Excel window, which are marked by arrows and numbered as shown in Figure
4.1, are
1. Title bar: Contains the name of the current active workbook.
2. Menu bar (tab): Contains the commands used by Excel to perform certain
tasks.
3. Toolbar buttons: Contains push buttons (icons) that execute commands

used by Excel.
4. Active cell: A worksheet is divided into rows and columns. A cell is the
box that you see as the result of the intersection of a column and a row.
Active cell refers to a specific selected cell.
Microsoft Excel
5 1
3
6
7
8
4
10
FIGURE 4.1 The components of the Excel window.
5. Formula bar: Shows the data or the formula used in the active cell.
6. Name box: Contains the address of the active cell.
7. Column header: A worksheet is divided into rows and columns. The

columns are marked by A, B, C, D, and so on.
8. Row header: The rows are identified by numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, and so on.
9. Worksheet tabs: Allow you to move from one sheet to another. As you
will learn later, you can name these worksheets.
10. Status bar: Gives information about the command mode. For example,
“Ready” indicates the program is ready to accept input for a cell, or
“Edit” indicates Excel is in edit mode.
A workbook is the spreadsheet file that you create and save. A workbook
can consist of many worksheets and charts. A worksheet represents the rows and
columns where you input information such as data, formulas, and the result of
various calculations. As you will soon see, you may include charts as a part of
a given worksheet as well.
Naming Worksheets
To name a worksheet, double-click the sheet tab to be named, type the desired
name, and press the Enter key. You can move (or change the position of) a
worksheet in the workbook by selecting the sheet tab and, while holding down
the left mouse button, moving the tab to the desired position among other
sheets.
Cells and Their Addresses

As shown in Figure 4.1, a worksheet is divided into rows and columns. The
columns are labeled A, B, C, D, and so on, while the rows are identified by
numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, and so on. A cell represents the box that you see as the result
of the intersection of a row and a column. You can input (enter) various things
in a cell. For example, you can type in words or enter numbers or a formula.
To enter words or a number in a cell, simply choose the cell where you want
to enter the information, type the information, and then press the Enter key
on your keyboard. Perhaps the simplest and easiest way to move around in a
worksheet is to use a mouse. For example, if you want to move from cell A5
to cell C8, move the mouse such that the mouse pointer is in the desired cell
and then click the left mouse button. To edit the content of a cell,
choose the cell, double-click the left mouse button, and then, as you
The Excel software consists of
would in editing a word processing document, use any combination
two parts: the workbook and the
of delete, backspace, or arrow keys to edit the content of the cell. As
Visual Basic Editor. A workbook— an alternative to double clicking, you can use the F2 key to select
the spreadsheet file—is divided the edit mode.
into worksheets, and each Keep in mind that as you become more proficient in using Excel,
worksheet is divided into columns, you will learn that for certain tasks there is more than one way to do
rows, and cells. something. In this chapter, we will explain one method that can be
followed easily.
Range
As you will soon see when formatting, analyzing, or plotting data, it is often
convenient to select a number of cells simultaneously. The cells that are selected
simultaneously are called a range. To define a range, begin with the first cell
that you want included in the range and then drag the mouse (while pressing
down on the left button) to the last cell that should be included in the range. An
example of selecting a range is shown in Figure 4.2. Note that in spreadsheet
language, a range is defined by the cell address of the top-left selected cell in
the range followed by a colon, :, and ends with the address of the bottom-right
cell in the range. For example, to select cells A2 through B20, we first select A2
and then drag the mouse diagonally to B20. In spreadsheet language, this range
is specified in the following manner—A2:B20. There are situations where you
may want to select a number of cells that are not side by side. In such cases, you
must first select the contiguous cells and then, while holding (pressing) the Ctrl
key, select the other noncontiguous cells by dragging the mouse button.
Excel allows the user to assign names to a range (selected cells). To name a
range, first select the range as just described, and then click on the Name box
(see Figure 4.1) in the Formula bar and type in the name you want to assign
to the range. You can use upper- or lowercase letters along with numbers, but
no spaces are allowed between the characters or numbers. For example, as
shown in Figure 4.2, we have grouped the average global temperatures across
land and ocean surfaces and the corresponding years into one range, which we
have called Average_Global_Temp. You can then use the name in formulas or
in plotting data.
Microsoft Excel
FIGURE 4.2 An example showing the selection of a range

of cells.
Inserting Cells, Columns, and Rows

After entering data into a spreadsheet, you may realize that you should have
entered some additional data in between two cells, columns, or rows that you
have just created. In such a case, you can always insert new cells, column(s), or
row(s) among already existing cells, columns, and rows in a worksheet. To insert
new cell(s) between other existing cells, you must first select the cell(s) where
the new cell(s) are to be inserted. Next, from the Insert menu (click the right
mouse button) choose the Cells option. Indicate whether you want the selected
cells to be shifted to the right or down. For example, let’s say you want to insert
three new cells in the location E8 through E11 (E8:E11) and shift the existing
content of E8:E11 down. First select cells E8:E11; then from the Insert menu
choose the Shift cells down option. To insert a column, click on the column
indicator button to the right of where you would like to have the new column
inserted. Then click on the right mouse button and choose Insert. For example,
if you would like to insert a new column between columns D and E, you must
first select column E, and then click on the right mouse button and choose
Insert; the new column will be inserted to the left of column E. To insert more
than one column simultaneously, you should select as many column indicator
buttons as necessary to the right of where you would like to have the columns
inserted. For instance, if you would like to insert three new columns between
columns D and E, then you must first select columns E, F, and G; then click
on the right mouse button and choose Insert, and three new columns will be
inserted to the left of column E. The procedure is similar for inserting a new
row among already existing rows.
Creating Formulas in Excel

By now, you know that we use formulas that represent physical laws govern-
ing our surroundings to analyze various problems. You can use Excel to input
formulas and compute the results. In Excel, a formula always begins with an
equal sign, 5. To enter a formula, select the cell where you want the result of
the formula to be displayed. In the Formula bar, type the equal sign and the
formula. Remember when typing your formula to use parentheses to dictate
the order of operations. For example, if you were to type 5 100 1 5* 2, Excel
will perform the multiplication first, which results in a value of 10, and then
this result is added to 100, which yields an overall value of 110 for the formula.
If, however, you wanted Excel to add the 100 to 5 first and then multiply the
resulting 105 by 2, you should have placed parentheses around the 100 and 5 in
the following manner: 5 (100 1 5)* 2, which results in a value of 210. The basic
Excel arithmetic operations are shown in Table 4.1.
TA B L E 4 . 1 The Basic Excel Arithmetic Operations

Example: Cells A5 and A6 contain Cell A7 contains the result of the
Operation Symbol the values 10 and 2, respectively formula given in the example
Addition 1 5 A5 1 A6 1 20 32
Subtraction 2 5 A5 2 A6 8
Multiplication * 5 (A5 * A6) 1 9 29
Division / 5 (A5/2.5) 1 A6 6
Raised to a power ^ 5 (A5^A6) ^ 0.5 10
EXAMPLE 4.1 The following example shows how to use a formula to calculate the den-
sity of standard air as it changes with temperature. The density of standard
air is a function of temperature and may be approximated using the ideal
gas law according to
P
Density (kg/m 3 ) 5
RT
where
P 5 standard atmospheric pressure (101.3 kPa)
 J 
R 5 gas constant; its value for air is 286.9 
 kg ? K 
T 5 air temperature in kelvin ( K )
Using Excel, we want to create a table that shows the density of air as a
function of temperature in the range of 08C (273.15 K) to 508C (323.15 K)
in increments of 58C.
Refer to the Excel sheets shown in the accompanying figures when
following the steps.
1. In cell A1, type Density of air as a function of temperature.

2. In cells A3 and B3, type Temperature (C) and Density (kg /m 3 ),
respectively.
3. In cells A5 and A6, type 0 and 5, respectively (Figure 4.3).
Microsoft Excel

FIGURE 4.3 Steps 1, 2, and 3 for Example 4.1.
4. ick cells A5 and A6 and use the

P
Microsoft Excel
Fill command with the 1 handle to
copy the pattern into cells A7 to A15
(Figure 4.4).
FIGURE 4.4
5. I n cell B5, type the formula
Microsoft Excel
5(101300)/((286.9)* (A51273)),
as shown in Figure 4.5.
FIGURE 4.5
6. Use the Home menu (tab) and the

Microsoft Excel
Fill command to copy the formula

into cells B6 to B15 (Figure 4.6).
You can also use the Fill command
with the 1 handle to copy the
formula into cells B6 to B15.
FIGURE 4.6
7. Pick cells B5:B15, right-click, and pick Format Cells. Change the
number of decimal places to 2, as shown in Figure 4.7.
Microsoft Excel
FIGURE 4.7
The final results for Example 4.1 are shown in Figure 4.8. The cell
contents were centered using the center button (icon) from the Toolbar.
Microsoft Excel
FIGURE 4.8 The final result for Example 4.1.
Absolute Cell Reference, Relative Cell Reference,

and Mixed Cell Reference
When creating formulas, you have to be careful how you refer to the address of
a cell, especially if you are planning to use the Fill command to copy the pattern
of formulas in the other cells. There are three ways that you can refer to a cell
address in a formula: absolute, relative, and mixed reference.
To better understand the differences among absolute, relative, and mixed
references, consider the examples shown in Figure 4.9. As the name
implies, absolute reference is absolute, meaning it does not change
There are three ways that you when the Fill command is used to copy the formula into other cells.
can refer to a cell address in a Absolute reference to a cell is made by $column-letter$row-number.
formula: absolute, relative, and For example, $A$3 will always refer to the content of cell A3, regard-
mixed reference. less of how the formula is copied. In the example shown, cell A3 con-
tains the value 1000, and if we were to input the formula 5 0.06* $A$3
in cell B3, the result would be 60. Now if we were to use the Fill com-
mand and copy the formula down in cells B4 through B11, this would result
in a value of 60 appearing in cells B4 through B11, as shown in Figure 4.9(a).
On the other hand, if we were to make a relative reference to cell A3, that
would change the formula when the Fill command is used to copy the formula
into other cells. To make a relative reference to a cell, a special character, such
as $, is not needed. You simply refer to the cell address. For example, if we were
to input the formula 5 0.06* A3 in cell B3, the result would be 60, and if we use
the Fill command to copy the formula into cell B4, the A3 in the formula will
automatically be substituted by A4, resulting in a value of 75. Note that the
formula in cell B4 now becomes 5 0.06* A4. The result of applying the Fill com-
mand to cells B4 through B11 is shown in Figure 4.9(b).
The mixed cell reference can be done in one of two ways: (1) You can keep
the column as absolute (unchanged) and have a relative row, or (2) you can
keep the row as absolute and have a relative column. For example, if you were
to use $A3 in a formula, it would mean that column A remains absolute and
unchanged, but row 3 is a reference row and changes as the formula is copied
Microsoft Excel
(a) (b)
FIGURE 4.9 Examples showing the difference between the results of a formula when
(a) absolute and (b) relative cell references are made in the formula.
into other cells. On the other hand, A$3 means row 3 remains absolute while
column A changes as the formula is copied into other cells. The use of mixed
cell reference is demonstrated in the following example.
EXAMPLE 4.2
Using Excel, create a table that shows the relationship between the interest
earned and the amount deposited, as shown in Table 4.2.
In order to create the table for Example 4.2 using Excel, we will first cre-
ate the dollar amount column and the interest row, as shown in Figure 4.10.
Next, we will type into cell B3 the formula 5 $A3*B$2. We can now use the
Fill command to copy the formula in other cells, resulting in the table shown
in Figure 4.10. Note that the dollar sign before A3 means column A is to
remain unchanged in the calculations when the formula is copied into other
cells. Also note that the dollar sign before 2 means that row 2 is to remain
unchanged in calculations when the Fill command is used.
TA B L E 4 . 2 The Relationship between the Interest

Earned and the Amount Deposited
Interest Rate
Dollar Amount 0.06 0.07 0.075 0.08
1000 60 70 75 80
1250 75 87.5 93.75 100
1500 90 105 112.5 120
1750 105 122.5 131.25 140
2000 120 140 150 160
2250 135 157.5 168.75 180
2500 150 175 187.5 200
2750 165 192.5 206.25 220
3000 180 210 225 240
Microsoft Excel
FIGURE 4.10 Excel spreadsheet for Example 4.2.
LO2 4.2 Excel Functions

Excel offers a large selection of built-in functions that you can use to analyze
data. By built-in functions, we mean standard functions such as the sine or
cosine of an angle as well as formulas that calculate the total value, the aver-
age value, or the standard deviation of a set of data points. The Excel functions
are grouped into various categories, including mathematical and trigonometric,
statistical, financial, and logical functions. In this chapter, we will discuss some
of the common functions that you may use during your education or later as a
good global citizen. You can enter a function in any cell by simply typing the
name of the function if you already know it. If you do not know the
name of the function, then you can press the Insert Function ( fx )
The Excel functions are grouped
button, and then from the menu select the Function category and the
into various categories, including
Function name. There is also a Help button on the lower left corner of
mathematical and trigonometric, the Insert Function menu, which once activated and followed leads to
statistical, financial, and logical information about what the function computes and how the function
functions. For example, logical is to be used.
functions allow you to test various Some examples of commonly used Excel functions, along with
conditions when programming their proper use and descriptions, are shown in Table 4.3. Refer to
formulas to analyze data. Example 4.3 and Figure 4.11 when studying Table 4.3.
More examples of Excel’s functions are shown in Table 4.4.
EXAMPLE 4.3
A set of values is given in the worksheet shown in Figure 4.11. Familiarize
yourself with some of Excel’s built-in functions, as described in Table 4.3.
When studying Table 4.3, note that columns A and B contain the data range,
which we have named values; cell D1 contains the angle 180. Also note that
the functions were typed in cells E1 through E14; consequently, the results
of the executed Excel functions are shown in those cells. Microsoft Excel
FIGURE 4.11 The Excel worksheet for Example 4.3.
TA B L E 4 . 3 Examples of Some Excel Functions

Function Description of the Function Example Result of the Example
SUM(range) It sums the values in the given range. 5SUM(A1:B10) 164
or
5SUM(values)
AVERAGE(range) It calculates the average value of the 5AVERAGE(A1:B10) 8.2
data in the given range. or
5AVERAGE(values)
COUNT It counts the number of values in the 5COUNT(A1:B10) 20
given range. or
5COUNT(values)
MAX It determines the largest value in the 5MAX(A1:B10) 10
given range. or
5MAX(values)
MIN It determines the smallest value in the 5MIN(A1:B10) 6
given range. or
5MIN(values)
STDEV It calculates the standard deviation for 5STDEV(A1:B10) 1.105
the values in the given range. or
5STDEV(values)
PI It returns the value of p, 5PI() 3.14159265358979
3.14159265358979, accurate to 15
digits.
DEGREES It converts the value in the cell from 5DEGREES(PI()) 180
radians to degrees.
RADIANS It converts the value from degrees to RADIANS(90) 1.57079
radians. or
5RADIANS(D1) 3.14159
COS It returns the cosine value of the 5COS(PI()/2) 0
argument. The argument must be in or
radians. 5COS(RADIANS(D1)) 21
SIN It returns the sine value of the 5SIN(PI()/2) 1
argument. The argument must be in or
radians. 5SIN(RADIANS(D1)) 0
TA B L E 4 . 4 Additional Examples of Excel Functions

Function Description of the Function
SQRT(x) Returns the square root of value x.
FACT(x) Returns the value of the factorial of x. For example, FACT(5) will return: (5)(4)(3)(2)(1) 5 120 .
Trigonometric Functions
TAN(x) Returns the value for the tangent of x. The argument must be in radians.
DEGREES(x) Converts the value of x from radians to degrees. It returns the value of x in degrees.
The Now and Today Functions

When you work on an important Excel document, it is a good idea to indicate
when the document was last modified. In one of the top cells, you may want
to type “Last Modified:”, and in the adjacent cell, you can use the = now() or
= today() function. Then, each time you access the Excel document, the now()
function will automatically update the date and the time the file was last used.
So, when you print the sheet, it will show the date and the time. If you use the
today() function, it will only update the date.
EXAMPLE 4.4
Using Excel, compute the average (arithmetic mean) and the standard
deviation of the density of water data given in Table 4.5. Refer to Chapter 3,
Section 3.7, to refresh your memory about what the value of standard devia-
tion for a set of data points represents.
Refer to Figure 4.12 when following the steps.
1. In cell B1, type Group A Findings, and in cell C1, type Group B
Findings.
2. In each of cells B3 and C3, type Density ( kg /m 3 ). Highlight the 3 in the
kg/m 3, and use the following command to make 3 a superscript. Click
on the right mouse button and choose “Format Cells…”. Next, click on
the Font tab and turn on the superscript toggle switch. In cells B5 to
C14, type density values for Group A and Group B.
3. Next, we want to compute the arithmetic means for the Group A and
Group B data, but first we need to create a title for this computation.
Because we are calculating the average, we might as well just use the
word AVERAGE for the title of our calculations, thus in cell B15 type
AVERAGE:.
TA B L E 4 . 5 Data for Example 4.4

Group A Findings Group B Findings
Water density (kg/m ) 3
Water density (kg/m3 )
1020 950
1015 940
990 890
1060 1080
1030 1120
950 900
975 1040
1020 1150
980 910
960 1020
4. In order to have Excel compute the average, we use the AVERAGE

function in the following manner. In cell B16, we type
= AVERAGE(B5:B14) and similarly in cell C16, we type
= AVERAGE(C5:C14).
5. Next, we will make a title for the standard deviation calculation by
simply typing in cell B18 STDEV.
6. To compute the standard deviation for the Group A findings, in cell
B19 type = STDEV(B5:B14), and similarly to calculate the standard
deviation for the Group B findings, in cell C19 type = STDEV(C5:C14).
Note that we used the function STDEV and the appropriate data
range.
The final results for Example 4.4 are shown in Figure 4.12.
Microsoft Excel
FIGURE 4.12 The Excel worksheet for Example 4.4.
Using Logical Functions

In this section, we will look at some of Excel’s logical functions. These are functions
that allow you to test various conditions when programming formulas to analyze
data. Excel’s logical functions and their descriptions are shown in Table 4.6.
Excel also offers relational or comparison operators that allow for testing
the relative magnitude of various arguments. These relational operators are
shown in Table 4.7. We will use Example 4.5 to demonstrate the use of Excel’s
logical functions and relational operators.
TA B L E 4 . 6 Excel’s Logical Functions
Logical Functions Description of the Function

AND(logic1, logic2, logic3, …) Returns true if all arguments are true and returns false if any of the arguments
are false.
FALSE() Returns the logical value false.
IF(logical test, value_if_true, It first evaluates the logical test; if true, then it returns the value_if_true; if the
value_if_false) evaluation of the logical test is false, then it returns the value_if_false value.
NOT(logical) Reverses the logic of its argument; returns true for a false argument and false
for a true argument.
OR(logical1, logical2, …) Returns TRUE if any argument is true and returns FALSE if all arguments are false.
TRUE() Returns the logical value TRUE.
TA B L E 4 . 7 Excel’s Relational Operators and

Their Descriptions
Relational Operator Description
, Less than
,5 Less than or equal to
5 Equal to
. Greater than
.5 Greater than or equal to
,. Not equal to
EXAMPLE 4.5
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reports air quality using
the Air Quality Index (AQI). The index has values in the range of 0 to 500,
as shown in Figure 4.13. Moreover, the AQI values are grouped into six
levels of concern: Good, Moderate, Unhealthy for Sensitive Groups, Unhealthy,
Very Unhealthy, and Hazardous. Also, note that the AQI values are grouped
in increments of 50 up to the value of 300, with values greater than 300
representing a hazardous air quality.
Daily AQI Values of

Levels of concern Description of air quality
Color index
Green Good 0 to 50 Air quality is satisfactory, and air pollution poses little or no risk.
Air quality is acceptable. However, there may be a risk for some people, particularly those
Yellow Moderate 51 to 100
who are unusually sensitive to air pollution.
Unhealthy for Members of sensitive groups may experience health effects. The general public is less
Orange 101 to 150
sensitive groups likely to be affected.
Some members of the general public may experience health effects; members of sensitive
Red Unhealthy 151 to 200
groups may experience more serious health effects.
Purple Very unhealthy 201 to 300 Health alert: The risk of health effects is increased for everyone.
301 and
Maroon Hazardous Health warning of emergency conditions: everyone is more likely to be affected.
higher
FIGURE 4.13 The EPA’s Air Quality Index for Example 4.5.
Source: Data from U.S. EPA
In column A of Figure 4.14, we have entered ten different values for the
AQI. Using Excel’s logical functions, we then want to create a list that shows
the corresponding levels of concern.
The solution to this example is shown in Figure 4.14. In cell B2, we type
the formula =IF(A2<=50, “Good”, IF(A2<=100, “Moderate”, IF(A2<=150,
“Unhealthy for Sensitive Group”, IF(A2<=200, “Unhealthy”, IF(A2<=300,
“Very Unhealthy”, “Hazardous”))))) and use the Fill command to copy the
formula in cells B3 through B11. Note that we made use of the relational
<= and relative reference in the IF function.
Microsoft Excel
FIGURE 4.14 The solution to Example 4.5.
Before You Go On
Answer the following questions to test your understanding of the preceding sections:
1. What is the difference between a workbook and a worksheet?

2. What is a range?
3. Explain what is meant by absolute cell reference, relative cell reference, and mixed cell
reference.
4. Give examples of Excel’s mathematical and statistical functions.
5. Give examples of Excel’s logical functions and relational operators.
A Range
Absolute Cell Reference
Mixed Cell Reference
Logical Function
LO3 4.3 Plotting with Excel

Today’s spreadsheets offer many choices when it comes to creating charts. You can
create column charts (or histograms), pie charts, line charts, or xy charts. As a stu-
dent and later as a good global citizen, most of the charts that you will create will be
xy-type or column charts. Next, we will explain in detail how to create an xy chart.
Excel offers Chart Wizard, which is a series of dialog boxes that walks you
through the necessary steps to create a chart. To create a chart using the Excel
Chart Wizard, follow the procedure explained here.
• Select the data range as was explained earlier in this chapter.
• Click the Insert tab.
• Select the XY (Scatter) Chart type. The XY Chart type offers five Chart
subtype options. (It is important to note here that the Line chart is often
mistakenly used instead of XY (Scatter).)
• From the four Chart subtype options, select the “data points connected by
smooth lines” Chart option.
• Next you can use the Chart Tools (Design, Layout, and Format) to modify
the chart.
• For example, you can use the Layout tools to enter the Chart Title, Axis
Titles, and Gridlines.
When creating a chart, whether you are using Excel or using free-
hand methods, you must include proper labels with proper units for
You can create column charts each axis. The chart must also contain a figure number with a title
(or histograms), pie charts, line explaining what the chart represents. If more than one set of data is
charts, or xy charts. plotted on the same chart, the chart must also contain a legend or list
showing symbols used for different data sets.
EXAMPLE 4.6 Using the results of Example 4.1, create a graph showing the value of air
density as a function of temperature.
1. First you will select the data range as shown in Figure 4.15.
Microsoft Excel
FIGURE 4.15
2. Next, pick the Insert tab and then select Scatter with the Smooth Lines
and Markers button (Figure 4.16).
Microsoft Excel
FIGURE 4.16
3. You will now see the chart (Figure 4.17). Next, add X-axis and Y-axis
Titles and modify the chart title and gridlines as desired. To do so,
choose the Layout tab and click on the Axis Titles button, Chart Title
button, and Gridlines.
Microsoft Excel
FIGURE 4.17
4. Finally, you can place the chart in an appropriate location as shown in

Figure 4.18. If for some reason you need to make changes, pick the item
you want to change, right click, and a menu will appear.
Microsoft Excel
FIGURE 4.18
It is worth noting that you can plot more than one set of data on the same
chart. To do so, first pick the chart by right-clicking anywhere on the chart
area, and then from the Chart Tools menu use Select Data … and follow the
steps to plot the other data set to the chart.
Plotting Two Sets of Data with Different Ranges on

the Same Chart
At times, it is convenient to show the plot of two variables versus the same
variable on a single chart. For example, in Figure 4.19, we have shown how
air temperature and wind speed change with the same variable time. Using
Example 4.7, we will show how you can plot two sets of data series with differ-
ent ranges on the same chart.
Microsoft Excel
FIGURE 4.19 Using Excel to plot two sets of data
with different ranges.
EXAMPLE 4.7
Refer to the Excel sheets shown in the accompanying figures when follow-
ing the steps.
1. We plot the temperature versus time, as shown in Figure 4.20.
2. With the mouse pointer in the chart area, click the right mouse button
and choose Select Data . . . , which is also shown in Figure 4.20.
Microsoft Excel
FIGURE 4.20 Plotting the temperature variation.
3. In the Select Data Source box, under Legend Entries, click on the Add
button (Figure 4.21), then type in the series name and choose the Series
X values and Series Y values, as shown in Figure 4.22.
Microsoft Excel
FIGURE 4.21 Select Data Source.
Microsoft Excel
FIGURE 4.22 Choosing Series X and Y values.
4. With the mouse pointer over the Wind Speed curve, double-click the
left mouse button. Choose Format Data Series…, then under Series
Options, turn on the Secondary Axis (Figure 4.23). You may also want
to change the line style (Figure 4.24) to dashed lines so that when you
print your chart it will be easier to compare the two curves.
Microsoft Excel
Microsoft Excel
FIGURE 4.23 Format Data Series Options. FIGURE 4.24 Choosing

Line Style.
5. The final results for Example 4.7 are shown in Figure 4.25.
Microsoft Excel
FIGURE 4.25 The final results for Example 4.7.
Curve Fitting with Excel

Curve fitting deals with finding an equation that best fits a set of data and
predicts future trends. There are a number of techniques that you can use to
determine these functions. Some of you may learn about these tech-
You can use Excel to find an niques in future classes. The purpose of this section is to demonstrate
equation that best fits a set of how to use Excel to find an equation that best fits a set of data which
data and predicts future trends. you have plotted. We will demonstrate the curve-fitting capabilities
of Excel using the following example.
EXAMPLE 4.8
We have used Excel to plot the average temperature across global land and
ocean surfaces versus the base year (Table 4.8) using the XY (scatter plot)
without the data points connected, as shown in Figure 4.26.
TA B L E 4 . 8 The Variation of the Average Temperature

Across Global Land and Ocean Surfaces
from 2001 through 2019
Average
Temperature
Across Global
Land and Ocean
Calendar Year Base Year Surfaces (°C)
2001 0 14.47
2002 1 14.52
2003 2 14.54
2004 3 14.48
2005 4 14.57
2006 5 14.54
2007 6 14.52
2008 7 14.44
2009 8 14.55
2010 9 14.63
2011 10 14.48
2012 11 14.54
2013 12 14.58
2014 13 14.64
2015 14 14.83
2016 15 14.90
2017 16 14.81
2018 17 14.73
2019 18 14.85
Microsoft Excel
FIGURE 4.26 The XY plot of data points.
To add the trendline or the best fit, move the mouse pointer over a data
point, click the right button, and choose Add Trendline. . ., as shown in Figure
4.27. Next, from the Format Trendline dialog box, under Trendline Options,
select Linear, and toggle on the Display Equation on chart and Display
R-squared value on chart, as shown in Figure 4.28.
Microsoft Excel
FIGURE 4.27 Add Trendline.
Microsoft Excel
FIGURE 4.28 The Format Trendline dialog box type.
Microsoft Excel
FIGURE 4.29 The linear fit to data of Example 4.8.
Summary 115
After you close the dialog box, you should see the equation y 5 0.0202x 1
14.43 on the chart, as shown in Figure 4.29. We have edited the variables of
the equation to reflect the variables as shown in Figure 4.30. To edit the equa-
tion, left-click on the equation (y 5 0.0202x 1 14.43) and change it to read
T 5 0.0202x 1 14.43, where T 5 Average temperature across global land and
ocean surfaces (8C) and x 5 base year, as shown in Figure 4.30.
Microsoft Excel
FIGURE 4.30 The edited linear fit to data of Example 4.8.
The R 2 value shown in Figures 4.29 and 4.30 is called the coefficient
of determination, and its value provides an indication of how good the fit
is. R 2 5 1 indicates a perfect fit, and R 2 values that are near zero indicate
extremely poor fits.
S U M M A R Y
LO1 Microsoft Excel Basics cells. The columns are labeled A, B, C, D, and so on,
Spreadsheets are used to record, organize, and analyze while the rows are identified by numbers 1, 2, 3, 4,
data using formulas. They are also used to present the and so on. A cell represents the box that one sees as
results of an analysis in chart forms. A workbook— the result of the intersection of a row and a column.
the spreadsheet file—is divided into worksheets, and The cells that are selected simultaneously are called a
each worksheet is divided into columns, rows, and range. When creating formulas, you have to be careful
how you refer to the address of a cell, especially if grouped into various categories, including mathemati-
you are planning to use the Fill command to copy the cal and trigonometric, statistical, financial, and logical
pattern of formulas into other cells. There are three functions.
ways that you can refer to a cell address in a formula:
absolute, relative, and mixed references. By now, you LO3 Plotting with Excel
also know that you can use Excel to input formulas Excel offers many choices when it comes to creating
and compute the results. charts. You can create column charts (or histograms),
pie charts, line charts, or xy charts. As a student and
LO2 Excel Functions later as a good global citizen, most of the charts that
Excel offers a large selection of built-in functions that you will create will be xy-type or column charts. At
you can use to analyze data. By built-in functions, we times, it is convenient to show the plot of two or more
mean standard functions such as the sine or cosine variables versus the same variable on a single chart.
of an angle, as well as formulas that calculate the By now, you should know how to create such plots.
total value, the average value, or the standard devia- You should also know how to use Excel to find an
tion of a set of data points. The Excel functions are equation that best fits a set of data.
K E Y T E R M S
Absolute Cell Reference 99 Dialog Box 107 Row 93

Cell 93 Mixed Cell Reference 99
Column 93 Range 94
Curve Fitting 112 Relative Cell Reference 99

Atmospheric pressure is commonly expressed in one of the
Edw/Shutterstock.com
following units: pascals (Pa), pounds per square inch (lb/in2 ),
millimeters of mercury (mm·Hg), and inches of mercury (in.·Hg).
Use Excel and create a custom-made worksheet to convert
values of atmospheric pressure from pounds per square inch to
pascals, millimeters of mercury, and inches of mercury.
P roblems 117
P R O B L E M S
Problems that promote lifelong learning are denoted by
4.1 Countries in Asia use the Celsius temperature Apartment Size (sq ft)
scale. The annual average temperature for the
500
city of Tokyo, Japan, during the period of 1970
through 2020 is shown in the accompanying 600
table. Use Excel to convert the given 750
temperatures from degrees Celsius to degrees 785
Fahrenheit. 800
950
Year Annual Average
1,000
Temperature (°C)
1,025
1970 15.2
1975 15.6 4.4 Typical water bottle sizes in Asia are shown in
1980 15.4 the accompanying table. Use Excel to convert
these sizes from milliliters and liters to fluid
1985 15.7
ounces and gallons.
1990 17.0
1995 16.3 Water Bottle Size
2000 16.9 280 mL
2005 16.2 350 mL
2010 16.9 500 mL
2015 16.4 1L
2020 16.5 1.5 L
4.2 In Europe, common garbage bag sizes are 4, 8, 2L
13, 25, 33, 42, 45, 55, and 60 liters. Use Excel to 4L
convert these sizes from liters to gallons.
4.5 Plot the data shown in Problem 4.1 and show
the trendline with an equation that best fits
Garbage Bag Size (L)
the given set of data.
4
4.6 The shipment of iPhone units worldwide during
8 2012 through 2019 is shown in the accompanying
13 table. Plot the data in the given table.
25
33 Unit Shipment of
42 Year iPhones Worldwide
(millions)
45
2012 135.9
55
2013 153.4
60
2014 192.7
4.3 In the U.S., an apartment size is expressed
2015 231.5
in square feet, whereas in Europe and Asia,
2016 215.4
the size is given in square meters. Use Excel
to convert the apartment sizes shown in the 2017 215.8
accompanying table from square feet to 2018 208.8
square meters. 2019 191.0
4.7 The trend in adults being overweight in the Total MSW Per Capita
U.S. during the period of 1999 through 2018 Generation Generation
is shown in the accompanying table. Plot this (million (lbm/person/
data and show the trendline with an equation Year tons) day)
that best fits the given set of data.
1960 88.1 2.68
Rate of Overweight 1965 104.4 2.95
Survey Year Adults in the U.S. (%) 1970 121.1 3.25
1999–2000 30.5 1975 127.8 3.25
2001–2002 30.5 1980 151.6 3.66
2003–2004 32.2 1985 166.3 3.83
2005–2006 34.3 1990 208.3 4.57
2007–2008 33.7 1995 217.3 4.52
2009–2010 35.7 2000 243.5 4.74
2011–2012 34.9 2005 253.7 4.69
2013–2014 37.7 2010 250.4 4.44
2015–2016 39.6 2012 250.9 4.38
2017–2018 42.4 4.11 The total and per capita of U.S. Municipal
4.8 The monthly total rainfall in 2020 for Solid Waste (MSW) recycling from 1960 to
Singapore is shown in the accompanying 2012 are shown in the accompanying table.
table. Use Excel to convert the data from Use the steps discussed in Example 4.7 to plot
millimeters to inches. the total MSW and the per capita recycling
rates on the same chart.
Total Rainfall in
Month 2020 (mm) Total MSW Percent
Recycling Recycling
January 88.4
Year (million tons) (%)
February 65.0
1960 5.6 6.4%
March 108.8
1965 6.5 6.2%
April 188.0
1970 8.0 6.6%
May 255.6
1975 9.3 7.3%
June 233.8
1980 14.5 9.6%
July 140.8
1985 16.7 10.1%
August 103.4
1990 33.2 16.0%
September 150.2
1995 55.8 25.7%
October 78.8
2000 69.5 28.5%
November 220.6
2005 79.8 31.4%
December 253.2
2010 85.2 34.0%
4.9 Plot the rainfall data given in Problem 4.8 and 2012 86.6 34.5%
show the trendline with an equation that best
fits the given set of data. 4.12 As shown in the accompanying table, coal
has been China’s primary source of energy
4.10 The total and per capita of U.S. Municipal
production. Use the steps discussed in
Solid Waste (MSW) generation from 1960 to
Example 4.7 to plot China’s total energy
2012 are shown in the accompanying table.
production and the percentages of production
Use the steps discussed in Example 4.7 to plot
by coal on the same chart.
the total MSW and the per capita generation
rates on the same chart.
P roblems 119
Total Percentage Person BMI

Energy of A 20.1
Production Production B 35.4
Year (quad Btu) by Coal (%)
C 25.0
1980 19.539 70.7%
D 30.9
1985 26.284 73.9%
E 22.2
1990 31.876 75.4%
F 18.3
1995 37.956 75.8%
G 19.0
2000 41.262 74.7%
H 18.5
2005 66.78 78.9%
I 30.0
2010 97.033 78.7%
J 29.9
2015 114.302 74.8%
2018 117.798 71.5% 4.15 The Wet Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT)
is an index that shows the level of the stress
4.13 The annual average price of regular-grade on the body from heat. To prevent heat-
gasoline in the U.S. during the period of 2010 related illnesses, the Japanese government
through 2020 is shown in the accompanying provides the guidelines for exercise shown in
table. Use Excel’s logic function to create a the accompanying table.
table that shows if the price of gas has gone up
or down, when compared to the previous year. Guide to How
Much Exercise
Annual Average Can Be Performed
Regular-Grade Gas WBGT Safely
Year Price ($) .5 318 C Danger
2010 2.78 (exercise prohibited)
2011 3.53 .5 28 , , 318 C Severe warning
2012 3.63 (heavy exercise
2013 3.51 prohibited)
2014 3.36 .5 25 , , 288 C Warning
2015 2.43 (rests should be
provided often)
2016 2.15
.5 21, , 258 C Caution
2017 2.42
(water should be
2018 2.73 replenished often)
2019 2.60 , 218 C Almost safe
2020 2.18 (appropriate water
4.14 The Body Mass Index (BMI) is calculated replenishment
based on the height and weight of a person to suggested)
show if an individual is considered underweight Source:
(BMI values less than 18.5), normal weight www.wbgt.env.go.jp/en/wbgt.php
(BMI values between 18.5 and 24.9), or

overweight (BMI values greater than 25). The data in the following table shows
The BMI values for 10 people are shown the WBGT at 2 p.m. in Tokyo from June 1 to
in the accompanying table. Use Excel’s logic October 15, 2019. Use Excel’s logic functions
functions to create a table that shows, if the to create a table that shows the level of
person is underweight, normal weight, or warning for each day.
overweight.
WBGT at 2 p.m. in Tokyo

Date WBGT (°C)
06/01/19 22.2
06/15/19 16.9
07/01/19 24.3
07/15/19 23.7
08/01/19 26.1
08/15/19 29.9
09/01/19 27.1
09/15/19 26.6
10/01/19 25.3
10/15/19 18.8
Energy
PA RT
2
I
n Part Two, we introduce you to the basics of conventional and renewable energy, its
sources and production, as well as energy consumption rates in homes, buildings, trans-
portation, food production, and manufacturing. We need energy to build shelter, cultivate
and process food, make goods, and maintain our living places at comfortable temperatures. To
quantify the requirements to build things, to move or lift objects, or to heat or cool buildings,
energy is defined and classified into different categories. In this part of the book, you will learn
what we mean by energy and power and their common units, including Joule, pound-foot,
Btu, kilowatt-hour, kilowatt, and horsepower. We also discuss the basic concepts of electricity
and electric power production. We cover residential power consumption, particularly lighting
systems, because lighting accounts for a major portion of electricity use in buildings; lighting
systems have received much attention recently due to energy and sustainability concerns. We
also explain the fundamentals of heat transfer, as well as heat loss and gain in buildings. Space
heating and air conditioning account for nearly fifty percent of energy use in homes in the
United States and sixty-four percent in Europe. A comprehensive coverage of energy sources
such as gasoline, natural gas, coal, and wood, along with their consumption rates, is also pro-
vided. We discuss in detail how much energy we consume in homes and buildings, as well as
in the transportation and manufacturing sectors. We also explain the basic concepts related to
solar energy, wind energy, and hydro-energy.
CHAPTER 5 Energy and Power

CHAPTER 6 Electricity
CHAPTER 7 Thermal Energy: Heat Loss and Gain in Buildings
CHAPTER 8 Energy Consumption Rates and Non-Renewable Energy Sources
CHAPTER 9 Renewable Energy
123
CHA P T E R
5
Energy and Power
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
LO1 Energy and Work: describe what we mean by energy
and work
LO2 Forms of Energy: describe how we quantify what
it takes to move things (kinetic energy), to lift
things (potential energy), and to heat or cool things
(thermal energy)
LO3 Difference Between Energy and Power: explain the
difference between energy and power
LO4 Energy Content (Heating Values) of Fuels: explain
what energy contents of fuel represent
pixelsnap/Shutterstock.com, supergenijalac/Shutterstock.com, EpicStockMedia/

Shutterstock.com, mihalec/Shutterstock.com, Leonardo da/Shutterstock.com,
Joshua Davenport/Shutterstock.com
Discussion Starter
W
e quantify and express our energy in Calories (with an uppercase C). For example, a
consumption rates using different banana has about 100 Calories, whereas a medium
units, including the kilowatt-hour, Btu, serving of French fries has around 400 Calories.
and Calorie. In this chapter, you will learn that One Calorie is equal to 1,000 calories (with a low-
one kilowatt-hour represents the amount of ercase c), and one calorie is defined as the amount
energy consumed during 1 hour by a device that of energy required to raise the temperature of one
uses 1,000 watts (W) or one kilowatt (kW) of elec- gram of water by one degree Celsius ( 8 C).
tric power and that one British thermal unit (Btu)
represents the amount of thermal energy needed
to raise the temperature of one pound mass (lbm)
of water by one degree Fahrenheit ( 8F). You may
also recall from our discussion in Chapter 1 that
the energy content of food is typically expressed
iStockPhoto/Volodymyr Shtun
Jim Barber/Shutterstock.com monticello/Shutterstock.com
To the Students: What is energy? What is power? What is the difference

between energy and power? What do you think your annual energy consumption is
in terms of kilowatt-hours, Btu, and Calories?
LO1 5.1 Energy and Work

Energy, because of its importance in our daily lives, is a concept that every
good citizen, regardless of their area of interest, should know. Think about your
everyday activities and what it takes to maintain your lifestyle today. For exam-
ple, can you use your phone indefinitely without charging it? Can you run your
car forever without putting some form of fuel in it? Can you keep your house
126 CHAPTER 5 Energy and Power
warm in the winter months with a heating unit that won’t require some form of
energy input? During the past few decades, much has been said about energy
consumption rates, greenhouse gases, climate change, and why we should adopt
policies that promote energy savings and make use of more green energy. But
what exactly is energy?
Energy is one of those abstract terms that you already have a good feel
for. We need energy to do things. For instance, you already know that we need
energy to make various products and to operate them. We need energy to cul-
tivate and process food. We need energy to construct buildings such as houses,
apartments, malls, supermarkets, schools, and hospitals. We also need energy
to maintain our living and working places at comfortable temperatures. You
already know this much; however, what you may not know is that energy has
different forms. In order to better explain the requirements to make things like
a smart phone, to build structures like a house, to move things like a car, to lift
things like an elevator, or to heat or cool rooms in a home, we define and clas-
sify energy into different categories, such as kinetic energy, potential energy, and
thermal energy. For example, in order to quantify how much energy it takes to
move something, we make use of the concept called kinetic energy; to deter-
mine what it takes to lift people in an elevator or on an escalator, we
use potential energy; and to calculate how much fuel, such as natural
We need energy to do things. gas, it takes to keep our homes warm during the winter months, we
use the concept of thermal energy.
Nataliya Hora/Shutterstock.com CHAIYA/Shutterstock.com
Orientaly/Shutterstock.com YegoroV/Shutterstock.com
Another idea that you are familiar with is that in order to perform a task,
you have to do the work! But what do we mean by the term work? Work could
mean different things to different people. For example, it could mean effort,
labor, job, occupation, or employment. However, in a physics context, work is
performed when a force moves an object through a distance. That is,
work 5 (force)(distance) 5.1
We explained the concept of force in Chapter 2. Recall that the simplest

form of a force that represents the interaction of two objects is a push or a
pull. When you push on a lawn mower, that interaction between your hand and
the lawn mower is called force. When an automobile pulls a trailer, a force is
exerted by the bumper hitch on the trailer. Also, note that, symbolically, a force
is represented by an arrow. Therefore, when you push on a lawn mower and
move it through a distance, you perform work, or when an automobile pulls
a trailer and moves it through a distance, work is performed. The SI unit for
work is the joule (J), and one joule represents the work done by a force with a
magnitude of one newton (1 N) acting through a distance of one meter (1 m);
then from Equation (5.1), 1 J 5 (1 N)(1 m). The U.S. Customary unit for work
is pound-force-ft (lbf ? ft), which is obtained by substituting pound force (lbf)
for the unit of force and foot (ft) for the unit of distance in Equation (5.1);
that is, 1 lbf ? ft 5 (1 lbf)(1 ft). Moreover, the relationship between the magni-
tude of joule (J) and pound-force-ft (lbf ? ft) is given by 1 J < 0.74 lbf ? ft or
1 lbf ? ft < 1.4 J.
An additional concept that you need to clearly understand is that we need
to spend energy to do work. For example, if you don’t eat, you won’t have the
energy to push a lawn mower. You may recall from your high school education
that metabolism is the biochemical process by which our bodies convert food
and drinks (fuel) into energy. You may also recall that even if we are resting
and watching TV or sleeping, we still need energy for basic body functions such
as blood circulation and breathing. For the example of an automobile
We need to spend energy to do pulling a trailer, if you do not have gasoline (fuel) in the car to burn to
work. convert into energy and subsequently do work and move the car, you
cannot pull the trailer. As such, we need to expend energy to do work.
ARENA Creative/Shutterstock.com Robert J. Beyers II/Shutterstock.com
Before You Go On
1. Name three forms of energy.

2. In your own words, explain what is meant by force.
3. In your own words, explain what is meant by work.
4. What is the difference between work and energy?
Force
Work
Energy
LO2 5.2 Forms of Energy
As mentioned previously, to quantify the requirements to move objects such as

our cars, to lift things like an elevator, or to heat or cool our homes, energy is
classified into different categories such as kinetic energy, potential energy, and
thermal energy. Let’s now look at each form of energy in more detail.
Kinetic Energy—What It Takes to Move Things

Kinetic energy is a way by which we quantify how much energy is required to
move something. At one time or another in your life, you have pushed on an
object to change its position. Therefore, intuitively, you understand that the
amount of work (or energy) required to move something depends
Kinetic energy quantifies the on two things: (1) the mass of the object, and (2) how fast you want
amount of energy required to to move it. The bigger the mass of the object, the harder it is to move
the object. An object having a known mass m and moving with a
move something.
given speed V has kinetic energy, which is equal to:
 1  1
Kinetic energy 5   (mass)(speed)2 5   mV 2 5.2
 2  2
The SI unit for kinetic energy is the joule (J), which is obtained by substi-
tuting kilogram (kg) for the unit of mass and meter per second (m/s) for the
units of speed, as shown next. Note that the one-half factor in the kinetic energy
equation has no units.
 1  1
kinetic energy 5   (kg)(m/s)2 5   (kg)(m 2 /s 2 )
 2  2
 m
recall from Chapter 2 that 1 N 5 (1 kg) 1 2 
 s 
no units
 1  m
5   (kg)  2  (m) 5 N ? m 5 joule 5 J
 2 s 
The U.S. Customary unit for kinetic energy is the pound force-foot (lbf ? ft).
As shown next, note that you must first divide the value of the mass by a cor-
lbm ? ft
rection factor of 32.2 . As we mentioned in Chapter 2, this correction
lbf ? s 2
factor is needed, because in U.S. Customary units, the relationship between mass
and weight is not defined using Newton’s law. Consequently, a correction factor
must be introduced to make the distinction between mass (pound mass) and
weight (pound force).
mass mass

   
 1  lbm   1  lbm   ft 2 
kinetic energy 5    (ft/s) 2
  lbm ? ft   s 2 
5
 2 lbm ? ft   2 
 32.2   32.2 
lbf ? s 2   lbf ? s 2 

no units
 1   lbf  2
5   (ft ) 5 lbf ? ft
 2   ft 
EXAMPLE 5.1
To develop a feel for what the magnitudes of kinetic energy represent, con-
sider the following situations.
(a) A sprinter with a mass of 80 kilograms (kg) running at a peak speed of

10 meters/second (m/s):
kinetic  1  1
energy 5  2  (mass)(speed) 5  2  (80 kg)(10 m/s) 5 4,000 J
2 2
Pete Saloutos/Shutterstock.com
(b) A car with a mass of 1,000 kilograms (kg) moving at a speed of

100 kilometers/hour (km/h) or 27.8 meters/second (m/s):
energy 5  2  (mass)(speed) 5  2  (1,000 kg)(27.8 m/s)
2 2
5 386,420 J < 400,000 J

robert_s/Shutterstock.com When comparing the kinetic energy values for the sprinter and the car,
note that the car has a kinetic energy that is almost 100 times greater than
that of the sprinter.
(c) A commercial plane with a mass of 180,000 kilograms (kg) flying at a

speed of 900 kilometers/hour (km/h) or 250 meters/second (m/s):
energy 5  2  (mass)(speed) 5  2  (180,000 kg)(250 m/s)
2 2
5 5,625,000,000 J
Senohrabek/Shutterstock.com
Compared to the car, the plane has a kinetic energy that is almost 15,000
times greater!
Let’s now think more carefully about how kinetic energy is

When we do work on an object, we related to work. When you apply a force by pulling or pushing on
change its kinetic energy. an object and moving it through a distance, you perform work; and
when you do work on an object, you change its speed and kinetic
energy. For example, when you push on a lawn mower that is initially
at rest, you apply a force, and as you move it, you do work on the lawn mower.
Consequently, you change its speed and kinetic energy from a zero value to
some nonzero value. So it is important to understand that when we do work on
an object, we change the kinetic energy of the object. The relationship between
work (force times distance) and the change in kinetic energy is given by
work 5 change in kinetic energy of the object 5

(force)  1    1   5.3
5   (mass)(speed)2  2   (mass)(speed)2 
(distance) 
 2   final 
 2   initial
Note the work on the left-hand side of Equation (5.3) and the change in kinetic
energy on the right-hand side; both have the same units (J or lbf ? ft ). The next
time you are in a grocery store, think about the relationship between work and
the change in kinetic energy shown in Equation (5.3) as you push on a shopping
cart. The harder you push on a shopping cart, the faster it will move and the
higher its kinetic energy becomes.
Initial position Final position
As you know, the harder you push, the faster the cart will move.
Next, we look at two examples to see how you can use Equation (5.3).
EXAMPLE 5.2
Consider an object with a mass of one kilogram initially at rest on a smooth
surface. What is the speed of the object if you were to push on it with a force
of one newton after it has moved a distance of one meter?
Speed = 0 Speed = ?
1N 1N
1 kg 1 kg
1m
Work 5 (force)(distance)
 1    1  
 2   final position  2   initial position

0

 1     1  
(1 N)(1 m) 5   (1 kg)(speed)2  2   (1 kg)(0)2 

 2   final position 
 2   initial position
And solving for speed at the final position, we get

m
recall from Chapter 2 that 1 N 5 (1 kg)(1 )
s2
2(1 N)(1 m) 2 (1 N) (1 m)
(speed)2 5 5
1 kg 1 kg
m2
(2)(1)(1) kg
s2 5 2 m
2
5
1 kg s2
m2 m
(speed) 5 2 2 5 1.4
s2 s
Now think about the following:
(a) How much work was done? (1 N)(1 m) 5 1 N?m or 1 joule
(b) What is the initial kinetic energy of the object? 0 joule
(c) What is the kinetic energy of the object after it has moved 1 m? 1 joule
How are these three values related? Work is equal to change in kinetic
energy, that is, 1 J 5 1 J 2 0 J.
EXAMPLE 5.3
Consider the following situation. You have been pushing a shopping cart
filled with your groceries. You stop for a moment to add another item to
your cart. How hard do you need to push the cart to get it moving again at
a speed of, say, 0.3 meter per second (m/s) or one foot per second (ft/s) over
a distance of one meter or 3.28 feet? Your groceries and the cart have a
combined mass of 40 kilograms or 88 pound mass.
Let us now apply Equation (5.3) to this example.
work 5 change in kinetic energy

(force)  1    1  
(distance)  2   final  2   initial
zero

 1    1  
(force)(1 m) 5   (40 kg)(0.3)2  2   (40 kg)(0)2 
Tyler Olson/Shutterstock.com

 2   final 
(force)(1 m) 5 1.8 2 0 (N?m)
Solve for force to get
force 5 1.8 N (newton)
From our discussion in Chapter 2, recall that 1 lbf (pound force) 5 4.448 N (newton)
1 lbf (pound force) 5 4.448 N (newton)
 1 lbf 
force 5 1.8 N  5 0.4 lbf (pound force)
 4.448 N 
As you can see, it does not take much effort to move the cart at a speed of
1 foot/second. Of course, we have neglected the rolling friction of the wheels.
Where does the energy that does the work come from? In this case, the food
that you ate provides the fuel (energy content) to move the cart.
Next, we consider potential energy, which is the amount of

energy needed to lift an object.
Potential Energy—What It Takes to Lift

Things
How do we quantify how much energy we need to lift things?
The energy required to lift an object over a vertical distance is
called potential energy. It is the work that must be performed to
overcome the gravitational pull of the Earth on the object. The
change in the potential energy of the object when its elevation
is changed can be quantified provided that we know its weight
and the change in the elevation. The change in the potential
energy is given by
hxdbzxy/Shutterstock.com
change in
potential 5 (weight of the object)(change in elevation)
energy
weight of the object 5.4

(mass of the object) 3
5 (change in elevation)
(acceleration due to gravity)
The SI unit for potential energy is also the joule, and it is obtained by sub-
stituting newton for weight or kilogram (kg) for the unit of mass, meter per
second squared (m/s 2 ) for the unit of acceleration due to gravity, and meter (m)
for the elevation change:
weight of the object in newtons

 m
change in potential energy 5 (kg)  2  (m) 5 N ? m 5 joule 5 J
s 
The U.S. Customary unit for potential energy is also the lbf ? ft as
Potential energy quantifies the potential energy 5 (weight in pound force)(ft)
amount of energy required to lift lbf

something. 5 (pound force)(ft) 5 lbf ? ft
As in the case with kinetic energy, keep in mind that it is the change in the
potential energy that is of importance. For example, the energy required to lift an
elevator from the first floor to the second floor is the same as that needed to lift
the elevator from the third floor to the fourth floor, provided that the distance
between each floor is the same. This point is demonstrated in Example 5.5.
EXAMPLE 5.4
This example demonstrates what one joule of energy represents. Consider
an average-size apple with a mass of 100 grams (g) or 0.22 pound, which is
almost a quarter of a pound. How much energy does it take to raise the apple
by a vertical distance of one meter (3.3 feet)?
1m
100 kilograms
100 grams
change in
potential 5 (mass)(acceleration due to gravity)(change in elevation)
energy

0.98 N

 1 kg   m
5 (100 grams)   9.8 2  (1 m) 5 0.98 joule < 1 J
 1,000 grams   s
So it takes approximately one joule of energy to raise an average-size

apple by a vertical distance of one meter. Now you have a good idea of what
one joule represents. So in a fruit warehouse, how much energy does it take
to raise a large crate of apples with a mass of 100 kilograms by one meter?
1,000 joules!
change in
potential 5 (mass)(acceleration due to gravity)(change in elevation)
energy
 m
5 (100 kg)  9.8 2  (1 m) 5 980 joules < 1,000 J
 s 
EXAMPLE 5.5
In this example, we calculate the energy required to lift an elevator and its
occupant with a combined mass of 2,000 kilograms or 4,400 pound mass for
the following situations:
(a) between the first and the second floors
(b) between the third and the fourth floors
(c) between the first and the fourth floors
The vertical distance between each floor is 4.5 m or 14.8 feet.
We can use Equation (5.4) to analyze this problem; the energy required
to lift the elevator is equal to the change in its potential energy.
(a)

19,620 newtons
change in  m
5 (2,000 kg)  9.81 2  (4.5 m) 5 88,290 N ? m
Carlos Neto/Shutterstock.com
potential energy  s 
5 88,290 J
or in U.S. Customary units,

4,400 lbf
 
change in  4,400 lbm   ft 
potential energy
5   32.2 2  (14.8 ft) 5 65,120 lbf ? ft
lbm ? ft s
 32.2 
lbf ? s 2 
(b)

19,620 newtons
change in  m
5 (2,000 kg)  9.81 2  (4.5 m) 5 88,290 N ? m
5 88,290 J

4,400 lbf

 
32.2 2  (14.8 ft) 5 65,120 lbf ? ft
lbm ? ft  
5 
potential energy s 
 32.2 2 
lbf ? s
(c) 19,620 newtons

change in  m
5 (2,000 kg)  9.81 2  (13.5 m) = 264,870 N ? m
5 264,870 J

4,400 lbf

 
32.2 2  (44.4 ft) 5 195,360 lbf ? ft
lbm ? ft  
5
potential energy s 
 32.2 
lbf ? s 2 
Note that the amount of energy required to lift the elevator from the first
to the second floor and from the third to the fourth floor is the same. Also
realize that we have neglected any frictional effect in our analysis. The actual
energy requirement would be greater in the presence of friction.
Besides moving or lifting something, we need energy to perform many other

tasks. Consequently, we define other forms of energy. Next, we discuss thermal
energy as a means by which we quantify the amount of energy that we need to
heat (raise temperature of) or cool (lower temperature of) something.
Thermal Energy—What It Takes to Heat or

Cool Things
We also need energy to heat or cool our homes, to cook, and to heat water to
shower or bathe. But what is “heat?” Before we explain what thermal energy
means, you need to understand the concept of internal energy. Internal energy
is a measure of the molecular activity of a substance and is related to the tem-
perature of the substance. The higher the temperature of an object, the higher
its molecular activity (the more excited the molecules are) and thus the higher
the internal energy of the object. Moreover, thermal energy transfer occurs
whenever a temperature difference exists within an object or between an object
and its surroundings. When we heat water, we transfer energy from a
heating element that has a higher temperature with a higher internal
Thermal energy quantifies the energy to water that has a lower temperature with a lower internal
amount of energy required to heat energy. This form of energy transfer is called heat transfer. Another
or cool something. important fact that you should remember is that heat always flows
from a high-temperature object or region to a low-temperature object
or region. We discuss heat transfer in
greater detail in Chapter 7.
There are three units commonly
used to quantify thermal energy: the
British thermal unit or Btu, the calorie,
and the joule.
1. O ne British thermal unit (Btu)
represents the amount of thermal
energy needed to raise the
temperature of one pound mass
(lbm) of water by one degree
Fahrenheit (8 F).
2. The calorie represents the amount
of heat required to raise the
temperature of one gram (g)
of water by one degree Celsius
(8C). Note, however, that the energy
content of food is typically expressed
in Calories (with an uppercase C),
Sklep Spozywczy/Shutterstock.com
which is equal to 1,000 calories.
3. In SI units, no distinction is made between the units of thermal, kinetic,

and potential energy; for all forms of energy, the unit of joule is used. The
relationship among different energy units are:
1 Btu 5 1, 055 joules; 1 Btu 5 252 calories ; and 1 calorie 5 4.186 joules .
Let us now focus on how we would use the thermal energy concepts that
you have learned to estimate your energy consumption resulting from a com-
mon daily activity.
EXAMPLE 5.6
When you take a long shower, you can use up to 20 gallons (, 75 liters) of
hot water. Let us look at how much energy it takes to heat 20 gallons of water
from room temperature, say at 708 F (218C) to hot water at 1208 F (, 498C)
—an increase of 508 F (, 288C).
Each gallon of water has a mass of 8.34
pounds, so 20 gallons of water will have a total
mass of 166.8 (20 3 8.34) pounds. Recall that
one British thermal unit (Btu) represents the
amount of thermal energy needed to raise
the temperature of one pound mass (lbm) of
water by one degree Fahrenheit (8 F). In this
example, we need to raise the temperature of
166.8 pound mass of water by 508 F, which is
equal to (166.8)(50) 5 8,340 Btu. The steps to
arrive at the final result are shown next. Pay
close attention to the way units cancel out for
the final result so that you are left with only
Di Studio/Shutterstock.com British thermal units (Btu).
  
50
 8.34 lbm  1 Btu
(20 gallons of water )      (120 2 70) 8 F  5 (8,340 Btu)
 1 gallon of water   (1 lbm )(18 F )   
We can also express the results in joules by noting that 1 British thermal
unit is equal to 1,055 joules in the following manner:
 1,055 joules   1,055 joules 

(8,340 Btu)   5 (8,340 Btu )  
 1 Btu 1 Btu
5 8,798,700 joules
< 8.8 MJ (Mega joules)
In reality, you would need to spend more energy than this because your hot
water heating system is not 100% efficient, and you would have heat losses!
Use the steps shown in this example and estimate how much energy you use
when you take a shower.
Before You Go On
1. What does kinetic energy quantify?

2. What does potential energy quantify?
3. What does thermal energy quantify?
4. What are the SI and U.S. Customary units for kinetic energy, potential energy, and thermal
energy?
Kinetic Energy
Potential Energy
Thermal Energy
Btu
Joule
calorie
Calorie
LO3 5.3 Difference Between Energy and Power
People commonly confuse energy with power. Power shows how fast
Power represents the amount of you are expending energy. The value of power required to do the work
work done or energy expended per (perform a task) represents how fast you want the work (task) done.
unit of time. If you want the work done in a shorter period of time, then you need
to spend more power. You should understand clearly that in order
to perform the same task in a shorter period of time, more power is
required. For example, to lift an elevator with 10 people from the first
floor to the 50th floor, you need to spend a certain amount of energy.
To determine the power requirement for this task, you need to ask
yourself how fast you want to get the people to the 50th floor. The
shorter the time period, the bigger the power requirement would be.
work energy
power 5 5
time time
Here is another example. Do you require more energy to walk up
a flight of stairs or to run up the stairs? Which requires more power?
To walk up a flight of stairs or to run up the stairs requires the same
amount of energy, because your weight and the height associated with
Tom Wang/Shutterstock.com the flight of stairs remain constant. However, you need more power
to run up the stairs, since you want to do the work (or change your
More power means more energy potential energy) in a shorter time period.
expenditure per second. For the sake of demonstrating the difference between energy
and power, imagine that in order to perform a task, 3,600 joules
of energy is required. The next question then becomes, how
fast do we want this work done? If we want the task done in 1 second,
3,600 joules joules
5 3,600 of power is required; if we want the work done in
1 second second
3,600 joules joules
1 minute or 60 seconds, then 5 60 of power is needed; and
60 seconds second
if we want the task done in 1 hour or 3,600 seconds, then the required power is
3,600 joules joule
51 . From this simple example, you should see clearly
3,600 second s second
that in order to perform the same task in a shorter period of time, more power
is required. Again, more power means more energy expenditure per second.
Many managers understand the concept of power well, for they understand
the benefit of teamwork. In order to finish a project in a shorter period of time,
instead of assigning a task to an individual, the task is divided among several
team members. More useful energy expenditure per day is expected from a
team than from a single person, thus the project or the task can be done in less
time.
Units of Power: Watts, Kilowatts, and Horsepower
SI Units The SI unit for power is defined in the following manner:

work (force)(distance) (newton)(meter) N?m J
power 5 5 5 5 5 5 Watt 5 W
time time second s s
Note that 1 N ? m is called 1 joule (J), and 1 joule/second (J/s) is called 1 watt
(W). The electric power consumption of various devices is also expressed in
watts; however, note that for electrical/electronic devices, the power formula
P 5 (V )( I ) is used. In this relationship, P is power in watts, V is the voltage, and
I is the current in amps. In the United States, most electronic devices and small
appliances are connected to a 120-volt source. By using this power relationship
between voltage and current, you can determine their power consumption, pro-
vided that you know how much electric current the device draws. For example,
a hair dryer that draws 10 amps consumes 1,200 watts of power. We discuss
electricity in greater detail in Chapter 6.
It is also important to mention here that a unit which is often confused for
the unit of power is the kilowatt-hour. The kilowatt-hour (kWh) is a unit of
energy—not power, and it represents the amount of energy consumed during
1 hour by a device that uses 1,000 watts or one kilowatt (kW). We explain this
concept along with energy consumption for common products in everyday life
in more detail in Chapter 6.
U.S. Customary Units In U.S. Customary units, the units of power are
 lbf ? ft 
expressed in pound force-ft per second  and horsepower (hp) in the
 s 
following manner:
work (force)(distance) (pound force)(ft) lbf ? ft

power 5 5 5 5
time time second s
and
lbf ? ft
1 horsepower 5 1 hp 5 550
s
The U.S. Customary units of power are related to the SI unit watt (W) through:
lbf ? ft
1 5 1.36 Watts
s
and
1 hp 5 746 W 5 0.746 kW
 lbf ? ft 
In the above relationships, note that 1  is slightly greater in magnitude
 s 
than 1 watt. Also keep in mind that 1 horsepower is smaller than 1,000 watts or
1 kilowatt (kW) .
In the United States, for heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC)
applications, Btu per hour (Btu/h) is used to represent the heat loss from a
building during cold months and the heat gained by the building during sum-
mer months. We discuss heat loss and gain in buildings in detail in Chapter 7.
The definitions and relationships among various units of energy and power
are summarized in Table 5.1.
TA B L E 5 . 1 The Units of Energy and Power

SI Units of Energy U.S. Customary Units of Energy
The unit for kinetic energy and potential energy is the The unit for kinetic energy and potential energy is
joule, which is equal to 1 newton-meter, that is the pound force-foot (lbf ? ft)
1 J 5 (1 N)(1 m)
The unit of thermal energy is also the joule. However, The unit for thermal energy is the British thermal
the calorie, which represents the amount of heat unit (Btu). One Btu represents the amount of thermal
required to raise the temperature of one gram (g) of energy needed to raise the temperature of one
water by one degree Celsius ( 8 C), is also used. pound mass (lbm) of water by one degree Fahrenheit
( 8F).
SI Units of Power U.S. Customary Units of Power
The unit of power is the watt, which is equal to 1 joule lbf ? ft
The units of power are expressed in and
per second, that is s
1 W 5 1 J/s; lbf ? ft
and horsepower (hp), where 1 hp 5 550
s
1 kilowatt 5 1 kW 5 1,000 W In thermal applications such as the heating and
cooling of buildings, Btu per hour 
Btu 
is used.
 h 
The Relationship Among SI and U.S. Customary Units
Energy 5 1 joule (J) < 0.74 lbf ? ft; 1 lbf ? ft < 1.4 joules (J)
1 Btu 5 778 lbf ? ft; 1 cal 5 4.186 J ; 1 Btu 5 1,055 J; 1 Btu 5 252 cal
Power: 1 cal/s 5 4.186 W; 1 W 5 3.4123 Btu/h; hp 5 746 W
EXAMPLE 5.7
This example demonstrates what one watt and one kilowatt of power rep-
resent. Consider the apple in Example 5.4. How much power does it take to
raise the apple by a vertical distance of one meter in one second?
1m
100 kilograms
100 grams
In Example 5.4, we calculated that it takes approximately one joule of energy

to raise an average-size apple by one meter. Then to raise the apple by one
meter in one second, it would require a power of one watt as shown.
work or energy 1 joule
power 5 5 5 1 watt
time 1 second
Now can you estimate how much power it would take to raise the large crate
of apples in Example 5.4?
work or energy 1,000 joules
power 5 5 5 1,000 watts 5 1 kW
time 1 second
EXAMPLE 5.8
Horsepower and kilowatts represent units of power.
One horsepower, which is equal to 550 pound force-
feet per second (lbf ? ft/s) can be interpreted as lift-
ing 220 pounds a distance of 2.5 feet every second,
so
 (220 lbf)(2.5 ft) lbf ? ft 

 5 550
1 second s 
Can you do it? If so, how long can you keep
it up? On the other hand, one kilowatt is equal
to 1,000 N ? m/s and could be understood as lift-
Jacob Lund/Shutterstock.com ing 1,000 newtons (something with a mass of
about 100 kg) a distance of one meter every second. One kilowatt
is larger than one horsepower (1 kilowatt 5 1.34 horsepower) and
when expressed in its equivalent U.S. Customary units, one kilowatt
could be explained as lifting 295 pounds a distance of 2.5 feet every
second. This way, you see that one kilowatt represents more power
than one horsepower.
You have a good feel for how much effort you have to exert to
lift a gallon of water. If a gallon of water weighs 8.34 pounds, how
many of these one-gallon water-filled containers do you need to
lift simultaneously at a distance of 2.5 feet every second to produce
enough power that is equal to one horsepower or one kilowatt?
About 26 of them to produce one horsepower and about 35 of them
to produce one kilowatt! By now, you should be able to verify these
results on your own.
fotomak/Shutterstock.com
EXAMPLE 5.9
When an automatic garage door opener is activated, you notice that it takes
12 seconds to completely open the garage door. The garage door weighs
approximately 300 pound force (lbf), and when it is fully open, its mass cen-
ter is raised by a vertical distance of 4.5 feet. Estimate the size of the motor
for the garage door opener.
work (force)(distance) change in potential energy

power 5 5 5
time time second
(300 lbf)(4.5 ft)
5
12 s
 lbf ? ft 
5 112.5 
 s 
You can convert this value to horsepower

(hp) in the following manner.
 
 lbf ? ft   1 hp 
power 5 112.5   
 s lbf ? ft 
 550 
s
5 0.2 hp
This value makes sense, because most
garage door opener motors are rated at one-
quarter horsepower (0.25 hp). Follow the
steps shown here to estimate the size of the
garage door opener motor in your or a friend's
home.
Before You Go On
1. What is the difference between energy and power?

2. What are the SI and U.S. Customary units for power?
3. Which represents more power, kilowatt or horsepower?
Power
Kilowatt
Horsepower
LO4 5.4 Energy Content (Heating Values) of Fuels

To generate energy, we use fuels such as coal and natural gas in power plants. To
move our cars, we burn gasoline or diesel fuels. To heat our homes, we may burn
natural gas in a furnace or wood in a fireplace. When a fuel is burned, thermal
energy is released. The heating value of a fuel quantifies the amount of energy
that is released when a unit mass (kilogram or pound) or a unit volume (cubic
meter, cubic foot, or gallon) of a fuel is burned. The energy contents of common
fuels are given in Table 5.2 (see pages 145 and 146).
Let us now focus on how we use the information given in Table 5.2 to esti-
mate fuel consumption resulting from some activities such as taking a shower or
burning fuel to keep a home warm during a cold winter day. It will soon become
evident from the results of these examples that we need to burn a large amount
of fuel to address our daily needs. Think about all of your other routine activi-
ties (e.g., driving and cooking) that require fuel expenditure as well.
EXAMPLE 5.10
In Example 5.6, we showed that you need to expend 8,340 Btu to heat up
20 gallons of water from room temperature at 708 F to 1208 F to produce
hot water to take a shower. Let’s now look at how much natural gas, with
a heating value of 1,000 British thermal units (Btu) per cubic foot (ft 3 ) (see
Table 5.2), we need to burn to generate this amount of thermal energy.
 Btu 
8,340 Btu 5 (Amount of natural gas in cubic feet)  1,000 
 cubic foot 
 Btu 
8,340 Btu 5 (Amount of natural gas in cubic feet )  1,000 
 cubic foot 
Recall from Section 2.3 that we emphasized that all for-

mulas used in any analysis must be homogeneous in dimen-
sions and units. Note that the unit of Btu on the left-hand
side of the equation cancels out with the unit of Btu on
the right-hand side of the equation, and the units of cubic
feet in the numerator and denominator also cancel out,
resulting in:
(Amount of natural gas) 5 8.34 ft 3
Jo Ann Snover/Shutterstock.com
EXAMPLE 5.11
In colder climates, to keep a single family home warm and cozy
during a cold winter day, you may need to generate as much as
50,000 British thermal units (Btu) of thermal energy per hour. Then the total
amount of energy that needs to be generated for a cold spell during a 24-hour
period is equal to
 Btu   hours 
energy needed 5  50,000  24
 hour   day 
 Btu   hours 
5  50,000  24
 hour   day 
Btu
5 1,200,000
day
Note the unit of hour and hours in the denominator and
numerator cancel out, and you are left with the units of
Btu/day.
Now we can determine how much fuel we need to burn
Maria Dryfhout/Shutterstock.com to generate 1,200,000 Btu in one day.
Natural gas:
Btu  cubic feet   Btu 

1,200,000 5  amount of natural gas in   1,000 
day  day  cubic foot
(amount of natural gas) 5 1,200 cubic feet/day
Fuel oil:
Btu  gallons   Btu 

1,200,000 5  amount of fuel oil in 139,000
day  day   gallon 
(Amount of fuel oil) 5 8.6 gallons/day
Coal:
Btu  pounds   Btu 

1,200,000 5  amount of coal in 10,000
day  day   pound 
(amount of coal) 5 120 pounds/day
Wood:
Btu  cord   Btu 

1,200,000 5  amount of wood in  20,000,000 
day  day   cord 
cord  cord   128 ft 3 
(amount of wood) 5 0.06 5  0.06  
day  day   1 cord 
ft 3
<8
day
If you live in a country that uses SI units, repeat these calculations with SI
units for a home in your location.
Efficiency
In the previous sections, we discussed how to estimate the energy and power
requirements for some of our daily activities. It also is important to understand
that there are always some losses associated with systems that move us (e.g.,
our cars and elevators), heat or cool water and our buildings, or make consumer
products. Not all of the energy that we generate by burning fuels or other means
can be used completely. Some of it will be lost in a given system due to friction,
heat loss, and other factors.
When we wish to show how well a system is functioning, we
express its efficiency. Examples of American, European, and
Efficiency is a measure of how Australian labels providing information about an appliance’s
much input is required to have a efficiency are shown in Figure 5.1. Efficiency is a measure of how
desired output. much input is required to have a desired output. In general, the over-
all efficiency of a system is defined as
desired output
efficiency 5 5.5
required input
or in other words as
how much you get out of a system in terms of energy
efficiency 5
how much you put into the system in terms
of energy
All systems require more input than what they put out. For example, for a
power plant that generates electricity, the overall efficiency is defined as
net energy generated by the power plant
efficiency 5
energy input from burning the fuel in the plant
FIGURE 5.1 American, European, and Australian labels providing information about an appliance's
efficiency.
Source: Energy Star; European Commission, ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/IP_21_818; Australian E3
Program, www.energyrating.gov.au/
TA B L E 5 . 2 The Energy Content of Common Fuels

Fuel Quantity Average Energy Content
Coal One pound 10,000 Btu (10.5 3 10 6 J)
Photo/Shutterstock.com
Siberia - Video and
Diesel One gallon 139,000 Btu (146.6 3 10 6 J)

Melinda Fawver/Shutterstock.com
(Continues)

Gasoline One gallon 124,000 Btu (130.8 3 10 6 J)
Fuel Oil (Home Heating Oil) One gallon 139,000 Btu (146.6 3 10 6 J)
Natural Gas One cubic foot 1,000 Btu (1.05 3 10 6 J)
pixelsnap/Shutterstock.com
Wood One cord (128 ft 3 ) 20,000,000 Btu (21.1 3 109 J)

(4 3 4 3 8 foot
Michael Dechev/Shutterstock.com
pile of wood stacked

neatly)
The efficiency of today’s power plants where a fossil fuel (oil,

gas, coal) is burned in the boiler is near 40%. In the next chapter,
we discuss electricity in greater detail.
Internal Combustion Engines The thermal efficiency of a

typical gasoline engine is approximately 25 to 30 percent, and
for a diesel engine, it is 35 to 40 percent. The thermal efficiency
of an internal combustion engine is defined as
energy output of the engine
nrqemi/Shutterstock.com efficiency 5
heat energy input to the car as fuel is burned
Keep in mind that when expressing the overall efficiency of
a car, one must also account for the mechanical losses due to
friction.
Refrigeration and Cooling Systems Refrigeration and

air-conditioning systems also play significant roles in our
daily lives. Their main purpose is to remove heat from inside
a refrigerated space (such as a refrigerator) or a building and
to transfer that heat to the surroundings (air in the kitchen or
outside air). Most of today’s air-conditioning and refrigeration
systems are designed according to a vapor–compression cycle.
We explain how a refrigerator and an air-conditioning unit work
kurhan/Shutterstock.com in Chapter 6. For now, our focus is on the efficiency of these
appliances. In the United States, it is customary to express the energy

efficiency ratio (EER) or the seasonal energy efficiency ratio (SEER)
of refrigeration or air-conditioning systems using mixed SI and U.S.
Customary units in the following manner:
heat removal from the unit (Btu)

EER 5 5.6
energy input to the unit (Watt-hour)
The reason for using the units of watt-hour (Wh) for energy input is
that refrigeration and air conditioning units are powered by electricity,
and electricity consumption is measured (even in the United States)
in kilowatt-hour (kWh). Many of today’s air-conditioning units have
SEER values that range from approximately 10 to 17.
Furnaces The sizes of home gas and oil furnaces in the United States
are expressed in units of British thermal unit per hour (Btu/h), and
in other countries the kilowatt (kW) is used. In 1992, the United
ppart/Shutterstock.com
States government established a minimum annual fuel utilization
efficiency (AFUE) rating of 78% for furnaces installed in new homes,
so manufacturers must design their gas furnaces to adhere to this standard.
Today, most high-efficiency furnaces offer AFUE ratings in the range of 80 to
96 percent.
Next, we will look at an example to show you how to use an efficiency
relationship to determine the amount of fuel that must be burned to produce
a certain amount of energy.
EXAMPLE 5.12
Let us determine the power required to move 30 people, with an average
mass of 61 kilograms (kg) or 135 pound mass (lbm) per person, between two
floors of a building at a vertical distance of 5 meters (m) or 16 feet (ft) in
2 seconds (s).
The required energy is equal to:
 kg   m
change in potential energy 5 (30 persons)  61  9.8 2  (5 m)
 person   s
5 90,000 joules
The next time you feel lazy and are thinking about taking the elevator to go
up only one floor, reconsider and think about the total amount of energy that
could be saved if people would take the stairs instead of taking the elevator
to go up a single floor. For example, if one million people decided to take the
stairs on a daily basis, the minimum amount of energy saved during a year,
based on an estimate of 220 working days in a year, would be
 90,000 joules   1 
energy savings 5  (1,000,000 people)(220 days)
 30 people   day 
5 660 3 10 9 joules 5 660 GJ (gigajoules)
Let us now estimate the amount of fuel, such as coal, that can be saved
in a power plant. Let’s assume a 30 percent overall efficiency for the power
plant, including losses in the power transmission lines, and an energy content
(heating value) of approximately 7.5 megajoules/kilogram (MJ/kg) for coal.
net energy generated by the power plant
efficiency 5
energy input from burning the fuel in the boiler
660 GJ
0.30 5
energy input from burning the fuel in the plant
660 GJ
energy input from fuel 5 5 2.2 3 1012 J 5 2,200 GJ
0.3
5 2.2 TJ (terajoules)
amount of 2.2 3 1012 joules

coal required 5 < 293,000 kg (646,000 lbm)
joules
7.5 3 10 6
kilogram
As you can see, the amount of coal that could be saved is quite large! Before
you get on an elevator next time, think about the amount of fuel that can be
saved if people just walk up a floor! Also consider the amount of pollution
that can be prevented by reducing the amount of fuel burned.
Before You Go On
1. What does the heating value or energy content of a fuel represent?

2. What are typical heating values for a pound of coal, a gallon of gasoline, and a cubic foot of
natural gas?
3. What do we mean by efficiency and why is it important to know the efficiency of products
that we use in our daily lives?
S U M M A R Y
LO1 Energy and Work the requirements to move objects such as our cars,
We need energy to create goods, to build shelter, to to lift things like an elevator, or to heat or cool our
cultivate and process food, and to maintain our living homes, energy is defined and classified into different
places at comfortable temperatures. Energy can have categories, such as kinetic energy, potential energy,
different forms, and to better explain quantitatively and thermal energy. In a physics context, work is
S ummary 149
performed when a force moves an object through a Thermal Energy

distance [ work 5 ( force)(distance)], and when we do Thermal energy or heat transfer occurs whenever
work on an object we change its energy. Another way a temperature difference exists within an object
of thinking about the relationship between work and or between the object and its surroundings. Heat
energy is that we need to expend energy to do work. always flows from a high-temperature region to a
low-temperature region. The three units that are
LO2 Forms of Energy commonly used to quantify thermal energy are the
In order to quantify the requirements to move objects British thermal unit (Btu), the calorie, and the joule
such as our cars, to lift things like an elevator, or to (J). One British thermal unit represents the amount
heat or cool our homes, energy is defined and classi- of thermal energy needed to raise the temperature
fied into different categories such as kinetic energy, of one pound mass (lbm) of water by one degree
potential energy, and thermal energy. Fahrenheit (8 F). The calorie represents the amount of
heat required to raise the temperature of one gram
Kinetic Energy (g) of water by one degree Celsius (8C).
Kinetic energy is the way we quantify how much
energy or work is required to move something. The LO3 Difference Between Energy and Power
amount of kinetic energy associated with an object You should clearly understand the definition of
having a known mass and moving with a known speed power, its common units, and how it is related to
is given by work and energy. Power is the time rate of doing work
 1 or how fast you are expending energy. The value of
kinetic energy 5   (mass)(speed)2 power required to do the work (perform a task) rep-
 2
resents how fast you want the work (task) done. If you
The SI and U.S. Customary units for kinetic want the work done in a shorter period of time, then
energy are the joule (J) and pound force-foot you need to spend more power.
(lbf ? ft), respectively. Moreover, when we do work
on or against an object, we change the kinetic energy work energy
power 5 5
of the object according to time time
work 5 (force)(distance) The SI and U.S. Customary units of power are the
5 change in kinetic energy watt (W) and pound force-foot per second (lbf?ft/s),
respectively, and
 1  
5   (mass)(speed)2 

 2   final lbf ? ft
1 horsepower 5 1 hp 5 550
s
 1  
2   (mass)(speed)2 
 2   initial
LO4 Energy Content (Heating Values) of
Potential Energy Fuels
The work that must be done or the energy required to The heating value of a fuel quantifies the amount of
lift an object over a vertical distance is called poten- energy that is released when a unit mass (kilogram
tial energy. The change in the potential energy of the or pound) or a unit volume (cubic meter, cubic foot,
object when its elevation is changed is given by or gallon) of a fuel is burned. For example, when you
burn one gallon of gasoline, 124,000 Btu of energy
change in the potential energy
is released. Or when you burn one pound of coal,
weight of the object
10,000 Btu of energy is released.
 mass of   acceleration   change in  Efficiency
5   
 the object   due to gravity   elevation  You should know the basic definition of efficiency
and be familiar with its various forms, including the
The SI and U.S. Customary units for potential definitions of thermal efficiency, SEER, and AFUE,
energy are the joule (J) and pound force-foot (lbf ? ft), which are commonly used to express the efficien-
respectively. cies of systems including heating, ventilating, and
air-conditioning (HVAC) equipment and household
appliances. In general, the overall efficiency of a sys- 25 to 30 percent. The thermal efficiency of an internal
tem is defined as combustion engine is defined as
how much you get out of a system in
terms of energy energy output of the engine
efficiency 5
efficiency 5 heat energy input as
how much you put into the system in
fuel is burned
terms of energy
All machines and systems require more input
than what they put out. For example, the thermal effi-
ciency of a typical gasoline engine is approximately
K E Y T E R M S
AFUE 147 Horsepower 138 Power 137

Btu 135 Internal Energy 135 SEER 147
calorie 135 Joule 127 Thermal Energy 135
Calories 135 Kilowatt 138 Watt 138
Efficiency 144 Kilowatt-hour 138 Work 127
Energy 126 Kinetic Energy 128
Heating Value of a Fuel 142 Potential Energy 132

Identify ways that you can save energy; for example, walking
up a floor instead of taking the elevator, or walking or riding
your bike an hour a day instead of taking the car. Estimate
the amount of energy that you could save every year with
your proposal. Also, estimate the amount of fuel that can be
saved at the same time. State your assumptions, and present
your analysis in a brief report.
Christian Mueller/Shutterstock.com
Problems 151
P R O B L E M S
5.1 If you were to push a lawn mower with b. 46-inch television set
a constant horizontal force of 10 N, how c. clothes washer
much work would you do while pushing the
d. electric clothes dryer
lawn mower a total distance of 5 m on level
ground? e. vacuum cleaner
5.2 Which of the following requires more f. hair dryer
work: to change the speed of a car from Discuss your findings in a brief report.
0 to 40 mph (0 to 64 km/h) or from 5.9 Investigate the typical power consumption
40 to 65 mph (64 to 105 km/h)? range of the following products:
5.3 Look up the manufacturer’s horsepower a. personal computer with a 32-inch monitor
ratings for the most recent year of the
b. laser printer
following cars:
c. smart phone
a. Toyota Camry
Discuss your findings in a brief report.
b. Honda Accord
5.10 Look up both the furnace size and the
c. BMW 750 Li
air-conditioning unit size in your own or a
d. A car of your choice friend’s home or apartment. Investigate the
5.4 An elevator has a rated capacity of SEER and the AFUE of the units.
2,000 pound mass (907 kg). It can transport 5.11 Investigate the size of a gas furnace used in
people at the rated capacity between the a typical dwelling in Colorado, and compare
first and the fifth floors in 7 seconds with a that size to the furnaces used in Minnesota
vertical distance of 15 ft (4.6 m) between each and in Kansas. If you live outside of the U.S.,
floor. Estimate the power requirement for investigate furnace sizes in three towns in
such an elevator. different climatic zones in your country.
5.5 Determine the gross force needed to bring a 5.12 An air-conditioning unit has a cooling
car that is traveling at 110 km/h to a full stop capacity of 18,000 Btu/h. If the unit has a
in a distance of 100 m. The mass of the car is rated energy efficiency ratio (EER) of 11,
2,100 kg. What happens to the initial kinetic how much electrical energy is consumed by
energy? Where does it go or to what form of the unit in one hour? If a power company
energy does the kinetic energy convert? charges 12 cents per kWh for usage, how
5.6 A power plant has an overall efficiency much would it cost to run the air-conditioning
of 30%. The plant generates 20 MW of unit for a month (31 days), assuming the unit
electricity and uses coal as fuel. Determine runs eight hours a day?
how much coal must be burned to sustain the 5.13 Visit a store that sells air-conditioning units.
generation of 20 MW of electricity. Obtain information on their rated cooling
5.7 Estimate the amount of gasoline that capacities and EER values. Contact your local
could be saved if all of the passenger power company and determine the cost of
cars in the United States were driven electricity in your area. Estimate how much
1,000 miles (1, 609 km) less each year. State it will cost for you to run the air-conditioning
your assumptions and write a brief report unit during the summer. Write a brief report
discussing your findings. to your instructor discussing your findings
5.8 Investigate the typical power consumption and assumptions.
range of the following products: 5.14 In Example 5.10, we calculated the amount of
a. home refrigerator natural gas that you would burn to heat
20 gallons of water from room temperature

at 708 F to 1208 F to take a shower. Determine
the additional amount of gas that must be
Photograph Collection. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division,

burned if the water heater has an efficiency of
Leffler, Warren K., photographer. U.S. News & World Report Magazine
(a) 80 percent, (b) 85 percent, and (c) 90 percent.
5.15 For Example 5.12, how much fuel would be
saved if the efficiency of the power plant is
increased from 36 to 40 percent?
5.16 Estimate the amount of fuel that could be
saved if the efficiency of 10 million cars is
increased by five percent. Assume an annual
driving distance of 12,000 miles (19,300 km)
Washington, D.C. 20540 USA.

and an average gasoline consumption of
25 miles per gallon (10.6 km/liter).
5.17 Estimate the amount of natural gas that
a person may consume annually for the
exclusive purpose of showering. State all your
assumptions.
5.18 Estimate the annual gasoline and energy “My grandfather once told
consumption rates for your car. State all your me that there are two kinds of
assumptions. If you don’t have a car, perform
the analysis for your dream car. people: those who do the work
5.19 For Example 5.11, estimate the amount of and those who take the credit.
natural gas that would be consumed by a He told me to try to be in the
furnace with an efficiency of 90% during a
cold spell lasting one week. first group; there was much less
5.20 Calculate the power requirement in competition there.”
horsepower for an escalator in a mall that —Indira Gandhi (1917–1984)
transports 50 people with an average weight
of 170 lbf (756 N) a vertical distance of
30 feet (9.1 m) in 25 seconds.
CHA P T E R
6
Electricity
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
LO1 Current, Voltage, and Electric Power—Basic
Concepts: understand the basic principles of
electricity
LO2 Residential Power Distribution and Consumption:
describe a typical residential power distribution
system and its consumption
LO3 Lighting Systems: be familiar with different lighting
systems and their power consumption rates
LO4 Electric Power Generation, Transmission, and
Distribution: explain how electricity is generated,
transmitted, and distributed
sue yassin/Shutterstock.com, arka38/Shutterstock.com, Tatiana Popova/

Shutterstock.com, Voronina Svetlana/Shutterstock.com, gmstockstudio/
Shutterstock.com, ER_09/Shutterstock.com
Discussion Starter
8,000
6,000
Billion kilowatt-hours
4,000
2,000
0
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Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration
W
e have come a long way since 1879 when now you should know what one kilowatt-hour
electricity was first sold in San Francisco, represents.
California, to power only 21electric lights. Electricity Generation by Country
Can you imagine your life today without electricity? 2019
Country
Many of us own a TV set, a computer, a printer, a (billion kWh)
hair dryer, a cell phone, a microwave, a refrigerator, China 7,136
and many other electronic devices and home appli- United States 4,162
India 1,580
ances. We turn on lights when it gets dark and turn Russia 1,058
on the air conditioning when it gets hot outside. Japan 949
Despite its vital role in our lives, many of us take Canada 632
the flow of electricity to our homes for granted. We Brazil 615
rarely pause to think about how electricity is gener- Germany 583
ated, what the primary sources of electricity genera- France 546
South Korea 545
tion are, and how not to waste it. As we explained in Saudi Arabia* 355
Chapter 1, the world population is expected to Iran 306
reach 9.7 billion by the year 2050. The most recent Mexico 314
available data ranks China ahead of the United United Kingdom 307
States with nearly 7,136 billion kilowatt-hours of Turkey 290
total electricity generation, as shown here. By Italy 278
Spain 260
*
Saudi Arabia: 2018 data
To the Students: Think about your activities during the past week and name
at least five that you think consumed large quantities of electricity. How much
electricity in kilowatt-hours do you think you consume each day, week, month, and
year?
156 CHAPTER 6 Electricity
LO1 6.1 Current, Voltage, and Electric

Power—Basic Concepts
We use electricity in our homes for lighting, powering our electronic devices,
and running appliances. In order to better recognize how much electricity you
consume every day, you must first understand some of the basic concepts associ-
ated with electricity, such as ampere, voltage, and power.
The ampere is a base unit for electric current. To understand
The flow of electric charge is what the ampere represents, we need to take a closer look at the
called current, and its unit is behavior of materials at the subatomic level. As you may already
denoted as the ampere in both SI know, an atom has three major subatomic particles: electrons, pro-
tons, and neutrons. Neutrons and protons form the nucleus of an
and U.S. Customary systems.
atom. How material conducts electricity is influenced by the number
and the arrangement of electrons. Electrons have negative charge,
protons have positive charge, and neutrons have no charge.
Simply stated, the basic law of electric charges states that unlike charges
attract each other while like charges repel. In SI units, the unit of charge is the
coulomb (C). One coulomb is defined as the amount of charge that passes a
point in a wire in one second when a current of one ampere is
flowing through the wire. You may already know that in order
for water to flow through a pipe, a pressure difference must
exist. Moreover, the water flows from a high-pressure region to
a lower-pressure region. As we also explained earlier, whenever
there is a temperature difference in a medium or between bod-
ies, thermal energy flows from a high-temperature region to a
low-temperature region. In a similar way, whenever a difference
in electric potential exists between two bodies, electric charge
will flow from the higher electric potential to the lower electric
potential region. This flow of charge occurs when the two bodies
are connected by an electrical conductor, such as a copper wire.
The flow of electric charge is called electric current or simply,
current. The electric current, or the flow of charge, is measured
in amperes (A). One ampere or “amp” is defined as the flow of
one unit of charge per second. For example, a toaster that draws
Voronina Svetlana/Shutterstock.com six amps has six units of charge flowing through the heating ele-
ment each second. The amount of current that flows through an
electrical element depends on the electrical potential, or voltage,
available across the element and the resistance the element offers to the flow
of charge. Voltage represents the amount of work required to move charge
between two points, and the amount of charge moving between the two points
per unit time is called current. The voltage induces current to flow in a circuit.
Direct Current and Alternating Current

Direct current (dc) is the flow of electric charge that occurs in one
Direct current is the flow of charge
direction, as shown in Figure 6.1a. Direct current is typically produced
that occurs in one direction,
by batteries or direct current generators. In the late 19th century,
whereas alternating current is given the limited understanding of the fundamentals and technology
the flow of electric charge that of electricity and for economic reasons, direct current could not be
periodically reverses. transmitted over long distances. Therefore, it was succeeded by alter-
nating current (ac). Direct current was not economically feasible to
Period
Amplitude
Current
Current
Time Time
(a) Direct current (b) Alternating current
FIGURE 6.1 Direct and alternating currents.
transform, as high voltages are needed for long-distance transmission. However,

developments in the 1960s led to techniques that now allow the transmission of
direct current over long distances.
Alternating current (ac) is the flow of electric charge that periodically
reverses. As shown in Figure 6.1(b), the magnitude of the current starts from zero,
increases to a maximum value, and then decreases to zero; the flow of electric
charge reverses direction, reaches a maximum value, and returns to zero again.
This flow pattern repeats in a cyclic manner. The time interval between the peak
values of the current on two successive cycles is called a period, and the number
of cycles per second is called the frequency. The peak (maximum) value of the
alternating current in either direction is called the amplitude. Alternating current
is created by generators at power plants (we explain how a power plant generates
electricity in Section 6.4). The current drawn by various electrical devices in your
home is alternating current. The alternating current in domestic and commercial
power use is 60 cycles per second or hertz (Hz) in the United States. The voltage
and frequency used by additional countries are shown in Table 6.1.
TA B L E 6 . 1 Voltage and Frequency Used in Different Countries

Country Voltage (V) Frequency (Hz)
United States 120/240 60
Canada 120 60
Mexico 127 60
Brazil 127/220 60
United Kingdom 230/240 50
Germany 230 50
France 230 50
Italy 230 50
Spain 230 50
Russia 230 50
China 220 50
India 240 50
Japan 100 50/60
South Korea 220 60
Iran 230 50
Turkey 230 50
Saudi Arabia 127/220 60
Source: www.worldstandards.eu/electricity/plug-voltage-by-country/
Electrical Circuits and Components

An electrical circuit refers to the combination of various electrical components
that are connected together. Examples of electrical components include wires,
switches, outlets, resistors, and lights. Let us first take a closer look at electrical
wires. In a wire, the resistance to electrical current depends on the material that
the wire is made from, as well as its length, diameter, and temperature. Differ-
Bruno Ferrari/Shutterstock.com
ent materials show varying amounts of resistance to the flow of electric current.
Resistivity is a measure of the resistance of a piece of material to electric current.
Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s law describes the relationship among voltage, V , resistance, R, and cur-
rent, I , according to
voltage 5 (resistance)(current) 6.1
or using variables V , R, and I as

Winai Tepsuttinun/Shutterstock.com
V 5 ( R)( I )
Note from Ohm’s law in Equation (6.1) that current is directly

proportional to voltage and inversely proportional to resistance
(i.e., current ( I ) 5 voltage (V )/resistance ( R)). As electric poten-
tial increases, so too does the current; if the resistance increases,
the current decreases. The electric resistance is measured in units
of ohms (Ω). An element with one ohm of resistance allows a
current flow of one amp when there exists a potential of one volt
across the element. Stated another way, when there is an electrical
potential of one volt across a conductor (such as a wire) with a
resistance of one ohm, then one ampere of electric current flows
DK.samco/Shutterstock.com through the conductor. Let us now demonstrate how you would
use Ohm’s law.
EXAMPLE 6.1
Assume the electric resistance of a device is 60 ohms (Ω). Determine the
value of current flowing through the device when it is connected to a
120-volt source.
Using Ohm’s law given as Equation (6.1), we have
V 5 RI
V 120 volts
I 5 5 5 2 amperes
R 60 ohms
Electric Power
The electric power consumption of various electrical components can be
determined using the following power formula:
P 5 (V )( I ) 6.2
In Equation (6.2), P is the power in watts, V is the voltage, and I is the

c urrent in amps. In the United States, most electronic devices and small appli-
ances are connected to a 120-volt source. Using Equation (6.2), you can then
determine their power consumption—provided that you know how much elec-
tric current they draw. For example, a hair dryer that draws 10 amps consumes
1,200 watts of power.
EXAMPLE 6.2
A unit that is often confused for the unit of power is the kilowatt-hour
(kWh). The kilowatt-hour is used to measure the consumption of electricity
by home appliances, electronic devices, lighting systems, and so on. First, you
should remember that the kilowatt-hour is a unit of energy—not power. By
now you should know the difference between energy and power. Second,
one kilowatt-hour represents the amount of energy consumed during one
hour by a device that uses 1,000 watts (W) or one kilowatt (kW). Let us now
determine the energy consumption of some items used at home.
Here are some examples:
46-inch LCD TV This type of TV can consume about 250 watts. So if you
watch this TV for four hours, then the TV will consume:
(250 watts)(4 hours) 5 1,000 watt-hours 5 1 kilowatt-hour of energy.
Clothes Dryers Depending on their sizes, dryers can consume between
2,000 to 5,000 watts. So if you run a clothes dryer with a power rating of
gmstockstudio/Shutterstock.com
5,000 watts for two hours, it will consume:
(5,000 watts)(2 hours) 5 10,000 watt-hours 5 10 kilowatt-hours of energy.
A 100-watt LED Flood Light If left on for 10 hours, the flood light will
consume:
(100 watts)(10 hours) 5 1,000 watt-hours 5 1 kilowatt-hour of
energy.
Purple Clouds/
Shutterstock.com
ER_09/Shutterstock.com
EXAMPLE 6.3
Assume that your electric power company is charging you 10 cents for each
kilowatt-hour (kWh) of usage. Estimate the energy cost of leaving five
100-watt light bulbs on from 6 p.m. until 11 p.m. every night for 30 nights.
 W   1 kW   hours   cents 
(5 light bulbs)  100 5 (30 nights)  10
     
light bulb   1,000 W   night   kWh 
 W   1 kW   hours   cents 
5 (5 light bulbs )  100 5 (30 nights)  10
     
light bulb   1,000 W   night   kWh 
5 750 cents 5 $7.50
EXAMPLE 6.4
In Example 5.9, we estimated the amount of power required to lift a garage
door. Assume a garage door opener has a rated one-quarter hp motor, oper-
ates near rated power, and takes 12 seconds to lift the door. Estimate the
amount of electrical energy consumed during a year for a case when the
garage door is lifted four times a day.
Recall
work or energy
power 5
time
then
energy required to lift the garage door 5 (power)(time)
 4   0.746 kW   1 h   365 days 
5 (0.25 hp )(12 s ) 

 day   1 hp   3, 600 s   1 year 
kWh
5 0.91
year
Note the conversion factors used in this example: 1 hp 5 0.746 kW;

1 h 5 3,600 s; and 1 year 5 365 days.
This is a good place to mention that the annual electrical energy consump-
tion of a typical home in the United States is approximately between 4,000
and 10,000 kWh. The electricity consumption per capita for several countries
is shown in Table 6.2.
TA B L E 6 . 2 Electricity Consumption per Capita for Some

Countries (2018)
Country Electricity Consumption per Capita (MWh/capita)
Canada 15.44
United States 13.10
Iceland 54.61
Norway 24.05
Finland 15.80
Sweden 13.33
France 7.14
Germany 6.85
Italy 5.22
United Kingdom 4.91
Japan 8.01
Russia 6.92
China 4.91
India 0.94
Bahrain 18.62
Qatar 16.58
Kuwait 15.40
Source: Data from EIA
Before You Go On
1. In what unit is electric current measured?

2. What do we mean by voltage?
3. What do we mean by an electric circuit?
4. In your own words, explain Ohm’s law.
Ampere
Direct current (dc)
Alternating current (ac)
Voltage
Electric power
LO2 6.2 Residential Power Distribution and

Consumption
As a good global citizen, it is important that you become familiar with your
home’s power distribution system and consumption. An example of a typi-
cal residential power distribution system in the United States is shown in
Figure 6.2, which gives examples of amperage requirements for outlets, lights,
kitchen appliances, and central air conditioning. A typical U.S. home built today
has a total 200 amperage rating. Moreover, an electrical plan for the building
is developed first in order to wire a building. In the plan, the location and the
types of switches and outlets, including outlets for the range and dryer, must
be specified. Examples of electrical symbols used in a house plan are shown in
Figure 6.3. An example of an electrical plan for a residential building
is shown in Figure 6.4. It is worth noting here that, as an intelligent
Today, a typical U.S. home has a citizen, you only need to be familiar with these facts; we don’t expect
total 200 amperage rating. Various you to become an expert or an electrician—unless of course, it is
types of wires are used for general your desire to become one.
wiring, ranging from American When examining Figure 6.2, note the electric current ratings (in
Wire Gauge Numbers of 00 to 14. amperes) for lighting, outlets, kitchen appliances, oven-range, dish-
washer, water heater, air conditioning, and furnace.
Pool outlets Garage outlets

Conduit
to meter
Basement lighting and outlets Furnace
Meter
Service cable
First floor lighting to house Shop equipment
Circuit breaker
Living/family room 200-amp main and distribution Utility room
circuit breaker panel
Bathroom lighting and outlets Utility room
20 A 20 A
Bedroom outlets Oven-range
15 A 20 A
15 A 20 A GFCI
Kitchen appliances Dishwasher
15 A 20 A
15 A 30 A
Kitchen appliances 15 A 50 A Sink disposal unit
20 A 20 A
Kitchen outlets 20 A 15 A Water heater
20 A 20 A
15 A 50 A Central air
Kitchen lighting
conditioner
4 GCFI
FIGURE 6.2 An example of an electrical distribution system for a U.S. residential building.
Source: Based on Electrical Wiring, Second Edition, 1981, p. 18, AAVIM
Common Electrical Symbols

Ceiling outlet Service entrance panel
Wall outlet S Single-pole switch

Ceiling outlet with pull
S2 Double-pole switch
PS switch
Wall outlet with pull
S3 3-way switch
PS switch
Duplex convenience
S4 4-way switch
outlet
Weatherproof
SP Switch with pilot light
WP convenience outlet
Convenience outlet
Push button
1,3 1 = single 3 = triple
R
Range outlet CH Bell or chimes
Convenience outlet
Telephone
S with switch
D
Dryer outlet TV Television outlet
Split-wired duplex
S Switch wiring
outlet
Fluorescent ceiling
Special-purpose outlet
fixture
Fluorescent wall
D Electric door opener
fixture
FIGURE 6.3 Examples of electrical symbols in a house plan.

Source: Based on Electrical Wiring, Second Edition, 1981, p. 10, AAVIM
General-Purpose Circuits
Circuit no. 2 Circuit no. 1 from Service
from SEP Entrance Panel (SEP)
Porch
SS
Bath Bath S
S Storage
Bedroom no. 1 S Dining room
S
Kitchen
S S S
PS S S
S
S S S
PS Living room Garage
Bedroom
no. 2
Bedroom PS
no. 3
SS
Circuit no. 3 Circuit no. 4 Circuit no. 5

from SEP from SEP from SEP
FIGURE 6.4 An example of an electrical plan for a house in the United States.
Source: Teia/Shutterstock.com, with added data based on Electrical Wiring, Second
Edition, 1981, AAVIM
The American Wire Gage (AWG)

At the heart of every home electrical distribution system are
wires. Electrical wires are typically made of copper or aluminum.
The actual size of the wires is commonly expressed in terms of
gage number. The American Wire Gage (AWG) is based on suc-
cessive gage numbers having a constant ratio of approximately
1.12 between their diameters. For example, the ratio of the diam-
eter of No. 1 AWG wire to No. 2 is 1.12 (289 mils/258 mils 5 1.12;
note 1 mil 5 1/1,000 inch). Table 6.3 shows the gage number, the
diameter (and its nearest equivalent cross section in mm 2), and
their typical residential applications. When examining Table 6.3,
note that the smaller the gage number, the bigger the wire diam-
Mariusz Szczygiel/Shutterstock.com
eter. Also, note that 00 AWG wire is used for the service cable
to the house.
The National Electrical Code, published by the Fire Protec-
tion Association, contains specific information on the type of wires used for
general wiring. The code describes the wire types, maximum operating tempera-
tures, insulating materials, outer cover sheaths, type of usage, and the specific
location where a wire should be used.
Home Appliances and Electronic Power

Consumption
Let us now turn our attention to the power consumption of typical home appli-
ances and electronic devices. The ranges of power consumption for common
appliances and electronics such as clock radios, coffee makers, clothes washers
and dryers, fans, hair dryers, televisions, toasters and toaster ovens, and vacuum
cleaners are shown in Table 6.4.
TA B L E 6 . 3 Examples of American Wire Gage (AWG) and Its Nearest Equivalent

Cross Section in mm² for Solid Copper Wire
American Wire Gage Nearest Equivalent
(AWG) Number Diameter (mils) Cross Section (mm²) Current Common Use
00 365.0 70 200 A Service entrance
0 325.0 150 A
1 289.0 50
2 258.0 35 100 A Service panels
5 182.0
6 162.0 16 60 A Electric furnaces
7 144.0 40 A Kitchen appliances,
receptacles, and light
fixtures
10 91.0 6 30 A
12 81.0 4.0 20 A Residential wiring
14 64.0 2.5 15 A Lamps and light fixtures
16 51.0 1.5
18 40.0 1.0
20 32.0 0.5–0.75
TA B L E 6 . 4 Examples of Home Appliances and Electronic Devices and Their Range

of Power Consumption
Item Range of Power Consumption (watts)
Aquarium 50–1,210
Clock radio 10
Coffee maker 900–1,200
Clothes washer 350–500
Clothes dryer 1,800–5,000
Dishwasher 1,200–2,400*
Dehumidifier 785
Electric blanket—single/double 60/100
Fans
Ceiling 65–175
Window 55–250
Furnace 750
Whole house 240–750
Hair dryer 1,200–1,875
Heater (portable) 750–1,500
Clothes iron 1,000–1,800
Microwave oven 750–1,100
Personal computer
CPU—awake /asleep 120/30 or less
Monitor—awake /asleep 150/30 or less
Laptop 50
Radio (stereo) 70–400
Refrigerator (frost-free, 16 cubic feet) 725
Televisions 65–250
Toaster 800–1,400
Toaster oven 1,225
VCR/DVD 17–21/20–25
Vacuum cleaner 1,000–1,440
Water heater (40 gallon) 4,500–5,500
Water pump (deep well) 250–1,100
Water bed (with heater, no cover) 120–380
*Note: Using the drying feature greatly increases energy consumption.
Source: Data from U.S. Department of Energy
As you can see, hot water heaters, dishwashers, and clothes dryers are energy
hogs! Moreover, you will find electric motors running all types of appliances
and electronic devices in homes. These electric motors also consume lots of
energy. Here are a few examples of household appliances with motors.
• Refrigerator: compressor motor, fan motor
• Garbage disposer
• Microwave with a turning tray
• Stove hood with a fan
arka38/Shutterstock.com sue yassin/Shutterstock.com Tatiana Popova/Shutterstock.com
• Exhaust fan in the bathroom

• Room ceiling fan
• Hand-held power screwdriver or hand-held drill
• Heating, ventilating, or cooling system fan
• Vacuum cleaner
• Hair dryer
• Electric shaver
• Computer: cooling fan, hard drive
Refrigerators and Air Conditioners

Refrigeration and air-conditioning systems also play significant roles in our
everyday lives. As a well-educated global citizen, you need to know how
they function. Most of today’s air-conditioning and refrigeration systems are
designed according to a vapor–compression cycle. A schematic diagram of a
simple vapor–compression cycle is shown in Figure 6.5. As you can see, the main
components of refrigeration or air-conditioning systems include a condenser,
an evaporator, a compressor, and a throttling device, such as an expansion valve
or a capillary tube.
Refrigerant is the fluid that transports thermal energy from the evaporator,
where thermal energy or heat is absorbed, to the condenser, where the ther-
mal energy is ejected to the surroundings. After leaving the evaporator, the
Evaporator Condenser
Metering device
(expansion valve)
Expansion valve
or capillary tube Compressor
Filter drier
Condenser
1 Evaporator
Compressor
FIGURE 6.5 Vapor–compression cycle.

Source: Designua/Shutterstock.com
Designua/Shutterstock.com
refrigerant enters the compressor, where the temperature and the pressure of
the refrigerant are raised. The discharge side of the compressor is connected to
the inlet side of the condenser, where the refrigerant enters the condenser in the
gaseous phase at a high temperature and pressure. Because the refrigerant in
the condenser has a higher temperature than the surrounding air, heat transfer
to the surrounding air occurs, and consequently, thermal energy is ejected to
the surroundings. Both the evaporator and the condenser are made of a series
of tubes with good thermal conductivity. After leaving the condenser, the liquid
refrigerant flows through an expansion valve or a long capillary tube that makes
the refrigerant expand. This expansion is followed by a drop in the refrigerant’s
temperature and pressure. The refrigerant leaves the expansion valve or the
capillary tube and flows into the evaporator to complete the cycle.
The efficiency of a refrigeration system or an air-conditioning unit is given
by the coefficient of performance (COP), which is defined as
heat removal from the evaporator

COP 5
energy input to the compressor
The COP of most vapor–compression units is 2.9 to 4.9. As mentioned in the
previous chapter, it is customary in the United States to express the coefficient
of performance of a refrigeration or an air-conditioning system using mixed
SI and U.S. Customary units. Quite often, the coefficient of performance is
called the energy efficiency ratio (EER) or the seasonal energy efficiency ratio
(SEER). In such cases, the heat removal is expressed in British thermal units
(Btu), and the energy input to the compressor is expressed in watt-hours (Wh).
Because 1 Wh 5 3.412 Btu, EER or SEER values greater than 10 are obtained
for the coefficient of performance.
heat removal from the evaporator (Btu)

EER 5 6.3
energy input to the compressor (Wh)
As you recall, the reason for using the units of watt-hour (Wh) for energy
input to the compressor is that compressors are powered by electricity, and
electricity consumption is measured (even in the United States) in kilowatt-
hours. Today’s air-conditioning units have SEER values that range from approx-
imately 10 to 17. In fact, all new air-conditioning units sold in the United States
must have a SEER value of at least 10. In 1992, the United States government
established the minimum standard efficiencies for various appliances, including
air-conditioning units. In European and Asian countries, the amount of heat
removed from the evaporator and the energy input to the compressor are both
expressed in watts.
Another common unit used in the United States in air-conditioning
and refrigeration systems is ton of refrigeration or ton of cooling. One ton
of refrigeration represents the capacity of a refrigeration system to freeze
2,000 pound mass (lbm) or 1 ton of liquid water at 328 F into ice in 24 hours.
That is, 1 ton of refrigeration 5 12,000 Btu/hour. In the case of an
air-conditioning unit, one ton of cooling represents the capacity of
A SEER rating represents the the air-conditioning system to remove 12,000 British thermal units of
seasonal energy efficiency ratio of energy from a space in one hour. Clearly, the capacity of a residen-
an air-conditioning unit. A ton of tial air-conditioning system depends on the size of the building, its
cooling is equal to 12,000 Btu of construction, shading, the orientation of its windows, and its climatic
energy expended per hour. location. Residential air-conditioning units generally have a one to
five ton capacity.
EXAMPLE 6.5
An air-conditioning unit has a cooling capacity of 24,000 Btu/hour (two tons
of cooling). If the unit has a rated energy efficiency ratio (EER) of 10, how
much electrical energy is consumed by the unit in one hour? If a power com-
pany charges 12 cents per kilowatt-hour (kWh) of usage, how much would
it cost to run the air-conditioning unit for a month (30 days), assuming the
unit runs 10 hours a day?
First, note that a kilowatt-hour is a unit of energy—not power—and rep-
resents the amount of energy consumed during one hour by a device that
uses 1,000 watts or one kilowatt.
We can now compute the energy consumption of the given air-condition-
ing unit using Equation (6.3).
heat removal from the unit (Btu)
EER 5
energy input to the unit (Wh)
24,000 Btu
10 5
energy input to the unit (Wh)
Solving for the energy input to the unit, we get

energy input to the unit (Wh) 5 2,400 Wh
5 2.4 kWh
The cost to run the unit for 10 hours a day over a period of 30 days is
calculated in the following manner:
 2.4 kWh   10 h   $0.12 
cost to operate the unit 5  (30 days) 5 $86.40
 1 h   day   kWh 
Pay close attention to how the units of kilowatt-hour (kWh), hour (h), day,
and days in the numerator and denominator cancel out, so you are left with
a dollar ($) value.
 2.4 kWh   10 h   $0.12 
cost to operate the unit 5      (30 days )
 1h  day   kWh 
5 $86.40
Standards and Codes

Today’s existing standards and codes ensure that we have safe appliances, light-
ing systems, and electronic devices. They also ensure that we have safe struc-
tures, safe transportation systems, safe drinking water, safe indoor/outdoor air
quality, safe products, and reliable services. Standards also encourage uniformity
in the size of parts and components that are made by various manufacturers
around the world. Moreover, there are many standardization organizations in
the world. Among the more well-known and internationally recognized orga-
nizations are the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) and the Under-
writers Laboratories (UL).
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Losses from fires total

billions of dollars per year. Fire, formally defined as a process during which rapid
oxidization of a material occurs, gives off radiant energy that can be not only
felt but also seen. Fires can be caused by malfunctioning electrical systems, hot
surfaces, and overheated materials. The National Fire Protection Association
(NFPA) is a not-for-profit organization established in 1896 to provide codes
and standards to reduce the burden of fire. The NFPA publishes the National
Electrical Code®, the Life Safety Code®, the Fire Prevention Code™, the
National Fuel Gas Code®, and the National Fire Alarm Code®. It also provides
training and education, and the NFPA has offices in Latin America, Asia, and
Europe.
Underwriters Laboratories (UL) The Underwriters Laboratories Inc. (UL)

is a for-profit organization that performs product safety tests and certifications.
Founded in 1894, today Underwriters Laboratories has laboratories in the
United States, England, Denmark, Hong Kong, India, Italy, Japan, Singapore,
Source: Underwriters Laboratories and Taiwan. Its certification mark is one of the most recognizable marks on
Inc. products.
Before You Go On
1. What is a typical amperage rating for a residential building in the United States?
2. What are electric wires typically made of, and how are wire sizes expressed?
3. Give examples of power ratings for home appliances and electronics.
4. What is the mission of the NFPA?
AWG
COP
SEER
Ton of cooling
LO3 6.3 Lighting Systems

In this section, we provide a brief introduction to lighting systems. Lighting
systems account for a major portion of electricity use in buildings, and they
have received a great deal of attention recently due to energy and sustainability
concerns. As one would expect, energy is saved by reducing illumination levels,
increasing lighting efficiency, or by taking advantage of daylighting. Daylight-
ing refers to using windows and skylights to bring natural light into a building
to reduce the need for artificial lighting. As is the case with any new areas you
S_E/Shutterstock.com
explore, lighting has its own terminology. Make sure you spend a little time to
familiarize yourself with these terms so you can follow the example problems
later.
Illumination Let us begin by defining illumination. Illumination refers to the

distribution of light on a horizontal surface, and the amount of light emitted
by a lamp is expressed in lumens. As a reference, a 100-watt equivalent LED
light bulb may emit 1,600 lumens. Another important lighting characteristic is
the intensity of illumination. The intensity of illumination is a measure of how
light is distributed over an area. A common unit of illumination intensity is the
footcandle, which is equal to one lumen distributed over an area of one square
foot (ft 2 ). To give you an idea of what a footcandle represents, you need between
5 to 20 footcandles to find your way around at night. As another example,
30 to 50 footcandles are needed for office work. If you have to do detailed
work, such as fixing electronic equipment or a spring-driven watch, you need
around 200 footcandles of illumination intensity. In Europe, lux is the unit of
illumination intensity and is equal to one lumen distributed over an area of one
square meter (m 2 ). One footcandle is equal to 10.76 lux.
Efficacy Another term used by lighting engineers, efficacy is the ratio of how
much light is produced by a lamp (in lumens) to how much energy is consumed
by the lamp (in watts).
light produced (lumens)

efficacy 5 6.4
energy consumed by the lamp (watts)
Efficacy is used by lighting engineers when designing an optimal lighting

system for a building or by someone performing an energy audit of a building
to determine if the lighting system is energy efficient. When engineers design
a lighting system for a building, they consider many factors, such as activity,
safety, and task. Sometimes the lighting system is designed to draw attention to
a feature or to something special in a building; this is called accent lighting, and
you often see it in places like department stores.
Lighting Systems As you know, there are many types of light bulbs and
fixtures. According to the U.S. Department of Energy, in 2009, incandescent
lights accounted for 85 percent of lights used in homes. Unfortunately,
incandescent lights had very low efficacy values (10 to 17 lumens per watt).
They also had a short service life (750 to 2,500 hours). Because of the advent
of new technologies, we are now using different types of light bulbs
that are much more efficient.
The color rendition index (CRI)
Another important factor in choosing a lighting system for an
provides a measure of how well
application is its source color. As shown in Figure 6.6, in an incan-
a light source renders the true descent lamp, the electric current runs through the lead wires and
colors of an object as compared heats up the filament (a tiny coil of tungsten wire), which makes the
with direct sunlight. The color tungsten glow or produce light. The light produced in this manner
rendition index has a scale of 1 is a yellowish color. In general, the colors of light sources are classi-
to 100. fied into warm or cool categories. The yellow to red range of colors
are considered warm, whereas the blue to green range of colors are
Filament
Nitrogen or
argon gas
Lead wires
FIGURE 6.6 A schematic of an incandescent bulb.

Source: DOE’s Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
considered cool. For a light source, it is common to define a color temperature

in Kelvin. The higher color Kelvin temperatures (3,600 to 5,500 K) are consid-
ered cool, while lower color temperatures (2,700 to 3,000 K) are considered
warm. Warm light sources are preferred for general indoor tasks. Be careful with
the counterintuitive way the warm and cool light sources are defined (high tem-
peratures are cool, whereas low temperatures are warm)! How true the colors
of an object appear when illuminated by a light source is more important than
the color temperature of the light source. For this reason, a variable called the
color rendition index (CRI) is defined. The CRI provides a measure of how well
a light source renders the true colors of an object when compared with direct
sunlight. The color rendition index has a scale of 1 to 100, with a 100-W incan-
descent light bulb having a CRI value of approximately 100. For most indoor
applications, light sources with a CRI of 80 or higher are preferred.
There are different types of incandescent light bulbs. The standard incan-
descent light—referred to as a screw-in, A-type—is now obsolete. There are
also tungsten, halogen, and R-type incandescent light bulbs. The tungsten and
halogen lamps have higher efficiencies than A-types because they have inner
coatings that reflect heat; consequently, they require less energy to keep the
filament hot at a certain temperature. The reflective R-type incandescent lights
also spread and direct light over a specific area. They are commonly used as
floodlights or spotlights. The comparisons of performance of incandescent lights
are shown in Table 6.5.
TA B L E 6 . 5 Comparison of Incandescent Lights

Incandecent Color Rendition
Lighting Type Efficacy (lumens/W) Life (hours) Index (CRI) Color Temperature (K)
Standard A 10–17 750–2,500 98–100 2,700–2,800 (warm)
Tungsten 12–22 2,000–4,000 98–100 2,900–3,200 (warm to neutral)
halogen
Reflector 12–19 2,000–3,000 98–100 2,800 (warm)
Source: U.S. Department of Energy
The second most common type of lighting systems are fluorescent

Fluorescent lamps use 25 to 35% lamps, which produce the same amount of illumination as incandescent
of energy compared to lamps, but use only 25 to 35 percent of the energy needed. The efficacy
incandescent lamps and produce of fluorescent lamps is somewhere between 30 to 110 lumens/watt.
the same amount of illumination. When compared to incandescent lamps, they also have longer ser-
vice life, in the range of 7,000 to 24,000 hours. In a fluorescent tube,
electric current is conducted through mercury and inert gases to pro-
duce light. The fluorescent lights of the past had a poor color rendition, but
because of improvements in technology, they now have high CRI values. The
40-W, 4-foot (1.2-meter) and 75-W, 8-foot (2.4-meter) lamps are the two most
common fluorescent lamps. These lamps require special fixtures, but the new
generation of compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) fit into the incandescent fix-
tures (Figure 6.7). Although CFLs are more expensive than incandescent light
bulbs (3 to 10 times), because of their long service lives (6,000 to 15,000 hours)
and high efficacy values, their use results in net savings. The comparison among
different types of fluorescent lights is shown in Table 6.6.
FIGURE 6.7 Examples of compact fluorescent lights that fit into

screw-in, A-type fixtures.
TA B L E 6 . 6 Comparison of Fluorescent Lights

Fluorescent Efficacy Lifetime Color Rendition
Lighting Type (lumens/watt) (hours) Index (CRI) Color Temperature (K)
Straight tube 30–100 7,000–24,000 50–90 (fair to good) 2,700–6,500 (warm to cool)
Compact 50–70 10,000 65–88 (good) 2,700–6,500 (warm to cool)
fluorescent lamp
(CFL)
Another common type of lighting system is the high-intensity discharge

(HID) lamps (Figure 6.8). They have the highest efficacy values and the longest
service life of any lighting systems. HID lamps are commonly used in indoor
Vacuum
Arc tube
Outer
tube
FIGURE 6.8 A schematic of a high-intensity discharge lamp.

arenas and outdoor stadiums. As you know from your experience, they have low
color rendition index, and when you turn them on, it takes a few minutes before
they produce light. The comparison among different types of high-intensity
discharge lights is shown in Table 6.7.
The newest type of lighting system is light-emitting diode (LED) lights.
LEDs have become a popular alternative to incandescent lights because
they last longer than conventional incandescent lights, having a service life of
approximately 20,000 hours. They also use much less power and operate at
cooler temperatures, so they reduce fire hazards—particularly for lighting dur-
ing holiday seasons. Increasingly, LEDs are becoming popular alternatives in
applications such as traffic lights, street lights, indoor lights, large display screens,
and TV screens. The U.S. Department of Energy estimates that the widespread
use of LED lights by 2027 could result in energy savings of 350 3 10 9 kWh.
TA B L E 6 . 7 Comparison Between High-Intensity Discharging Lights

High-Intensity
Discharging Lighting Efficacy Color Rendition
Type (lumens/W) Life (hours) Index (CRI) Color Temperature (K)
Mercury Vapor 25–60 16,000–24,000 50 (poor to fair) 3,200–7,000 (warm to cool)
Metal Halide 70–115 5,000–20,000 70 (fair) 3,700 (cool)
High Pressure Sodium 50–140 16,000–24,000 25 (poor) 2,100 (warm)
EXAMPLE 6.6
According to Sylvania, a light bulb manufacturer, its 75-W CFL floodlight
consumes 23 W and produces 1,250 lumens. What is the efficacy of the
floodlight?
light produced (lumens) 1,250
efficacy 5 5 5 54
energy consumed (watts) 23
EXAMPLE 6.7
An LED light bulb consumes 13 watts, has an illumination rating of
1,300 lumens, a service life of 11,000 hours, and costs $1.81. As an alternative,
a generic 100-W incandescent light bulb costs $0.38, produces 1,500 lumens,
and has a service life of 750 hours. Compare the performance of each light
bulb by calculating the efficacy for each light and also estimating how much
it would cost to run each light for eight hours per day for 220 days a year.
Assume electricity costs twelve cents per kWh.
For the LED light,
1,300
efficacy 5 5 100
13
 8 hours   1 kW   $0.12 
cost 5  (220 days)(13 W)  5 $2.75
 day    1,000 W   kWh 
For the generic incandescent 100-W light bulb,

1,500
efficacy 5 5 15
100
 8 hours   1 kW   $0.12 
cost 5  (220 days)(100 W)  5 $21.12
 day    1,000 W   kWh 
It should be obvious that the LED light is more efficient and economical
to operate than the generic incandescent light bulb.
Lighting System Audit

As we said at the beginning of this section, lighting systems account for a major
portion of electricity use in buildings and have received much attention recently
due to energy and sustainability concerns. A lighting energy audit starts with
space classification. That is, what is the space used for? Is it used as an office,
a warehouse, or a manufacturing plant? Next, an energy auditor determines
the space characteristics (length, width, height), light fixtures (lamp types, their
number, and lamp wattage), and their controls. The auditor then talks to the
users about the lighting level, their tasks, and the occupancy profile, and using
a light meter, the auditor measures the light level in the space. A comparison
between the measurements and the Illuminating Engineering Society (IES) rec-
ommendation values for a given task is then made. The auditor also calculates
power consumption of the lighting system per unit area (watts/ft 2 or watts/m 2)
and compares it to design guidelines. Finally, the energy auditor prepares a
report discussing their findings, including an estimate of annual lighting energy
cost and ways by which the energy consumption due to the lighting system may
be reduced (for example, by reducing illumination levels, taking advantage of
daylighting, or increasing the efficiency of lighting systems).
Before You Go On
1. What do we mean by illumination, and how is it expressed?

2. What are the common types of lighting systems?
3. Which type of lighting system has the highest CRI?
4. Which type of lighting system has the longest life span?
5. Which type of lighting system has the highest efficacy?
Footcandle
Lumens
Lux
Efficacy
CRI
CFL
LED
LO4 6.4 Electric Power Generation, Transmission,

and Distribution
We use electricity in our homes for lighting, space heating and cooling,
The most common means by running our appliances, and powering our electronic devices. Manu-
which we produce electricity are facturers use electricity to make consumer goods and provide services
magnetism (e.g., in power plants), that allow us to enjoy a high standard of living. By now, you should
chemical reaction (batteries), have a good understanding of the basic principles of electricity. As a
light (photovoltaic cells), and well-educated global citizen, it is also important that you understand
converting wind and water energy. how electricity is generated. The most common means by which we
produce electricity are magnetism (power plants), chemical reaction
(batteries), light (photovoltaic), and converting wind and water energy.
Power Plants
Everyone should have a basic understanding of how electricity is generated
in a conventional power plant, because we rely on electricity for just about
everything we do. It is also important to understand what is required to produce
electricity so that we do not waste it.
Water is used in all conventional steam power-generating plants when
producing electricity. A simple schematic of a power plant is shown in Figure 6.9.
Fuel such as coal or natural gas is burned in a boiler to generate heat, which in
Transmission
Chimney line
Coal silo Steam
Coal Gas
Generator
Turbine
Cleaned Boiler
plant gas Bottom ash Condenser
Disposal to storage Air quality hopper Transformer
pond or landfill control Coal mill Cool water
system Pump
Water
River
FIGURE 6.9 A schematic of a steam power plant.

Source: Based on Xcel Energy
turn is used to change the phase of the water that runs through tubes in a heat
exchanger from a liquid to a high temperature and pressure steam; this steam
then passes through turbine blades, turning the blades that run the generator
connected to the turbine, creating electricity. The low-pressure steam coming out
of the turbine is cooled back down to liquid water in a condenser by drawing
cold water into the condenser from nearby rivers or lakes. The liquefied water
is pumped through the boiler again, completing a cycle, as shown in Figure 6.9.
As we also mentioned in Chapter 5, there is always some loss associated
with all systems, including power plants. All systems require more input than
what they put out. Recall that when we wish to show how well a system is func-
tioning, we express its efficiency. The overall efficiency of a steam power plant
is defined as:
net energy generated
power plant efficiency 5
energy input from fuel
The efficiency of today’s power plants where a fossil fuel (natural gas, coal)
is burned in the boiler is near 40 percent. What does this number mean? It
means that for every 100 pounds of fuel burned,
only 40 pounds of fuel (i.e., its energy content)
goes to producing electricity; the remaining 60
pounds is lost in the process.
The electricity that is generated in a power
plant is transmitted to homes, factories, and
other facilities through transmission lines. As
much as six additional percent of the power
generated is lost during transmission in power
lines. A schematic of electric power genera-
tion, transmission, and distribution is shown in
Figure 6.10. In the United States, the electricity
that is generated at power plants is stepped up
in voltage and is transmitted through a network
hans engbers/Shutterstock.com of approximately 160,000 miles of high-voltage
Transmission lines
carry electricity
Power plant generates long distance Distribution lines
electricity carry electricity
to houses
Transformer steps up Neighborhood

voltage for transmission Transformers on poles step
transformer
down electricity before it
steps down voltage
enters houses
FIGURE 6.10 A schematic of power generation, transmission, and distribution.

Source: Based on National Energy Education Development Project
lines. As shown in Figure 6.10, the transmission lines then deliver the electricity
to neighborhood transformer stations, where the voltage is stepped down to
be carried by the local distribution lines that finally carry the electricity to our
homes. The process of transporting electricity is further explained in the box,
“The Process of Transporting Electricity.”
The Process of Transporting Electricity

Getting electricity from power-generating stations Eastern Interconnected System (for states east of
to our homes and workplaces is quite a challenging the Rocky Mountains), (2) the Western Intercon-
process. Electricity must be produced at the same nected System (from the Pacific Ocean to the Rocky
time as it is used because large quantities of elec- Mountain states), and (3) the Texas Interconnected
tricity cannot be stored effectively. High-voltage System. These systems generally operate indepen-
transmission lines (those lines between tall metal dently of each other, although there are limited
towers that you often see along the highway) are links between them. Major areas in Canada are
used to carry electricity from power-generating totally interconnected with the Western and East-
stations to the places where it is needed. However, ern power grids, while parts of Mexico have limited
when electricity flows over these lines, some of it connection to the Texas and Western power grids.
is lost. One of the properties of the high voltage
lines is that the higher the voltage, the more effi- The ”Smart Grid”
cient they are at transmitting electricity, that is,
The “Smart Grid” consists of devices connected
the lower the losses are. Using transformers, high-
to transmission and distribution lines that allow
voltage electricity is “stepped down” several times
utilities and customers to receive digital informa-
to a lower voltage before arriving over the distribu-
tion from and communicate with the grid. These
tion system of utility poles and wires to homes and
devices allow a utility to find out where an outage
workplaces so that it can be used safely.
or other problem is on the line and sometimes
In the United States, there is no “national”
even fix the problem by sending digital instruc-
power grid. There are actually three power grids
tions. Smart devices in the home, office, or factory
operating in the 48 contiguous states: (1) the
inform consumers of times when an appliance
is using relatively high-cost energy and allow at times when demand reaches significantly high
consumers to remotely adjust its settings. Smart levels or an energy demand reduction is needed to
devices make a Smart Grid, as they help utilities support system reliability.
reduce line losses, detect and fix problems faster,
Source: U.S. Energy Administration
and help consumers conserve energy, especially
Eastern
Interconnection
Western
Interconnection
230,000 volts
345,000 volts
500,000 volts Texas
765,000 volts Interconnection
High-voltage direct current
“The National Power Grid,” Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia.

encarta.msn.com ©1993-2004 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
Shutter_M/Shutterstock.com Anita Potter/Shuttershock.com, data from OffGridWorld, What is the Electric Power Grid, www.offgridworld.
com/what-is-the-electric-power-grid-u-s-grid-map/, EIA U.S. Energy Information Administration
EXAMPLE 6.8
A 100-megawatt (MW) coal-fired power plant has an efficiency of 40 per-
cent. Estimate the daily consumption of coal burned in this plant to gener-
ate electricity. Assume a heating value of approximately 7.5 megajoules per
kilogram (MJ/kg) for coal.
The efficiency of a power plant is given by:


100 MW
 J   3,600 s   24 h 
100 3 10 6   
 s   1 h   day 
0.4 5
And solving for energy input from fuel, we get

100 MW
 J   3,600 s   24 h 
100 3 10 6   
 s   1 h   day 
energy input from fuel 5
0.4
J
5 2.16 3 1013
day
J
2.16 3 1013
day kg
amount of coal required 5 5 2,880,000
J day
7.5 3 10 6
kg
or in terms of pound mass and ton as

 kg   2.2 lbm 
amount of coal required 5  2,880,000
 day   1 kg 
lbm
5 6,336,000
day
 lbm   1 ton  tons
amount of coal required 5  6,336,000 5 3,168
 day   2,000 lbm  day
Take a moment and think about these values!
Nuclear Energy
Nuclear power plants are similar in many ways to conventional fossil-fuel-fired
power plants that produce electricity. The main difference is that instead of
fuel, such as natural gas or coal, nuclear fuel is used to generate steam. Again,
hxdyl/Shutterstock.com
Lighter
FISSION
element
The Atom Splits
Neutron
+ Energy
Neutron Neutron
Uranium
235
Lighter
element
FIGURE 6.11 The nuclear fission process.
as is the case with any new concepts, the energy sector has its own terminology
you should familiarize yourself with. There are two processes by which nuclear
energy is harnessed: nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.
Nuclear power plants use nuclear fission to produce electricity. To release
energy in nuclear fission, atoms of uranium are bombarded by small particles
called neutrons. This process splits the atoms of uranium and releases more
neutrons and energy in the form of heat and radiation. The additional neutrons
go on to bombard other uranium atoms, and the process keeps repeating itself,
leading to a chain reaction. This process is depicted in Figure 6.11. The fuel most
widely used by nuclear power plants is uranium 235, or simply U-235. The major
components (such as the turbine and generator) of a nuclear power plant are
similar to those of conventional plants. Also, note that for nuclear power plants
the overall efficiency is nearly 34 percent.
The energy in the nucleus or core of atoms can also be released by nuclear
fusion. In nuclear fusion, energy is released when atoms are combined or fused
together to form a larger atom. This is the process by which the sun’s energy is
produced.
Hydro Energy
Electricity is also generated by using water stored behind dams. The water is
guided into turbines located in hydroelectric power plants housed within the
dam to generate electricity. The potential energy due to the height of water
stored behind the dam is converted to kinetic energy (moving energy) as the
water flows through and consequently spins the turbine, which turns the gen-
erator. Hydropower accounts for approximately 6 percent of the total United
States electricity generation.
Power house Power transmission

Sluice
cables
The bigger gates
the height Dam
difference Generator
between the Transformer
upstream and
downstream
water level,
the greater
the amount
of electricity
generated
Penstock
Storage Turbine
reservoir Dam
Silt Downstream outlet
Based on Environment Canada
Chemical Reaction—Batteries
All of you have used batteries for different purposes (Figure 6.12) at one time or
another. In all batteries, electricity is produced by the chemical reaction that takes
place within the battery. When a device that uses batteries is on, its circuits create
paths for the electrons to flow through. When the device is turned off, there is no
path for the electrons to flow through, thus the chemical reaction stops.
A battery cell consists of chemical compounds, internal conductors, positive
and negative connections, and the casing. Examples of cells include sizes N, AA,
AAA, C, and D. A cell that cannot be recharged is called a primary cell. An
alkaline battery is an example of a primary cell. On the other hand, a second-
ary cell is a cell that can be recharged. Recharging is accomplished by reversing
Ensuper/Shutterstock.com Aigars Reinholds/Shutterstock.com ra3rn/Shutterstock.com
FIGURE 6.12 Different types of batteries.
1.5 volts 1.5 volts 1.5 volts 1.5 volts 1

6 volts
2
2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1
1
6 volts
2
FIGURE 6.13 Batteries connected in a series arrangement.
1
1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
1.5 volts
volts volts volts volts
2
1 1 1 1 1
1.5 volts
2 2 2 2
2
FIGURE 6.14 Batteries connected in a parallel arrangement.
the current flow from the positive to the negative areas. Lead acid cells in car
batteries, nickel-cadmium (NiCd) cells, and nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) cells
are examples of secondary cells. The lithium ion (Li-Ion) or lithium polymer
batteries are some of the most common rechargeable batteries used in smart
phones, toys, and tablet devices.
To increase the voltage output, batteries are often placed in a series arrange-
ment. If we connect batteries in a series arrangement, the batteries produce
a net voltage, which is the sum of the individual batteries. For example, if we
were to connect four 1.5-volt batteries in series, the resulting potential would be
6 volts, as shown in Figure 6.13. Batteries connected in a parallel arrangement,
as shown in Figure 6.14, produce the same voltage but more current.
Light—Photoemission
Photoemission is another principle used to generate electricity. When light
strikes a surface that has certain properties, electrons can be freed; thus, elec-
tric power is generated. You have seen examples of photovoltaic devices, such
as light meters used in photography, photovoltaic cells in hand-held calculators,
and solar cells used to generate electricity.
Photovoltaic Systems
A photovoltaic system converts light energy directly into electricity. It consists
of a photovoltaic array, batteries, a charge controller, and an inverter (a device
that converts direct current into alternating current). The backbones of any
photovoltaic system are the cells. The photo-
voltaic cells are combined to form a module,
and modules are combined to form an array.
Photovoltaic systems come in all sizes and
shapes and are generally classified into stand-
alone systems, hybrid systems, or grid-tied
systems. The systems that are not connected
to a utility grid are called stand-alone. Hybrid
systems are those which use a combination of
photovoltaic arrays and some other form of
energy, such as diesel generation or wind. As
the name implies, grid-tied systems are con-
nected to a utility grid. We discuss photovol-
taic systems and wind energy in more detail in
manfredxy/Shutterstock.com
Chapter 9.
Before You Go On
1. In your own words, explain how electricity is produced in a conventional power plant.
2. In your own words, explain how nuclear energy is harnessed.
3. How does a photovoltaic system work?
4. In your own words, explain how the power of water is harnessed to generate electricity.
Nuclear energy
Photovoltaic system
Power plant efficiency
Summary 185
S U M M A R Y
LO1 Current, Voltage, and Electric Power— developed. Moreover, at the heart of every home
Basic Concepts electrical-distribution system is wire. Electrical
You should be familiar with basic principles of elec- wires are typically made of copper or aluminum.
tricity. The flow of electric charge is called electric cur- The actual size of the wires is commonly expressed
rent or simply current. The electric current, or the flow in terms of the gage number as denoted by the
of charge, is measured in amperes (A). One ampere American Wire Gage (AWG). The smaller the gage
or “amp” is defined as the flow of 1 unit of charge number, the bigger the wire diameter. The National
per second. Voltage represents the amount of work Electrical Code, which is published by the Fire Pro-
required to move charge between two points, and the tection Association, contains specific information
amount of charge that moves between the two points on the types of wires used for general wiring. You
per unit time is called current. Moreover, direct current should also be familiar with the power consumption
(dc) is the flow of electric charge that occurs in one of typical home appliances and electronics such as
direction. Batteries and photovoltaic systems create refrigerators; electric stoves; microwaves; dishwash-
direct current. Alternating current (ac) is the flow of ing machines; clothes washing machines; clothes
electric charge that periodically reverses. Alternating dryers; heating, cooling, and ventilating units; TVs;
current is created by generators at power plants. The computers; and radios.
current drawn by various electrical devices at your
home is alternating current. The alternating current LO3 Lighting Systems
in domestic and commercial power use is 60 cycles You should be familiar with basic lighting terminol-
per second (hertz) in the United States and 50 hertz ogy and be able to calculate power consumption rates
in many countries abroad. for lighting systems. Illumination refers to the distribu-
Resistivity is a measure of the resistance of a piece tion of light on a horizontal surface, and the amount
of material to electric current. Ohm’s law describes of light emitted by a lamp is expressed in lumens. As a
the relationship among voltage (V ), resistance ( R ), reference, a 100-watt flood light may emit 1,600 lumens.
and current (I), according to A common unit of illumination intensity is called the
footcandle and is equal to one lumen distributed over
voltage 5 (resistance)(current) an area of 1 square foot. For example, to find your way
around at night, you need between 5 to 20 footcandles.
The electric resistance is measured in units of ohms In Europe, lux is the unit of illumination intensity and
(Ω). An element with a 1-ohm resistance allows a cur- is equal to one lumen distributed over an area of
rent flow of 1 amp when a potential of 1 volt across one square meter (m 2 ). One footcandle is equal to
the element exists. The electric power consumption 10.76 lux. Efficacy is another term used in lighting
of various electrical components can be determined vocabulary. Efficacy is the ratio of how much light is
using the power formula: produced by a lamp (in lumens) to how much energy
is consumed by the lamp (in watts).
power 5 (voltage)(current) light produced (lumens)
efficacy 5
energy consumed by the lamp (watts)
LO2 Residential Power Distribution and How true the colors of an object appear when illu-
Consumption minated by a light source is represented by the color
As a good citizen, it is important that you become rendition index (CRI). The color rendition index has
familiar with your home’s power distribution sys- a scale of 1 to 100 with a 100-W incandescent light
tem and consumption. You should know that, in bulb having a CRI value of approximately 100. There
the United States, a typical home has a total 200 are many different types of lighting systems, including
amperage rating and be aware that, in order to wire incandescent light bulbs, fluorescent lamps, compact
a building, an electrical plan for the building is first fluorescent lamps, high-intensity discharge (HID)
lamps, and LED (light emitting diode) lights.
LO4 Electric Power Generation, form of heat and radiation. The additional neutrons
Transmission, and Distribution go on to bombard other uranium atoms, and the pro-
You should know how electricity is generated. The cess keeps repeating itself, leading to a chain reaction.
most common means of producing electricity are mag- The fuel most widely used by nuclear power plants is
netism, chemical reaction, and light. Water is used in Uranium 235, or simply U-235.
all conventional steam power-generating plants to pro- Electricity is also generated by liquid water
duce electricity. Fuel is burned in a boiler to generate stored behind dams. The water is guided into water
heat, which in turn is added to liquid water to change turbines (that are connected to generators) located
the phase of water to high temperature and pressure in hydroelectric power plants housed within the dam
steam; steam then passes through turbine blades, turn- to generate electricity.
ing the blades, which in effect runs the generator (mag- In all batteries, electricity is produced by the chem-
netism) connected to the turbine, creating electricity. ical reaction that takes place within the battery. When a
You should also know that the efficiency of today’s device that uses batteries is on, its circuits create paths
power plants where a fossil fuel (fuel oil, gas, coal) is for the electrons to flow through. When the device is
burned in the boiler is nearly 40 percent. turned off, there is no path for the electrons to flow
Nuclear power plants use nuclear fission to pro- through, and the chemical reaction stops. Photoemis-
duce electricity. To release energy by nuclear fission, sion is another principle used to generate electricity. A
atoms of uranium are bombarded by small particles photovoltaic system converts light energy directly into
called neutrons. This process splits the atoms of ura- electricity. This system consists of a photovoltaic array,
nium and releases more neutrons and energy in the batteries, a charge controller, and an inverter.
K E Y T E R M S
Alternating Current 157 Efficacy 171 NFPA 169

Ampere 156 Electric Charge 156 Nuclear Energy 181
AWG 164 Electric Circuit 158 Nuclear Fission 181
Boiler 176 Electric Current 156 Nuclear Fusion 181
Color Rendition Index 172 Electric Power 159 Ohm 158
Condenser 166 Electric Resistance 158 Photoemission 183
Direct Current 156 Footcandle 171 Photovoltaic System 184
Efficiency of a Steam Power Lumens 171 UL 169
Plant 177 Lux 171 Voltage 156

This is a class project. You are to perform a lighting energy
audit for an indoor gym or sport arena. Collect information
about the arena or gym size and an occupancy profile—that
is, the number of people that use the facility every 15 or 30
minutes. Also obtain information about the lighting systems
(fluorescent, LED, mercury vapor, sodium, metal halide, etc.)
and controlling devices used in the space. Calculate the watts
per square foot (W/ft 2 ) or watts per square meter (W/m2) for
the space as a function of time. Write a brief report to your
instructor discussing your findings. Suggest ways the light- Pavel L Photo and Video/Shutterstock.com
ing energy consumption may be reduced.
Problems 187
P R O B L E M S
6.1 If a 1,500-W hair dryer is connected to a 120-V 6.10 The National Electrical Code (NEC) covers
line, what is the maximum current drawn? the safe and proper installation of wiring,
6.2 A toaster connected to a 120-V line draws electrical devices, and equipment in private and
7 amps. What is the power consumption of public buildings. The NEC is published by the
the toaster? National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
every three years. As an example of an NEC
6.3 A 20-MW coal-fired power plant has an
provision, the receptacle outlets in a room in a
efficiency of 40%. Estimate the annual
dwelling should be placed such that no point on
consumption of coal burned in this plant.
the wall space is more than 6 ft away from the
Assume a heating value of approximately
outlet in order to minimize the use of extension
7.5 MJ/kg (megajoules per kilogram) for coal.
cords. After performing an Internet search or
6.4 A 2,000-W dishwasher is run for obtaining a copy of the NEC handbook, give at
approximately one hour for 122 days during least three other examples of National Electric
a year. If the electric power company Codes for a family dwelling.
charges 12 cents per kWh, calculate the
6.11 Imagine that you are given three items: a
annual electric energy consumption of the
battery, a light bulb, and a piece of wire. How
dishwasher and the associated cost.
would you make a flashlight using these items?
6.5 A 500-W clothes washing machine is run
6.12 According to Sylvania (a light bulb
for approximately two hours a week for
manufacturer), its 40-W CFL light consumes
52 weeks during a year. If the electric power
9 W and produces 495 lumens. What is the
company charges 12 cents per kWh, calculate
efficacy for this light?
the annual electric energy consumption of the
clothes washer and the associated cost. 6.13 The Sylvania Super Saver 75-W light uses 20 W,
produces 1,280 lumens, and costs $4.49. As an
6.6 A 1,200-W hair dryer is run for approximately
alternative, a generic 75-W incandescent light
5 minutes every day. If the electric power
bulb costs $0.40 and produces 1,200 lumens.
company charges 12 cents per kWh, calculate
the annual electric energy consumption of the a. Compare the performance of each light by
hair dryer and the associated cost. calculating the efficacy for each light.
6.7 A TV set consumes 150 W and is left on for b. Estimate how much it would cost to run
approximately 5 hours every night. If the each light for 4 hours a day for 300 days a
electric power company charges 12 cents per year.
kWh, calculate the annual electric energy Assume electricity costs 9 cents per kWh.
consumption of the TV and the associated cost. 6.14 Visit the lighting section of a hardware store
6.8 A relatively small house in the United States and look up the following information for
has an annual electrical energy consumption comparable CFL and LED lights. Read the
of 4,000 kWh. Estimate the annual manufacturer’s ratings on the packaging and
consumption of coal burned in a power plant record lumens, light source color temperature,
to generate the required electrical energy. and power consumption in terms of watts.
Assume a heating value of approximately 6.15 Estimate the annual cost of electricity for the
7.5 MJ/kg (megajoules per kilogram) for coal, lighting system at your home or in your dorm
40% efficiency at the power plant, and 6% room. State your assumptions.
loss for the power transmission lines.
6.16 Estimate the annual electricity usage and
6.9 Rework Problem 6.8 for a larger house with cost for your computer and for any electronic
an annual electrical energy consumption of entertainment devices you own. State your
10,000 kWh. assumptions.
6.17 Estimate the annual electricity usage and cost garage door is lifted four times each day.
for your or a family member’s TV. State your Assume the garage door opener has a
assumptions. 1 -hp-rated motor and it takes 14 s to lift
2
6.18 Investigate the amount of electric power the garage door.

generated by power plants in your state. 6.20 Estimate the annual electrical energy
Discuss the types of plants and the energy consumption of a laptop computer that
sources (fuel types) used to generate electricity. consumes approximately 65 W. Assume the
6.19 Estimate the amount of electrical energy laptop is used on average for 8 hours per day
consumed during a year for a case when a and for 220 days during a year.
Problems 189
yurchello108/Shutterstock.com
“By failing to prepare you are preparing to

fail.”—Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790)
CHA P T E R
7
Thermal Energy: Heat Loss and
Gain in Buildings
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
LO1 Temperature Difference and Heat Transfer—Basic
Concepts: understand how heat transfer occurs
LO2 Modes of Heat Transfer: explain various modes of
heat transfer—including conduction, convection,
and radiation—and how to quantify them
LO3 Daylighting: understand the basic daylighting
concepts and window ratings
LO4 Degree Days and Energy Estimation: explain the
meaning of degree days and how this is used to
estimate heating energy consumption
Maria Dryfhout/Shutterstock.com, djgis/Shutterstock.com, Buslik/Shutterstock.com
Discussion Starter
Total U.S. natural gas consumption
(billion cubic feet)
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
Jan-2010
Jun-2010
Nov-2010
Apr-2011
Sep-2011
Feb-2012
Jul-2012
Dec-2012
May-2013
Oct-2013
Mar-2014
Aug-2014
Jan-2015
Jun-2015
Nov-2015
Apr-2016
Sep-2016
Feb-2017
Jul-2017
Dec-2017
May-2018
Oct-2018
Mar-2019
Aug-2019
Jan-2020
Jun-2020
Nov-2020
Natural gas consumption by end-use sector
(billion cubic feet)
3,500
Industrial Residential Commercial Power
3,000
2,500
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
0
Jan-2010
Jul-2010
Jan-2011
Jul-2011
Jan-2012
Jul-2012
Jan-2013
Jul-2013
Jan-2014
Jul-2014
Jan-2015
Jul-2015
Jan-2016
Jul-2016
Jan-2017
Jul-2017
Jan-2018
Jul-2018
Jan-2019
Jul-2019
Jan-2020
Jul-2020
Jan-2021
Natural Gas Consumption Has Two consumption peaks during the winter when
Peaks Each Year cold weather increases demand for natural gas
heating. A second, smaller peak occurs dur-
Consumption of natural gas is seasonal, with ing the summer, when electricity generation
consumption patterns among end-use sectors using natural gas increases to serve the air-
highly driven by the weather. Total natural gas conditioning load.
192 CHAPTER 7 Thermal Energy: Heat Loss and Gain in Buildings
The residential and commercial demand for heat- In contrast to these seasonal patterns, natural gas
ing accounts for over 50 percent of the natural gas demand in the industrial sector is more evenly dis-
delivered for end-users in the United States during tributed throughout the year, although it has varied
the winter. During the summer, total consumption from about 20 to 40 percent of total consumption
of natural gas is, on average, about 30 percent lower over the past six years.
than in the winter, with about half the gas used to
generate electricity for air-conditioning. Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, March 2021
To the Students: Why do buildings need to be heated or cooled? What are the
mechanisms that drive the need for heating or cooling? What do you think is your
campus’ or home’s annual heating requirement in Btu per hour or kW? On average,
how much fuel or electricity do you think you consume to keep your residence
comfortable?
LO1 7.1 Temperature Difference and Heat

Transfer—Basic Concepts
We spend a great deal of time indoors. Think about all of the human activities
that take place inside buildings. We spend time at home, in schools, offices, malls,
supermarkets, restaurants, sport arenas, airports, hospitals, and so on. The air
temperature inside all of these buildings is usually kept comfortable—regardless
of whether it is cold or hot outside. In the United States, space heating and
air-cooling accounts for nearly 48 percent of energy use in homes, whereas
64 percent of energy consumption in European Union households is dedicated
to space heating and cooling. As a good global citizen, it is important to under-
stand how we spend energy to heat or cool a building so we do not waste it.
Songquan Deng/Shutterstock.com
In order to better understand the heating and cooling of buildings we

Heat transfer is a form of energy must first understand how heat transfer occurs.
transfer that occurs as the result Thermal energy transfer occurs whenever a temperature differ-
of temperature difference. ence exists inside something or between two things, such as the warm
air inside a room and the cold air outside a building during the win-
ter months. This form of energy transfer that occurs between bodies
of different temperatures is called heat transfer. Another important
point to remember is that heat always flows from a high-temperature
Attic region to a low-temperature region. This statement can be confirmed
easily from your daily observations. When hot coffee in a cup is left
in a room with a lower temperature, the coffee cools down. Thermal
energy transfer takes place from the hot coffee through the cup to the
Warm room
surrounding room air. This occurs as long as there is a temperature
difference between the coffee and its surrounding air. As another
example, during the winter when it is cold outside, thermal energy
transfer occurs from the warmer air inside a building to the colder air
outside through the walls, roof, windows, and doors. The opposite is
Cold air true in the summer; heat transfer occurs from the hotter air outside
to the cooler air inside a building.
Snow Make sure you understand what we mean by temperature and
heat. Heat is a form of energy that is transferred from one place to
another as a result of a temperature difference, whereas temperature
represents the level of microscopic molecular movements in some-
thing by a single number, say, 778 F (228C). In winter, the warm air
inside a house has higher molecular activity than the colder air outside.
As we discussed in Chapter 5, there are three units that are commonly used
to quantify thermal energy: (1) the British thermal unit (Btu), (2) the calorie,
and (3) the joule (J). Recall that one British thermal unit (Btu) is defined as the
amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound mass (1 lbm) of
water by one degree Fahrenheit (8 F). The calorie is defined as the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 degree Celsius (8C) ,
and 1 joule 5 0.239 calorie (or 1 cal 5 4.186 J). These units allow us to keep
track of how much energy is consumed to heat or cool something.
Now that you know heat transfer occurs as a result of temperature differ-
ences, let us look at different modes of heat transfer. These are three different
mechanisms by which energy is transferred from a high-temperature region to
a low-temperature region.
LO2 7.2 Modes of Heat Transfer

The three modes of heat transfer are conduction, convection, and radiation.
Conduction refers to the mode of heat transfer that occurs when a temperature
difference exists in a medium. The energy is transported within the object from
the region with more energetic molecules to the region with less energetic mol-
ecules. The interaction of the molecules with their neighbors makes the transfer
of energy possible. To better demonstrate the idea of molecular interactions,
consider the following example of heat transfer by conduction. All of you have
experienced what happens when you heat up some food in an aluminum or
steel pot on a stove. Why do the handles or the lid

of the pot get hot, even though they are not in direct
contact with the heating element? Let us examine
what is happening. Because of the energy transfer
from the heating element, the molecules of the pot in
the region near the heating element are more ener-
getic than those molecules further away. The more
energetic molecules transfer some of their energy
to their neighboring regions, and those neighboring
regions do the same thing, until the energy transfer
eventually reaches the handles and the lid of the pot.
The energy is transported from the high-tempera-
Nebojsa Markovic/Shutterstock.com
ture region (bottom of the pot near the heating ele-
ment) to the low-temperature region in a medium
(the handles of the pot) by molecular activity. The
rate of heat transfer by conduction is given by Fourier’s law, which
states that the rate of heat transfer through a material is proportional
to the temperature difference, area through which heat transfer occurs,
Thermal conductivity is a property
and the type of material involved. Fourier’s law also states that the
of materials that shows how good
heat transfer rate is inversely proportional to the material thickness
the material is in transferring
over which the temperature difference exists. For example, referring
thermal energy (heat) from a to the window shown in Figure 7.1, heat transfer occurs from the
high-temperature region to a low- warmer glass surface inside in contact with the warm room air to
temperature region within the the colder glass surface facing the colder air outside. Note that our
material. medium is the glass, and the heat transfer is occurring through the
glass. We can write Fourier’s law for a single-pane glass window as
 T 2 T2 
q 5 kA  1 7.1
 L 
Warm air Heat transfer
Cold air
FIGURE 7.1 A window under winter conditions.
where
q 5 heat transfer rate (W or Btu/h)
 W Btu 
k 5 thermal conductivity  or 
 m ? 8C h ? ft ? 8 F 
A 5 cross-sectional area normal to heat flow (m 2 or ft 2 )
T1 2 T2 5 temperature difference across the material of L thickness (8C or 8 F)
L 5 material thickness (m or ft)
As we mentioned in Chapter 2, laws are based on observations, and Fourier’s

law is no exception. Also, notice that Equation (7.1) is homogeneous in units;
that is, if we substitute the appropriate units for each variable, the left-hand-side
and the right-hand-side of Equation (7.1) will have the unit of watts or Btu/hour.
Again, remind yourself that a temperature difference must exist in order for
heat transfer to occur. Thermal conductivity is a property of materials that shows
how good the material is in transferring thermal energy (heat) within the material.
In general, solids have a higher thermal conductivity than liquids, and liquids have
a higher thermal conductivity than gases. The thermal conductivity of some materi-
als is given in Table 7.1. We discuss some of these common materials in Chapter 12.
Next, we look at an example problem.
TA B L E 7 . 1 Thermal Conductivity of Some Common Materials
Material Thermal Conductivity (W/m·°C)
Air (at atmospheric pressure) 0.0263
Aluminum (pure) 237
Aluminum alloy (4.5% copper, 1.5% magnesium, 0.6% manganese) 177
Asphalt 0.062
Bronze (90% copper, 10% aluminum) 52
Brass (70% copper, 30% zinc) 110
Brick 1.0
Concrete 1.4
Copper (pure) 401
Glass 1.4
Gold 317
Human fat layer 0.2
Human muscle 0.41
Human skin 0.37
Iron (pure) 80.2
Lead 35.3
Paper 0.18
Platinum (pure) 71.6
Sand 0.27
Silicon 148
Silver 429
Stainless steels 13.4 to 15.1
Water (liquid) 0.61
Zinc 116
EXAMPLE 7.1
Calculate the heat transfer rate from a single-pane glass window with an
inside surface temperature of approximately 208C and an outside surface
temperature of 58C . The glass is 1 m tall, 1.8 m wide, and 8 mm thick, as
shown in Figure 7.2. The thermal conductivity of the glass is approximately
5°C k 5 1.4 W/m ? 8C.
We start solving the problem by converting the unit of thickness from
20°C
millimeters to meters.
 1m 
L 5 (8 mm)  5 0.008 m
Glass  1,000 mm 
1m Next, we calculate the area and the temperature difference.
A 5 (1 m)(1.8 m) 5 1.8 m 2
1.8 m
T1 2 T2 5 208C 2 58C 5 158C
8 mm
Finally, we substitute for the values of k, A, (T1 2 T2 ), and L in
FIGURE 7.2 Equation (7.1) to get
Single-pane window. W 
T1 2 T2   158C 
q 5 kA 5  1.4  (1.8 m 2 ) 
L  m ? 8C   0.008 m 
 W  2  15 8C 
5  1.4  (1.8 m )  
 m ? 8C  0.008 m 
5 4,725 W
Note how the units in the numerator and denominator cancel out, and
the result is expressed in watts only.
Thermal Resistance
In this section, we explain what the R-values of insulating materials mean.
Thermal resistance or the R-value provides a measure of resistance to heat
flow. Most of you understand the importance of having a well-insulated house;
the better insulated the house is, the cheaper it will be to heat or cool it. For
example, in the United States, you may have heard that in order to reduce heat
loss through the attic, some people add enough insulation to their attic so that
the R-value of insulation is 40 or higher. But what does the R-value of 40 mean?
Let us start with Equation (7.1):
 T 2 T2 
q 5 kA  1
 L 
Rearranging it, we have
T1 2 T2 temperature difference
q5 5
L thermal resistance 7.2
kA
L
In Equation (7.2), the termis called thermal resistance. Figure 7.3 depicts
kA
the idea of thermal resistance and how it is related to the material’s thickness
T2
T1
T1 T2
k, A
L
kA
FIGURE 7.3 A slab of material and its thermal resistance.
(L), area ( A), and thermal conductivity (k ). When examining Equation (7.2),
you should note the following:
1. The heat transfer (flow) rate is directly proportional to the
Thermal resistance or R-value temperature difference—the larger the temperature difference,
provides a measure of resistance the larger the heat transfer rate.
to heat transfer (flow). The higher 2. The heat flow rate is inversely proportional to the thermal
the R-value, the lower the value of resistance—the higher the value of thermal resistance, the lower
heat flow will be. the heat transfer rate.
When expressing Fourier’s law in the form of Equation (7.2), we
are making an analogy between the flow of heat and the flow of elec-
tricity in a wire. Recall Ohm’s law from Chapter 6, which relates the voltage (V )
to current ( I ) and the electrical resistance ( R), according to
V 5 RI
or
V voltage
I5 or electric current 5
R electrical resistance
q5 or heat flow 5
L thermal resistance
kA
Comparing these equations, note that the heat flow (q) is analogous to the
electric current ( I ) , the temperature difference (T1 2 T2 ) is analogous to the
voltage (V ), and the thermal resistance (L /kA) is analogous to the electrical
resistance ( R).
Now turning our attention back to thermal resistance and Equation (7.2), we
realize that the thermal resistance for a piece of material is defined as
L
Rthermal 5 7.3
kA
with units of
L m 8C
Rthermal 5 5 5
kA  W  2 W
  ( m )
m ? 8C
Therefore, Rthermal has the SI units of 8C/W or the U.S. Customary units of
8 F ? h/Btu. When Equation (7.3) is expressed per unit area of the material, it is
referred to as the R-value or the R-factor.
L 7.4
R5
k
In this case, R has the units of

L m m 2 ? 8C ft 2 ? 8 F
R5 5 5 or
k W W Btu
m ? 8C h
Also, note that some manufacturers of insulating materials express the
R-value of their products per unit thickness. Remind yourself that neither Rthermal
nor R is dimensionless, and sometimes the R-values are expressed per unit
thickness. The R-value or R-factor of a material provides a measure of resis-
tance to heat flow: The higher the value, the more resistance to heat flow the
material offers. Finally, when the materials used for insulation purposes consist
of various components, the total R-value of the composite material is the sum
of the resistance offered by the various components.
EXAMPLE 7.2
Determine the thermal resistance ( Rthermal ) and the R-value for the glass
window of Example 7.1.
The thermal resistance Rthermal and the R-value of the window can be
determined from Equations (7.3) and (7.4), respectively.
L 0.008 m 8C
Rthermal 5 5 5 0.00317
kA  W  W
1.4  (1.8 m 2 )
 m ? 8C 
So the R-value or the R-factor for the given glass pane is

L 0.008 m m 2 ? 8C
R5 5 5 0.00571
k  W  W
1.4 
 m ? 8C 
To reduce heat loss from windows, the manufacturers often use two panes of
glass that are separated by an air gap, because air has a relatively low thermal
conductivity. The next example demonstrates this concept.
As evident from the results of Examples 7.2 and 7.3, ordinary glass windows
do not offer much resistance to heat flow. To further increase the R-value of
windows, some manufacturers make windows that use triple glass panes and
fill the spacing between the glass panes with argon gas, which has a relatively
small thermal conductivity value. We discuss the thermal resistance of walls
and ceilings later in this section, after we explain the convective heat transfer
mode. See Example 7.5 for a sample calculation for total thermal resistance of a
typical exterior frame wall of a house consisting of siding, sheathing, insulation
material, and gypsum wallboard (drywall).
EXAMPLE 7.3
A double-pane glass window consists of two pieces of glass, each having a
thickness of 8 mm, with a thermal conductivity of k 5 1.4 W/m ? 8C . The
two glass panes are separated by an air gap of 10 mm, as shown in Figure 7.4.
Assuming the thermal conductivity of air to be k 5 0.025 W/m ? 8C, deter-
mine the total R-value for this window.
Glass
Air
10 mm
Glass
8 mm 8 mm
FIGURE 7.4 Double-pane window.
The total thermal resistance of the window is obtained by adding the

resistance offered by each pane of glass and the air gap in the following
manner:
Lglass L L
R 5 Rglass 1 Rair 1 Rglass 5 1 air 1 glass
kglass kair kglass
substituting for Lglass, kglass, Lair, kair, we have
0.008 m 0.01 m 0.008 m m 2 ? 8C

R5 1 1 5 0.4
 W   W   W  W
1.4  0.025  1.4 
 m ? 8C   m ? 8C   m ? 8C 
As you can see, by adding an extra pane of glass and an air gap, we can
increase the thermal resistance of a window significantly.
Before You Go On
1. When does heat transfer occur?

2. What are the modes of heat transfer?
3. What do we mean by conduction heat transfer?
4. What does the R-value of a material represent?
Thermal conductivity
R-value
Convection Heat Transfer

Convection heat transfer occurs when a fluid (a gas or a liquid,
for example, air or water) in motion comes into contact with a
solid surface whose temperature differs from the moving fluid.
For example, when you sit in front of a fan to cool down on a
hot summer day, the heat transfer that occurs from your warm
(solid) body to the cooler moving air (fluid) is by convection. Or,
when you are cooling hot food, such as freshly baked cookies, by
blowing air on them, you are using the principles of convection
Rebbeck Images/Shutterstock.com heat transfer.
There are two broad areas of convection heat transfer: forced
convection and free (natural) convection. Forced convection refers to situations
where the flow of fluid is caused or forced by a fan or a pump. The cooling of
computer chips by blowing air across them with a fan is an example of forced
convection. Free convection, on the other hand, refers to situations where the
flow of fluid occurs naturally. When you leave a hot pie to cool on the kitchen
counter, the heat transfer is by natural convection. As another example, the
heat loss from the exterior surfaces of a hot oven is also by natural convection.
For both forced and free convection situations, the overall heat transfer
rate between the fluid and the surface is governed by Newton’s law of cooling,
which is given by
q 5 hA(Ts 2 Tf ) 7.5
In Equation (7.5), h is the heat transfer coefficient in W/m 2 ? 8C

(or Btu/h ? ft 2 ? 8 F), A is the area of the exposed surface in meter squared (m 2 )
or foot squared (ft 2 ), Ts is the surface temperature in degrees Celsius (8C) or
Fahrenheit (8 F), and Tf represents the temperature of moving fluid in 8C or 8F.
The value of the heat transfer coefficient ( h) for a particular situation is

determined from experiments; these values are available in many books about
heat transfer. It is also important to know that the value of h is higher for forced
convection than it is for free convection. Of course, you already know this!
When you are trying to cool down rapidly, do you sit in front of a fan or do
you sit in an area of the room where the air is still? Moreover, the heat transfer
coefficient is higher for liquids than it is for gases. Have you noticed that you can
walk around comfortably in a T-shirt when the outdoor air temperature is 708 F,
but if you went into a swimming pool whose water temperature was 708 F you
would feel cold? That is because the liquid water has a higher heat transfer coef-
ficient than air; therefore, according to Newton’s law of cooling (Equation 7.5),
water removes more heat from your body. The typical range of heat transfer
coefficient values is given in Table 7.2.
Similar to the R-value in conduction, it is also common to define a resistance
term for the convection process. The thermal convection resistance Rthermal is
defined as
q5 5
1 thermal resistance
hA 7.6
1
Rthermal 5
hA
Again, Rthermal has units of 8C/W or 8 F ? h/Btu. Equation (7.6) is often expressed
per unit area of solid surface exposure and is called film resistance.
1
R5 7.7
h
Then the R-value for film resistance has the units of
 
 m 2 ? 8C ft 2 ? 8 F 
 W or
Btu 
 
h 
TA B L E 7 . 2 Typical Values of Heat Transfer Coefficients
Heat Transfer Coefficient, h Heat Transfer Coefficient, h
Convection Type (W/m²·°C) (Btu/h·ft²·°F)
Free Convection
Gases 2 to 25 0.35 to 4.4
Liquids 50 to 1,000 8.8 to 175
Forced Convection
Gases 25 to 250 4.4 to 44
Liquids 100 to 20,000 17.6 to 3,500
Once again, it is important to realize that neither Rthermal nor R is dimensionless,

and they provide a measure of resistance to heat flow; the higher the values of
R, the more resistance to heat flow to or from the surrounding fluid.
EXAMPLE 7.4
Calculate the R-factor (film resistance) for the following situations:
(a) Wind blowing over a wall where h 5 5.88 Btu/h ? 8 F ? ft 2
(b) Still air inside a room near a wall where h 5 1.47 Btu/h ? 8 F ? ft 2
(a) For the situation where wind is blowing over a wall,
1 1 h ? ft 2 ? 8 F
R5 5 5 0.17
h Btu Btu
5.88
h ? ft 2 ? 8 F
(b) For still air inside a room near a wall,
1 1 h ? ft 2 ? 8 F
R5 5 5 0.68
h Btu Btu
1.47
h ? ft 2 ? 8 F
As you can see from the results, the heat transfer situation with the wind
blowing has a lower thermal resistance. Therefore, more heat transfer (loss)
occurs from a building on a windy day compared to a calm winter day.
EXAMPLE 7.5
A typical exterior frame wall (made up of 2 3 4 studs) of a house in the
United States contains the materials shown in Table 7.3 and Figure 7.5. For
most residential buildings, the inside room temperature is kept around 708 F.
Assuming an outside temperature of 208 F and an exposed area of 150 ft 2 , we
are interested in determining the heat loss through the wall.
In general, the heat loss through the walls, windows, doors, or roof
of a building occurs due to conduction heat losses through the building
materials—including siding, insulation material, gypsum wallboard (drywall),
glass, and so on—and convection losses through the wall surfaces exposed
to the indoor warm air and the outdoor cold air. The total resistance to heat
TA B L E 7 . 3 Thermal Resistance of Wall Materials

1
Thermal Resistance
2 Items (h·ft²·°F/Btu)
3 4 5 6
1. Outside film resistance (winter, 15 mph wind) 0.17
FIGURE 7.5
2. Siding, wood (1/2 × 8 lapped) 0.81
Wall layers.
3. Sheathing (1/2 in. regular) 1.32
1
4. Insulation batt (323 in.) 11.0
2
5. Gypsum wallboard (1/2 in.) 0.45
6. Inside film resistance (winter) 0.68
flow is the sum of resistances offered by each component in the path of heat
flow. For a composite wall, we can write
Tinside 2 Toutside 
q 5  (area)
 sum of resistances 
The total resistance to heat flow is given by
sum of resistances 5 0.17 1 0.81 1 1.32 1 11.0 1 0.45 1 0.68

h ? ft 2 ? 8 F
5 14.43
Btu
 
Tinside 2 Toutside   (70 2 20) 8 F 
q 5  (area) 5   (150 ft )
2
 sum of resistances   14.43
h ? ft 2 ? 8 F

Btu
Btu
5 520
h
Note how similar units were cancelled out and the final result is expressed
in Btu per hour. The equivalent thermal resistance circuit for this problem
is shown in Figure 7.6.
Outside film Inside film

resistance Siding Sheathing Insulation Gypsum resistance
batt board
To = 20°F Ti = 70°F
Inside room
temperature
1 2 3 4 5 6
FIGURE 7.6 The equivalent thermal resistance for Example 7.5.
When performing a heating load analysis to select a furnace to heat a build-

ing, instead of
Tinside 2 Toutside 
q 5  (area)
 sum of resistances 
it is common to calculate the heat loss through the walls, roof, windows, and
doors of a building from
q 5 U (Tinside 2 Toutside )(area) 7.8
In Equation (7.8), U represents the overall heat transfer coefficient, or

simply the U-factor for a wall, roof, window, or door. As you can see from
Equation (7.8), the U-factor is the reciprocal of the total thermal

The U-factor or the overall heat Btu
transfer coefficient represents resistance and has units of . For Example 7.5, the U-factor
h ? ft 2 ? 8 F
the combined effect of all thermal for the wall is equal to
resistances in a wall, door, or
window. 1 1 Btu
U5 5 5 0.0693
sum of resistances 14.43 h ? ft 2 ? 8 F
Using this U-value, the heat loss through the wall is then calculated from
Btu Btu
q 5 (0.0693 )(70 2 20)8 F (150 ft 2 ) 5 520
h ? ft 2 ? 8 F h
Radiation Heat Transfer

All matter emits thermal radiation. This rule is true as long as the
body in question is at a nonzero absolute temperature. The higher
the temperature of the surface of the object, the more thermal
energy is emitted by the object. A good example of thermal radia-
tion is the heat you can feel radiated by a fire in a fireplace. The
amount of radiant energy emitted by a surface is given by the
Skylines/Shutterstock.com equation
q 5 es ATs4 7.9
In Equation (7.9), q represents the rate of thermal energy per unit time
that is emitted by the surface in watts; e is the emissivity of the surface where
0 , e , 1; s is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant (s 5 5.67 3 1028 W/m 2 ? K 4 );
A represents the area of the surface in meters squared; and Ts is the surface
temperature of the object expressed in Kelvin. Emissivity (e ) is a property of the
surface of the object, and its value indicates how well the object emits thermal
radiation compared to a black body (an ideal perfect emitter).
It is important to note here that, unlike the conduction and convection
modes, heat transfer by radiation can occur in a vacuum. A daily example of
this is the radiation of the sun reaching the Earth’s atmosphere as it travels
through a vacuum in space. Because all objects emit thermal radiation, it is the
net energy exchange among the bodies that is of interest to us. Because of this
fact, thermal radiation calculations are generally complicated in nature and
require an in-depth understanding of the underlying concepts and geometry of
the problem. As a result, we will not discuss this in greater detail in this book.
However, it is important for you, as a good global citizen, to understand that all
matter emits thermal radiation, and the higher the temperature of the surface
of an object, the more radiant energy it emits.
As you can see from the following example, the higher the temperature of
the surface, the more radiant energy is emitted by the surface, resulting in a
faster cooling rate.
EXAMPLE 7.6
On a hot summer day, the temperature of the flat roof of a tall building
reaches 508C. The area of the roof is 400 m 2. Estimate the heat radiated from
this roof to the sky in the evening when the temperature of the surrounding
air or sky is at 208C. The temperature of the roof decreases as it cools down.
Estimate the rate of energy radiated from the roof, assuming roof tempera-
tures of 50, 40, 30, and 258C. Assume e 5 0.9 for the roof.
We can determine the amount of thermal energy radiated by the surface
from Equation (7.9). For a roof temperature of 508C, we get
 W  2
q 5 es ATs4 5 (0.9)  5.67 3 1028  (400 m )(323 K )4 5 222,000 W
 m2 ? K4
The rest of the solution is shown in Table 7.4.
TA B L E 7 . 4 The Results of Example 7.6
Surface Temperature,
Surface Temperature (°C) T(K) 5 T(°C) 1 273 Energy Emitted by the Surface (W)
50 323 (0.9)(5.67 3 1028 )(400)(323)4 5 222,000 W
40 313 (0.9)(5.67 3 1028 )(400)(313)4 5 196,000 W
30 303 (0.9)(5.67 3 1028 )(400)(303)4 5 172,000 W
25 298 (0.9)(5.67 3 1028 )(400)(298)4 5 161,000 W
Before You Go On
1. What do we mean by convection heat transfer?

2. What do we mean by heat transfer coefficient?
3. What does the overall heat transfer coefficient value represent?
4. When does radiation heat transfer occur?
Film resistance
U-factor or U-value
Emissivity
LO3 7.3 Daylighting

Up to this point, we have discussed heat transfer from a building and how to
quantify it. As you might expect, building characteristics and construction affect
energy usage. A building is characterized by its “envelope,” which consists of
the foundation, walls, windows, doors, roof, and insulation, along with their age
and condition. Building orientation and the amount and orientation of glazing
(windows) also affects the energy consumption rates of a building. Moreover,
energy can be saved by taking advantage of daylighting. Let’s examine daylight-
ing in more detail now.
Daylighting refers to the use of windows and skylights to bring natural light
into a building. A building that makes use of daylighting minimizes the use of
artificial lighting, such as ceiling lights or lamps, to brighten the inside of a house
during daylight hours.
Properly selected and positioned windows and skylights also can provide
buildings with heat and ventilation. However, if not properly selected and posi-
tioned, they can negatively impact the home’s energy use and the quality of the
building occupants’ experience.
In 2018, the European Union published the first standard (EN 17037) to
provide requirements for daylighting in buildings. The EN 17037 standard
establishes minimum acceptable performance levels for daylighting, views (i.e.,
clear exterior views), access (i.e., exposure to direct sunlight for health and
comfort), and glare (i.e., the negative impact glare can have on the occupants’
productivity). The United States may adopt similar standards in the future.
Courtesy of The National Fenestration Rating Council (NFRC)
7.3 Daylighting 207
Window Basics
In the United States, the National Fenestration Rating Council (NFRC) defines
the ratings for window energy performance. Factors that you must consider
when selecting windows and skylights include:
• U-factor
• Solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC)
• Air leakage
• Visible transmittance (VT)
• Types of window frames
• Aluminum or metal
• Composite
• Fiberglass
• Vinyl
• Wood
Window Technologies
Energy-efficient window technologies are available to
produce windows with the U-factor, SHGC, and VT
properties needed for any application.
Low-E and/or
solar control coating
Gas fill
Double panes
Stool
Sash
Stop
Sill Spacer
Backer rod
Jamb
Apron/flange
Weatherstripping
As you know by now, the U-factor (the overall heat transfer coefficient)
provides an indication of how much heat loss you can expect through a win-
dow, door, or skylight. In the United States, it usually is expressed in units of
Btu/h ? ft 2 ? 8 F , and the lower the U-factor, the more energy-efficient the win-
dow, door, or skylight is. Typical values are between 0.2 and 1.2 Btu/h ? ft 2 ? 8 F.
The solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC) represents how well a window
blocks unwanted heat yet allows sunlight to go through. The SHGC is the frac-
tion of the heat from the sun that enters through a window. It is expressed
as a number between 0 and 1. The lower the value, the bet-

ter the window is at blocking unwanted heat. The best SHGC
rating for a window depends on the climate where the win-
dow is installed. It is important to consider the SHGC value
when selecting a window for hot climates that predominantly
require cooling (see Figure 7.7). The visible transmittance (VT)
index measures how much light comes through a window. VT is
expressed as a number between 0 and 1, and the higher the VT
value, the clearer the glass. This means that more visible light is
transmitted through windows with higher VT values.
The air leakage (AL) rating is expressed as the equivalent
cubic feet of air passing through a square foot of window area
(ft 3 /ft 2 ). The lower the AL, the less the window leaks. Typical
values range between 0.1 and 0.3.
The condensation resistance (CR) measures how well a
window resists the formation of moisture (condensation) on
Windows
Doors
Climate Zone U-Factor1 SHGC2 Glazing level U-Factor1 SHGC2
Northern ≤0.30 Any Prescriptive Opaque ≤0.21 No rating

=0.31 ≥0.35 Equivalent ≤ ½-Lite ≤0.27 ≤0.30
energy
=0.32 ≥0.40 performance > ½-Lite ≤0.32 ≤0.30
North-central ≤0.32 ≤0.40
South-central ≤0.35 ≤0.30 Skylights

Southern ≤0.60 ≤0.27
Climate Zone U-Factor1 SHGC2
Northern ≤0.55 Any
1Btu/h∙ft2∙ºF
North-central ≤0.55 ≤0.40
2Fraction of incident solar radiation South-central ≤0.57 ≤0.30
Southern ≤0.70 ≤0.30
Northern
North-central
South-central
Southern
FIGURE 7.7 The ENERGY STAR® qualification criteria for residential windows, doors, and skylights.
Source: ENERGY STAR Program Requirements for Windows, Doors, and Skylights: Version 5.0 (April 7, 2009)
its inside glass surface. The higher the CR rating, the better the window resists
condensation formation; it is expressed as a number between 1 and 100. Higher
values represent more resistance to the formation of condensation.
As well-educated citizens, you need to be aware of these definitions and
how these factors affect heating and cooling loads in our homes. The ENERGY
STAR® qualification criteria for residential windows, doors, and skylights in the
United States are shown in Figure 7.7.
LO4 7.4 Degree Days and Energy Estimation

How do you estimate how much energy is needed on a monthly
A degree day (DD) is the and an annual basis to heat a building? In the United States, it is
difference between 65°F customary to use degree days. A degree day (DD) is the difference
(typically) and the average between 658 F (typically) and the average temperature of the outside
temperature of the outside air air during a 24-hour period. For example, for a city, on November 10,
during a 24-hour period. 2020, the low temperature was 288 F and the high temperature was
388 F. Then the degree day for November 10, 2020 for that city was
DD 5 658 F 2 [((388 F 1 288 F)/2)] 5 328 F . Now, if we were to add up
the degree days for each day in a month, we would get the total degree days
for that month. Similarly, if we were to add up the degree days for each month,
we would then obtain the annual degree days. In practice, historical degree-day
values (based on average values over many years, see Figure 7.8) are used to
estimate monthly and annual energy consumption to heat buildings from the
following relationships.
 Btu 
building heat loss   3 24 h
 h  7.10
QDD 5
design temperature difference (8 F)
Qmonthly 5 (QDD )(monthly degree days) 7.11
Qyearly 5 (QDD )(yearly degree days) 7.12
Most homes in cold climates within the United States are

kept warm by furnaces. In a furnace, natural gas or fuel oil
is burned, and the hot combustion products go through the
inside of a heat exchanger where thermal energy is trans-
ferred to cold indoor air that passes over the heat exchanger.
The warm air is then distributed to various parts of
the house through conduits.
An AFUE rating represents the The sizes of home gas furnaces in the United
annual fuel utilization efficiency States are expressed in units of Btu/h. The size of a
of a furnace. typical single-family-home gas furnace used in the Midwest is about
60,000 Btu/hour.
A < 1001
B 1001 – 2000
C 2001 – 3000
D 3001 – 4000
E 4001 – 5000
F 5001 – 6000
G 6001 – 7000
H 7001 – 9000
I >9000
FIGURE 7.8 The annual degree days for the United States.
Source: NOAA
EXAMPLE 7.7
The temperature data for the first seven days of January 2020 for a city is
given in Table 7.5. Calculate the degree days for each day and for the entire
week.
TA B L E 7 . 5 The Temperature Data in Degrees Fahrenheit

for a Given City During January 1–7, 2020
Date Hi Lo
January 1, 2020 30 11
January 2, 2020 28 6
January 3, 2020 33 12
January 4, 2020 12 27
January 5, 2020 1 211
January 6, 2020 8 25
January 7, 2020 21 29
First, we need to calculate the daily average. For example, for January 1,
2020, the average temperature was (30 1 11)/2 5 20.58 F . Next, we determine
the degree days by subtracting the average temperature from 65, which is
65 2 20.5 5 44.58 F. In a similar manner, we calculate the degree days for
January 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7, and then add them to get a total of 4018 F for the
week, as shown in Table 7.6.
TA B L E 7 . 6 The Degree Days for January 1–7, 2020 for the Given City
Date Hi Lo Daily Average (Hi 1 Lo)/2 Degree Days 5 65-Daily Average
January 1, 2020 30 11 20.5 44.5
January 2, 2020 28 6 17 48
January 3, 2020 33 12 22.5 42.5
January 4, 2020 12 27 2.5 62.5
January 5, 2020 1 211 25 70
January 6, 2020 8 25 1.5 63.5
January 7, 2020 21 29 25 70
Total 5 4018F
EXAMPLE 7.8
Calculate the annual degree days for Minneapolis, Minnesota using the
monthly values given in Table 7.7.
TA B L E 7 . 7 The Monthly Degree-Day Values for

Minneapolis, Minnesota
Month Degree Days
January 1,631
February 1,380
March 1,166
April 621
May 288
June 81
July 22
August 31
September 189
October 505
November 1,014
December 1,454
The annual degree days is determined by simply adding the monthly values:
1,631 1 1,380 1 1,166 1 621 1 288 1 81 1 22 1 31 1 189 1 505 1 1,014 1
1,454 5 8,382.
EXAMPLE 7.9
We may burn natural gas to heat water, cook, and heat our homes during
cold winter months. Most of the natural gas consumption in a home is due to
heating the house during winter. For a building located in Minneapolis, Min-
nesota with annual heating degree days of 8,382, a heating load (heat loss) of
62,000 Btu/h, and a design temperature difference of 828 F (688 F indoor and
2148 F outdoor), estimate the annual energy consumption. If the building is
heated with a furnace with an efficiency of 94%, how much gas is burned to
keep the home at 688 F indoors?
We solve this problem using Equations (7.10) and (7.12).
 Btu   Btu 
62,000   3 24 h 62,000   3 24 h
 h   h 
QDD 5 5 5 18,146 Btu/DD
[68 2 (214)](8 F) 82(8 F)
 Btu 
Qyearly 5 18,146   (8,382 DD) 5 152 3 10 6 Btu/year
 DD 
Assuming the gas used in Minnesota has a heating value of 1,000 Btu/ft 3, the
amount of gas burned in the furnace can be estimated from
 (152 3 10 6 Btu/year)   1 
volume of gas burned 5    3 
 0.94   1,000 Btu/ft 
5 161,700 ft /year
3
Think about the amount of gas that we need to burn to keep one home
warm during the winter months in Minnesota. Also, think about how much
extra energy it took to extract the gas and transport it to the home!
EXAMPLE 7.10
Let us consider an older home with six 3 3 4 ft windows with U-values of
Btu
1.4 . What if we were to replace these windows with more energy-
h ? ft 2 ? 8 F
Btu
efficient, newer models with U 5 0.2 ? How much energy would
h ? ft 2 ? 8 F
we save? The home is located in Massachusetts with annual degree days of
5,634 and a design temperature difference of 62 degrees Fahrenheit (688 F
indoors and 68 F outdoors).
Solve this problem using Equations (7.8), (7.10), and (7.12). For the six
old windows,
Btu Btu
q 5 UA DT 5 (6)(1.4 )(12 ft 2 )(68 2 6)8 F 5 6,250
h ? ft ? 8 F
2
h
For the new windows,
Btu Btu
q 5 UA DT 5 (6)(0.2 )(12 ft 2 )(68 2 6)8 F 5 893
h ? ft ? 8 F
2
h
The reduction in heat transfer that translates to energy savings is
Btu Btu Btu

q 5 6,250 2 893 5 5,357
h h h
 Btu   Btu 
5,357  3 24 h 5,357  3 24 h
 h   h 
QDD 5 5 5 2,074 Btu/DD
(68 2 6)(8 F) 62 (8 F)
 Btu 
Qyearly 5 2,074  (5,634 DD) 5 11.7 3 10 6 Btu/year
 DD 
Assuming the fuel oil used in Massachusetts has a heating value of

139,000 Btu per gallon and the furnace has an efficiency of 90%, the amount
of fuel oil saved can be estimated from
 (11.7 3 10 6 Btu/year)   1 
volume of fuel oil burned 5    
 0.90   139,000 Btu/gallon 
5 94 gallons/year
Therefore, by replacing the six windows, we can save 94 gallons of fuel

oil per year! Think about it! Depending on the cost of both the fuel oil and
the replacement windows, we can determine how long it would take for the
dollar savings to take effect.
Before You Go On
1. What do we mean by daylighting?

2. What are the typical U-values for windows?
3. What does the air leakage (AL) rating of a window represent?
4. What is a degree day?
Visible transmittance
SHGC
Condensation resistance
Degree days
S U M M A R Y
L
LO1 Temperature Difference and Heat or the R-factor R 5 , where R has the units of
Transfer—Basic Concepts k
 
Thermal energy transfer occurs whenever there exists  m 2 ? 8C ft 2 ? 8 F 
 or  . Note that neither Rthermal nor
a temperature difference within an object or a tem-  W Btu 
perature difference between two things, such as the  h 
air inside a room and the air outside the building. This R is dimensionless, and sometimes the manufacturers
form of energy is called heat transfer. Additionally, of insulating materials express the R-value of their
heat always flows from a high-temperature region to products per unit thickness.
a low-temperature region. There are three different
Convection Heat Transfer
mechanisms by which energy is transferred from a
Convection heat transfer occurs when a fluid (a gas or a
high-temperature region to a low-temperature region.
liquid) in motion comes into contact with a solid surface
These mechanisms are referred to as the modes of
whose temperature differs from the moving fluid. There
heat transfer. Moreover, there are three units that are
are two broad areas of convection heat transfer: forced
commonly used to quantify thermal energy: (1) the
convection and free (natural) convection. Forced convec-
British thermal unit (Btu), (2) the calorie, and (3) the
tion refers to situations where the flow of fluid is forced
joule (J).
by a fan or a pump. Free convection, on the other hand,
refers to situations where the flow of fluid occurs natu-
LO2 Modes of Heat Transfer rally due to density variation in the fluid. For both the
The three modes of heat transfer are conduction, con- forced and the free convection situations, the overall
vection, and radiation. heat transfer rate between the fluid and the surface is
governed by Newton’s law of cooling, which is given by
Conduction Heat Transfer q 5 hA(Ts 2 Tf ) where h is the heat transfer coefficient
Conduction refers to the mode of heat transfer that in W/m 2 ? 8C or Btu/h ? ft 2 ? 8 F , A is the area of the
occurs when a temperature difference exists in a exposed surface in m 2 or ft 2 , Ts is the surface tempera-
medium. The energy is transferred within the medium ture in degrees (8C or 8 F ), and Tf represents the tem-
from the region with more energetic molecules (high- perature of the fluid in degrees (8C or 8 F ). The value of
temperature region) to the region with less energetic the heat transfer coefficient for a particular situation is
molecules (low-temperature region). The rate of determined from experiments. It is also common to
heat transfer by conduction is given by Fourier’s law define a resistance term for the convection process, simi-
according to lar to the R-value in conduction. The thermal convection
 T 2 T2  1
resistance is defined as Rthermal 5 . This equation is
q 5 kA  1  hA
 L 
commonly expressed per unit area of solid surface expo-
In this equation, q 5 heat transfer rate (W or Btu/h), sure and is called the film resistance or the film coeffi-
 W Btu  ,
k 5 thermal conductivity  or  1 m 2 ? 8C ft 2 ? 8 F
 m ? 8C h ? ft ? 8 F  cient R 5 , where R has units of or .
h W Btu
A 5 cross-sectional area normal to heat flow (m 2 or ft 2 ) h
and T1 2 T2 5 temperature difference (8C or 8F)
across the material of L thickness (m or ft). Radiation Heat Transfer
The R-value of a material provides a measure All matter emits thermal radiation. The higher the
of resistance to heat flow: The higher the value, the temperature of the surface of the object, the more
more resistance the material offers to heat flow. The thermal energy it emits, and unlike the conduction
thermal resistance for a piece of material is defined and convection modes, heat transfer by radiation can
L occur in a vacuum. The amount of radiant energy
as Rthermal 5 . Rthermal has the units of 8C/W or
kA emitted by a surface is given by q 5 es ATs4; q repre-
8 F ? h/Btu . When this equation is expressed per unit sents the rate of thermal energy per unit time emit-
area of the material, it is referred to as the R-value ted by the surface in watts; e is the emissivity of the
Summary 215
surface where 0 , e , 1; s is the Stefan-Boltzmann LO4 Degree Days and Energy Estimation
constant where s 5 5.67 3 1028 W/m 2 ? K 4 ; A repre- A degree day (DD) is the difference between 658 F
sents the area of the surface in m 2; and Ts is the surface (typically) and the average temperature of the out-
temperature of the object expressed in Kelvin. side air during a 24-hour period. In practice, historical
degree-day values (based on the average of data over
LO3 Daylighting many years) are used to estimate monthly and annual
Daylighting refers to the use of windows and sky- energy consumptions to heat buildings from the fol-
lights to bring natural light into a building. The lowing relationships:
National Fenestration Rating Council (NFRC)
defines the ratings for window and skylight  Btu 
heat loss   3 24 h
energy performance. Factors that are considered  h 
QDD 5
when selecting windows and skylights include the design temperature difference (8 F)
U-factor, solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC), air Qmonthly 5 (QDD )(monthly degree days)
leakage (AL), sunlight transmittance, and visible
transmittance (VT).
Qyearly 5 (QDD )(yearly degree days)
K E Y T E R M S
Condensation Resistance 208 Film Resistance 201 Solar Heat Gain Coefficient 207
Conduction Heat Transfer 193 Heat Transfer 193 Thermal Conductivity 195
Convection Heat Transfer 200 Heat Transfer Coefficient 201 Thermal Resistance 196
Daylighting 206 Overall Heat Transfer U-factor 204
Degree Days 209 Coefficient 203 Visible Transmittance 208
Emissivity 204 Radiation Heat Transfer 204

You are to investigate the size of the furnace in your
own, your parents’, or a friend’s home and the degree-
day values for your city. Estimate the monthly and
annual costs to heat the home. State all your assump-
tions. Suggest ways to reduce the heat loss for the
home (e.g., by replacing older windows with ENERGY
STAR® windows with lower U-values or by adding more
insulation to the walls or the roof ) and estimate the
associated savings.
Elena Elisseeva/Shutterstock.com
P R O B L E M S
7.1 Calculate the R-value for the following indoor and outdoor temperatures are 688 F
materials: (a) 4-in.-thick brick, and (b) 12-in.- and 108 F , respectively. Compare the
thick concrete slab. results of this exercise with the results of
7.2 Calculate the R value (film resistance) for Problem 7.10. How much energy will be saved
a situation when the wind is blowing over a Btu
if three windows with U 5 0.8
wall, with h 5 4.0 Btu/h ? ft 2 ? 8 F . h ? ft 2 ? 8 F
7.3 Calculate the overall U-value for a are replaced with three windows with
12-in.-thick concrete wall with the Btu
wind blowing over its outside surface U 5 0.2 for a home in a location
h ? ft 2 ? 8 F
( h 5 5.88 Btu/h ? ft 2 ? 8 F), and still air over its with annual degree days of 6,200 ?
inside surface ( h 5 1.47 Btu/h ? ft 2 ? 8 F).
7.12 A typical exterior masonry wall of a
7.4 If a window has a total R-value of 1.7, what is house consists of the items in the table
its U-value? shown in Figure P7.12. Assume an inside
7.5 Calculate the heat transfer rate from a room temperature of 688 F, an outside air
1,000 ft 2, 6-in.-thick concrete wall with inside temperature of 108 F , and an exposed area of
and outside surface temperatures of 708 F and 150 ft 2. Calculate the heat loss through the wall.
408 F, respectively.
7.6 Calculate the heat transfer rate from a
1,000 ft 2 , 9-in.-thick concrete wall with inside
and outside surface temperatures of 708 F and
408 F, respectively.
7.7 Calculate the heat transfer rate from a
2,000-ft 2 ceiling of a house with a total
R-value of 41.0 h ? ft 2 ? 8 F/Btu . Assume an
inside room temperature of 688 F and an attic
air temperature of 108 F .
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
7.8 Calculate the heat loss through the walls of
a building with a net surface area of 1,400 ft 2 Items Resistance
and a total R-value of 25 h ? ft 2 ? 8 F/Btu. (h ∙ ft2 ∙ ºF/Btu)
Assume an inside room temperature of 688 F 1. Outside film resistance (winter, 15 mph wind) 0.17
and an outside air temperature of 58 F. 2. Face brick (4 in.) 0.44
3. Cement mortar (1/2 in.) 0.1
7.9 Calculate the heat transfer rate through a 4. Cinder block (8 in.) 1.72
Btu 5. Air space (3/4 in.) 1.28
24-ft 2 door with U 5 0.73 . The
h ? ft 2 ? 8 F 6. Gypsum wallboard (1/2 in.) 0.45
indoor and outdoor temperatures are 688 F 7. Inside film resistance (winter) 0.68
and 108 F , respectively.
FIGURE P7.12
7.10 Calculate the heat transfer rate through a
Btu
12-ft 2 window with U 5 0.8 . The
h ? ft 2 ? 8 F 7.13 In order to increase the thermal resistance of
indoor and outdoor temperatures are 688 F a typical exterior frame wall, it is customary
and 108 F , respectively. to use 2 3 6 studs instead of 2 3 4 studs to
7.11 Calculate the heat transfer rate through a allow for the placement of more insulation
Btu within the wall cavity. A typical exterior (2 3 6)
12-ft 2 window with U 5 0.2 . The
h ? ft 2 ? 8 F
Problems 217
frame wall of a house consists of the materials 7.15 What would be the reduction in heat
shown in Figure P7.13. Assume an inside room loss through the ceiling of a house if the
temperature of 688 F, an outside air temperature insulation R-value of 19 is increased to 40
of 208 F, and an exposed area of 150 ft 2. by adding more insulation? The ceiling area
Determine the heat loss through this wall. is 2,000 ft 2.
7.16 Look up the low and high daily temperature
values for a location and a month assigned to
you by your instructor. Calculate the degree
days for the given month.
7.17 Calculate the heat loss from a double-pane
glass window consisting of two pieces of
1 glass, each having a thickness of 10 mm with
W
a thermal conductivity of k 5 1.3 . The
2 3 4 5 6 m?K
two glass panes are separated by an air gap
Items Resistance
(h ∙ ft2 ∙ ºF/Btu) of 7 mm. Assume the thermal conductivity of
W
1. Outside film resistance (winter, 15 mph wind) 0.17 air to be k 5 0.022 . Also, express the
2. Siding, wood 0.81 m?K
3. Sheathing (1/2 in. regular) 1.32 total R- and U-values.
4. Insulation 19.0 7.18 A building is located in Baltimore,
6. Inside film resistance (winter) 0.68 Maryland, where the annual heating degree
days are 4,654. The building has a heating
FIGURE P7.13 load (heat loss) of 30,000 Btu/h and a design
temperature difference of 528 F (688 F indoor
and 168 F outdoor). Estimate the building’s
7.14 A typical ceiling of a house consists of items annual energy consumption. If the building
shown in Figure P7.14. Assume an inside room is heated with a furnace with an efficiency
temperature of 708 F, an attic air temperature of 92%, how much gas is burned to keep the
of 158 F , and an exposed area of 1,000 ft 2 . home at 688 F ? State your assumptions.
Calculate the heat loss through the ceiling.
7.19 Nine old, 12-ft 2 windows with a U-value
Btu
1. of U 5 1.2 were replaced with
h ? ft 2 ? 8 F
2. Btu
new windows having U 5 0.3 .
h ? ft 2 ? 8 F
Calculate the energy savings on a day during
a five-hour period when Tinside 5 688 F and
Toutside 5 108 F.
7.20 For Problem 7.18, calculate the savings in
3. cubic feet of natural gas. Assume the furnace
4. has an efficiency of 98%.
Items Resistance
(h ∙ ft2 ∙ ºF/Btu)
1. Inside attic film resistance 0.68
2. Insulation 19.0
4. Inside film resistance (winter) 0.68
FIGURE P7.14
7.21 Calculate the annual degree days for Boston, 7.22 Visit a hardware store or go online to look up
Massachusetts, using the following given the U-values for some common windows and
monthly values. doors. Create a table that shows their U-values
and cost. Based on the data collected, comment
Month Degree Days on how you would decide to change some old
January 1,088 windows and doors. State all your assumptions.
February 972 7.23 Calculate the R-value for the following
March 846 materials: (a) 10-cm-thick brick, and
(b) 30-cm-thick concrete slab.
April 513
May 208 7.24 Calculate the R-value (film resistance) for a
situation where the wind is blowing over a wall
June 36
with h 5 25 W/m 2 ? 8C .
July 0
7.25 Calculate the heat transfer rate through a
August 9
2-m 2 window with U 5 1.8 W/m 2 ? K . During
September 60 a 24-hour period, the indoor and outdoor
October 316 temperatures remain at 208C and –58C,
November 603 respectively. How much energy will be saved if
December 983 three of these windows have U-values equal to
1.2 W/m 2 ? K ?
Problems 219
Photo by Gabriel Benzur/The LIFE Picture Collection/Getty Images
“I find that a great part of information I

have was acquired by looking up something
and finding something else on the way.”
—Franklin P. Adams (1881–1960)
CHA P T E R
8
Energy Consumption Rates and
Non-Renewable Energy Sources
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
LO1 World Energy Consumption Rates: describe how
much energy is consumed in the world
LO2 United States Energy Consumption Rates: describe
how much energy is consumed in the United States
in buildings, transportation, and industry
LO3 Fossil Fuels: know about the production and
consumption of gasoline, diesel, fuel oil, natural
gas, propane, and coal
LO4 Nuclear Energy: describe nuclear fuel and nuclear
energy
ribeiroantonio/Shutterstock.com, Engineer studio/Shutterstock.com,

Laborant/Shutterstock.com, Piyawat Nandeenopparit/Shutterstock.com,
Rainer Plendl/Shutterstock.com, Ivars Linards Zolnerovics/Shutterstock.com
Discussion Starter
A
ccording to a report recently released by expected to continue supplying much of the
the U.S. Energy Information Administration energy used worldwide. Although petroleum and
(EIA): “… the world energy consumption is other liquids remain the largest source of energy,
expected to increase from 537 quadrillion British the liquid fuels share of world marketed energy
thermal units (Btu) in 2010 to 911 quadrillion Btu consumption falls from 34 percent in 2010 to
in 2050. The increase in world energy use is largely 27 percent in 2050. Renewable energy and nuclear
in the developing world, where growth is driven power are the world’s fastest-growing energy
by strong, long-term economic growth. Half of sources, each increasing by 2.5 percent per year;
the total world increase in energy consumption however, fossil fuels continue to supply almost
is attributed to China and India. Fossil fuels are 68 percent of world energy use through 2050.”
Note: OECD: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development Source: EIA, International Energy Outlook 2019
Source: EIA, International Energy Outlook 2019
Source: EIA, International Energy Outlook 2019 Source: EIA, International Energy Outlook 2019
222 CHAPTER 8 Energy Consumption Rates and Non-Renewable Energy Sources
To the Students: Do you expect an increase in your own energy consumption

during the next 30 years? Take a few minutes to think about it. Provide assumptions
when explaining your answers.
LO1 8.1 World Energy Consumption Rates

We have emphasized in previous chapters that there are certain concepts that
all well-educated citizens should know. Earlier, we discussed the importance
of energy in our everyday lives and stated that without energy, we cannot do
anything! We need energy to keep our homes comfortable, to make goods,
and to provide services that allow us to enjoy a high standard of living. We
use energy in our homes for heating and cooling our living space, providing
hot water and lighting systems, operating appliances, and powering electronic
devices. We also use energy in our vehicles for private and business travel. In
addition to our personal energy requirements, we also need energy for indus-
try to make and transport all kinds of products and food, to make building
materials, to erect buildings, and to construct and maintain our infrastructure
(roads, bridges, railroad systems, airports, etc.).
Personal energy consumption depends on an individual’s standard of living,
and industrial energy consumption depends on economic activities, such as the
production, distribution, consumption, and trade of goods and services. Energy
use also depends on the weather. For example, in an unusually cold winter or
during hot summer days, we consume more energy to keep our buildings at
comfortable levels. In Chapter 1, we discussed the world energy consumption
by fuel type (see Figure 8.1). We explained that in 2018, 599.4 quadrillion Btu
of energy were consumed worldwide. Recall that one quadrillion is equal to 1015
or 1,000,000,000,000,000, and Btu denotes British thermal units. In Chapter 5,
we defined work, energy, and power and stated their units. Recall that one Btu
represents the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of one pound
of water by 1 degree Fahrenheit (8 F), and the kilowatt-hour (kWh) is a unit of
energy that represents the amount of energy consumed during 1 hour (h) by a
33%
28%
24%
11%
4%
Petroleum Coal Natural gas Nuclear Renewable

electricity
FIGURE 8.1 World energy consumption by fuel type, 2018

(599.4 quadrillion Btu).
Source: Data from U.S. EIA
device that uses 1,000 watts (W) or one kilowatt (kW) of power. By now, you
should have a good understanding of these concepts. As shown in Figure 8.1,
petroleum, coal, and natural gas made up nearly 85 percent of all the fuel used
to generate energy in 2018. Because fossil fuels still comprise the majority of
energy sources worldwide, we discuss them in great detail in Section 8.3. More-
over, we discuss nuclear energy in Section 8.4 and renewable energy sources
in Chapter 9.
In 2018, the top five countries with the largest energy consumption were
China, the United States, Russia, India, and Japan (see Figure 8.2). The per
capita consumption for these countries is shown in Figure 8.3. Note that the
United States has the largest per capita energy consumption in the world with
a value of 310 million Btu.
Recall from our discussion in Chapter 1 that, in order to keep track of how
energy is consumed in society, the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)
classifies the energy consumption rates by major sectors of the economy. These
sectors are organized into industrial, transportation, residential, and commercial.
25%
17%
6% 5%
3%
China United States Russia India Japan
FIGURE 8.2 World energy consumption by top five countries, 2018.

310
229
151
103
23
United States Russia Japan China India
FIGURE 8.3 Per capita energy consumption of selected countries,

2018.
The industrial sector accounts for the share of total energy

The United States Energy needed for all the facilities and equipment for construction, mining,
Information Administration agriculture, and manufacturing. The transportation sector includes
(EIA) classifies the energy energy use by all types of vehicles (motorcycles, cars, trucks, buses,
consumption rates by major trains, subways, aircraft, boats, barges, ships, etc.) used to transport
sectors of the economy: industrial, people and goods. The residential sector accounts for energy use in
transportation, residential, and homes and apartments, and the commercial sector represents energy
consumption in malls, stores, offices, educational campuses (e.g.,
commercial.
high schools, colleges), hospitals, and hotels. The share of the total
world energy consumption by various sectors is shown in Figure 8.4.
The percentage of the total by each sector is also shown in Figure 8.5. From
examining these figures, it becomes clear that more than half of the energy
consumed worldwide is for industrial activities, such as construction, min-
ing, agriculture, and manufacturing. The transportation sector accounted for
27 percent of the total world energy, followed by residential with 13 percent and
commercial with 7 percent.
250 239
200
Quadrillion Btu
150
121
100
59
50 33
0
Industrial Transportation Residential Commercial
FIGURE 8.4 World energy consumption by sector.

Commercial 7%
Residential
13%
Industrial
53%
Transportation
27%
FIGURE 8.5 The percentage of world energy consumption by sector.

700
600
500
Quadrillion Btu
400
300
200
100
0
80
82
84
86
88
90
92
94
96
98
00
02
04
06
08
10
12
14
16
18
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
Year
FIGURE 8.6 World annual total primary energy consumption.

In order to better understand how much energy we have consumed in recent

decades, see Figure 8.6 for the trend in world annual energy consumption from
1980 to 2018. During this period, our annual energy consumption rate increased
from 293 quadrillion Btu in 1980 to 599 quadrillion Btu in 2018. Furthermore, as
mentioned in this chapter’s Discussion Starter, this value is projected to increase
to 911 quadrillion Btu by 2050.
Now let us identify the countries with the most energy consumption. The
trend in energy consumption by the top five countries in the world is shown in
Figure 8.7. In recent years, manufacturers of goods have moved to China to take
advantage of low labor costs. This activity is reflected in the steep rise in energy
consumption in China during the past 20 years (shown in Figure 8.7). Note that
in 2009, China’s energy consumption surpassed that of the United States.
Finally, the world’s estimated non-renewable energy reserves by country are
shown in Table 8.1; the United States has the largest coal reserve, while Venezuela
and Russia have the largest crude oil and gas reserves in the world, respectively.
Heating Values of Fossil Fuels (Revisited)

By now, you should have noticed that the energy consumption rates are reported
using the British thermal unit (Btu). The reason for using the Btu is that most
of the energy consumed is generated by burning fossil fuels. In Chapter 5, we
explained that we use fuels such as gasoline, diesel, fuel oil, and natural gas to
generate energy for consumption. We also explained that the heating value
of a fuel quantifies the amount of energy that is released when a unit mass
(e.g., pound or kilogram) or a unit volume (cubic foot or cubic meter) of the
fuel is burned. The average energy contents of common fossil fuels are shown
in Table 8.2. Recall that when you burn a fuel to generate energy, not all of
its energy content is converted to useful energy; some of it is lost due to the
inefficiency of the system generating and transmitting the energy.
Next, we turn our attention to some of our energy-consuming daily activities.
The following examples show how many Btu it takes to enjoy our current lifestyle.
As you study these problems, reflect on your daily energy-consuming activities and
habits, and think about ways to reduce your energy consumption rates.
160
China
140 United States
Russia
India
120 Japan
Quadrillion Btu 100
80
60
40
20
0
80
82
84
86
88
90
92
94
96
98
00
02
04
06
08
10
12
14
16
18
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
Year
FIGURE 8.7 World annual total primary energy consumption—top

five countries.
TA B L E 8 . 1 Estimated World Non-Renewable Energy Reserves by Country

Coal Crude Oil Gas
United States 21.8% Venezuela 18.2% Russia 23.3%
Russia 15.5% Saudi Arabia 16.1% Iran 16.5%
Australia and New 14.9% Canada 10.2% Qatar 11.6%
Zealand
China 13.5% Iran 9.4% United States 6.4%
India 10.1% Iraq 8.7% Turkmenistan 4.8%
OECD Europe 8.1% Kuwait 6.1% Saudi Arabia 4.4%
Other Non-OECD* 7.4% United Arab Emirates 5.9% China 3.1%
Europe and Eurasia
Other Non-OECD Asia 5.0% Russia 4.8% United Arab Emirates 3.0%
Africa 1.4% Libya 2.9% Nigeria 2.8%
Rest of World 2.3% Rest of World 17.7% Rest of World 24.2%
Total 100% Total 100% Total 100%
*OECD: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration [coal (2019 data), crude oil (2020 data), and gas (2020 data)]
TA B L E 8 . 2 Average Energy Content of Common Fossil Fuels

Fuel Approximate Average Energy Content/Quantity
Coal 10,000 Btu/lb
23 MJ/kg
Diesel 139,000 Btu/gallon
39 MJ/liter
Fuel Oil (home heating oil) 139,000 Btu/gallon
39 MJ/liter
Gasoline (petrol) 124,000 Btu/gallon
34 MJ/liter
Natural Gas 1,000 Btu/ft 3
37 MJ/m3
EXAMPLE 8.1
In 2011, coal provided 29 percent of the world’s energy consumption of
519 quadrillion Btu. Assuming coal has an average energy content of
10,000 Btu per pound, how much coal was consumed?
amount of coal consumed in pounds
 1 pound 
5 (0.29)(519 3 1015 Btu ) 
 10,000 Btu 
5 1.5051 3 1013 pounds
amount of coal consumed in tons

 1 pound   1 ton 
5 (0.29)(519 3 1015 Btu )  
 10,000 Btu   2,000 pounds 

5 7,525,500,000 tons < 7.5 billion tons
ArturNyk/Shutterstock.com
Take a moment and think about this value! How much of
this coal was due to your energy consumption?
EXAMPLE 8.2
In 2011, natural gas provided 23 percent of the world’s energy consumption
of 519 quadrillion Btu. Assuming that natural gas has an average energy
content of 1,000 Btu per cubic foot, how much natural gas was consumed
in 2011?
amount of natural gas consumed in ft 3
 1 ft 3 
5 (0.23)(519 3 1015 Btu ) 
 1,000 Btu 
5 1.1937 3 1014 ft 3 < 119 trillion cubic feet
Let us visualize how much natural gas this represents.

An average bedroom in the United States has a volume of
1,800 ft 3 (15 ft 3 15 ft 3 8 ft). It would take approximately
66 billion bedrooms to hold this much natural gas!
muratart/Shutterstock.com
EXAMPLE 8.3
In a recent year, the United States per capita energy consumption was
313 million Btu. In Chapter 5, Example 5.6, we showed that you
need to expend 8,340 Btu to heat up 20 gallons of water from room
temperature at 708 F to 1208 F to produce enough hot water to take a
nice long shower. Let us project this daily value to an annual figure.
total annual energy needed to take a shower
 Btu   365 days 
5  8,340
 day   1 year 
Btu Btu
5 3,044,100 < 3 million
year year
Therefore, each year you could spend nearly 3 million Btu to heat
up water to take your daily shower.
nikkytok/Shutterstock.com
EXAMPLE 8.4
In Chapter 7, Example 7.9, we estimated the annual heating energy con-
sumption of 152 million Btu for a house located in a cold climate. Recall that
we assumed a heating load (heat loss) of 62,000 Btu/h, indoor and outdoor
design temperatures of 688 F and 2148 F, and annual heating
degree days of 8,382. Assuming that two people live in the
house, let us now determine what percentage of a recent
year’s per capita energy consumption of 313 million Btu the
annual heating load represents in the United States.
percentage of the total per capita consumption

 152 million Btu for heating the house 
 2 persons 
5
313 million Btu  (100%)
 
 person 
Maria Dryfhout/Shutterstock.com 5 24.3%
EXAMPLE 8.5
According to the U.S. Federal Highway Administration’s recent data, Ameri-
cans on average drive nearly 13,500 miles per year. Let us now calculate the
amount of energy consumed by driving vehicles, assuming an average fuel
economy rating of 25 miles per gallon (mpg), and compare the amount of
energy consumed in the United States to a recent year’s per capita energy
consumption of 313 million Btu. Note that gasoline has an average energy
content of 124,000 Btu per gallon, as shown in Table 8.2.
amount of energy consumed

 miles   1 gallon   124,000 Btu 
5  13,500  
 year   25 miles   1 gallon 
Btu
5 66,960,000
year
Btu
< 67 million
year
Mino Surkala/Shutterstock.com percentage of the total per capita consumption
 67 million Btu for driving a car 
 person 
5
313 million Btu  (100%) 5 21.4%
 
 person 
Note that, if two people were to carpool, the answer changes to

10.7 percent!
EXAMPLE 8.6
In Chapter 6, we discussed electricity and examined how much electricity
we consume due to our daily activities. You may recall that a United States
household can consume as much as 10,000 kWh in a year. Let us now convert
the kilowatt-hour unit to Btu, noting that 1 kWh 5 3,412 Btu.
annual electricity consumption

 kWh   3,412 Btu  Btu
5  10,000   5 34,120,000
 year   1 kWh  year
Btu
< 34 million
year
As you think about this result, recall that a typical power
plant has an efficiency of 36 percent, and an additional 6 per-
cent of the energy produced at the plant is lost in the power
transmission lines. Therefore, the power plant must burn
enough fuel to produce 100.5 million Btu in order for you to
have access to 34 (100.5 3 0.36 3 (1 2 0.06) 5 34) million
Africa Studio/Shutterstock.com Btu or 10,000 kWh of electricity!
Before You Go On
1. Which country in the world consumes the largest amount of energy?

2. Name the three countries with the highest per capita energy consumption.
3. What are the major sectors of the economy as defined by the EIA?
4. Which sector of the world economy consumes the largest amount of energy?
Quadrillion
Btu
EIA
kWh
LO2 8.2 United States Energy Consumption Rates

The U.S. Energy Information Administration provides reliable statistics and
detailed analyses of energy consumption for different sectors of the economy.
In this section, we use the United States data as a means to convey important
information; however, realize that the rising energy consumption is a global
concern that requires a broader understanding and a collective global effort to
address. In 2019, 100.2 quadrillion British thermal units were consumed by major
sectors of the United States economy, including transportation, industrial, resi-
dential, and commercial, along with electric power generation (see Figure 8.8).
Non-renewable energy sources, such as petroleum, natural gas, and coal, made
up 80 percent, while renewable and nuclear sources provided only 11 and 8
percent of the total energy consumed, respectively.
The United States primary energy consumption by source and sector is
shown in Figure 8.9. When studying Figure 8.9, note that there are two num-
bers on each arrow. The numbers originating from each energy source add up
to 100, while the numbers leading to each end-use sector also add up to 100.
Moreover, the numbers within each energy source box represent the percent-
age of the total energy source delivered to all sectors, while the numbers shown
within a sector box signify the percentage of the total energy source used in
that sector. For example, in 2019, 70 percent of all the petroleum
used in the United States was consumed in the transportation sector,
The United States has the largest and 91 percent of all energy sources consumed in the transportation
per capita energy consumption in sector came from petroleum. The remaining 9 percent came from
the world. natural gas (3 percent), renewable energy (5 percent), and electricity
(less than 1 percent).
FIGURE 8.8 The United States energy consumption by energy source,

2019.
Note: Sum of components may not equal 100% because of independent
rounding.
Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Monthly Energy Review,
Tables 1.3 and 10.1 (April 2020), preliminary data
In order to gain a better understanding of how we have been consuming

energy over the years, let us look at trends in energy consumption by different
sectors during the period from 1949 to 2020 shown in Figure 8.10. As you can
see, the energy consumed by all sectors is generally on the rise. Also, note brief
declines in energy consumption in the industry and transportation sectors dur-
ing certain periods. These declines were due to the economic and pandemic
crises of those periods.
EXAMPLE 8.7
In 2019, which sector of the United States economy used the largest amount
of coal?
Use Figure 8.9 to answer this question. It should be clear from examin-
ing Figure 8.9 that 90 percent of coal was consumed in producing electricity.
Next, we look at the energy consumption by each sector in more detail.
Transportation Sector
As shown in Figure 8.9, 37 percent of United States energy consumption was
due to transporting people and goods in 2019. Think about all of the cars,
buses, trains, planes, and subway systems that are used to transport people.
Also, consider all of the trucks, trains, barges, and planes that are used to carry
goods every day. Most of the energy consumption in the transportation sector
is by automobiles and light trucks. Gasoline and diesel fuel account for nearly
85 percent of energy consumed by these vehicles. According to the EIA
FIGURE 8.9 The United States energy consumption by source and sector.
Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Monthly Energy Review, Tables 1.3 and 2.1–2.6 (April 2020)
(2018 data), there are over 285 million vehicles on the roads in the United
States, and vehicles travel more than 3.4 trillion (3,400,000,000,000) miles each
year, with automobiles accounting for approximately 60 percent of the miles
traveled. Currently, a small percentage of vehicles use electricity, natural gas,
or ethanol. The energy use by each type of vehicle is shown in Figure 8.11.
Moreover, gasoline is the main transportation fuel, as shown in Figure 8.12. The
fuel consumption of motor vehicles during the period of 1966 through 2019 is
shown in Figure 8.13, which gives you some idea of the trends in motor-vehicle
fuel consumption.
U.S. energy consumption by sector, 1949–2020 quadrillion Btu

40
35
30
25
Quadrillion Btu
20
15
10 Industrial
Transportation
Residential
5 Commercial
0
1949 1954 1959 1964 1969 1974 1979 1984 1989 1994 1999 2004 2009 2014 2019
Year
FIGURE 8.10 The United States energy consumption trends by sector.

Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Monthly Energy Review, Table 2.1,
(March 2021)
Transportation energy use by type

Biofuels Natural gas
Light trucks (31%)
5% 4%
Other
Cars and motorcycles (24%)
3%
Other trucks (24%) Jet fuel

(petroleum)
Aircraft (9%) 13%
Boats and ships (5%) Gasoline

(petroleum)
53%
Trains and buses (3%)
Military (all modes) (2%)

Diesel
(petroleum)
22%
Pipeline fuel (2%)
FIGURE 8.12 Fuel used for United States transportation.

Lubricants (<1%)
Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Monthly
Energy Review, Table 2.5 and 3.8c, preliminary data, (May
2020)
FIGURE 8.11
The percentage of energy
consumption by different
modes of transportation.
Source: U.S. Energy Information
Administration, Annual Energy Outlook
2020, Reference case, Table 35, estimates
for 2019
Motor vehicle fuel consumption, 1966–2019

5,000
Heavy-duty trucks
4,000
Gallons per vehicle
3,000
2,000
1,000 Light duty vehicles, long wheelbase
Light duty vehicles, short wheelbase

0
66
69
72
75
78
81
84
87
90
93
96
99
02
05
08
11
14
17
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
20
20
20
Year
FIGURE 8.13 The United States petroleum consumption trends by

transportation mode.
Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), Monthly Energy Review, Table 1.8,
(March 2021)
EXAMPLE 8.8
The U.S. Federal Highway Administration’s recent data regarding the aver-
age annual miles driven per driver by age group is shown in the accompany-
ing table.
Age Male Female Average

16–19 8,206 6,873 7,624
20–34 17,976 12,004 15,098
35–54 18,858 11,464 15,291
55–64 15,859 7,780 11,972
651 10,304 4,785 7,646
Average 16,550 10,142 13,476
Let us calculate how many gallons of gasoline a woman who is between the
age of 20 and 34 would consume on average if she were to drive a car with
an average fuel economy rating of 25 miles per gallon (mpg) for the next
ten years.
amount of gasoline to be consumed in the next 10 years

 miles   1 gallon 
5  12,004 (10 years ) 5 4,802 gallons
 year   25 miles 
EXAMPLE 8.9
In Example 8.8, how many gallons of gasoline would be saved if the driver
were to drive a more efficient car with an average fuel economy of 30 miles
per gallon (mpg) for the next ten years?
amount of gasoline to be consumed in the next 10 years
 miles   1 gallon 
5  12,004   (10 years ) 5 4,001 gallons
 year   30 miles 
Now compare the two cars by calculating the amount of gasoline to be saved
over a 10-year period:
comparing a car with 25 mpg to
one with 30 mpg 5 4,802 gallons 2 4,001 gallons 5 801 gallons
Imagine the fuel savings if the fuel economy of one million or more cars
was increased from 25 to 30 mpg!
EXAMPLE 8.10
From Example 8.9, how much money would the driver save if the gasoline
prices were to fluctuate between $2.00 and $4.00 during the next 10 years?
In the previous example, we showed that 801 gallons of gasoline could be
saved through increased fuel-consumption efficiency. Let us now investigate
the savings in increments of 25-cent increases in the gasoline price. This type
of examination is called a what-if-scenario or sensitivity (to price changes)
analysis.
Gasoline Cost (in dollars) Savings (in dollars)

2.00 1,602.00
2.25 1,802.25
2.50 2,002.50
2.75 2,202.75
3.00 2,403.00
3.25 2,603.25
3.50 2,803.50
3.75 3,003.75
4.00 3,204.00
As you can see, based on the price of gas, the average savings for the
10-year interval could range from $1,602.00 (or $160.20 per year) to $3,204.00
(or $320.40 per year). In addition to monetary gains, a car with a superior
gas mileage produces less carbon dioxide—a gas that is contributing to
climate change. In Chapter 10, we show that a gallon of gasoline can produce
20 pounds of carbon dioxide.
Residential and Commercial Sector

The residential sector accounts for the energy consumption in homes and apart-
ments, and the commercial sector represents the energy use in schools, lodging
(such as hotels), retail buildings (such as malls), and health care buildings (such
as hospitals and clinics). As shown in Figure 8.9, the residential and commercial
sectors together accounted for nearly 28 percent of the total primary energy
consumption in the economy in 2019.
It is important to note here that electricity consumption is included in the
28 percent figure, even though electricity is considered a secondary source
of energy; electricity is produced using primary energy sources such as fossil
fuels, nuclear materials, or renewable sources. According to the EIA, electric-
ity’s share of household consumption has grown significantly during the past
decades. Think about the space heating and cooling equipment, lighting systems,
electronic devices, and appliances, such as refrigerators, freezers, ovens, washers,
and dryers that are used in our homes every day.
The results of a recent survey on energy use in homes are shown in
Figure 8.14, with space heating accounting for 43 percent, lighting and other
appliances 26 percent, water heating 19 percent, air conditioning 8 percent, and
refrigeration 3 percent. The survey results also show that the energy-efficiency
gains in recent years are offset by the use of more electronic devices and appli-
ances (see Figures 8.15 and 8.16). For example, today over 20 percent of homes
in the United States have a second refrigerator.
Since space heating constitutes the largest portion of energy use in homes,
an additional survey was conducted to determine the type of primary energy
source used for space heating. The results of this survey, shown in Figure 8.17,
indicate that natural gas and electricity account for 84 percent of the energy
sources in American homes. Natural gas and propane are used primarily for
space heating and cooking purposes. In parts of the country with milder winters,
electricity is also used for heating.
Lighting and
other
appliances
26% Space heating
43%
Refrigerators
3%
Air conditioning Water heating

8% 19%
FIGURE 8.14 How Americans use energy in their homes.

Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Residential Energy
Consumption Survey (RECS), 2015
100%
Microwave oven
80%
Clothes washer
Electric dryer
60%
Dishwasher
40%
20%
Second refrigerator
0%
1980
1981
1982
1984
1985
1987
1990
1993
1995
1997
2000
2005
2009
Year
FIGURE 8.15 Share of homes with appliances.

Consumption Survey 1980, 1981, 1982, 1984, 1987, 1990, 1993, 1997, 2001,
2005 and 2009
Quadrillion Btu
10
4%
8%
8 19%
19%
6 21%
30%
Air conditioning
56%
2 43% Water heating
Appliances & lighting *
Space heating **
0
1980 2015
* Includes refrigeration.
** Does not include wood.
FIGURE 8.16 A comparison of home energy end-use between 1980

and 2015.
Consumption Survey 1980 and 2015
55%
29%
5% 5%
Natural gas Electricity Fuel oil Propane/LPG
FIGURE 8.17 The percent of primary source of energy used in space

heating in single-family homes.
Consumption Survey 2015
Commercial Sector
According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration, the top five energy-
consuming commercial building categories are:
1. Retail and Service (15 percent of total energy consumption)
• Malls and stores
• Car dealerships
• Dry cleaners
• Gas stations
2. Office (14 percent of energy consumption)
• Professional and government offices
• Banks
3. Education (10 percent of energy consumption)
• Elementary, middle, and high schools
• Colleges
4. Health Care (8 percent of energy consumption)
• Hospitals
• Medical offices
5. Lodging (6 percent of energy consumption)
• Hotels
• Dormitories
• Nursing homes
As you can see from this list, the EIA classifies schools and colleges as commer-
cial buildings and groups them with the commercial sector of the economy. Even
though each commercial building category—because of its activities—may have
different energy needs, in general, commercial buildings

use more than half of their energy for space heating and
lighting.
In the past, lighting systems accounted for a major
portion of electricity consumption in commercial build-
ings. However, as more lighting systems switch to LED
lights, the share of electricity consumption for lighting
systems will decline. Furthermore, as you might expect,
computers, copiers, and other office equipment also con-
tribute to the consumption of electricity. According to the
EIA, electricity and natural gas are the most common
hacohob/Shutterstock.com energy sources used in commercial buildings. Now that
you have some understanding of how energy is consumed
in the transportation, residential, and commercial sectors, let us look at energy
consumption in the industrial sector.
Industrial Sector
As shown in Figure 8.9, the industrial sector accounted for 35 percent of the
total energy use in the United States in 2019. This value represents the share
of total energy consumed by all facilities, activities, and equipment for con-
struction, mining, agriculture, and manufacturing. The sources of energy used in
industry include natural gas, electricity, propane, coal, fuel oil, and other sources
such as agricultural waste, wood residues from mill processing, and wood and
paper-related refuse (see Figure 8.18). The petroleum refining, chemical, paper,
and metal industries are among the largest consumers of energy in this sector.
36%
31%
14%
13%
4%
1% 1%
Natural gas Other sources HGL Electricity Coal Coke and Breeze Fuel oil
Includes all use of energy and fuels; excludes shipments of energy sources produced onsite.
Other sources include steam, pulping liquor from paper making, agricultural waste, tree wood, wood residues from mill
processing, and wood-relaed and paper-related refuse.
Hydrocarbon Gas Liquids (HGL) include ethane, ethylene, propane, propylene, normal butane, butylene, ethane-propane
mixtures, propane-butane mixtures, and isobutane produced at refineries or natural gas processing plants, including plants
that fractionate raw Natural Gas Liquids (NGL).
FIGURE 8.18 Sources of energy used for industry and manufacturing,

2018.
Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Manufacturing Energy
Consumption Survey 2018, Table 1.2, (March 2021)
Before You Go On
1. What percentage of the United States total energy consumption is due to the residential
sector?
2. What are the major commercial building categories?
3. The transportation sector accounts for approximately what percentage of the United States’
total energy use?
4. What does the industrial sector represent?
Commercial sector
Industrial sector
LO3 8.3 Fossil Fuels

Oil, natural gas, and coal are commonly referred to as fossil fuels because they
were formed millions of years ago. They make up over 80 percent of the fuel
used to address the energy needs of our modern society. Historically, oil found
near the surface of the Earth was used for thousands of years by different
civilizations, including the Babylonians, Assyrians, Egyptians, and Native North
Americans, as fuel, medicine, and waterproofing agents. Today, we use fossil
fuels to heat our homes, power our cars, and generate electricity.
Geologists survey the land for crude oil using vibrating devices or with
small amounts of explosives to create sonic waves to listen for echoes. From
studying the sound echoes of rock layers below the Earth’s surface, they then
determine whether the surveyed area contains depos-
its of oil and natural gas. Once oil and natural gas
deposits are found, the petroleum engineers decide
on the drilling and production approach. They first
drill an exploratory well to make certain that enough
oil exists in the area that can be extracted economi-
cally. If the results are favorable, they proceed to drill
development wells. The oil may flow to the surface
naturally or be forced out of the ground using dif-
ferent technologies. The newest technology, which is
called hydraulic fracturing (also known as fracking),
refers to situations wherein water, chemicals, sands,
and other agents are forced underground to break up
geological formations such as shale, sandstone, and
Yarygin/Shutterstock.com
rock that contain oil and natural gas.
20,000
United States
15,000
Million barrels per day
Former USSR
Saudi Arabia
10,000
Russia
5,000 China
Canada
0
1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
Year
FIGURE 8.19 The top five oil producing countries from 1980 to 2020.
World Crude Oil Production According to the EIA, Russia, Saudi Arabia, the
United States, China, and Canada were among the largest producers of crude
oil (see Figure 8.19). In 2020, the world consumed about 94.2 million barrels of
oil per day, with the United States alone consuming nearly 18.6 million barrels
per day. The trend in crude oil consumption in the world during the period from
1980 to 2020 is shown in Figure 8.20; China’s consumption is on the rise due to
its increased manufacturing activities and to more people owning automobiles
in China.
United States Crude Oil Production In the United States, crude oil is
recovered in 31 states and from offshore wells in the Gulf of Mexico. In 2020,
more than two-thirds of the United States crude oil production came from Texas,
North Dakota, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Colorado, and the Gulf of Mexico (see
Figure 8.21). Automobiles are the most common mode of transportation in the
United States, and as we discussed earlier, most of these vehicles are fueled by
either gasoline or diesel. The liquid fuel consumption rates are projected to
increase to 16.1 million barrels per day by 2035.
The process that takes the crude oil from a source and produces gasoline
and diesel fuel is shown in Figure 8.22. The imported and domestic crude oil is
first sent to refineries via ships and pipelines. After the crude oil is refined into
gasoline, diesel, or fuel oil, it is sent to refinery storage tanks and from there to
bulk storage terminals near consuming areas. The oil is then distributed to gas
stations via tanker trucks. There are nearly 162,000 gas stations in the United
States, of which approximately 50,000 are stations with no affiliation with any
25,000
20,000
United States
Thousand barrels per day
China
15,000 Japan
India
Russia
10,000
5,000
0
80
82
84
86
88
90
92
94
96
98
00
02
04
06
08
10
12
14
16
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
Year
FIGURE 8.20 The top five oil-consuming countries.

#2
ND
#5 Federal Offshore
CO Gulf of Mexico would
rank #2 if it was a state
#3 #4
NM OK
#1
TX
FIGURE 8.21 The top oil-producing states in the United States.

Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Crude oil production data for 2020
Imported crude oil
Tanker Gas
station
or X
Barge
Refinery
Refinery A
storage
Tanker truck
Gas
station
ge
stora
X
Common nal
t ermi
Pipeline pipeline Bulk
storage
Domestic crude oil Tanker truck
Gas
station
X
Tanker truck
Tanker
Refinery B or
Barge
Refinery
storage
Imported crude oil
FIGURE 8.22 The process of converting crude oil to gasoline and diesel.
oil companies. As a result, these gas stations can sell any brand of gasoline.
Moreover, because gasoline is sent through pipelines that are shared, some mix-
ing of products may occur; therefore, at a given gas station, it would be difficult
to track down the origin of a product from a specific refinery. Additionally, in
order to reduce costs, refineries use a mixture of domestic and foreign crude oil
to make petroleum products. This fact makes it even more difficult to pinpoint
the origin of a refined product.
In a refinery, from each barrel (42 gallons) of oil, 19 gallons of gasoline are
made. The remaining 23 gallons are turned into diesel, heating oil, jet fuel, and
other petroleum-based products. One barrel of oil is equal to 42 gallons or
159 liters. To provide a means of understanding how much gasoline is used each
day in the United States, the top five gasoline-consuming states are shown in
Table 8.3. As you might expect, Texas leads this category.
TA B L E 8 . 3 Top Five Gasoline Consuming States (2019)

State Million Gallons/Day (approximate values) Share of Total U.S. Consumption
Texas 42 11%
California 39 10%
Florida 20 5%
New York 15 4%
Ohio 14 4%
EXAMPLE 8.11
In 2014, 375 million gallons of gasoline were consumed each day in the
United States. What is the per capita gasoline consumption per day and
per year, given that the population of the United States in that year was
319 million?
per capita consumption per day
 375 million gallons 
 day 
5 
 319 million persons 
 
5 1.175 gallon per person per day
< 1.2 gallon per person per day
per capita consumption per year

 375 million gallons 
 day   365 days 
5  
 319 million persons   1 year 
 
5 429 gallons per person per year
EXAMPLE 8.12
From Example 8.11, assuming that on average most cars have a fuel economy
of 25 miles per gallon, what is the distance traveled per capita per year?
distance traveled per capita per year

 429 gallons 
 person   25 miles 
5  
 year   1 gallon 
 
5 10,725 miles per person per year < 11,000 miles per person per year
How far do you drive each year?
Diesel Fuel
We use diesel fuel to power automobiles, public and private buses, trucks, farm
equipment and tractors, construction machinery, and boats. Many of these vehi-
cles play important roles in our daily lives in building infrastructure; moving or
lifting things; farming; fishing; and transporting people, goods, and food. Diesel
fuel is also used in military vehicles and tanks. Diesel fuel accounts for nearly
one-fifth of the total transportation fuel consumption in the United States. It is
also used in remote and emergency electricity generators. The energy content
of diesel is greater than many other fuels. For example, on average, the energy
content of diesel fuel per gallon is approximately 12 percent more than gasoline
(see Table 8.1).
EPG_EuroPhotoGraphics/Shutterstock.com
Dmitry Kalinovsky/Shutterstock.com
18
Millions barrels per day
16
14
12
1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040
Year
FIGURE 8.23 The liquid fuels consumption trends in transportation.

The past and projected future trends of liquid fuel consumption in the trans-
portation sector are shown in Figure 8.23.
Fuel Oil (Heating Oil)

Fuel oil is a petroleum product used to heat homes in America—particularly
in the northeast—and to produce electricity. Heating oil and diesel fuel are
similar in composition; the main difference between the two fuels is their sulfur
content. Heating oil has more sulfur than diesel fuel does. From each barrel of
crude oil (42 gallons), approximately 10 gallons of diesel fuel and 2 gallons of
fuel oil are produced. In addition, because heating oil is tax-exempt and cannot
be used legally to fuel cars and trucks on highways, the U.S. Internal Revenue
Service requires heating oil to be dyed red. The red color makes it clear that the
product is tax-exempt and cannot be used legally as highway diesel.
In the northeastern section of the United States, nearly 4.5 million homes
rely on fuel oil for heat during winter months. According to the Energy Infor-
mation Administration, in 2019, these homes purchased nearly 2.9 billion
gallons of heating oil, which accounted for 86 percent of total residential fuel
oil consumption in the United States that year.
Top five heating oil consuming states, 2019

ME
#5
NY MA
#1 #3
PA CT
#2 #4
Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Fuel Oil and Kerosene Sales (January 2021)
Northeast
86% South
6%
Midwest
6%
West
2%
Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Fuel Oil and Kerosene Sales (January 2021)
When petroleum products are burned, they produce pollutants such as car-
bon dioxide (CO2 ), carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO2 ), and nitrogen
oxides. These pollutants cause acid rain, climate change, and hazy conditions in
cities. In order to reduce the emission of sulfur dioxide from buses and trucks,
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) began reinforcing new emis-
sion standards in 2006 that require an 87 percent reduction in the sulfur content
of diesel fuel. This type of fuel is commonly referred to as ultra-low sulfur diesel
(ULSD). Starting in December of 2010, all diesel fuels used for trucks and buses
were ULSD, and by 2014, all diesel fuel produced met the ULSD standards.
Before You Go On
1. Which countries are among the top five producers of crude oil?
2. What are the top five gasoline-consuming states in the United States?
3. Which fuel has more energy content per gallon: gasoline or diesel?
4. What is the difference between diesel fuel and heating oil?
Vocabulary—State the meaning of the following term:
ULSD
Natural Gas
In 2018, the world consumed nearly 138 trillion cubic feet of natural gas. In
2019, according to the U.S. Energy Administration, 31.1 trillion cubic feet of
natural gas were consumed to generate electricity (36 percent) for the industrial
(33 percent), residential (16 percent), commer-
cial (11 percent), and transportation (3 percent)
sectors. The United States natural gas transpor-
tation network consists of about 3 million miles
of mainline and secondary pipelines, which con-
nect the production areas to the consumers as
shown in Figure 8.24. Salt caverns, depleted oil
reservoirs, or aquifer reservoirs serve as under-
ground storage facilities to store natural gas as
a seasonal backup supply. Aboveground storage
facilities for liquefied natural gas are also used.
There are approximately 400 active storage
fields. The major gas transportation pipelines in
the United States are shown in Figure 8.24, and
the percentage of natural gas transmission pipe-
isak55/Shutterstock.com
line mileage in each state is shown in Figure 8.25.
Propane
Refineries and natural-gas processing plants also make millions of barrels
per day of liquefied petroleum gases (LPGs), such as propane. A gas such as
propane is referred to as a liquid petroleum gas because it is stored in a tank
under relatively high pressures, which keeps it in a liquid state. The LPGs
become gas once released from the pressurized tank. The process for making
LPGs is depicted in Figure 8.26. In the northeast, liquid petroleum gases, such
as propane, are used for space heating, cooking, and heating water. Propane is
also used in the chemical industry to make plastics and other materials. In many
cities, public buses also are powered by propane. Propane has an average energy
content of 91,600 Btu per gallon.
FIGURE 8.24 United States natural gas transportation network:

3 million miles of mainline and other pipelines that
link production areas and markets.
Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, About U.S. Natural Gas
Pipelines
Alabama, 15%
Other states, 20%
Michigan, 3% Arkansas, 12%
Delaware, 4%
California, 4%
Texas, 11%
Arizona, 5%
Louisiana, 7%
Colorado, 11%
Illinois, 10%
FIGURE 8.25 Percent of United States natural gas transmission

pipeline mileage in each state.
Source: American Gas Association (2019)
Pipeline
Imports terminal
Gas Pipeline
Gas station Transport
well plant 10,000 gallons
Underground
storage
Oil Refinery
well
Bulk truck
3,000 gallons
30,000 gallons
Retail
customer Cylinder truck Retail plant
FIGURE 8.26 Propane production and distribution system: the

process for making propane.
Coal
Coal is relatively inexpensive to mine and use as a fuel source to generate elec-
tricity. In 2019, the world consumed about 5,407 Megatonnes of coal equiva-
lent. During the same period, we consumed about
397 Megatonnes of coal equivalent in the United
States, and 90 percent of this amount was burned in
power plants to generate electricity. The rest of the coal
was used in other industries, including steel, cement,
and paper, to process materials. Figure 8.27 shows
the major regions where coal is mined in the United
States. According to the EIA, five countries have
74 percent of the world’s coal reserves: the United
States (22 percent), Russia (15 percent), Australia
(14 percent), China (13 percent), and India (10 per-
cent). In the United States, as shown in Figure 8.28, the
top five coal-producing mines are located in Wyoming,
michael sheehan/Shutterstock.com
West Virginia, Pennsylvania, Illinois, and Kentucky.
There are two methods by which coal is extracted: surface mining and
underground mining. Surface mining refers to the process where coal resides
less than 200 feet below ground and can be extracted by first removing the top
soil and rock layers to gain access to the coal beneath. When the coal is located
several hundred feet below the Earth’s surface, underground mining techniques
are used. After coal is mined, to increase its heating value, it is processed to
remove dirt and other unwanted materials. The processed coal is then typically
transported via trains and barges to power plants. Coal also may be transported
(pumped) through pipelines by first crushing it and then mixing it with water.
A
BB
WA ME
B
S
B B MTB
BBBA
B ND
L
S
B L L
S L
L VT
L L S NY
S L
L L
BB B
L L NH
B S SD
S L
MA
SL
OR B
S
MN RI
LL CA NV ID B IA WI
L S MI PA CT
L NE IL
B UT IN
WY B NJ
L OH MD
CO DE
S L
L LL
WV
S B KS LL B
B L L
B LL
S
SS
L
VA
B
KY NC
S MO
OK L
L TN
TX AR L LL
SC
L L
A
L
S L
L LLL
L GA
L L L L
L L L L
B L LL L
B B L L
S LLL L L L LL
LL L LL L
L
L L L AL L
100 0 100 200
L L
AZ NM L L
L L
L L LL
LL
LL L SACLE IN MILES
LL LL L
LL
MS
L
L
B L LA
FL
L S
BB L L
B
L AK L
BB
B
B
L L LL B SMALL FIELD
L
L
B
B B
S
B
OR ISOLATED
SB B RANKS FIELD OCCURRENCE
S L
L BB
B
BB Anthracite A
B Bituminous Coal B
L
Subbituminous Coal S
L
L Lignite L
300 0 300 400
SCALE IN MILES
Scale of Alsaka on half that
of contiguous united states
FIGURE 8.27 Regions where coal is mined in the United States.

WY
#1
PA
IL #3
#4
WV
#2
KY
#5
FIGURE 8.28 Top coal-producing states, 2019.

Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Annual Coal Report
(October 2020)
Types of Coal Based on its carbon and energy content, coal is grouped into
four types: anthracite, bituminous, subbituminous, and lignite.
Anthracite has the highest heating and carbon content values (86 to
97 percent). Found mostly in Pennsylvania, this coal makes up less than 2 per-
cent of the total reserve in the United States.
Bituminous coal is ranked second in terms of carbon content and heating
value. It contains 45 to 86 percent carbon and is produced from mines in West
Virginia, Kentucky, and Pennsylvania. Bituminous coal makes up nearly 50 per-
cent of the total reserve. It is mostly used in power plants to generate electricity
and in production facilities to make steel.
Subbituminous coal is ranked third in terms of carbon content and heat-
ing value. It contains 25 to 35 percent carbon and is mined in Wyoming and
Montana. It makes up nearly 37 percent of the total reserve. Nearly
half of the coal mined in the United States is subbituminous.
Based on its carbon and energy Lignite, which has the lowest carbon content and heating value
contents, coal is grouped into four of the coals, is mined in North Dakota, West Virginia, Kentucky, and
types: anthracite, bituminous, Pennsylvania. Lignite is also used to produce electricity.
subbituminous, and lignite. We discuss the environmental impact of fossil fuels in Chapters 10
and 11.
Before You Go On
1. What is a liquid petroleum gas?

2. How much of the United States electricity is generated by coal?
3. Which states are among the largest producers of coal?
4. What are different types of coal?
Propane
LPGs
Anthracite
Bituminous coal
Subbituminous coal
Lignite
LO4 8.4 Nuclear Energy

Nuclear energy represents 4 percent of the energy sources in the world and
9 percent in the United States. As we explained in Chapter 6, there are two pro-
cesses by which nuclear energy is harnessed: nuclear
fission and nuclear fusion.
Nuclear power plants use nuclear fission to heat
water to create steam to turn the turbines that run
the generators that produce electricity. During the
nuclear fission process, to release energy, atoms of
uranium are bombarded by small particles called
neutrons. This process splits the atoms of uranium
and releases more neutrons and energy in the form
of heat and radiation. The additional neutrons go on
to bombard other uranium atoms, and the process
keeps repeating itself, leading to a chain reaction.
The fuel most widely used by nuclear power plants
is Uranium 235 or simply U-235. U-235 is relatively
rare and must be processed from the uranium that
is mined. After it is processed, the uranium fuel is
made into ceramic pellets that are stacked end-to-
end to form fuel rods. The fuel rods are then bun-
dled together to create fuel assemblies, which are
Kletr/Shutterstock.com then used in the reactor core of a nuclear power
plant. Depending on a reactor design, a reactor can
hold as many as 193 fuel assemblies, and each fuel
assembly can hold up to 264 fuel rods. In the United States, there are currently
56 nuclear power plants with 94 reactors that produce about 800 billion kWh of
electricity annually. The amount of electricity generated by nuclear fuel from
1980 through 2020 is shown in Figure 8.29.
Presently, there are 31 countries in the world
that have nuclear power plants. The top 10
countries that generated nearly 2,230 billion
kWh of electricity in 2019 are shown in
Figure 8.30. According to the EIA, the owners
and operators of United States civilian nuclear
power reactors purchased the equivalent of
48 million pounds of uranium during 2019.
Finally, because spent fuel assemblies are
highly radioactive, they must be stored in
underwater pools for several years and then
moved to dry cask concrete or steel storage
containers that are cooled by air. Eventually,
the spent fuel assemblies are moved from
interim storage sites to permanent under-
ground storage facilities.
FooTToo/Shutterstock.com
8.4 Nuclear Energy 253
900,000
800,000
700,000
600,000
Million kWh
500,000
400,000
300,000
200,000
100,000
0
80
82
84
86
88
90
92
94
96
98
00
02
04
06
08
10
12
14
16
18
20
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
Year
FIGURE 8.29 Electricity generated by nuclear fuel from 1980 through

2020.
Tables 7.2a (March 2021)
Nuclear generation, 2019
United States
France
Top 10 countries - 2,230 billion kilowatt-hours
China
Russia
South Korea
Canada
Ukraine
Germany
Japan
Sweden
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900

Billion kilowatt-hours
FIGURE 8.30 The top ten countries with nuclear energy generation.
Before You Go On
1. In your own words, explain how electricity is generated in a nuclear power plant.
2. Currently, how much of the world’s electricity is generated using nuclear energy?
3. What is a fuel rod?
4. What is a fuel assembly?
Fission process
Fuel rod
Fuel assembly
Spent fuel
S U M M A R Y
LO1 World Energy Consumption Rates gas and electricity provide nearly 84 percent of the
Your personal energy consumption depends on your energy used in American homes. Commercial build-
standard of living, while industrial energy consump- ings include retail and service stores, malls, car deal-
tion depends on economic activities such as produc- erships, dry cleaners, gas stations, professional and
tion, distribution, consumption, and trade of goods government offices, banks, schools and colleges, hos-
and services. Energy use also depends on the weather. pitals, and hotels. Electricity and natural gas are the
In 2018, 599.4 quadrillion British thermal units (Btu) most common energy sources used in commercial
of energy were consumed worldwide. In 2018, petro- buildings as well.
leum, coal, and natural gas made up nearly 85 percent Transportation Sector
of all the fuel used in generating energy. The top five
Nearly 37 percent of the United States energy con-
countries with the largest energy consumptions were
sumption is spent transporting people and products.
China, the United States, Russia, India, and Japan.
Most of the transportation energy is consumed by
automobiles and light trucks; gasoline and diesel fuel
LO2 United States Energy Consumption
account for nearly 85 percent of energy consumed by
Rates
vehicles.
Residential and Commercial Sectors
You should have a good understanding of how we Industrial Sector
consume energy in buildings. The residential sector, The industrial sector accounts for about 35 percent
which accounts for energy use in homes and apart- of total energy use in the United States. This value
ments, represents the third largest portion of energy represents the share of total energy consumed by all
consumption in our society. The residential energy facilities, activities, and equipment for construction,
is spent for space heating, lighting, appliances, water mining, agriculture, and manufacturing. The sources of
heating, air conditioning, and refrigeration. Natural energy used in industry include natural gas, electricity,
S ummary 255
propane, coal, fuel oil, and other sources such as agri- Coal
cultural waste, wood residues from mill processing, You should know that coal, based on its carbon and
and wood and paper-related refuse. energy content, is classified into anthracite, bitumi-
nous, subbituminous, and lignite. Anthracite has the
LO3 Fossil Fuels highest heating and carbon content values (86 to
Gasoline, Diesel, and Fuel Oil 97 percent). Bituminous coal is ranked second
As a well-informed citizen, you should know how in terms of carbon content and heating value.
much gasoline is processed from a barrel of crude oil, Subbituminous coal is ranked third, and lignite
and which countries are among the world’s top five oil has the lowest carbon content and heating value.
producers. Automobiles are the most common mode of According to the U.S. Department of Energy, most
transportation in the United States, with most of these of the coal mined in the United States is used for
vehicles fueled by either gasoline or diesel. The liquid generating electricity. The mines in Wyoming, West
fuel consumption rates are expected to increase in the Virginia, Kentucky, Illinois, and Pennsylvania are
coming years. In 2019, the top five crude oil producing among the largest producers of coal.
countries were the United States, Saudi Arabia, Russia,
Canada, and China. In a refinery, each barrel of oil— LO4 Nuclear Energy
equal to 42 gallons—makes 19 gallons of gasoline. The Currently, nuclear energy represents 4 and 9 percent
remaining 23 gallons of oil are turned into diesel, heat- of the world and U.S. energy sources, respectively.
ing oil, jet fuel, and other petroleum-based products. There are two processes by which nuclear energy
Diesel fuel accounts for nearly one-fifth of the is harnessed: nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.
total transportation fuel consumption in the United Nuclear power plants use nuclear fission to heat
States. Fuel oil is a petroleum product used to heat water to create steam to turn the turbines that in
homes in America—especially in the northeast. Heat- turn run the generators that produce electricity. In
ing oil and diesel fuel are similar in composition; the nuclear fission, to release energy, atoms of uranium
main difference between the two fuels is their sulfur are bombarded by neutrons. This process splits the
content. Heating oil has more sulfur than diesel fuel atoms of uranium and releases more neutrons and
does. In 2006, in order to reduce emissions of sul- energy in the form of heat and radiation. The addi-
fur dioxide from buses and trucks, the EPA began tional neutrons go on to bombard other uranium
reinforcing new emission standards that required an atoms, and the process keeps repeating itself, lead-
87 percent reduction in the sulfur content of diesel ing to a chain reaction. The fuel most widely used
fuel. This type of fuel is commonly referred to as by nuclear power plants is Uranium 235 or simply
ultra-low sulfur diesel (ULSD). Starting in December U-235. U-235 is relatively rare and must be pro-
2010, all diesel fuels used for trucks and buses were cessed from the uranium that is mined. After it is
ULSD, and by 2014, all diesel fuel were ULSD. processed, the uranium fuel is made into ceramic
pellets that are stacked end-to-end to form fuel rods.
Natural Gas and Propane
The fuel rods are then bundled together to create
The natural gas transportation network in the United fuel assemblies, which are then used in the reactor
States is made up of nearly 3 million miles of mainline core of a nuclear power plant. In the United States
and secondary pipelines. You should be able to explain there are currently 56 nuclear power plants with
the process for making and distributing both natural 94 reactors that produce about 800 billion kWh of
gas and liquefied petroleum gases (LPGs). Refineries electricity annually. Today, there are 31 countries in
and natural gas processing plants also make millions of the world that have nuclear power plants. The top
barrels per day of LPGs, such as propane. Propane is 10 countries generate nearly 2,230 billion kWh of
referred to as a liquid petroleum gas because it is stored electricity.
in a tank under relatively high pressures, keeping it in The spent fuel assemblies are highly radioactive
a liquid state. The LPGs change to gas once released and must be stored in pools underwater for several
from the pressurized tank. In the northeast, a liquid years, then moved to dry cask concrete or steel stor-
petroleum gas, such as propane, is used for cooking and age containers that are cooled by air. Eventually, the
to heat water and homes. Propane is also used in the spent fuel assemblies are moved from interim storage
chemical industry to make plastics and other materials. sites to permanent underground storage facilities.
K E Y T E R M S
Anthracite 251 Fuel Rod 252 Propane 247

Bituminous Coal 251 Gasoline 232 Residential Sector 224
Commercial Sector 224 Industrial Sector 224 Subbituminous Coal 251
Crude Oil 241 Heating Oil 245 Transportation Sector 224
Diesel 244 Lignite 251 U-235 252
Fuel Assembly 252 Liquid Petroleum Gases (LPGs) 247
Fuel Oil 245 Natural Gas 247

For this project, you are to work as a group to
determine your primary annual energy resource
footprint. Each group (the size to be determined
by your instructor) is to estimate how much fuel
they consumed last year. You need to consider
fuels such as gasoline, diesel, fuel oil, natural
gas, propane, and coal. Don’t forget about your
electricity consumption, and remember that
even though electricity is considered a second-
ary energy source, it is generated in power plants
mostly by burning fossil fuels. State all your
assumptions, compile your findings into a single Engineer studio/Shutterstock.com
report, and present it to the class. How many Btu

of energy were consumed by the group? What is your per capita energy consumption value, and how does
it compare to the values in Figure 8.3?
P R O B L E M S
8.1 Estimate how much energy you consume 8.3 Estimate how much energy you consume for
by driving your vehicle. State all your showering and bathing activities in a year.
assumptions and express your answer in State your assumptions and express your
Btu and MJ. Suggest ways to reduce your answer in Btu and MJ.
consumption by 10%. If you do not own a 8.4 How many gallons of gasoline would be
vehicle, perform the analysis for a friend or a saved during the next 10 years if a driver
family member. were to upgrade her existing car with
8.2 Estimate how much electricity you consume a 25 mpg (10.6 km/liter) fuel efficiency
in a year. Express your answer in kWh and to a more efficient car with an average
Btu. State all your assumptions, and suggest fuel economy of 40 mpg (17 km/liter)?
ways to reduce your consumption by 10%.
P roblems 257
Assume she drives her car about 8.13 In a recent year, 23 trillion ft 3 of natural gas was
12,000 miles (19,300 kilometers) per year. delivered to 70 million customers in the United
8.5 Perform a sensitivity cost saving analysis for States. How many rooms with dimensions
Problem 8.4. See Example 8.10. of 15 ft 3 15 ft 3 10 ft could be filled with
23 trillion ft 3 ? This problem is intended to give
8.6 How much energy in Btu would be saved
you a visual image of how much natural gas we
during the next five years if a household were
consume.
to reduce its annual electricity consumption
rates from 10,000 kWh to 7,000 kWh? Perform 8.14 In 2010, United States coal mines produced
a sensitivity cost saving analysis, assuming the 1,805.3 million tons of coal. What was the coal
electric utility company could charge between consumption per capita for the United States?
10 to 20 cents per kWh. Use increments of Assume an approximate population of
2-cent change for your analysis. 308 million for that year.
8.7 In 2011, petroleum provided 34% of the 8.15 In the United States, wood and wood waste can
world’s energy consumption of 519 quadrillion account for 2% of energy use. How many Btus
Btu. Assuming petroleum has an average of energy are generated from wood and wood
energy content of 130,000 Btu/gallon, how waste? State your assumptions.
many barrels of petroleum were consumed? 8.16 How many gallons per day would be saved
Also express your answer in gallons. if we increased the fuel efficiency of gas-
8.8 How many gallons of gasoline are consumed consuming vehicles by 10% in California? State
annually on average by a 25-year-old male all your assumptions.
driver (see Example 8.8) if he drives a car with 8.17 How many pounds (or kilograms) of coal
a fuel economy of 20 mpg? would be saved in the United States if the
8.9 Assume the annual heating energy efficiency of power plants that use coal were to
consumption of a house is 122 million Btu. increase by 5%?
How many cubic feet of natural gas does it 8.18 In many parts of the world, we enjoy
take to keep the house warm during the cold barbequing, especially when the weather is
months? nice. You have seen propane tanks that are
8.10 The annual heating energy consumption of a used with barbeque grills. Investigate how
house located in the northeastern part of the much propane is consumed annually in your
United States is 140 million Btu. How many country for outdoor barbequing. State your
gallons of fuel oil does it take to keep the assumptions and present your findings in a
house warm during the cold months? brief report.
8.11 The annual electricity consumption of a 8.19 Investigate the rise in coal consumption
household is 9,800 kWh. How many pounds (or in power plants if one hundred million
kilograms) of coal must be burned in a power automobiles were to become electric. State
plant to address this need? Assume a combined your assumptions and present your findings in
overall efficiency of 30% for the power plant a brief report.
and the loss in transmission lines. 8.20 In a recent year, the United States consumed
8.12 In a recent year, California consumed 29,000,000,000,000 kWh of energy. Express
41 million gallons/day of gasoline. How many this value in MWh, GWh, TWh, and PWh. See
Btu of energy were consumed each day? Table 2.2 for the list of decimal multiples and
What is California’s gasoline consumption per prefixes used with SI base units.
capita? Assume an approximate population of
37 million.
Phillip Harrington/Alamy Stock Photo
“Our culture runs on coffee and

gasoline, the first often tasting
like the second.”
—Edward Abbey (1927–1989)
CHA P T E R
9
Renewable Energy
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
LO1 Solar Energy: know the basic concepts related to
solar energy
LO2 Solar Systems: describe various solar systems and
their components
LO3 Wind Energy: describe wind energy and identify
types of wind turbines
LO4 Hydro-Energy: describe hydro-energy and how it is
harnessed
LO5 Biomass: explain what we mean by biomass and
biofuel
LO6 World Renewable Energy: describe trends in installed
renewable energy capacity for the different regions
of the world
Beautiful landscape/Shutterstock.com, StanislauV/Shutterstock.com,

Smileus/Shutterstock.com, JenJ_Payless/Shutterstock.com, Tyler Olson/Shutterstock.com
Discussion Starter
U.S. energy consumption by energy source, 2020
Total = 93.0 quadrillion Btu Total = 11.6 quadrillion Btu

Renewable Solar 11%
energy 12%
Geothermal 2%
Petroleum
35% Wind 26%
Biomass waste 4%
Biofuels 17% Biomass
Natural gas 39%
34%
Wood 18%
Coal
10% Hydroelectric 22%
Nuclear
electric
power
9%
Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Monthly Energy Review, Tables 1.3 and 10.1
(March 2021)
Tables 1.3 and 10.1 (March 2021),
E
nergy obtained from the Sun’s rays; wind; of total energy consumption in the United States
moving water; the Earth’s interior heat; and (approximately 11.6 quadrillion Btu) in 2020.
wood, grain, and plant byproducts are com- Moreover, the world’s renewable energy sources,
monly referred to as renewable energy. Accord- including solar, wind, hydropower, and biomass,
ing to the U.S. Energy Information Administration, are anticipated to account for only 15 percent of
renewable energy accounted for about 12 percent total world energy consumption by 2040.
To the Students: What do you think are the reasons for renewable energy
being such a relatively small percentage of total energy consumption? Take a few
moments and think about it. To get you started, think about factors such as cost,
efficiency, the location of the renewable source sites relative to the whereabouts of
the energy demand (e.g., where windy sites are and where high electricity demand
regions are), availability, and reliability (e.g., cloudy days, days without wind, or
lack of flowing water due to droughts). How might these and other concerns be
addressed in the future?
LO1 9.1 Solar Energy
Solar energy starts with the Sun at an average distance of 93 million miles
(,150 million kilometers) from the Earth. The Sun is a nuclear fusion reactor,
with its surface temperature at approximately 10,000 degrees Fahrenheit (8F)
or 5,500 degrees Celsius (8C). Solar energy reaches the Earth in the form of
electromagnetic radiation consisting of a wide spectrum of wavelengths and
262 CHAPTER 9 Renewable Energy
Matthew25/Shutterstock.com
16
Radiation Intensity, (W/m2∙ μm)

12 Visible band
8
Infrared
4
Ultraviolet
0
1 2 3
Wavelength, λ (μm)
FIGURE 9.1 The solar radiation bands.
energy intensities. Almost half of the solar energy received on the Earth is
in the band of visible light. Solar radiation can be divided into three bands:
ultraviolet, visible, and infrared, as shown in Figure 9.1. Many of you have had
firsthand experience with the ultraviolet band that causes sunburn. The vis-
ible band comprises about 48 percent of useful radiation for heating, and the
infrared makes up the rest.
As you may know, the Earth’s orbit around the Sun is elliptical (see
Figure 9.2). When the Sun is closer to the Earth, the Earth’s surface receives
a little more solar energy. The Earth is closer to the Sun when it is winter in
the northern hemisphere. However, because the Earth is tilted away from the
Sun, the winter months are colder, and the 23.5 degree tilt in the Earth’s axis
of rotation is the factor that dictates the amount of solar radiation striking
the Earth at a particular location (see Figure 9.3). Moreover, because of the
tilt of the Earth, the days are longer in the northern hemisphere from the
spring (vernal equinox) to the fall (autumnal equinox). The opposite is true
in the southern hemisphere; that is, the longer days occur during the other
six months.
The distance from the Earth to the Sun changes during the year so that
the energy reaching the outer atmosphere of the Earth varies from 410 to
440 Btu/ft 2 ? h. At the average Earth to Sun distance, the intensity of solar
energy is 428 Btu/ft 2 ? h or 1,350 W/m 2 out in space at the edge of the
Earth’s atmosphere. The amount of radiation available at a place
depends on many factors, including geographical location, season,
As solar energy passes through the local landscape, weather, and time of day.
Earth’s atmosphere, some of it is As solar energy passes through the Earth’s atmosphere, some
absorbed, some of it is scattered, of the energy is absorbed, some of it is scattered, and some of it is
and some of it is reflected by reflected by clouds, dust, pollutants, forest fires, volcanoes, and water
clouds, dust, etc. vapor. The solar radiation that reaches the Earth’s surface without
being diffused is called direct beam solar radiation. Atmospheric
March 21–22
(Spring begins in northern hemisphere)
23.5˚
North pole
Sun
June 21–22 Dec. 21–22

(Summer begins in (Winter begins in
northern hemisphere) northern hemisphere)
Sep. 21–22
(Autumn begins in northern hemisphere)
FIGURE 9.2 The orbit of the Earth around the Sun in respect to the seasons.
N
N December 22
June 22
Arc
lati tic cir
tud c
e 6 le
6.5
˚N
Sun Tro
p
lati ic of c
tud
e 23 ancer
Equ .5˚N
ator
Earth Earth
S axis S axis
FIGURE 9.3 The Northern Hemisphere is tilted away from the Sun in winter and tilted toward the
Sun in summer.
conditions can reduce direct beam radiation by 10 percent on clear, dry days
and by 100 percent during thick, cloudy days. This process is shown in Figure 9.4.
As you already know, the rotation of the Earth is responsible for hourly
variations in sunlight. In the early morning and late afternoon, the Sun appears
low in the sky; as a result, its rays must travel further through the atmosphere.
Solar radiation
Upper
atmosphere
Cloud
Diffuse radiation
Earth’s surface Direct radiation
FIGURE 9.4 Direct and diffuse radiation.
On the other hand, on a clear day, at noon, when the Sun appears at its high-
est point in the sky, the greatest amount of solar energy reaches a horizontal
surface on the Earth. Seasonal effects are also important. During the winter,
the Sun is at a lower angle than it is in the summer. The lower angle of the Sun
results in a lower amount of radiation being intercepted by a horizontal surface.
As shown in Figure 9.5, the amount of energy intercepted by a one-foot or
one-meter width of a horizontal surface when the Sun is at a low angle in the
winter is smaller than when the Sun is at a high angle during summer months.
As depicted, more radiation is intercepted by a horizontal surface during June
and July than in December and January in the northern hemisphere.
To provide an additional visual aid, the hourly variation in solar intensity
on a horizontal surface for a clear day in January and June at a location in
Colorado is shown in Figure 9.6. As shown, the hourly peak values occur at
solar noon, when the Sun is at the highest angle and its rays pass through the
10 units of solar radiation 10 units of solar radiation

Sun
Sun
Winter low sun angle – 4 units of Summer high sun angle – 6 units of
incoming solar radiation intercepted incoming solar radiation intercepted
FIGURE 9.5 The amount of energy intercepted by a one-foot or one-meter width of a horizontal
surface in winter versus summer.
300 945
A June day
250
200 630
Btu/(ft2∙h)
W/m2
150
A January day
100 315
50
0
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time of day
FIGURE 9.6 The hourly variations in solar intensity on a horizontal surface for a clear day at a
location in Colorado for a day in January and in June.
minimum thickness of the atmosphere. Also, note from examining Figure 9.6
that the higher intensity of solar radiation occurs during a day in June when
compared to a day in January (the red curve has higher values than the blue
curve). Moreover, since winter days are shorter than summer days, the period
during which solar energy can be collected is shorter in the winter. In other
words, the amount of solar energy that can be collected varies with the season.
To further demonstrate this point, the monthly variation in solar intensity on a
horizontal surface for a clear day at a location in Colorado is shown in Figure 9.7.
You may have noticed that in the northern hemisphere, most solar collectors
face directly south and are tilted. When installing a solar collector to receive
energy from the Sun, it is important to tilt the collector so that its receiving
surface is nearly perpendicular to the Sun’s rays. As shown in Figure 9.8, when
the tilt angle of a solar collector is changed from zero (a horizontal position)
2,000 22.8
MJ/(m2·day)
Btu/(ft2·day)
1,000 11.4
0
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
FIGURE 9.7 The monthly variations in solar intensity on a horizontal surface for a clear day at a
location in Colorado.
Sun Sun
45˚ 45˚
45˚
Collector tilt angle 0˚ Collector tilt angle 45˚
FIGURE 9.8 The effect of a solar collector’s tilt angle.
to an angle equal to the incoming rays, more energy is intercepted by the col-
lector. Then, in order to maximize solar energy collection throughout the day
and throughout the year, the collector’s surface must track the Sun across the
sky so that the rays always remain perpendicular to its receiving surface. This
requirement involves continuous movement of the collector from east to west
as well as continuous change in the angle of tilt. Even though the tracking is
technologically possible, it is too costly to be economically feasible for home-
scale solar systems. Considering the mechanical and economical constraints for
hot water systems where both winter and summer solar collection is desired,
a good compromise is to tilt the collector to an angle equal to the latitude of
the location.
However, if the solar system is used predominately for space-heating pur-
poses, maximum collection is typically required during the coldest months from
approximately October through March. During this period, the angle of the
Sun’s rays varies from about 5 degrees (in October) to about 23 degrees (in
December) below the Sun’s rays’ angle on September 21, as shown in Figure 9.9.
So to maximize solar energy collection during the space-heating period, a
good compromise is to tilt the collector at an angle equal to about latitude plus
15 degrees, as shown in Figure 9.9. Finally, as mentioned previously, in the north-
ern hemisphere, the collector should face south; however, note that in the south-
ern hemisphere, the solar collector must face north.
In many countries (including the United States), solar radiation data are
represented in units of kilowatt-hours per square meter (kWh/m 2 ). The average
daily solar radiation for the months of January and July in the United States
are shown in Figures 9.10 and 9.11, respectively. The average solar data for the
other months in the United States are available through the National Renew-
able Energy Lab (NREL).
Example 9.1 shows how you can use the information given in Figures 9.10
and 9.11.
Sun
Sun
September 21 June 21 September 21

March 21 March 21
December 21 December 21
23°
23° Latitude angle
Latitude angle
Collector
Latitude
Horizontal Horizontal + 15°
(A) December 21, Sun 23° below latitude (B) Collector tilted at latitude + 15° maximizes
angle from perpendicular. winter collection.
June 21, Sun 23° above latitude angle
from perpendicular.
September 21 and March 21, Sun at
latitude angle from perpendicular.
FIGURE 9.9 The effect of latitude on solar energy interception.
Alaska
Average daily solar radiation per month
JANUARY
Hawaii
4.62
4.91
5.08
4.54
Hawaii, Puerto Rioo, and
Guam are not shaded.
San Juan, PR Guam, PI
5.14 4.97
Flat plate tilted south at latitude
Collector orientation This map shows the general trends in the amount of solar radiation received in the
United States and its territories. It is a spatial interpolation of solar radiation values derived from the
1961–1990 National Solar Radiation Data Base (NSRDB). The dots on the map represent the 239 sites kWh/m2/day
of the NSRDB.
10 to 14
Flat-plate collector facing south at Maps of average values are produced by averaging all 30 years of data for each site. Maps of maximum
and minimum values are composites of specific months and years for which each site achieved its 8 to 10
fixed tilt equal to the latitude of the maximum or minimum amounts of solar radiation. 7 to 8
site: Capturing the maximum amount 6 to 7
Though useful for identifying general trends, this map should be used with caution for site-specific
of solar radiation throughout the year resource evaluations because variations in solar radiation not reflected in the maps can exist, introducing 5 to 6
uncertainty into resource estimates.
can be achieved using a tilt angle 4 to 5
approximately equal to the site’s Maps are not drawn to scale.
3 to 4
latitude. 2 to 3
0 to 2
None
FLATA01–196
FIGURE 9.10 The United States average daily solar radiation for the month of January.
Source: National Renewable Energy Laboratory Resource Assessment Program
Alaska
Average daily solar radiation per month
JUNE
Hawaii
5.49
5.89
5.98
4.93
Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and
Guam are not shaded.
San Juan, PR Guam, PI
5.54 5.11
Flat plate tilted south at latitude
Collector orientation This map shows the general trends in the amount of solar radiation received in the
United States and its territories. It is a spatial interpolation of solar radiation values derived from the
1961–1990 National Solar Radiation Data Base (NSRDB). The dots on the map represent the 239 sites of kWh/m2/day
the NSRDB.
10 to 14
Flat-plate collector facing south at Maps of average values are produced by averaging all 30 years of data for each site. Maps of maximum
and minimum values are composites of specific months and years for which each site achieved its 8 to 10
fixed tilt equal to the latitude of the maximum or minimum amounts of solar radiation. 7 to 8
site: Capturing the maximum amount 6 to 7
Though useful for identifying general trends, this map should be used with caution for site-specific
of solar radiation throughout the year resource evaluations because variations in solar radiation not reflected in the maps can exist, introducing 5 to 6
uncertainty into resource estimates.
can be achieved using a tilt angle 4 to 5
approximately equal to the site’s Maps are not drawn to scale.
3 to 4
latitude. 2 to 3
0 to 2
None
FLATA06–201
FIGURE 9.11 The United States average daily solar radiation for the month of June.
Source: National Renewable Energy Laboratory Resource Assessment Program
EXAMPLE 9.1
On average, how much solar radiation is intercepted in Alaska by four flat
plate collectors (with dimensions 1 m 3 1.5 m ) that are tilted at an angle
equal to the latitude in the month of January as compared to that in June?
Using Figure 9.10, we note that in Alaska, based on a particular location
in January, from 0 to 2 kWh/m 2 /day of solar radiation could strike a surface
that is tilted at an angle of the given latitude, while from Figure 9.11, the
value in June could vary from 4 to 6 kWh/m 2 /day.
total area of the collectors 5 (4)(1.0 m)(1.5 m) 5 6 m 2
Then for the month of January,
total solar energy intercepted by the four collectors

 2 kWh 
5 (6 m 2 )  2 (31 days in January) 5 372 kWh or
 m ? day 
 3,412 Btu 
5 (372 kWh)  5 1,269,264 Btu < 1.27 million Btu
Beautiful landscape/Shutterstock.com
 1 kWh 
Note we used the conversion factor 1 kWh 5 3,412 Btu to convert the
result into Btu units as well. For the month of June, assuming 4 kWh/m 2 /day,
we have
 4 kWh 
5 (6 m 2 )  2 (30 days in June) 5 720 kWh or
 m ? day 
 3,412 Btu 
5 (720 kWh)  5 2,456,640 Btu < 2.45 million Btu
 1 kWh 
And assuming 6 kWh/m 2 /day, we have

 6 kWh 
5 (6 m 2 )  2 (30 days in June)
 m ? day 
 3,412 Btu 
5 1,080 kWh 5 (1,080 kWh)  5 3,684,960 Btu
 1 kWh 
< 3.68 million Btu
Therefore, the total amount of solar energy intercepted by the collectors
for the month of January could vary from 0 to 372 kWh (1.27 million Btu),
whereas during the month of June, between 720 kWh (2.45 million Btu) and
1,080 kWh (3.68 million Btu) could be intercepted.
In the next section, we discuss different types of solar systems.
Before You Go On
1. What is solar energy?

2. Into how many bands can solar radiation be divided, and what are they?
3. What are the factors that define how much solar energy is available at a given location?
4. What is the difference between direct and diffuse radiation?
5. What is the effect of a lower angle of the Sun during winter months?
6. Why are solar collectors tilted?
Solar energy
Sun angle
Direct solar radiation
Diffuse solar radiation
LO2 9.2 Solar Systems

The economic feasibility of solar systems depends on the amount of solar radia-
tion available at a geographic location. Moreover, using various technologies,
solar radiation can be converted into useful energy to heat water or space (air)
or to generate electricity. In general, solar systems can be categorized into
active, passive, and photovoltaic systems.
Active Solar Systems

There are two basic types of active solar systems used for heating: liquid and
air. The liquid flat-panel systems make use of water or water–antifreeze mixture
(in cold climates) to collect solar energy. In such systems, the liquid is heated
in a solar collector (Figure 9.12) and then transferred to a storage system. In
contrast, air systems heat the air in “air collectors” and transport it to a storage
or a designated space using blowers. Most active solar systems cannot provide
adequate heating for both space and hot water needs. Consequently, an auxil-
iary or back-up heating system is needed.
The main components of an active liquid hot-water solar system
An active solar system makes use
are shown in Figure 9.13. The solar energy is captured in the flat
of mechanical components such as panel solar collector and then pumped through a heat exchanger
a collector, pumps, and a storage where the energy collected is transferred to the domestic hot water
tank to collect and store solar (DHW) pre-heater tank and eventually to the auxiliary hot water
energy. tank as needed. A home in Golden, Colorado, using a flat-plate solar
system is shown in Figure 9.14.
Flat-Plate Collector
Glazing frame
Glazing
Inlet connection Outlet
connection
Enclosure
Flow tube
Absorber plate
Insulation
FIGURE 9.12 A schematic of a solar collector.

Source: U.S. Department of Energy
From cold
water main
r
cto Automatic
le
ol shut-off
rc
la valve Mixing
So To DHW
valve
distribution
and load
DHW heat exchanger

Double-walled
DHW Auxiliary
preheat hot water
tank tank
Storage Preheat
DHW pump DHW pump
Auxiliary energy
input to DHW
FIGURE 9.13 A schematic of a solar hot water system.
FIGURE 9.14 This home in Golden, Colorado, uses a liquid-based solar system for space and water
heating.
Source: Courtesy of DOE/NREL
Evacuated tubes (see Figure 9.15) are another type of hot-water solar collec-
tor that are more expensive and operate at higher temperatures than flat-plate
collectors. For these types of collectors, the vacuum inside the tubes minimizes
the heat loss from the collector to the surrounding air.
FIGURE 9.15 Evacuated-tube solar collectors.

Source: Beautiful landscape/Shutterstock.com
In moderate climates, solar hot-water systems are also

used to heat swimming pools. The goal of this type of system
is to extend the swimming season. The swimming pool has
solar heaters that operate at slightly warmer temperatures
than the surrounding air temperature. These types of col-
lectors typically use inexpensive, unglazed, low-temperature
collectors made from plastic materials. Because these sys-
tems are not insulated, they require large collector areas,
approximately 50 to 100 percent of the pool area.
When you travel to the southwestern part of the United
States or abroad, you may see parabolic-shaped (U-shaped)
adrian davies/Alamy Stock Photo
collectors with mirror-like surfaces (see Figure 9.16). These
collectors are used to generate electric power in power plants.
The parabolic concentrating systems make use of tracking devices to follow the
Sun during the day. In these systems, the rays of the Sun are reflected against
solar collectors, which are basically U-shaped mirrors that are connected together
inline, to concentrate all the reflected energy onto a receiving pipe that is filled
with fluids that have a high heat capacity, such as oil or molten salt. The concen-
trated solar energy heats up the fluid, and the energy collected by the fluid in the
pipe is then transferred to water to create steam in a heat exchanger. Similar to
the conventional steam power plant that we discussed in Chapter 6, the steam
then runs through a turbine that turns a generator to create electricity.
FIGURE 9.16 Parabolic (U-shaped) solar collectors.

Source: Tom Grundy/Shutterstock.com
EXAMPLE 9.2
Assume that the solar collector system of Example 9.1 has an average effi-
ciency of 60 percent during the month of June and is located in Alaska, where
4 kWh/m 2 /day of solar energy is intercepted by the system. On average, how
many gallons of water at 608F could be heated to 1108F by the system each
day during the month of June?
total area of the collectors 5 (4)(1.0 m)(1.5 m) 5 6 m 2
total solar energy intercepted by the four collectors each day

 4 kWh 
5 (6 m 2 )  2
 m ? day 
kWh  kWh   3,412 Btu  Btu
5 24 or  24   5 81,888
day  day   1 kWh  day
Considering the efficiency of the system, the total available energy

becomes
 Btu  Btu
total available energy 5 (0.6)  81,888 5 49,133
 day  day
Recall from Example 5.6 in Chapter 5 that each gallon of water has a
mass of 8.34 pounds and that one Btu represents the amount of thermal
energy needed to raise the temperature of one pound mass (lbm) of water
by one degree Fahrenheit (8F). Realizing these facts, we can now solve for
the unknown gallons ( x) of water in the following manner:
Btu
total available energy 5 49,133
day
 gallons of  
  
50
 water   8.34 lbm  1 Btu
5 x   1 gallon of   (110 2 60) 8 F 
 day    (1 lbm)(18 F)   
  water 
Solving for x, we get

gallons of water
x < 118
day
Therefore, each clear day the given system can provide about 118 gallons
of hot water for activities such as bathing or showering.
Passive Solar Systems

Passive solar systems do not make use of any mechanical components such as
collectors, pumps, blowers, or fans to collect, transport, or distribute solar heat
to various parts of a building. Instead, a direct passive solar system uses large
glass areas on the south wall of a building and a thermal mass to collect the solar
energy. The solar energy is stored in the interior thick masonry walls and floors
during the day and is released at night. In cold climates, passive systems also
use insulated curtains at night to cover the glass areas to reduce the heat loss.
Another feature of a passive solar system is an overhang to shade the windows
during summer, as shown in Figure 9.17.
Indirect-gain passive designs use a storage mass placed between the glass
wall and the heated space. As the air between the glass and masonry wall is
heated, it rises and enters the room through a vent at the top of the wall and is
replaced by the cooler room air that enters the lower vent. Not all of the solar
heat is transferred to the air; some is stored in the masonry wall or floor (see
Figure 9.18).
Another common type of passive solar system is a sunspace. The space may
be used as a greenhouse, atrium, sun porch, or sun room. Masonry or concrete
floors and walls, water containers, or covered pools of water may serve as ther-
mal storage. A photograph of an interior section of a house with a sunspace is
shown in Figure 9.19.
Summer
sun
Winter
sun
Glass
Thick
masonry walls
and floor
Direct gain through south-facing wall
FIGURE 9.17 A schematic of a direct passive solar system.
Transparent
glass
(1 or 2 covers)
Warm air
Radiant heat
Cool air
Heat storage wall,

usually masonry
FIGURE 9.18 A schematic of an indirect passive solar system.
FIGURE 9.19 The interior (sunspace) of a passive solar house.

Source: Tom Grundy/Shutterstock.com
Photovoltaic Systems
A photovoltaic system converts light energy directly into electricity. These
systems come in all sizes and shapes, as shown in Figure 9.20. You have also seen
small photovoltaic cells that provide power for a calculator. A larger system that
produces power for a home, however, often consists of a photovoltaic array,
batteries, a charge controller, and an inverter.
A photovoltaic (PV) cell is the backbone of any photovoltaic system. Photo-
voltaic cell materials include crystalline, polycrystalline, and amorphous silicon.
The crystalline and polycrystalline silicon PV cells have high efficiencies; how-
ever, they are expensive to produce. On the other hand, the amorphous silicon
cells have lower efficiencies, are less expensive to produce, and are easier to
work with. Thin-film amorphous silicon solar cells can be affixed directly to a
metal roof of a building. The efficiencies of various solar cells and the improve-
ments that have been made since 1976 are shown in Figure 9.21.
The manufacturers of photovoltaic systems combine cells to form a
module, and then the modules are combined to form what is known as a
photovoltaic array (see Figure 9.22). Photovoltaic systems are classified as
stand-alone, hybrid, or grid-tied. The systems that are not connected to a utility
grid are called stand-alone and require batteries to store the electrical
energy to be used during nights and cloudy days. Hybrid systems are
A typical photovoltaic system those that use a combination of photovoltaic arrays and some other
consists of a photovoltaic array, form of energy, such as diesel generation. As the name implies, grid-
batteries, a charge controller, and tied systems are connected to a utility grid. A grid-tied system does
an inverter. not need a battery bank to store energy. A schematic diagram for a
grid-tied system is shown in Figure 9.23.
Courtesy of DOE/NREL Courtesy of DOE/NREL
Courtesy NASA, ID: jsc2006e43519 Courtesy of DOE/NREL
© Bill Brooks/Alamy Stock Photo Courtesy of DOE/NREL
FIGURE 9.20 Examples of photovoltaic systems, top row: parking rooftop, solar bike; middle row:
space station, a building rooftop; and bottom row: photovoltaic roof shingles, a
remote communication facility.
The electricity that is generated by photovoltaic panels is direct current

(DC). Every photovoltaic system has an inverter. An inverter is a device that
converts direct current into alternating current that is used in homes. As shown
in Figure 9.23, the line coming out of the inverter goes to the main utility
breaker panel in the house, and from there it goes to the utility meter and the
electricity grid. Systems that use batteries to store electricity for cloudy days
50
Multijunction concentrators Thin-film technologies Spectrolab Fraunhofer ISE Boeing-
Solar
Junction
Three-junction (2-terminal, monolithic) Cu(In,Ga)Se2 (metamorphic, 299x) (metamorphic, 454x) Spectrolab
48 (lattice matched,
Two-junction (2-terminal, monolithic) CdTe (lattice matched,
Spire
418x)
364x)
Single-junction GaAs Amorphous Si:H (stabilized) Semiconductor
Boeing-Spectrolab
44 Single crystal Nano-, micro-, poly-Si Boeing-Spectrolab
(metamorphic, 179x) (metamorphic, 240x)
(metamorphic,
406x) 43.5%
Multijunction polycrystalline
Concentrator NREL
Thin film crystal Emerging PV (inverted, metamorphic)
40 Dye-sensitized cells
NREL (inverted,
Crystalline Si cells NREL
Boeing-
metamorphic,
Single crystal Organic cells (various types) Boeing- 325.7x) Sharp
Spectrolab (IMM, 1-sun)
spectrolab
36 Multicrystalline Organic tandem cells NREL (inverted, 35.8%
Thick Si film Inorganic cells Spectrolab metamorphic, 1-sun)
NREL/
Silicon heterostructures (HIT) Quantum dot cells spectrolab FhG-ISE
Japan Spectrolab 32.6%
32 NREL energy IES-UPM
(117x)
Efficiency (%)
Radboud (1026x) Alta

Varian NREL Spectrolab
Varian (216x) univ. devices 29.1%
SunPower (4.0 cm2, 1-sun) FhG-ISE
(205x) Amonix 28.2%
28 Stanford
NREL
(96x)
(92x)
(232x) 27.6%
26.4%
(140x) Kopin FhG-
IBM Varian Radboud Radboud Alta
UNSW ISE 25.0%
24 (T.J. Watson
research center)
Spire
UNSW UNSW
NREL
Cu(In,Ga)Se2
univ. univ. devices
UNSW Sanyo Sanyo 23.0%
UNSW (14x) Sanyo Sanyo
Stanford UNSW/ Sanyo
ZSW
Spire Georgia Eurosolare FhG-ISE 20.4%
20 Sandia ARCO UNSW Georgia Georgia tech
NREL ZSW
20.3%
tech tech NREL NREL
national Westing- Varian UNSW NREL NREL NREL First solar
house NREL 17.3%
lab NREL
16 RCA
No. Carolina
University
so. Florida Astropower NREL
Univ.
stuttgart
Sharp
(large-area)
Mobil state univ. NREL (small-area) (45 m thin- NREL United solar
ARCO Boeing (aSi/ncSi/ncSi)
solar Euro-CIS film transfer) (CdTe/CIS)
Kodak Solarex NREL United solar 12.5%
12 Boeing Boeing IBM
IBM (CTZSSe) 11.1%
Photon energy
AMETEK Sharp (CTZSSe)
Matsushita United 10.1%
Boeing EPFL Kaneka Konarka
Kodak ARCO EPFL solar 8.6%
8 Monosolar United solar (2 m
on glass)
NREL/Konarka
Univ. Linz
Solarmer
UCLA
8.3%
Boeing Konarka
RCA Solarex EPFL Heliatek
Groningen
University EPFL Heliatek
NREL
4 of maine
RCA Plextronics
(ZnO/
PbS-QD)
4.4%
RCA University linz Univ. NREL

RCA RCA University Siemens
RCA RCA dresden (ZnO/Pbs-QD)
linz
0
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 (Rev.9-2011)
FIGURE 9.21 The efficiency of solar cells and how improvements have been made over time.
Source: NREL
also make use of a charge controller. A charge controller protects the batteries
from overcharging. When the batteries are fully charged, the charge controller
disconnects them from the PV array.
Photovoltaic systems are also used in photovoltaic power plants, which
represent large-scale commercial systems that produce electricity. One of the
largest grid-tied photovoltaic power plants in the United States is the Alamosa
photovoltaic plant, which is located in an area of 82 acres in south central Colo-
rado. It went online in 2007 and generates about 8.2 megawatt (MW) of power.
A cell A module An array
FIGURE 9.22 A photovoltaic cell, module, and array.

Source: Winbjörk/Shutterstock.com, Mrs_ya/Shutterstock.com, CJimenez/Shutterstock.com
Solar power to the

electricity grid
System
Smileus/Shutterstock.com
Utility
monitor meter
DC
voltage
Inverter
Main utility
breaker
panel
AC Electricity to
voltage house
FIGURE 9.23 An example and a schematic drawing of a grid-tied PV system.
The U.S. solar data for sizing photovoltaic systems are shown in Figure 9.24.
Examples 9.4 and 9.5 show you how to use this information.
Photovoltaic Solar Resource of the United States

–125 –120 –115 –110 –105 –100 –95 –90 –85 –80 –75 –70 –65
45 45
2
kWh/m /Day
> 6.5
40 6.0 to 6.5
40 5.5 to 6.0
5.0 to 5.5
4.5 to 5.0
4.0 to 4.5
3.5 to 4.0
3.0 to 3.5
<3.0
35
35
Annual average solar resource
data are shown for a tilt =
latitude collector. The data for
Hawaii and the 48 contiguous
states are a 10km satellite
modeled dataset (SUNY/NREL,
30 30 2007) representing data from
1998–2009.
The data for Alaska are a 40km

dataset produced by the
Climatological Solar Radiation
–180 –170 –160 –150 –140 –130 –120
Model (NREL, 2003).
25
25
65
65 0 150 300 450 600 Miles
–160 –158 –156 –154

60
60 20
20 20
22
55
55
0 50 100 150 Miles
0 200 400 600 Miles 18
–170 –160 –150 –140 –160 –158 –156

15
–115 –110 –105 –100 –95 –90 –85 –80
FIGURE 9.24 Photovoltaic resources of the United States.

Source: National Renewable Energy Laboratory
EXAMPLE 9.3
A manufacturer of photovoltaic systems provides the following specifica-
tions for one of its modules:
maximum power 5 250 W (at illumination of 1 kW/m 2 )
A
A 5 960 mm
B 5 1,600 mm
What is the efficiency of this module?
We discussed efficiency in Chapter 5. Recall that
output
efficiency 5 , and note that for this example, the input
input
is 1 kW/m 2 or 1,000 W/m 2 and the output is 250 W for the entire
module. Also, note that
area of the module 5 (0.9 m)(1.6 m) 5 1.44 m 2
B
Then,
output 250 W
efficiency 5 5 5 0.17 or 17%
input  1,000 W 
  (1.44 m 2
)
m2 
This result represents the maximum possible efficiency of the
module under ideal laboratory test conditions. It is important to
note that, under real outdoor conditions, the efficiency of the
module is less—closer to 13 or 14 percent.
Dario Sabljak/Shutterstock.com
EXAMPLE 9.4
As shown in Figure 9.24, the average solar radiation available for
photovoltaic systems for the southern part of Arizona is about
6.5 kWh/m 2 /day. If a photovoltaic array consists of ten modules (the
250-watt modules from Example 9.3), each module has the dimen-
sions of 0.9 m 3 1.6 m, and assuming an efficiency of 14 percent, how
much electricity is generated by this system each year?
total area of the photovoltaic system 5 (10)(0.9 m)(1.6 m)
5 14.4 m 2
amount of electricity generated
 6.5 kWh   365 days 
5 (0.14)(14.4 m 2 )  2
 m ? day   year 
kWh kWh
5 4,783 < 4,800
year year
Therefore, this system will generate about 4,800 kWh/year. Note

that there are additional losses in the system, depending on the wiring
and the inverter, so the amount of electricity that could be consumed
would be less than 4,800 kWh/year.
EXAMPLE 9.5
How much electricity would be generated if the photovoltaic system of
Example 9.4 is located in Vermont in the northeastern section of the United
States?
From Figure 9.24, the average solar radiation available for Vermont is
about 4 kWh/m 2 /day. Then
amount of electricity generated

 4 kWh   365 days 
5 (0.14)(14.4 m 2 )  2
 m ? day   year 
kWh
5 2,943
year
kWh
< 2,900
year
Note that the same system in Vermont produces approximately 39 per-
cent less electricity than it would in Arizona.
Before You Go On
1. Describe ways by which we convert solar energy into useful forms of energy.
2. Describe how an active solar system works.
3. What are the main components of an active liquid solar system?
4. Describe how a passive solar system works.
5. How does a photovoltaic system work, and what are its main components?
Passive system
Solar collector
Inverter
Photovoltaic array
Grid-tied system
9.3 Wind Energy 281
LO3 9.3 Wind Energy

Wind energy is a form of solar energy. As you may know, because of the Earth’s
tilt and orbit, the Sun heats the Earth and its atmosphere at different rates. You
also know that hot air rises and cold air sinks to replace it. As the air moves,
it has kinetic energy (we explained kinetic energy in Chapter 5). Part of this
kinetic energy can be converted into mechanical energy and electricity. Histori-
cally, the Persians, Chinese, and Egyptians were among the first civilizations
to harness wind energy to grind grains, pump water, and sail boats. As was the
case with new technologies of that era, the methods for harnessing wind energy
found their way to Europe, and the Europeans brought this technology to the
Americas when they settled in the New World.
As you know, you can expect to experience windy days with dif-
ferent wind intensities during certain times of the year. Therefore, it
Two types of wind turbines are also should be self evident that the amount of wind energy that can
used to extract energy from the be harnessed depends on how fast and how often the wind blows in a
wind: vertical axis turbines and region. Thus, the potential for harnessing wind energy and generating
horizontal axis turbines. electricity varies by geographical location. The United States wind
resource map in Figure 9.25 shows annual average wind speeds at a
United States - Annual Average Wind Speed at 80 m
Wind Speed
m/s
>10.5
10.0
9.5
9.0
8.5
8.0
7.5
7.0
6.5
6.0
5.5
5.0
4.5
4.0
<4.0
FIGURE 9.25 United States wind resource map.

Source: National Renewable Energy Laboratory. Wind resource estimates developed by AWS Truepower, LLC for
wind Navigator@, Web: www.windnavigator.com|www.awstruepower.com. Spatial resolution of wind resource
data: 2.5km. Projection: Albers Equal Area WGS84
40
30
Height (m)
20
10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Wind speed (meters/sec)
FIGURE 9.26 An example of wind speeds near the ground.
height of 80 m above ground. The rotors of wind turbines are usually mounted
on tall towers. This is done because the wind speed increases with the vertical
distance from the ground. On a windy day, air at a higher elevation moves faster
than the air near the ground, as shown in Figure 9.26.
Two types of wind turbines are used to extract energy from the wind: verti-
cal axis and horizontal axis. Schematic diagrams of vertical axis and horizontal
axis turbines are shown in Figure 9.27. The vertical axis turbine can accept
wind from any angle, requires lightweight towers, and is easy to service. The
main disadvantage of the vertical axis turbine is that, because the rotors are
near the ground where the wind speeds are relatively low, it has poor perfor-
mance. Most wind turbines in use throughout the world are of the horizontal
axis type. As the name implies, the rotor blades of a horizontal axis turbine
rotate about an axis that is horizontal (see Figure 9.27). Wind turbines are
typically classified as small (, 100 kW), intermediate (, 250 kW), and large
(250 kW to 8 MW).
Here are some wind turbine terms that you will find useful.
• The blades and hub are called rotors. Most horizontal axis turbines have
either two or three blades. The blades are typically made from wood,
steel, aluminum, or fiberglass. Wooden blades are strong, lightweight,
inexpensive, and flexible, whereas blades made from steel are strong, but
they are also heavy and expensive. Newer turbines use fiberglass blades
because they are strong, lightweight, and inexpensive. Aluminum blades
are strong and lighter than steel, but they are also expensive. Depending
on the size of the system and the material used, the blades can be as long
as 100 feet or more.
• The gear box connects the low-speed shaft attached to the rotor to
the high-speed shaft that is attached to the generator to increase the
rotational speed.
• The yaw motor runs the yaw drive to keep the blades facing into the wind
as the wind direction changes.
• A controller starts the wind turbine at speeds of about 8 to 16 miles per
hour (mph) and stops the turbine at relatively high speeds to prevent
damage to the blades and components. An anemometer measures the
wind speed and transmits the data to the controller.
9.3. Wind Energy 283
ssuaphotos/Shutterstock.com
Joseph Sohm/Shutterstock.com
Rotor
blade
Gearbox
Hub Generator
Rotor
blade
Gear box Generator
Vertical axis Horizontal axis
FIGURE 9.27 Vertical axis and horizontal axis wind turbines.
• A brake stops the rotor in emergencies or high wind speeds. The brake is
applied mechanically, electrically, or hydraulically.
• The sweep area of the blades is shown in Figure 9.28. The sweep
area is equal to the area of the circle through which wind moves;
sweep area 5 p (blade length)2.
• Rotor solidity is the ratio of the total rotor platform area to the total
sweep area. Low solidity results in high speed and low torque, whereas
high solidity (values greater than 0.8) results in low speed and high torque
(see Figure 9.28).
Another important principle that you should know is the Betz limit, which
states that not all wind power can be captured. Think about it; if all the wind
energy is captured, the air behind the rotor will have a zero speed,
which would mean that no air is flowing over the blades. The theo-
The Betz limit states that not all
retical limit for rotor efficiency is 59 percent, with most current wind
wind power can be captured.
turbines having an efficiency in the range of 25 to 45 percent.
Swept area
of blades a Rotor
diameter
A
Deyan Georgiev/Shutterstock.com
High solidity
Low solidity
FIGURE 9.28 The turbine on the left has a lower solidity (3a/A) (low) than the turbine on the right.
Let us now look at how we might estimate the amount of energy that can
be extracted from wind. Recall from our discussion in Chapter 5 that an object
having a known mass m and moving with a speed V has a kinetic energy that
is equal to
 1  1
kinetic energy 5   (mass)(speed)2 5   mV 2
 2  2
We can apply this kinetic energy equation to the wind blowing over a tur-
bine by noting that, in this case, m represents the mass of the moving air and V
is the wind speed. Next, recall the definition of power as
energy
power 5
time
Then the amount of power that can be extracted from the moving air (wind)
is given by
 1
  (mass)(speed)
2
energy 2
power 5 5
time time 9.1
1
 
5   (mass flow rate)(speed)2
 2
9.3 Wind Energy 285
mass
In Equation (9.1), the quantity is called the mass flow rate; how much
time
air per unit of time (for example, per second) is moving through the wind
turbine’s sweep area. The mass flow rate is related to the density of the air and
the volume of the moving air as shown in the following equation. Moreover, the
volume of air moving through the wind turbine is related to the area (i.e., sweep
area) and the distance traveled by air. Recognition of these facts then results in
mass
mass (density)(volume)
mass flow rate 5 5
time time
volume
(density)(area)(distance traveled)
5
time
(density)(area)(distance traveled)
5
time

distance traveled
(density)(area)(speed)( time )
5
time
mass flow rate 5 (density)(area)(speed) 9.2
Substituting Equation (9.2) into Equation (9.1), we get
 1
power 5   (mass flow rate)(speed)2
 2

mass flow rate

 1
5   (density)(area)(speed)(speed)2
 2
or
 1
power 5   (density)(area)(speed)3 9.3
 2
Next, we must account for the Betz limit and the efficiency of the wind
turbine. This last step yields a relationship for wind power in terms of turbine
efficiency, air density, sweep area, and wind speed according to
 1
wind power 5 (efficiency)   (density)(sweep area)(speed)3 9.4
 2
Let us now look at some examples where we apply Equation (9.4).
EXAMPLE 9.6
A wind turbine manufacturer states that one of its largest systems with
a blade length of 35.25 meters (m) can generate 1.5 megawatts (MW) of
electricity when the wind speed is 12 meters per second (m/s) or
,27 miles per hour (mph). The manufacturer does not mention
anything about the efficiency of its system, so let us calculate it.
Note: The density of air is 1.2 kg/m 3.
 1
wind power 5 (efficiency)   (density)(sweep area)(speed)3
 2
sweep area 5 p (blade length)2 5 p (35.25 m)2 5 3,904 m 2
3
 1  kg   m
1.5 3 10 6 W 5 (efficiency)    1.2 3  (3,904 m 2 )  12 
 2  m   s
1.5 3 10 6 watts
efficiency 5 3
 1  kg  2 
m
   1.2  (3,904 m )  12 
2 m3  s
5 0.37 or 37%
Tyler Olson/Shutterstock.com
EXAMPLE 9.7
Estimate the power generated by the wind turbine of Example 9.6 for wind
speeds of 6 m/s (13.4 mph), 8 m/s (17.9 mph), and 10 m/s (22.4 mph), assum-
ing the same efficiency of 37 percent at all of the given wind speeds. Again,
the density of air is 1.2 kg/m 3.
 1
wind power 5 (efficiency)   (density)(sweep area)(speed)3
 2
For wind speed 5 6 m/s,

3
 1  kg   m
power 5 (0.37)    1.2 3  (3,904 m 2 )  6
 2  m   s 
5 187,205 watts < 187 kW
For wind speed 5 8 m/s,
3
 1  kg   m
power 5 (0.37)    1.2 3  (3,904 m 2 )  8
 2  m   s 
5 443,744 watts < 444 kW
For wind speed 5 10 m/s ,

3
 1  kg   m
power 5 (0.37)    1.2 3  (3,904 m 2 )  10 
 2  m   s
5 866,688 watts < 867 kW
9.3 Wind Energy 287
Note the power generated is proportional to the wind speed cubed.

Therefore, a relatively small increase in wind speed could result in a large
increase in power generation. The results are summarized in the following
table.
Wind Speed (m/s) Power Generated (kW)

6 187
8 444
10 867
12 1,500
Today, China, the United States, Germany, and India are among the coun-
tries with the largest amount of electricity generated from wind. In the United
States, the top five states with the largest electricity generation from wind were
Texas, Iowa, Oklahoma, Kansas, and Illinois in 2020 (refer to Figure 9.29). In
fact, one of the largest wind farms in the United States is located in Texas, with
430 turbines that together produce 735 MW of electricity.
FIGURE 9.29 The top wind energy-producing states.

Source: American Clean Power Association
EXAMPLE 9.8
In 2014, 182 billion kilowatt-hours (kWh) of electricity was generated from
wind energy in the United States. Assuming an annual household electricity
consumption of 10,000 kWh, how many households could be supplied with
electricity from wind energy?
 1 household 
number of households 5 (182 3 10 9 kWh ) 
 10,000 kWh 
5 182 3 10 5
< 18 million
Note that for this result we did not account for any losses in transmission
lines.
EXAMPLE 9.9
For Example 9.8, how much coal was saved (not consumed) because of wind
energy generation? Assume coal has an average energy content of 10,000 Btu
per pound; the coal-fired power plant has an efficiency of 36 percent. Also,
recall that 1 kWh 5 3,412 Btu.
amount of coal not consumed in pounds

 3,412 Btu   1 pound 
(182 3 10 9 kWh ) 
 1 kWh   10,000 Btu 
5
0.36
5 172.495 3 10 9 pounds
amount of coal not consumed in tons

 3,412 Btu   1 pound   1 ton 
(182 3 10 9 kWh ) 
 1 kWh   10,000 Btu   2,000 pounds 
5
0.36
5 86,247,777 tons
5 86.3 million tons
Take a moment and think about this value! That is a lot of coal that is
not being consumed, meaning it is not contributing to pollution and CO2
emissions.
Before You Go On
1. Which regions of the United States have the least potential for producing wind energy?
2. What are the two types of wind turbines?
3. Describe the main components of a wind turbine.
4. What are wind turbine blades typically made from?
5. Explain the Betz limit.
Horizontal axis turbine

Vertical axis turbine
Rotor
Rotor solidity
LO4 9.4 Hydro-Energy
Electricity is also generated by flowing water stored behind dams. Naturally,

water flows from higher elevation to lower elevation. Throughout history, we
have captured the power of moving water in rivers to perform various tasks
such as cutting lumber or grinding flour. Today, the power of moving water is
converted into electricity using water turbines that are connected to generators.
In 2020, hydropower accounted for 7 percent of the total United States electric-
ity generation or 37 percent of renewable energy generated. The power of mov-
ing water is converted into electricity using a number of techniques including
impoundment, diversion, and pumped storage hydropower.
Impoundment
The impoundment approach makes use of dams to store water. As shown
in Figure 9.30, as water is released through the dam, it is guided into water
turbines located in hydroelectric power plants housed within the dam to gener-
ate electricity. The potential energy due to the height of the water stored behind
the dam is converted to kinetic energy (moving energy), and as the water flows
through the turbine it spins the turbine. The turbine connected to a generator
then turns the generator.
Today in the United States there are nearly 80,000 dams, of which only
3 percent produce electricity. Therefore, there still exists untapped potential
for electricity generation using hydropower. Many of the dams were built
to control flooding and to irrigate crops. The U.S. Department of Energy is
Reservoir
Long distance
Powerhouse power lines
Intake
Generator
Penstock
Turbine
River
FIGURE 9.30 A schematic of a hydropower plant.

Source: Based on Tennessee Valley Authority
currently working on modifying many of these dams to produce electricity as

well. Research is also being conducted to design more fish friendly turbines
and ladders to accommodate the movement of fish. Today, most of the hydro-
electric facilities in the United States are located in the western states, such as
Washington, Oregon, and California, with the Grand Coulee Dam being the
largest. The hydroelectric capacity of conventional facilities in the United States
is shown in Figure 9.31.
Conventional hydroelectric capacity as a percent of total generating

capacity by state, 2014
Less than 15%

16–30%
31–45%
46–60%
61% and above
hydro % of total capacity
FIGURE 9.31 The United States conventional hydroelectric capacity.

Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Electric Power Monthly, Tables 6.2 and 6.2B (February 2015)
Diversion
Let us next consider the diversion technology used in harnessing hydropower.
As the name implies, with this approach part of the water in a river is diverted to
run through turbines. This technology does not require a large dam and makes
use of the natural flow of water.
Pumped Storage Hydropower

The pumped storage technique pumps the water from a lower elevation and
stores it in a higher elevation at night when the energy demand is low. During
the daytime when the energy use is high, the water is released from the higher
elevation storage to the lower elevation to produce electricity.
Let us now estimate the amount of energy that can be extracted from the
water running from a dam through the penstock (and eventually through the
turbine) to the river downstream of the dam. Recall from our discussion in
Chapter 5 the potential energy of an object is equal to
(mass)(acceleration due to gravity ) 3

potential energy 5
(change in elevation)
5 mgh
We can apply the potential energy equation to the water flowing through
the dam through the turbine. Note that, in this case, m represents the mass of
the moving water and h is the change in the elevation of water between the
water level stored behind the dam and the discharge side on the downstream
energy
river. We again use the definition of power (power 5 ) to determine how
time
much power can be extracted from the flowing water in the following manner:
energy
power 5
time
(mass)(acceleration due to gravity ) 3
(change in elevation) 9.5
5
time
(mass flow rate)(acceleration due to gravity) 3
5
(change in elevation)
mass
Again in Equation (9.5), the quantity is called mass flow rate; in this case,
time
how much water per unit time is moving through the turbine.
We also need to account for losses due to friction in the penstock and piping
system, as well as the efficiency of the turbine. This last step yields a relationship
for water power generation in terms of an overall efficiency of the system,

mass flow rate, acceleration due to gravity, and change in elevation of water
according to
(overall efficiency )(mass flow rate) 3

power 5 9.6
(acceleration due to gravity)(change in elevation)
In Equation (9.6), note that power generated is directly proportional to the

water mass flow rate and the change in elevation of the water. Next, we apply
this relationship to an actual hydropower plant.
EXAMPLE 9.10
In a recent year, a hydropower station in Japan commissioned a new turbine
and a generator with the following specifications:
mass flow rate 5 207,000 kg/s

head (elevation change) 5 48 m
overall efficiency 5 89%
What is the power output of this system?
(overall efficiency)(mass flow rate) 3

power 5
(acceleration due to gravity)(change in elevation)
 kg   m
5 (0.89)  207,000   9.81 2  (48 m) 5 86,750,222 watts
 s   s
< 87,000 kW
JenJ_Payless/Shutterstock.com
Next, let us look at one of the largest hydropower plants in the United
States.
Hoover Dam
The Hoover Dam is one of the Bureau of Recla-
mation’s multipurpose projects on the Colorado
River. These projects control floods; store water
for irrigation, municipal, and industrial use; and
provide hydroelectric power, recreation, and fish
and wildlife habitat. The Hoover Dam is a concrete
arch–gravity type of dam in which the water load is
carried by both gravity and horizontal arch actions.
The Reservoir
At an elevation of 1,221.4 feet, Lake Mead is the larg-
est man-made lake in the United States and contains
28,537,000 acre-feet of water (an acre-foot is the
amount of water required to cover 1 acre to a depth
of 1 foot). This reservoir stores the entire average flow
of the river for two years. That much water would cover
the entire state of Pennsylvania to a depth of 1 foot. milosk50/Shutterstock.com
Lake Mead extends approximately 110 miles
has a nameplate capacity of 2,074,000 kilowatts
upstream toward the Grand Canyon and approxi-
(kW). This includes the two station-service units that
mately 35 miles up the Virgin River. The width of
are rated at 2,400 kilowatts each. The Hoover Dam
Lake Mead varies from several hundred feet in the
generates low-cost hydroelectric power for use in
canyons to a maximum of 8 miles. The reservoir
Nevada, Arizona, and California. The Hoover Dam
covers about 157,900 acres or 247 square miles.
alone generates more than 4 billion kilowatt-hours
Recreation, although a byproduct of this project,
(kWh) a year. From 1939 to 1949, the Hoover power
constitutes a major use of the lake and the controlled
plant was the world’s largest hydroelectric installa-
flows created by the Hoover and other dams on the
tion; with an installed capacity of 2.08 million kilo-
lower Colorado River today. Lake Mead is one of
watts, it is still one of the country’s largest.
America’s most popular recreational areas, with a
The $165 million-dollar cost of the Hoover Dam
12-month season that attracts more than 9 million visi-
has been repaid, with interest, to the federal treasury
tors each year for swimming, boating, waterskiing, and
through the sale of its power. The Hoover Dam energy
fishing. The lake and its surrounding area are adminis-
is marketed by the Western Area Power Administra-
tered by the National Park Service as part of the Lake
tion to 15 entities in Arizona, California, and Nevada
Mead National Recreation Area, which also includes
under contracts that expired in 2017. More than half,
Lake Mohave downstream from the Hoover Dam.
56 percent, goes to southern California users; Arizona
contractors receive 19 percent; and Nevada users get
The Power Plant
25 percent. The revenues from the sale of this power
There are17 main turbines in the Hoover power plant. now pay for the dam’s operation and maintenance.
The original turbines were all replaced through an The power contractors also paid for the upgrading of
upgrading program between 1986 and 1993. With a the power plant’s nameplate capacity from1.3 million
rated capacity of 2,991,000 horsepower (hp) and two to over 2.0 million kilowatts.
station-service units rated at 3,500 horsepower each
for a plant total of 2,998,000 horsepower, the plant Source: U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
EXAMPLE 9.11
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, there are approximately 213,000
households in Las Vegas. Assuming an annual household electricity con-
sumption of 10,000 kWh, can the Hoover Dam power plant generate enough
electricity for all of the households in Las Vegas?
As we mentioned previously, the Hoover power plant generates 4 billion
kWh a year. Then,
 1 household 
number of households 5 (4 3 10 9 kWh )  5 400,000 households
 10,000 kWh 
Therefore, the answer is yes.
Before You Go On
1. In your own words, explain different approaches used to generate electricity in a hydro-
energy plant.
2. What are the main components of a hydro-energy plant?
LO5 9.5 Biomass

Biomass refers to organic materials such as forest and wood trimmings, plants,
fast growing grasses and trees, crops, or algae grown specifically to be converted
to produce biofuels using different processes. In 2020, biomass accounted for
approximately 39 percent of the renewable energy use in the United States,
with about half coming from wood and wood waste and the other half from
ethanol and municipal waste. We discuss municipal waste and energy recovery
from waste in Chapter 13.
Wood
Throughout history, wood, because of its abundance in many parts of the world,
has been a material of choice for many applications. Wood is a renewable source,
and because of its ease of workability and its strength, it has been used to make
many products. Today, wood is used in a variety of products rang-
ing from telephone poles to toothpicks. Common examples of wood
Wood, ethanol, and biodiesel are products include hardwood flooring, roof trusses, furniture, frames,
called biomass fuels; their energy wall supports, doors, decorative items, window frames, trimming in
is derived from plants, crops, and luxury cars, tongue depressors, clothespins, baseball bats, bowling
animal fats. pins, fishing rods, and wine barrels. Wood is also the main ingredient
used to make various paper products.
9.5 Biomass 295
Victor Soares/Shutterstock.com StanislauV/Shutterstock.com
When burned, wood is considered to be a biomass fuel. Throughout our his-

tory, wood has been used as fuel in stoves and fireplaces. In fact, it was the main
source of energy in the world until the mid-1800s. Table 9.1 shows the timeline
of how wood has been used since 1860. Today, wood is still a major source of
energy for people in many developing countries.
TA B L E 9 . 1 Wood as Fuel—Timeline
1860 Wood was the primary fuel for heating and cooking in homes and businesses and was used for
steam in industries, trains, and boats.
1890 Coal had replaced much of the wood used in steam generation.
1900 Ethanol was competing with gasoline to be the fuel for cars.
1910 Most rural homes were still heated with wood. In urban areas, coal was displacing wood in homes.
1930 Over half of all Americans lived in cities in buildings heated by coal. Rural Americans still heated
and cooked with wood. Diesel and gasoline were firmly established as the fuel for trucks and
automobiles. Street cars ran on electricity. Railroads and boats used coal and diesel fuel.
1950 Electricity and natural gas had replaced wood heat in most homes and commercial buildings.
1974 Some Americans used more wood for heating because of higher energy costs. Some industries
switched from coal to waste wood. The paper and pulp industry also began to install wood and
black liquor boilers for steam and power, displacing fuel oil and coal.
1984 Burlington Electric (Vermont) built a 50-MW, wood-fired plant with electricity production as the
primary purpose. This plant was the first of several built since 1984.
1989 Pilot trials of direct wood-fired gas turbine plants were conducted for the first time in Canada and
in the United States.
1990 The capacity to generate electricity from biomass (not including municipal solid waste) reached
6 GW. Of 190 biomass-fired, electricity-generating facilities, 184 were nonutility generators, mostly
wood and paper.
1994 Successful operation of several biomass gasification tests identified hot gas clean-up as key to
widespread adoption of the technology.
Wood and wood byproducts and waste (e.g., sawdust and scraps) make up
nearly 2 percent of the United States’ energy source. For example, in recent
years, sawdust has been compressed to form pellets—commonly known as
wood pellets—that are burned in heating stoves. Approximately 20 percent
of the wood and wood waste is used for heating homes and cooking. Also, it is
worth noting that wood- and paper-product plants use their own wood waste
as fuel to generate electricity.
Algae
In recent years, much attention has been focused on algae as a biofuel. Algae
are small aquatic organisms that convert sunlight to energy. There are over
100,000 different types of algae. They can be grown in algae farms that are basi-
cally large engineered ponds. Some algae store energy in the form of oil that is
extracted by breaking down the cell structure using solvents or sound waves.
The extracted oil is then further refined to serve as a biofuel. Algae require a
great deal of carbon dioxide to grow, which makes them even more attractive
as a renewable fuel source because they can also remove carbon dioxide from
the atmosphere. For example, algae farms can be placed near power plants or
other sources that produce a lot of carbon dioxide.
Ethanol
Ethanol refers to an alcohol-based fuel made from sugar found in crops such
as corn and sugarcane. Most of the ethanol produced in the United States is
made from corn and is mixed with gasoline. In fact, most of the gasoline sold in
the United States today has approximately 10 percent ethanol by volume and
is marked as E10. At many gas stations in the midwestern region of the United
States, you may see fuel that is marked as E85. This designation represents a fuel
that has 85 percent ethanol mixed with gasoline. Only certain types of vehicles
with flexible-fuel engines can run on fuel that has an ethanol content greater
than 10 percent. Gasoline mixed with ethanol burns cleaner and produces less
pollution. According to the EIA, ethanol fuel production capacity in the United
States totaled 17.3 billion gallons per year as of January 2020. Brazil is the
second largest producer of ethanol, but unlike in the United States, sugarcane
and sugar beets are used to make ethanol.
EXAMPLE 9.12
According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Product Laboratory
test results, premium wood pellets have a net heating value of 13.6 million
Btu per ton. How much wood pellets should be ordered for the house in
Example 7.9 with an annual heating load of 152 3 10 6 Btu/year and a pellet-
burning furnace efficiency of 0.85?
The amount of wood pellets that should be ordered can be
1.5 ton skid 6 ft and estimated from
75 bags 3 inches tall
1 ton skid
~6 ft tall amount of wood pellets
50 bags
~4 ft tall
 (152 3 10 6 Btu/year)   1 ton of wood pellets 
5   13.6 3 10 6 Btu 
 0.85
5 13.15 tons of wood pellets/year
This is a lot of wood pellets! How many 40-pound bags will be
needed to contain this amount? Think about it.
Biodiesel
Biodiesel refers to fuel made from vegetable oils, animal fats, or recycled res-
taurant grease. Most of the biodiesel fuel made in the United States comes from
soybean oil and is commonly mixed with diesel fuel derived from petroleum.
For example, B20 fuel denotes a mixture of 20 percent biodiesel with 80 per-
cent petroleum diesel by volume. The top five countries in the world with the
greatest biodiesel consumption are the United States, Germany, Brazil, France,
and Spain.
Before You Go On
1. How much of the United States’ energy use comes from biomass?
2. How much of the United States’ energy use comes from wood and wood waste?
3. How are wood pellets made?
4. What is algae?
5. What is ethanol?
Biomass
Biodiesel
Algae
Biofuel
LO6 9.6 World Renewable Energy

The trends in installed renewable energy capacity for different regions of the
entire world over the past decade are shown in Figures 9.32 and 9.33. These
trends indicate an increase in installed capacity where Asian and European
regions are leading the world. Moreover, the installed capacity in areas of solar
energy, wind energy, hydropower, and bioenergy for the top ten industrial coun-
tries in the world is shown in Figures 9.34 through 9.37. As shown, China is
leading the world, and the United States is in second or third place in the given
categories.
2,500,000
2,000,000
Asia
MW
1,500,000
Europe
North America
South America
1,000,000
Eurasia
Africa
Oceania
500,000 Middle East
Central America
and the Caribbean
0
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Year
FIGURE 9.32 Trends in installed renewable energy capacity for different regions of the world.
Source: International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA)
2,500,000
Marine
2,000,000 Geothermal
Liquid biofuels
Biogas
MW
1,500,000 Renewable
municipal waste
Solid biofuels
Solar thermal
1,000,000
Solar photovoltaic
Offshore wind
Onshore wind
500,000 Renewable
hydropower
Mixed hydro plants
0
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Year
FIGURE 9.33 Trends in installed renewable energy capacity for the entire world during the past
decade.
Source: International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA)
Solar Energy
300,000
254,355
250,000
Installed capacity (MW)

200,000
150,000
100,000 75,572 67,000

53,783
50,000 39,211
21,600 17,627 16,504 14,575 14,089
0
a
ly
ia
am
n
.S
in
di
e
pa
an
ai
al
Ita
or
U
Ch
In
tn
Sp
Ja
tr
K
ie
us
er
h
V
A
G
ut
So
Top 10 Countries
FIGURE 9.34 The installed capacity of solar energy for the top ten countries in the world.
Source: Data from IRENA
Wind Energy
300,000
281,993
250,000
200,000
150,000
117,744
100,000
62,184
50,000 38,559
27,089 24,665 17,382 17,198
13,577 10,839
0
a
ce
da
ly
il
.S
.K
in
di
an
ai
az
Ita
an
na
U
Ch
In
Sp
U
m
Br
Fr
Ca
er
G
Top 10 Countries
FIGURE 9.35 The installed capacity of wind energy for the top ten countries in the world.
Hydropower (excl. Pumped storage)

400,000
339,840
300,000
200,000
109,318
100,000 83,790 80,884
50,455 45,895
33,003 30,984 28,122 24,169
0
a
il
da
ia
ay
ey
ce
.S
in
di
pa
az
ss
an
na
rk
U
Ch
In
Br
Ja
Ru
or
Tu
Fr
Ca
Top 10 Countries
FIGURE 9.36 The installed capacity of hydropower for the top ten countries in the world.
Bioenergy
20,000
18,687
15,650

15,000
12,372
10,532 10,367
10,000
7,250
5,299
5,000 4,389
3,554 3,383
0
a
en
ly
da
y
.
.S
il
nd
.K
in
di
an
Ita
az
ed
na
U
Ch
In
la
U
m
Br
Sw
Ca
ai
er
Th
G
Top 10 Countries
FIGURE 9.37 The installed capacity of bioenergy for the top ten countries in the world.
S U M M A R Y
LO1 Solar Energy it is in the summer, which results in a lower amount

You should know the basic concepts related to solar of radiation being intercepted by a horizontal surface.
energy: radiation band, direct and diffuse radiation,
and factors that determine how much solar radia- LO2 Solar Systems
tion is available at a location. Solar energy starts with Solar systems can be categorized into active, passive,
the Sun at an average distance of 93 million miles and photovoltaic. There are two basic types of active
(,150 million kilometers) from the Earth. Solar solar heating systems: liquid and air. The liquid systems
radiation can be divided into three bands: ultravio- make use of water, a water-antifreeze mixture, or other
let, visible, and infrared. The visible band comprises liquids to collect solar energy. In such systems, the
about 48 percent of useful radiation for heating, and liquid is heated in a solar collector and then transferred
the infrared makes up the rest. The amount of radia- to a storage system. In contrast, air systems heat the air
tion available at a specific place depends on many in “air collectors” and transport it to storage or a space
factors, including geographical location, season, local using blowers. In moderate climates, solar hot water
landscape and weather, and time of day. As solar systems are also used to heat swimming pools with the
energy passes through the Earth’s atmosphere, some goal of extending the swimming season.
of it is absorbed, some of it is scattered, and some of Passive solar systems do not make use of any
it is reflected by clouds, dust, pollutants, forest fires, mechanical components such as collectors, pumps,
or water vapor. The solar radiation that reaches the blowers, or fans to collect, transport, or distribute
Earth’s surface without being diffused is called direct solar heat to various parts of a building. Instead, a
beam solar radiation. On a clear day at noon when the direct passive solar system uses large glass areas on
Sun appears at its highest point in the sky, the greatest the south wall of a building and a thermal mass to
amount of solar energy reaches a horizontal surface collect the solar energy. The solar energy is stored in
on the Earth. Seasonal effects are also important. interior thick masonry walls and floors of the building
During the winter, the angle of the Sun is lower than during the day and is released at night.
S ummary 301
A photovoltaic system converts light energy the daytime when the energy use is high, the water
directly into electricity. A photovoltaic (PV) cell is is released from the higher elevation storage to the
the backbone of any photovoltaic system. Photovol- lower elevation to produce electricity.
taic cell materials include crystalline, polycrystal-
line, and amorphous silicon. The manufacturers of LO5 Biomass
photovoltaic systems combine cells to form a mod- Biomass refers to organic materials such as forest
ule, and then the modules are combined to form an and wood trimmings, plants, fast-growing grasses
array. A photovoltaic system often consists of bat- and trees, crops, or algae grown specifically to
teries, a charge controller, and an inverter. A charge be converted to produce biofuels using different
controller protects the batteries from overcharging. processes.
An inverter is a device that converts direct cur- Wood is considered a biomass fuel. Through-
rent into alternating current. Photovoltaic systems out our history, wood has been used as fuel in stoves
are classified into standalone, hybrid, or grid-tied and fireplaces. Today, wood is still a major source of
systems. energy for people in many developing countries. In
recent years, sawdust has been compressed to form
LO3 Wind Energy pellets—commonly known as wood pellets—that are
Wind energy is a form of solar energy. Wind speed burned in heating stoves. Also, wood and paper prod-
increases with the vertical distance from the ground, uct plants use their wood waste as fuel to generate
and the power generated by wind is directly propor- electricity.
tional to the speed of the wind cubed. Not all wind Recent attention has focused on algae as a
power can be captured. If that were to happen, the biofuel. Algae are small aquatic organisms that con-
air behind the rotor would have a zero speed, which vert sunlight to energy. They can be grown in algae
would mean that no air is flowing over the blades. Two farms that are basically large engineered ponds. Some
types of wind turbines are used to extract the energy algae store energy in the form of oil that is extracted
from the wind: vertical axis and horizontal axis. Wind by breaking down the cell structure using solvents or
turbines are typically classified as small (< 100 kW), sound waves. The extracted oil is then further refined
intermediate (< 250 kW), and large (250 kW to to serve as biofuel.
8 MW). Ethanol refers to alcohol-based fuel that is made
from sugar found in crops such as corn and sugarcane,
LO4 Hydro-Energy and biodiesel refers to fuel made from vegetable oils,
The power of moving water is converted into electric- animal fats, or recycled restaurant grease. Most of the
ity using a number of techniques including impound- ethanol produced in the United States is made from
ment, diversion, and pumped storage hydropower. corn and is mixed with gasoline, while most of the bio-
The impoundment approach makes use of dams to diesel fuel comes from soybean oil mixed with diesel
store water. The water is guided into water turbines fuel derived from petroleum.
located in hydroelectric power plants housed within
the dam to generate electricity. The diversion technol- LO6 World Renewable Energy
ogy diverts part of the water running through a river The trends in renewable energy indicate an increase
through turbines. This technology does not require a in Asian and European countries’ installed capacity
large dam and makes use of the natural flow of water. during the past decade. Moreover, China is leading
The pumped storage technique pumps the water from the world, with the United States in second or third
a lower elevation and stores it in a higher elevation place in solar energy, wind energy, hydropower, and
at night when the energy demand is low; then during bioenergy generation.
K E Y T E R M S
Active Solar System 270 Horizontal Axis Turbine 282 Photovoltaic System 275
Algae 296 Hybrid System 275 Rotor 282
Betz Limit 283 Hydropower 289 Rotor Solidity 283
Biodiesel 297 Inverter 276 Solar Energy 261
Charge Controller 277 Passive Solar System 274 Stand-Alone System 275
Ethanol 296 Photovoltaic Array 275 Vertical Axis Turbine 282
Grid-Tied System 275 Photovoltaic (PV) Cell 275 Wind Power 285

Visit the website of a photovoltaic module manufacturer,
such as SHARP, and look up the following information for a
new product: the wattage, dimensions, and weight. How
many modules would be needed to provide 4,000 kWh
of electricity per year where you live? How much would
it cost for the array? Also investigate the cost and types
of batteries used in photovoltaic systems to store energy
to be used during cloudy days. Present your findings in
a brief report.
P R O B L E M S
9.1 In January and June, how much solar 9.3 Assume that the solar collector system of
radiation (in kWh/m 2 /day ) on average is Problem 9.2 has an average efficiency of
intercepted by a surface (with an effective 60% during the month of January and 68%
area of 2 m 2 ) that is tilted at an angle equal to during the month of June. On average, how
the latitude of the location for the following many gallons of supply water at 708F could
states: Georgia, Michigan, and New Mexico? be heated to 1208F by the system each day
State your assumptions. during each month?
9.2 In the southern region of Arizona, how 9.4 For a solar system located in Colorado,
much solar radiation is intercepted on how many flat-panel solar collectors with
average by two flat plate collectors (with dimensions of 1 m 3 1.5 m and an efficiency
dimensions 1 m 3 1.5 m ) that are tilted at an of 58% would be required to heat up
angle equal to the latitude of their location 80 gallons of water from 658F to 1208F
in the month of January as compared to during the month of January? State your
June? assumptions.
P roblems 303
9.5 In cold climates, solar water-heating A

systems, which use liquids, need protection
from freezing when ambient temperatures
approach 328 F (08C). Basically, there are two
options: (a) use an antifreeze solution, or
(b) drain the water in the collector(s) and the
piping (collector loop) either manually or
automatically. Investigate how these systems
B
operate and give your findings in a brief
report.
9.6 The masonry wall shown in Figure P9.6
is used in passive solar design and is
commonly referred to as a “Trombe” wall in
honor of Felix Trombe, who developed this
concept. Investigate the factors that must
be considered when sizing (determining the
thickness of) the “Trombe” wall. Write a brief FIGURE P9.7
report discussing your findings.
9.9 Assume a photovoltaic system is located in
Colorado with an average solar radiation of
Transparent 6.0 kWh/m 2 /day. How much electricity is
glass generated by a photovoltaic system consisting
(1 or 2 covers) of 12 modules? The system has an efficiency
of 13%, and each module has an effective
area of 1.2 m 2 .
Warm air
9.10 Investigate the current cost ($/kWh) of
Radiant heat generating electricity using photovoltaic
Cool air systems. Compare it to the cost of electricity
provided by the electric company in your
Heat storage wall, area.
usually masonry
9.11 Solar shingles are placed on a roof
(Figure P9.11) in the same way conventional
FIGURE P9.6
roof shingles are. Investigate the pros and
cons of solar shingles and their power outputs.
9.7 What is the efficiency of a photovoltaic Present your findings in a brief report.
module (Figure P9.7) with the following
specifications?
maximum power output 5 250 W (at illumination of 1 kW/m 2 )
maximum
maximumpower
poweroutput
output55250
250WW(at A 5 900
(atillumination
illuminationofofmm
11kW/m
kW/m)2 )
2
AA 55900
900mm
mm B 5 1,400 mm
BB 551,400
1,400mm
mm
9.8 How much electricity is generated by a
photovoltaic system consisting of 14 modules?
The system has an efficiency of 14%, and
each module has an effective area of 1.4 m 2 .
The photovoltaic system is located in New
York with an average solar radiation of
© Bill Brooks/Alamy Stock Photo
4.5 kWh/m 2 /day.
FIGURE P9.11
9.12 How much electricity is generated at wind per pound and a coal-fired power plant has
speeds of 8 m/s, 10 m/s, 12 m/s, and 14 m/s by a an efficiency of 36% and a 6% loss in the
wind turbine that has a blade length of 20 m? transmission lines.
Assume an efficiency of 35% for the system Use the photovoltaic solar electricity potential chart
and an air density of 1.2 kg/m 3. shown on the next page to answer questions given in
9.13 A wind turbine manufacturer states that one Problems 9.21 through 9.25.
of its systems with a blade length of 31 m can 9.21 Estimate how much electricity is generated by
generate 1.3 MW of electricity when the wind a south-oriented photovoltaic system consisting
speed is 14 m/s. What is the efficiency of this of 16 modules located in the southern part of
system? Note: The density of air is 1.2 kg/m 3. Spain. The system has an efficiency of 13%, and
9.14 How much electricity is generated at wind each module has an effective area of 1.4 m 2 .
speeds of 8 m/s, 10 m/s, 12 m/s, and 14 m/s by a 9.22 For the system given in Problem 9.21, how
wind turbine that has a blade length of 50 m? much electricity will be generated if the
Assume an efficiency of 37% for the system photovoltaic system is located in the northern
and an air density of 1.2 kg/m 3. part of Sweden?
9.15 Investigate the current cost ($/kWh) of 9.23 For the system given in Problem 9.21, how
generating electricity using wind power and much electricity will be generated if the
compare it to the cost of electricity provided by photovoltaic system is located in the northern
the electric company in your area. part of France?
9.16 The Hoover Dam generates more than 9.24 Estimate how much electricity is generated by
4 billion kWh a year. How many 18.5-W LED a south-oriented photovoltaic system consisting
light bulbs could be powered in a year by the of 20 modules located in the northern part
Hoover Dam’s power plant? of Poland. The system has an efficiency of
9.17 How much coal must be burned in a steam 14%, and each module has an effective area of
power plant with a thermal efficiency of 34% to 1.4 m 2 .
generate enough power to equal the 4 billion 9.25 For the system given in Problem 9.24, how
kWh a year generated by the Hoover Dam? much electricity will be generated if the
9.18 In 2014, in the United States, 23% of the photovoltaic system is located in the northern
9.6 quadrillion Btu of renewable energy came part of Italy?
from wood, wood byproducts, and waste (e.g., Use Table 6.2 and Figures 9.34 through 9.37 to answer
sawdust and scraps). Estimate the number of Problems 9.26 through 9.30.
cords of wood that would have the equivalent 9.26 According to the United Nations, China had a
energy content. State your assumptions. population of 1,439,323,776 in 2020 (mid-year).
9.19 In 2014, in the United States, 4% of the What fraction of the electricity demand from
9.6 quadrillion Btu of renewable energy came China’s population is met by solar energy, wind
from solar systems. How much coal is saved energy, hydropower, and bioenergy?
(not consumed) because of the solar energy 9.27 According to the United Nations, Germany
segment? Assume coal has an average energy had a population of 83,783,942 people in 2020
content of 10,000 Btu per pound and a coal- (mid-year). What fraction of the electricity
fired power plant has an efficiency of 36% and demand from Germany’s population is met
a 6% loss in the transmission lines. by solar energy, wind energy, hydropower, and
9.20 In 2014, in the United States, 26% of the bioenergy?
9.6 quadrillion Btu of renewable energy 9.28 The United States population is estimated
came from hydroelectric plants. How much at 331,000,000 people. What fraction of the
coal is saved (not consumed) because of electricity demand from the U.S. population is
the hydroelectric plants? Assume coal has met by solar energy, wind energy, hydropower,
an average energy content of 10,000 Btu and bioenergy?
P roblems 305
9.1
Source: European Union PVGIS
9.29 According to the United Nations, India had a 9.30 According to the United Nations, Brazil had a
population of 1,380,004,385 in 2020 (mid-year). population of 212,559,417 in 2020 (mid-year).
What fraction of the electricity demand from What fraction of the electricity demand from
India’s population is met by solar energy, wind Brazil’s population is met by bioenergy?
energy, hydropower, and bioenergy?
Library of Congress Prints and Photographs
“The future is not

Division Washington, D.C. 20540 USA
in the hands of fate

but ours.”—Jules
Jusserand (1855–1932)
Environment
PA RT
3
I
n Part Three of this book, we focus on the environment and introduce you to
important concepts related to air, water, natural resources, and municipal and
industrial waste. We emphasize that our earth has finite resources and provide
general information about the atmosphere, weather, and climate, along with outdoor
and indoor air quality standards. We also cover water resources, water quality stan-
dards, and water consumption rates in our homes, agriculture, and the industrial and
manufacturing sectors of our society. Moreover, we provide a detailed understanding
of common materials that are used to make products and structures in addition to
discussing waste and recycling.
CHAPTER 10 Air and Air Quality Standards

CHAPTER 11 Water Resources, Consumption Rates, and Quality Standards
CHAPTER 12 Understanding the Materials We Use in Our Daily Lives
CHAPTER 13 Municipal and Industrial Waste and Recycling
307
CHA P T E R
10
Air and Air Quality Standards
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
LO1 Atmosphere, Weather, and Climate: describe the
Earth’s atmosphere and its different layers; explain
the difference between weather and climate
LO2 Outdoor Air Quality Standards in the United States:
understand the sources of outdoor air pollution and
be familiar with the EPA’s standards
LO3 Indoor Air Quality Standards in the United States:
understand the sources of indoor air pollution and
be familiar with the EPA’s standards
LO4 Global Air Quality Issues: understand global air
quality issues
Bohbeh/Shutterstock.com, Hung Chung Chih/Shutterstock.com,

Topseller/Shutterstock.com, Matt Howard/Shutterstock.com, GT2/Shutterstock.com
Discussion Starter
Comparison of growth areas and emissions, 1970–2019
280%
260% Gross domestic product
285%
240%
220%
200% Vehicle miles traveled
180% 195%
160%
140% Population
120%
100%
80% Energy consumption
60%
60%
40% 48%
20%
25% CO2 emissions
0%
–20%
–40% Aggregate emissions
–60% –77% (six common pollutants)
–80%
1970
1980
1990
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019 Year
Derek Hatfield/Shutterstock.com, Ddisq/Shutterstock.com, thechatat/Shutterstock.com, mrstam/Shutterstock.com, Alexander Ishchenko/Shutterstock.com,
Vadim Petrakov/Shutterstock.com
T
he U.S. Environmental Protection Agency increased 195 percent, energy consumption
(EPA) uses annual emission estimates to increased 48 percent, and the population grew
indicate the effectiveness of its programs. by 60 percent. During the same time period, total
The EPA graph here shows the relationship emissions of the six principal air pollutants (to be
between growth and pollution. Between 1970 discussed in this chapter) dropped by 77 percent.
and 2019, the United States gross domestic prod-
Source: EPA, Air Quality Trends, www.epa.gov/air-trends
uct increased 285 percent, vehicle miles traveled
To the Students: How do you see the relationship between population

growth and air quality changing? Can we increase our population, standard of
living, and energy consumption while also reducing CO₂ emissions?
LO1 10.1 Atmosphere, Weather, and Climate

We all need air and water to sustain life. The Earth’s atmosphere, which is
commonly referred to as air, is a mixture of approximately 78 percent nitrogen,
21 percent oxygen, and less than 1 percent argon. Small amounts of other
gases are also present in the Earth’s atmosphere, including carbon dioxide, sul-
fur dioxide, and nitrogen oxide. The atmosphere also contains water vapor.
The concentration level of these gases depends on the altitude and geographi-
cal location. At higher altitudes (10 to 50 km), the Earth’s atmosphere also
310 CHAPTER 10 Air and Air Quality Standards
contains ozone. Even though these gases make up a small per-

Air is a mixture of mostly centage of the Earth’s atmosphere, they play a significant role in
nitrogen, oxygen, and small maintaining a thermally comfortable environment for humans
amounts of other gases, such and other living species. For example, ozone absorbs most of the
as argon, carbon dioxide, sulfur ultraviolet radiation arriving from the sun that could harm us.
dioxide, and nitrogen oxide. Carbon dioxide plays an important role in sustaining plant life; how-
ever, if the atmosphere contains too much carbon dioxide, it does not
allow the Earth to cool down effectively by radiation. Water vapor
in the atmosphere (in the form of clouds) allows for the transportation of water
from the oceans to land in the form of rain and snow. We discuss the water cycle
in greater detail in Chapter 11.
The air surrounding the Earth is divided into four distinct regions: tropo-
sphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere (see Figure 10.1). The layer
of air closest to the Earth’s surface is the troposphere, which plays an important
role in shaping our weather. The radiation from the sun heats the Earth’s sur-
face, which in turn heats the air near the surface. As the air heats up, it moves
km mi
140 87
130 81
eig ht
wi th h
120
a nge 75
e ch Thermosphere
tur
p era
110 Tem 68
100 62
90 56
Mesopause
80 50
Altitude
70 Mesophere 43
60 37
50 Stratopause 31
40 25
30 Stratophere 19
20 12
Tropopause
10 6
Troposphere
0 0
–100 –80 –60 –40 –20 0 20 40 60
Temperature ˚C
FIGURE 10.1 The different layers of the Earth’s atmosphere.

Source: 3d_man/Shutterstock.com, Yeko Photo Studio/Shutterstock.com
away from the Earth’s surface and cools down. As shown in Figure 10.1, the
temperature of the troposphere decreases with altitude. The stratosphere starts
at an altitude of about 20 kilometers (12 miles), and the air temperature in this
region increases with altitude. The reason for the increase in temperature in
the stratosphere is that the ozone in this layer absorbs ultraviolet (UV) radia-
tion, causing the air to warm up. The region above the stratosphere is called the
mesosphere, which contains relatively small amounts of ozone; consequently,
the air temperature decreases again, as shown in Figure 10.1. The last layer of
air surrounding the Earth is called the thermosphere. The temperature in this
layer increases again with altitude because of the absorption of solar radiation
by oxygen molecules.
The Difference between Weather and Climate

News reports often contain terms such as weather conditions or climate change.
What is the difference between weather and climate? Well, the word weather
represents atmospheric conditions, such as temperature, pressure, wind speed,
and moisture level, that occur during a period of hours or days. For example,
a weather report will list an approaching snowstorm or a thunderstorm with
details about temperature, wind speed, and the amount of rain or snow based
on the current conditions.
Climate, on the other hand, represents the average weather conditions over
a long period of time. By “a long period of time,” we mean many decades or
centuries. For example, when we say “Chicago is cold and windy in
winter,” or “Houston is hot and humid in summer,” we are talking
Weather represents atmospheric
about the climate of these cities. Note that even though Chicago may
conditions, such as temperature,
experience a mild winter one year, we know from historical data aver-
that occur during a period of hours aged over many years that the city is cold and windy in winter. Now,
or days. Climate, on the other hand, if Chicago were to experience many consecutive winters that were
represents the average weather mild and calm, we could say that the climate of Chicago is possibly
conditions over a long period of changing. It should be clear from these examples that, when we talk
time (i.e., decades or centuries). about global climate change, we are talking about changes that are
contrary to our expectations.
jessicakirsh/Shutterstock.com
Why is this distinction between weather and climate important to under-

stand? When scientists discuss global climate change, they are talking about a
warming trend—such as the average temperature of the Earth—that is on the
rise. The trend is based on data collected and averaged over many decades. A
warmer Earth temperature also indicates warmer oceans, which in turn means
stronger storms and increased weather anomalies. Next, we discuss a possible
cause of global climate change—greenhouse gases—and how they affect the
Earth’s temperature.
Greenhouse Gases
As mentioned previously, carbon dioxide plays an important role in sustain-
ing plant life; however, if the atmosphere contains too much carbon dioxide,
it will not allow the Earth to cool down effectively by radiation. When solar
energy passes through the Earth’s atmosphere, some of it is absorbed, some of
it is scattered, and some of it is reflected by clouds, dust, pollutants, forest fires,
volcanoes, and/or water vapor in the atmosphere. The solar energy that reaches
the Earth’s surface warms it, and eventually some of the absorbed energy
re-radiates back toward outer space as the Earth’s surface cools down in the
evenings. Many gases present in the atmosphere trap some of this heat, pre-
venting the Earth’s surface and atmosphere from cooling (see Figure 10.2).
The gradual warming of the Earth’s atmosphere is commonly referred to as the
greenhouse effect, and the gases that cause the warming are called greenhouse
gases.
Len Green/Shutterstock.com
Some greenhouse gases occur naturally, while others are made by humans
due to activities such as producing electricity, heating homes, driving cars, mak-
ing goods, and so on. The major greenhouse gases that affect the warming of
the atmosphere include:
• Carbon dioxide (CO2 )
• Methane (CH 4 )
• Nitrous oxide (N 2 O)
Some of the infrared radiation

passes through the atmosphere,
and some is absorbed and reemitted
Some solar radiation is in all directions by greenhouse gas
reflected by the Earth and molecules. The effect of this is to
the atmosphere. warm the Earth’s surface and
lower atmosphere.
Solar radiation
passes through the
clear atmosphere.
Most radiation is absorbed Infrared radiation is

by the Earth’s surface and emitted from the
warms it. Earth’s surface.
FIGURE 10.2 The greenhouse gas effect.

• Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
• Perfluorocarbons (PFCs)
• Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6 )
Carbon dioxide accounts for nearly 80 percent of human-generated greenhouse
gas emissions. The emission of carbon dioxide results primarily from the com-
bustion of gasoline, coal, and natural gas. These fuels are made up of hydrogen
and carbon, and when burned, the carbon in them combines with oxygen in the
air to create carbon dioxide.
Another important concept to understand is that, when a fuel is burned,
the amount of carbon dioxide created varies depending on the carbon content
of the fuel. Compared to gasoline and natural gas, coal creates the most car-
bon dioxide for each unit of energy it produces. Burning fossil fuels also results
in the emission of nitrous oxide, another greenhouse gas. The use of nitrogen
fertilizers leads to the emission of nitrous oxide as well. In Chapter 8, we dis-
cussed energy consumption rates and the types of fuel used by each sector of
the economy. Here it is important to note that although the industrial sector
accounts for a major share of the total energy consumed in the United States,
the transportation sector (with nearly 27 percent of total energy consumption)
emits more carbon dioxide because of its (almost) total reliance on gasoline.
Think about this the next time you drive your car aimlessly!
Methane is another greenhouse gas that is generated by oil and natural gas
operations. It also can be emitted from coal mines, landfills, and agricultural
activities. Other greenhouse gases, such as hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), per-
fluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6 ), are released into the atmo-
sphere due to various industrial activities. Some of these gases are also released
into the atmosphere from slow leaks in refrigeration and air-conditioning units.
A Comparison of the World and United States

Carbon Dioxide Emissions
The total annual world carbon dioxide emissions from the consumption of
energy are shown in Figure 10.3. The carbon dioxide emissions during the period
shown increased from 18,000 million metric tons in 1980 to 33,500 million metric
tons in 2018—a surge of 86 percent! Note that one metric ton is equal to 1,000
kilograms. Take a moment and think about the magnitude of these amounts.
The five countries with the largest emissions are shown in Figure 10.4. In 2018,
as expected, China led the world in CO2 emissions due to its recent rise in
35,000
30,000
25,000
Million metric tons
20,000
15,000
10,000
5,000
0
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
2016
2018 Year
FIGURE 10.3 The annual world total carbon dioxide emissions from consumption of energy.
Source: Data from U.S. Energy Information Administration
10,000
9,000 China
U.S.
8,000 India
7,000 Russia
Million metric tons
Japan
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
2016
2018
Year
FIGURE 10.4 The annual total carbon dioxide emissions from consumption of energy—top five
countries.
25
20
15
Metric tons 10
U.S.
Russia
5 Japan
China
India
0
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
2016
2018
Year
FIGURE 10.5 The annual carbon dioxide emissions per person for selected countries.
manufacturing activities. Also, note that most of the products manufactured in

China are for consumption elsewhere! The annual carbon dioxide emissions per
capita for selected countries are shown in Figure 10.5. Due to its high standard
of living, the United States unsurprisingly leads in this category. Meanwhile, as
its standard of living continues to improve, China’s per capita carbon dioxide
emissions are also on the rise. What do you think could be the future global
consequences if China and India, with almost half of the world population, were
to raise their standards of living to the level of the United States without relying
more on renewable energy sources?
The energy-consumption-related carbon dioxide emissions by sectors of
the United States economy for 2018 (the latest data available) are shown in
Figure 10.6. This bar chart shows the percent of contributions by transportation,
electric power, industrial, residential, and commercial sectors to carbon dioxide
emissions in the United States.
5,142 million metric tons of carbon dioxide
28%
24%
21%
14%
12%
Transportation Electric power Industrial Residential Commercial
FIGURE 10.6 The energy-consumption-related carbon dioxide emissions in the United States for 2018.
Let us now look at the amount of carbon dioxide emitted due to one of our
daily activities: driving. It is important to realize that each gallon (3.78 liters)
of gasoline burned in a car creates nearly 20 pounds (,9 kilograms) of CO2
(see Example 10.1 for more detail). Moreover, assuming that you drive your
car on average 12,000 miles (,19,000 kilometers) annually and assuming a fuel
economy rating of 25 miles per gallon (,10.6 kilometers per liter) for your car,
then each year you are adding 9,600 pounds (4,354 kilograms) of CO2 to the
atmosphere.
Appliances
26%
Vehicles 51%
Heating and
cooling
18%
Waste 5%
Ivonne Wierink/Shutterstock.com, Natan86/Shutterstock.com, leungchopan /
Shutterstock.com, Manatchon/Shutterstock.com
U.S. Department of Energy, Reduce Climate Change, www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/climate.shtml
Fortunately, there are ways we can reduce our greenhouse-gas footprint.

• We can carpool or take public transportation when going to work or
school.
• We can ensure our cars are not running idle for long periods of time, and
we can remind others to do the same.
• We can conserve energy around home and school. For example, turn off
lights in rooms not being used.
• In the winter, we can set the thermostat at 658 F (, 188C) or slightly lower
and wear a sweater to feel warm.
• During the summer, we can set the air-conditioning thermostat at
788 F (, 258C) or slightly higher.
By consuming less energy and driving less, we can help our environment and
reduce air pollution. Next, we use Examples 10.1 through 10.4 to show you how
to estimate CO2 emissions due to personal activities. Hopefully, after you study
these examples carefully, you will think about ways to reduce CO2 emissions by
modifying your behavior.
EXAMPLE 10.1
The next time you get the urge to drive around without any particular des-
tination in mind, think about the following. Every time you drive your car,
20 pounds of carbon dioxide (CO2 ) are produced for every gallon of gasoline
that you burn. A gallon of gasoline has a mass of approximately 6.3 pounds,
O=16 C=12 O=16 and its chemical composition consists of 87 percent carbon and 13 percent
hydrogen. Consequently, the carbon portion of a gallon of gasoline has a
mass of 5.5 pounds (6.3 lbm 3 0.87 5 5.5 lbm). When gasoline is burned,
CO2
hydrogen and carbon separate and mix with oxygen and other constituents
12 + (16 × 2) = 44 in the air; among other byproducts, they form water vapor and carbon diox-
ide. Carbon has an atomic weight of 12, while oxygen has an atomic weight
of 16. When carbon mixes with oxygen to form CO2, the carbon dioxide has
an atomic weight of 44 [12 (from carbon) 1 2 3 16 (from oxygen) 5 44].
Therefore, 27 percent (12 / 44 5 0.27) of the mass of CO2 comes from car-
bon, while the other 73 percent (32 / 44 5 0.73) comes from oxygen. As a
result, every gallon of gasoline that has 5.5 pounds of carbon produces 20
pounds of carbon dioxiode (5.5/ 0.27 5 20). Also remember that, for every
gallon of gasoline you burn, you remove 14.5 pounds of oxygen from the air
that you breathe. Of course, we rely on plants to absorb some of the carbon
dioxide and replenish the lost oxygen!
In a similar fashion, we can show that when a gallon (3.78 liters) of diesel
fuel is burned, approximately 22 pounds (,10 kilograms) of carbon dioxide
(CO2 ) are produced.
EXAMPLE 10.2
According to the U.S. Federal Highway Administration’s recent data, the
average annual miles driven by all age groups and genders is 13,476. Let us
now calculate the amount (in pounds) of CO2 released into the atmosphere
by a car with an average fuel economy rating of 25 miles per gallon.
amount of CO2 released into atmosphere
 miles   1 gallon   20 pounds of CO2 
5  13,476  
 year   25 miles   1 gallon 
5 10,781 pounds of CO2 per year
Maksim Toome/Shutterstock.com
The CO2 emissions produced by specific sources of energy are summarized

in Table 10.1. You can use the data given in Table 10.1 to estimate your CO2
footprint (see Examples 10.3 and 10.4).
TA B L E 1 0 . 1 CO₂ Emissions by the Source of Energy

Source of Energy Pounds of CO₂ Emission (average values)
1 kWh of electricity 1.7
1,000 cubic feet of natural gas 120
1 gallon of gasoline 20
1 gallon of diesel 22
1 gallon of fuel oil 22.5
1 gallon of propane 12.4
Kilograms of CO₂ (average values)
10 cubic meters of natural gas 19.2
1 liter of gasoline 2.4
1 liter of diesel 2.6
1 liter of fuel oil 2.7
1 liter of propane 1.5
EXAMPLE 10.3
In Chapter 5, we showed that you need to burn 8.34 cubic feet (0.24 m 3 ) of
natural gas to heat up 20 gallons (76 liters) of water from room temperature
at 708 F (218C) to 1208 F (498C) to produce enough hot water to take a long
shower. Let’s now calculate the amount (in pounds) of CO2 released
into the atmosphere annually due to taking showers, knowing that
every 1,000 cubic feet of natural gas produces about 120 pounds of
CO2 when burned.
 ft 3 of natural gas   365 days   120 pounds of CO2 
5  8.34   1 year   1,000 ft 3 of natural gas 
 day
Di Studio/Shutterstock.com 5 365 pounds (, 165 kg) of CO2 per year
Note that in this analysis we assume that the hot water heater is
100 percent efficient; otherwise, more energy is required and consequently
more CO2 is produced.
EXAMPLE 10.4
In the United States, every kilowatt-hour of electricity generated in a power
plant produces approximately 1.7 pounds of CO2 on average. In Chapter 6,
we showed that when you watch a 46-inch-LCD TV that consumes
250 watts (W) for 4 hours, you consume 1,000 watt-hours (Wh) or 1 kilo-
watt-hour (kWh) of energy. Let us now calculate the amount (in pounds)
of CO2 released into the atmosphere annually due to watching TV. Let us
assume you leave your TV on (whether you watch it or not) for 4 hours
every night for 200 nights. The other 165 nights you do other things.
 kWh   200 nights   1.7 pounds of CO2 
5 1  
Pakhnyushchy/Shutterstock.com  night   1 year   1 kWh
5 340 pounds (,154 kilograms) of CO2 per year
Did you ever think that leaving a TV on or surfing the net aimlessly indi-
rectly releases CO2 into the atmosphere?
A typical home in the United States consumes as much as 10,000 kWh of
electricity per year. How many pounds of CO2 are released into the atmo-
sphere annually? For an average Australian home that consumes 6,500 kWh
of electricity annually, how many kilograms of CO2 are released?
In the next section, we discuss the outdoor air quality standards in the
United States.
Before You Go On
1. What do we mean by the word atmosphere?

2. What are the major gases that make up the atmosphere?
3. Which gases in the atmosphere contribute to the greenhouse effect?
4. What is the difference between weather and climate?
5. Which sector of our economy contributes the most to the greenhouse effect?
6. How many pounds of carbon dioxide (CO2) are produced when a gallon of gasoline is
burned? How many kilograms are produced when a liter is burned?
7. How many pounds of carbon dioxide (CO2) are produced when a gallon of diesel fuel is
burned? How many kilograms are produced when a liter is burned?
8. How many pounds of carbon dioxide (CO2) are produced when one kilowatt-hour of electric-
ity is generated? How many kilograms are produced?
Atmosphere
Water vapor
Climate
Weather
Greenhouse gases
Troposphere
Stratosphere
Mesosphere
Thermosphere
LO2 10.2 Outdoor Air Quality Standards in the

United States
The United States has one of the most stringent outdoor air quality standards
in the world. In the United States, sources of outdoor air pollution are classified
into three broad categories: stationary, mobile, and natural sources.
Examples of stationary sources include power plants, factories, and dry
cleaners. The mobile sources of air pollution consist of cars, buses, trucks, planes,
and trains. As the name implies, the sources of natural air pollution include
windblown dust, volcanic eruptions, and forest fires.
Measurement of Pollutants
Sources of outdoor air pollution
The Clean Air Act, which sets the standard for six major air pol-
are classified into stationary
lutants, was signed into law in 1970. The Environmental Protection
(e.g., power plants), mobile Agency (EPA) is responsible for setting standards for the following
(e.g., cars), and natural six major air pollutants: carbon monoxide (CO), lead (Pb), nitrogen
(e.g., windblown dust) sources. dioxide (NO2 ) , ozone (O3 ), sulfur dioxide (SO2 ), and particulate
matter (PM).
Particulate matter (PM) is defined as a mixture of organic and inorganic
solid and liquid particles that are suspended in the air. The components of PM
may include sulfate, nitrates, ammonia, sodium chloride, carbon, and dust. Based
on their size, the particles of PM are classified into the following types.
1. PM 10 —particles with diameters smaller than 10 microns
(1 micron 5 0.001 mm)
2. PM 2.5—particles with diameters smaller than 2.5 microns
Those classified as PM 2.5 create a greater health risk (in the lungs) because of
their size.
Sulfur dioxide (SO2 ) is a colorless gas that has a strong odor. Sulfur dioxide
is released into the atmosphere when we burn fossil fuels in our cars and power
plants.
The EPA measures the concentration levels of these pollutants in many
urban areas and collects air-quality information by an actual measurement of
pollutants from thousands of monitoring sites located throughout the country.
The United States national trends for carbon monoxide (CO), lead (Pb), nitro-
gen dioxide (NO2 ), ozone (O3 ), sulfur dioxide (SO2 ), and particulate matter
(PM) since 1990 are shown in Figures 10.7 through 10.12, respectively. Note that
close examination of these figures shows (on average) a downward trend. For
the most recent data, please visit the EPA website.
Pollution Reduction
According to a study performed by the EPA between 1970 and 1997, the
United States population increased by 31 percent and the vehicle miles trav-
eled increased by 127 percent. During this period, the total emission of air pol-
lutants from stationary and mobile sources decreased by 31 percent because of
improvements made in the efficiency of cars and in industrial practices, along
with the enforcement of the Clean Air Act regulations.
Despite this, there are still millions of people who live in areas with unhealthy
air quality. The EPA is continuously working to set standards and monitor the
Carbon monoxide air quality, 1980–2019 (Annual second maximum 8-hour

average) national trend based on 41 sites
16
14
90% of sites have concentrations below this line
12
Concentration, ppm
10 National standard
8
6
Average among all sites
4
2
0
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
Year
FIGURE 10.7 Carbon monoxide emission trends.

Source: Data from EPA
Lead air quality, 1980–2019 (Annual maximum 3-month

10
9
10% of sites have
8
concentrations
Concentration, μg/m3
7 below this line

6 90% of sites have concentrations below this line
5
4
3
National standard
2
1
0
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
Year
FIGURE 10.8 Lead emission trends.

emission of pollutants that cause acid rain, damage to bodies of water and
fish (there are currently over a thousand bodies of water in the United States
that are under fish consumption advisories), damage to the stratospheric ozone
layer, and damage to our buildings and national parks. The unhealthy air has
more pronounced adverse health effects on children and elderly people. Human
health problems associated with poor air quality include various respiratory
illnesses and heart or lung diseases. Congress passed amendments to the
NO2 air quality, 1980–2019 (Annual 98th percentile of daily max

1-hour average) national trend based on 21 sites
250
200
Concentration, ppb
150
National standard
100
50
10% of sites have concentrations below this line Average among all sites
0
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
Year
FIGURE 10.9 Nitrogen dioxide emission trends.

Ozone air quality, 1980–2019 (Annual 4th maximum of daily max 8-hour
0.15

Concentration, ppb
0.10
0.05
National standard
0
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
Year
FIGURE 10.10 Ozone trends.

Clean Air Act in 1990 that required the EPA to address the effects of many
toxic air pollutants by setting new standards. Since 1997, the EPA has issued
over twenty air standards to be fully implemented. The EPA continues to work
with the individual states in the United States to reduce the amount of sulfur
in fuels and to set more stringent emission standards for cars, buses, trucks, and
power plants.
SO2 air quality, 1980–2019 (annual 99th percentile of daily max

1-hour average) national trend based on 35 sites
350
300
250
Concentration, ppb
200
150
50
0
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
Year
FIGURE 10.11 Sulfur dioxide emission trends.

PM10 air quality, 1990–2019 (Annual 2nd maximum 24-hour

200
180
Concentration, μg/m3
140 90% of sites have concentrations below this line

120
100
80 Average among all sites
60
40
20
0
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
Year
FIGURE 10.12 Particulate matter trends.

We all need to understand that air pollution is a global concern that

not only affects our health but also our climate. Increases in air pollution
in recent years have resulted in the acceleration of global climate change,
leading to several serious natural events. Because we all contribute to this
problem, we need to be aware of the consequences of our lifestyles and find
ways to reduce pollution.
Before You Go On
1. What are the major sources of outdoor air pollution?

2. What are some of the human health problems associated with poor air quality?
PM
SO2
LO3 10.3 Indoor Air Quality Standards in the United

States
In the previous section, we discussed outdoor air pollution and related health
effects. Indoor air pollution can also create health risks. According to EPA stud-
ies of human exposure to air pollutants, indoor levels of pollutants may be two
to five times higher than outdoor levels. Indoor air quality (IAQ) is important
in homes, schools, and workplaces. Because most of us spend approximately
90 percent of our time indoors, indoor air quality is very important to our short-
term and long-term health. Moreover, the lack of good indoor air quality can
cause sickness or discomfort to building occupants, reducing productivity at the
workplace or creating an unfavorable learning environment at school.
Air Quality and Health Issues

Failure to monitor indoor air quality (IAQ) or to prevent indoor air pollution
can also have adverse effects on equipment and the physical appearance of
buildings. In recent years, liability issues related to people who suffer from diz-
ziness, headaches, or other illnesses related to “sick buildings” have become a
concern for building managers. According to the EPA, some common health
symptoms caused by poor indoor air quality include
• Headache, fatigue, and shortness of breath
• Sinus congestion, coughing, and sneezing
• Eye, nose, throat, and skin irritation
• Dizziness and nausea
It is important to note that some of these health symptoms may
The factors that influence be caused by other factors and are not necessarily caused by poor air
indoor air quality include quality. Stress at school, work, or home can also create health prob-
ventilation, household cleaners, lems with symptoms similar to the ones mentioned. Moreover, indi-
synthetic building materials, and viduals react differently to similar problems in their surroundings.
underground sources such as radon. The factors that influence air quality can be classified into several
categories: the heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC)
system; sources of indoor air pollutants; and occupants. In recent years, we have
been exposed to more indoor air pollutants for the following reasons.
1. In order to save energy, we are building air-tight houses that have lower
air infiltration or exfiltration compared to older structures. In addition, the
ventilation rates also have been reduced to save more energy.
2. We are using more synthetic building materials in newly built homes that
can give off harmful vapors.
3. We are using more chemical pollutants, such as pesticides and household
cleaners, indoors.
As shown in Table 10.2, indoor pollutants can be created by sources within
buildings or they can be brought in from outside. It is important to keep in mind
that the level of contaminants within a building can vary with time. For example,
in order to protect floor surfaces from wear and tear in schools and commercial
buildings, it is customary to wax them. During the period when waxing is taking
place, it is possible, based on the type of chemical used, that anyone near the
area might be exposed to harmful vapors. Of course, one simple remedy to this
indoor air problem is to wax the floor late on Friday afternoons to avoid expos-
ing too many occupants to harmful vapors. Moreover, this approach will provide
some time for the vapor to be exhausted out of the building by the ventilation
system over the weekend when the building is not occupied.
TA B L E 1 0 . 2 Typical Sources of Indoor Air Pollutants

Outside Sources Building Equipment Components/Furnishings Other Indoor Sources
Polluted outdoor air HVAC equipment Components Science laboratories;
Pollen, dust, fungal Microbiological growth Microbiological growth on copy and print areas;
spores, industrial in drip pans, ductwork, soiled or water-damaged food preparation areas;
emissions, and coils, and humidifiers; materials; dry traps that allow smoking lounges;
vehicle emissions improper venting of the passage of sewer gas; cleaning materials;
Nearby sources combustion products; materials containing volatile emission from trash
Loading docks, odors and dust or debris in organic compounds, inorganic and pesticides; odors
from dumpsters, ductwork compounds, and damaged and volatile organic
unsanitary debris, Non-HVAC equipment asbestos; and materials that compounds from paint,
and building Emissions from office produce particles (dust) chalk, and adhesives;
exhausts near equipment and Furnishings occupants with
outdoor air intakes emissions from shops, Emissions from new communicable diseases;
Underground labs, and cleaning furnishings and floorings and dry erase markers and
sources processes microbiological growth on or similar pens; insects and
Radon, pesticides, in soiled or water-damaged other pests; and personal
and leakage from furnishings hygiene products
underground storage
tanks
Heating, Ventilation, and Air-Conditioning (HVAC)

Systems
The primary purpose of a well-designed heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning
(HVAC) system is to provide thermal comfort to its occupants. Based on the
building’s heating or cooling load, the air that is circulated through the building
is conditioned by heating, cooling, humidifying, or dehumidifying. The other
important function of a well-designed HVAC system is to filter out contami-
nants or to provide adequate ventilation to dilute air-contaminant levels.
The air flow patterns in and around a building also affect the indoor air qual-
ity. The air flow pattern inside the building is normally created by the HVAC
system. However, the outside air flow around a building envelope that is dic-
tated by wind patterns can also affect the air flow pattern within the building.
When looking at air flow patterns, an important concept to keep in mind is that
air always moves from a high-pressure region to a low-pressure region.
Methods to Manage Contaminants

There are several ways to control the level of contaminants:
1. Source elimination or removal
2. Source substitution
3. Proper ventilation
4. Exposure control
5. Air cleaning
A good example of source elimination is not allowing people to smoke
inside a building or not allowing a car engine to run idle near a building’s
HVAC outdoor air intake. In other words, eliminate the source before it spreads
out! It is important for designers to keep this idea in mind when designing
HVAC systems for a building—this way, they can avoid placing the outdoor
air intakes near loading docks or dumpsters. A good example of source substi-
tution is to use a gentle cleaning product rather than a product that gives off
harmful vapors when cleaning bathrooms, kitchens, or floors. Local exhaust
control means removing the sources of pollutants before they can be spread
through the air distribution system into other areas of a building. Everyday
examples include the use of an exhaust fan in restrooms to force out harmful
contaminants. Fume hoods are another example of local exhaust removal used
in many laboratories.
Clean outdoor air also can be mixed with the inside air to dilute the
contaminated air. The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air
Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) has established a set of codes and
standards for how much fresh outside air must be introduced for various
applications. Air cleaning means removing harmful particulate and gases from
the air as it passes through a cleaning system. There are various methods that
deal with air contaminant removal, including the use of air filters.
Finally, make sure to bring indoor air quality issues to the attention of your
friends, classmates, coworkers, and family. We all need to be aware of our envi-
ronment and do our part to create and maintain a healthy indoor air quality.
EXAMPLE 10.5
When we breathe in the air inside a building, we breathe in pollutants, such
as dust, carbon monoxide, radon, mold spores, and chemical fumes, that also
might be present in the air. Studies have shown that under sedentary condi-
tions, adults breathe in about 7 liters of surrounding air per minute. Let us
now calculate the volume of air that we breathe in a day.
 liters   60 minutes   24 hours 

volume of air in liters =  7
 minute   1 hour   1 day 
= 10,080 liters /day
 liters   60 minutes   24 hours   1 m3 
volume of air in cubic meters =  7 
 minute   1 hour   1 day   1,000 liters 
= 10.1 m 3/day
3
 m 3   3.28 ft 
volume of air in cubic feet =  10.1 = 356 ft 3/ day
 day   1 m 
 ft 3   7.48 gallons 
volume of air in gallons =  356
 day   1 ft 3 
= 2,660 gallons / day
As you can see, we breathe in a large volume of air each day. So it is

imperative that the air that we breathe does not contain pollutants that are
harmful to our health.
Before You Go On
1. What are some common health symptoms that are caused by poor indoor air quality?
2. Give examples of outside sources of indoor air pollutants.
3. Give examples of building equipment that contribute to indoor air pollutants.
4. Explain at least two ways you can control the level of indoor contaminants.
5. Give an example of exposure control.
IAQ
HVAC
LO4 10.4 Global Air Quality Issues

The World Health Organization (WHO) is the authority on global health
matters, including air-quality-related health issues. It is responsible for setting
standards, monitoring these standards, and for providing technical support.
According to the WHO, air pollution is a
major global environmental risk to health
that causes respiratory infections, heart
disease, and lung cancer. Each year, air
pollution causes over one million deaths.
The WHO establishes air quality guide-
lines, assesses health effects of air pollu-
tion, and recommends actions to reduce
health risks. The latest WHO air quality
guidelines recommend limits for the con-
centration of selected air pollutants, such
as particulate matter (PM), ozone (O3 ),
nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ), and sulfur diox-
ide (SO2 ). In Section 10.2, we discussed
particulate matter and its role in outdoor
air pollution. Let us now say a few words
Hung Chung Chih/Shutterstock.com about ozone. The ozone at ground level is
different from the ozone layer that exists in the upper atmosphere that protects
us from the sun’s harmful radiation. The ozone at ground level is created by the
reaction of sunlight with industry and vehicle emissions of pollutants such as
nitrogen oxides. You may have noticed that this effect is more pronounced dur-
ing sunny days. Table 10.3 shows a list of these major air pollutants, the WHO’s
recommended limits, and their adverse health effects. In developing
countries, nearly three billion people still burn wood, crop waste,
According to the World Health coal, and animal dung in open fires in their homes to cook and to
Organization, in developing keep themselves warm. The open fires, along with poor ventilation,
countries, nearly 2 million produce pollutants that are often many times higher than the recom-
premature deaths are attributed to mended values shown in Table 10.3. According to the WHO, nearly
indoor air pollution. seven million people a year die prematurely from illnesses attributed
to air pollution (2019 data). The percentage of deaths from disease
by outdoor and indoor air pollution are shown here.
Death caused by outdoor air pollution:
• 40%—ischemic heart disease;
• 40%—stroke;
• 11%—chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD);
• 6%—lung cancer; and
• 3%—acute lower respiratory infections in children.
Death caused by indoor air pollution:
• 34%—stroke;
• 26%—ischemic heart disease;
• 22%—COPD;
• 12%—acute lower respiratory infections in children; and
• 6%—lung cancer.
10.4 Global Air Quality Issues 329
TA B L E 1 0 . 3 The Outdoor and Indoor Pollutants, the WHO Recommended Limits, and
Their Health Effects (µg = microgram = 10 —6 gram)
Pollutant Limits Causes/Health Effects
PM2.5 Indoor open fire and leaky stoves in developing countries;
10 mg/m3 annual mean;
Industrial activities/vehicles/power production
25 mg/m3 24-hour mean
PM10 20 mg/m3 annual mean;
Cardiovascular and respiratory diseases, lung cancer
Vehicles/industrial activities
O3 100 mg/m3 8-hour mean
Breathing problems, asthma, reduced lung function, lung
diseases, heart disease
Industrial activities/vehicles/power production/human
NO2 40 mg/m3 annual mean; activities
Reduced lung function
Industrial/power production/human activities
SO2 20 mg/m3 24-hour mean; Note: When combined with water, it produces acid rain.
500 mg/m3 10-minute mean
Respiratory problems, reduced lung function, infections of
the respiratory tracts
Before You Go On
1. What does WHO stand for?

2. What are the causes of excessive ozone concentration at ground level?
3. Give examples of health problems that are caused by excessive concentration of ozone at
ground level.
4. Give examples of the causes of PM in developing countries.
S U M M A R Y
LO1 Atmosphere, Weather, and Climate can be divided into four regions: troposphere, strato-
You should recall the characteristics of the atmosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere. Weather rep-
sphere, know the difference between climate and resents atmospheric conditions, such as a temperature
weather, and understand the greenhouse effect. Air that occurs during a period of hours or days. Climate,
is a mixture of mostly nitrogen and oxygen, as well as on the other hand, represents the average weather
small amounts of other gases, such as argon, carbon conditions over a long period of time (i.e., decades or
dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxide. The air centuries). Carbon dioxide plays an important role
surrounding the Earth, depending on its temperature, in sustaining plant life; however, if the atmosphere
contains too much carbon dioxide, it does not allow air quality are classified into different categories: the
the Earth to cool down effectively by radiation, result- heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC)
ing in the greenhouse effect. system; sources of indoor air pollutants; and occupants.
In order to save energy, we are building air-tight houses
LO2 Outdoor Air Quality Standards in the with lower ventilation rates and lower air infiltration
United States compared to older structures. We also are using more
The EPA measures the concentration level of pol- synthetic building materials in newly built homes that
lutants in many urban areas and collects air quality sometimes give off harmful vapors. Moreover, we are
information. Sources of outdoor air pollution may using more chemical pollutants, such as pesticides and
be classified into three broad categories: stationary, household c leaners, indoors. As we discussed in this
mobile, and natural sources. The Environmental Pro- chapter, there are several ways to control the level of con-
tection Agency (EPA) is responsible for setting stan- taminants: (1) source elimination or removal, (2) source
dards for six major air pollutants: carbon monoxide substitution, (3) proper v entilation, (4) exposure control,
(CO), lead (Pb), nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ), ozone (O3 ), and (5) air cleaning. It is very important that you bring
sulfur dioxide (SO2 ) , and particulate matter (PM). indoor air quality issues to the attention of your friends,
The EPA is also continuously working to set stan- classmates, coworkers, and family. We all need to be
dards and monitor the emission of pollutants that well-educated in this topic and do our part to create and
cause acid rain, which damages bodies of water and maintain a healthy indoor air quality.
fish, buildings, and national parks. The EPA works
with the individual states to reduce the amount of sul- LO4 Global Air Quality Issues
fur in fuels and set more stringent emission standards The World Health Organization (WHO) is the
for cars, buses, trucks, and power plants. Because we authority on global health matters, including air-
all contribute to air pollution, we need to be aware of quality-related health issues. It is responsible for
the consequences of our lifestyles and find ways to setting air quality standards, monitoring these stan-
reduce pollution. dards, and providing technical support. According to
the WHO, air pollution is a major global environmen-
LO3 Indoor Air Quality Standards in the tal risk to health that causes respiratory infections,
United States heart disease, and lung cancer. Each year, nearly
According to EPA studies of human exposure to 2 million premature deaths are attributed to indoor
air pollutants, the indoor levels of pollutants may air pollution in developing countries. The latest WHO
be many times higher than outdoor levels. Some air-quality guidelines recommend limits for the con-
common health symptoms caused by poor indoor centration of selected air pollutants, such as particu-
air quality include headaches, fatigue, and short- late matter (PM), ozone (O3 ), nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ),
ness of breath. The factors that influence indoor and sulfur dioxide (SO2 ).
K E Y T E R M S
Atmosphere 309 Lead 320 Sulfur Dioxide 320

Carbon Dioxide 310 Major Air Pollutants 320 Thermosphere 311
Carbon Monoxide 320 Mesosphere 311 Troposphere 310
Climate 311 Nitrogen Dioxide 320 Weather 311
Environmental Protection Agency Outdoor Air Quality 320 World Health Organization
(EPA) 320 Ozone 328 (WHO) 328
Greenhouse Gases 312 Particulate Matter (PM) 320
Indoor Air Quality 324 Stratosphere 311
Problems 331

Each of you is to estimate how much carbon
dioxide you produce annually due to driv-
ing your cars. If you do not have a car, make
estimates for a family member or friend’s
vehicle. Write a brief report and state all your
assumptions. Discuss your possible life-time
production.
Maksim Toome/Shutterstock.com
P R O B L E M S
10.1 We can reduce the amount of CO2 released of CO2 released into the atmosphere for a
into the atmosphere by designing cars million homes with an annual consumption of
with improved fuel economy ratings. What 7,000 kWh.
would be the reduction in pounds of CO2 10.7 What would be the reduction in pounds
released into the atmosphere by a car with an (or kg) of CO2 released into the atmosphere
improved fuel economy rating of 10 mpg if 100 million people walked 3 miles (,5 km)
(,4 km/L)? Assume the car is driven a day instead of driving their cars? Present
12,000 miles (,19,000 km) annually. your results on a daily, weekly, monthly, and
10.2 We can reduce the amount of CO2 released yearly basis.
into the atmosphere by driving our cars less. 10.8 The U.S. Federal Highway Administration’s
What would be the reduction in pounds of recent data regarding the average annual
CO2 released into the atmosphere by a car miles driven per driver by age group is shown
that is driven 10,000 miles (16,000 km) per in the accompanying table.
year instead of 12,000 miles (19,000 km) per
year? State your assumptions. Age Male Female Average
10.3 For Example 10.3, what would be the 16–19 8,206 6,873 7,624
addition in pounds of CO2 released into the 20–34 17,976 12,004 15,098
atmosphere if the hot water heater had an
35–54 18,858 11,464 15,291
efficiency of 85%?
55–64 15,859 7,780 11,972
10.4 For Example 10.4, what would be the
651 10,304 4,785 7,646
reduction in pounds of CO2 released into the
atmosphere if the TV consumed 150 W? Average 16,550 10,142 13,476
10.5 Estimate the annual reduction in pounds Assume an average fuel economy of 25 miles
(or kilograms) of CO2 released into the per gallon, and calculate the amount of CO2
atmosphere if a home that uses 1,500 kWh for released into the atmosphere by gender and
lighting replaces the current system with one age group. Present your results in a similar
that is 20% more efficient. tabular form.
10.6 Homes in the United States consume on 10.9 In the northeastern section of the United
average anywhere between 4,000 kWh and States, many homes during the winter months
10,000 kWh annually. Calculate the amount are heated by furnaces that burn fuel oil.
Calculate the amount of CO2 released into 10.20 Investigate the health effects of emissions
the atmosphere by 100,000 homes if each from new furnishings and floorings. Present
house consumes on average 800 gallons of your findings in a brief report.
fuel oil during this period. Use the figure below to answer questions given in
10.10 In many areas where natural gas lines are Problems 10.21 through 10.25.
not available, homes are heated during the 10.21 Investigate what factors have contributed to
winter months by furnaces that burn propane. the downward trend in recent years in the
Calculate the amount of CO2 released into annual total CO2 emissions in the EU-27
the atmosphere by 100,000 homes if each region. Write a brief report to present your
house consumes on average 600 gallons of findings.
propane during this period.
10.22 Investigate what factors have contributed
10.11 Estimate your annual electrical energy to the upward trend in recent years in the
consumption in kWh and the corresponding annual total CO2 emissions in China. Write a
CO2 emissions. State all your assumptions. brief report to present your findings.
10.12 Estimate your annual electrical energy 10.23 Investigate what factors have contributed
consumption in kWh due to the use of your to the upward trend in recent years in the
electronic devices (e.g., laptop, tablet, TV) annual total CO2 emissions in Asia (excluding
and the corresponding CO2 emissions. State China and India). Write a brief report to
all your assumptions. present your findings.
10.13 Estimate how much water you consume when 10.24 Investigate what factors have contributed to
taking a hot shower, and calculate the amount the downward trend in recent years in the
of CO2 released into the atmosphere due to annual total CO2 emissions in the United
this activity annually. States. Write a brief report to present your
10.14 Suggest practical ways by which you can reduce findings.
the amount of carbon dioxide that is released 10.25 Investigate what factors have contributed to
into the atmosphere due to your activities. the downward trend in recent years in the
10.15 In order to reduce the level of carbon oxides annual total CO2 emissions in South America.
pollution, a community has banned the Write a brief report to present your findings.
recreational use of a wood-burning fireplace.
State arguments in favor and against the proposal. Annual total CO2 emissions for selected regions/countries
30
10.16 Investigate the quality of air in Beijing,
Asia (excl. China & India)
China. How does it compare to a city like China
25
Los Angeles, California, or your own town or South America
United States
city? Discuss your findings in a brief report. EU-27
20
10.17 Suggest practical ways by which you can
Billion Tonnes
reduce indoor air pollution caused by your 15

activities.
10.18 Investigate the health effects of radon gas 10
emissions in buildings. Present your findings
in a brief report. 5
10.19 Investigate the health effects of emissions

from office equipment (e.g., printers, copiers, 0
1750 1775 1800 1825 1850 1875 1900 1925 1950 1975 2000
computers). Present your findings in a brief Year
report.
Source: Data from Global Carbon Project
P roblems 333
Whitman Studio, photographer. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs

Division Washington, D.C. 20540 USA
“Science may have found a cure

for most evils; but it has found no
remedy for the worst of them all—
the apathy of human beings.”
—Helen Keller (1880–1968)
CHA P T E R
11
Water Resources, Consumption
Rates, and Quality Standards
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
LO1 Water—Basic Concepts: know about basic water concepts
and become familiar with water resources terminology
LO2 Personal Water Consumption: describe how much water
we consume through our daily activities
LO3 Water Consumption in Agriculture, Commercial, and
Industrial Sectors: know how much water is consumed
in agriculture, commercial, and industrial sectors
LO4 Drinking Water Standards in the United States: describe
the basic drinking water standards in the United States
LO5 Global Water Quality Issues: understand the lack
of drinking water in developing countries and the
sanitation-related health issues
Dariya92300/Shutterstock.com, herjua/Shutterstock.com, Toa55/Shutterstock.com,

lendy16/Shutterstock.com, Ulrich Mueller/Shutterstock.com, Mikadun/Shutterstock.com
Discussion Starter
Water Statistics
The United Nations (UN) suggests that each per- In 2017, 3 billion people (40 percent of the world’s
son needs 20 to 50 liters of safe, fresh water a day population) did not have access to basic hand-
to ensure their basic needs for drinking, cooking, washing facilities.
and cleaning.
Source: 2020 UN Water Summary Progress
Source: World Water Assessment Program (WWAP)
Diarrheal disease can be prevented through safe
In 2017, 2.2 billion people (29 percent of the and fresh drinking water and adequate sanitation
world’s population) lacked access to safe drinking and hygiene. Yet, globally, nearly 1.7 billion chil-
water. dren become ill or die due to diarrhea every year.
Source: 2020 UN Water Summary Progress Source: World Health Organization (WHO), 2017 diarrhea disease key facts
In 2017, 4.2 billion people (55 percent of the Water stress occurs when the demand for safe
world’s population) lacked safely managed sani- water exceeds the supply in a given area for a
tation, of which 2 billion people lacked even basic certain period. In 2017, 2.3 billion people lived in
sanitation services. water-stressed countries.
Source: 2020 UN Water Summary Progress Source: 2020 UN Water Summary Progress
To the Students: Have you ever thought about what your life would be like if
you suddenly didn’t have access to water and adequate sanitation for a day or two?
Could you manage? How much water do you think you use for different activities
every day? How much water do you waste?
LO1 11.1 Water—Basic Concepts

You already know that every living thing needs water to sustain life, and water
plays a significant role in our everyday lives. It accounts for nearly 60 percent
of our body weight, and the amount of water that we need to drink depends
on factors such as gender, our activity level, and where we live and work. The
Institute of Medicine recommends that, under moderate conditions and activity,
we should drink about two to three liters of water a day to regulate our body
temperature; flush toxins out of our kidneys; carry nutrients to our body cells;
and moisten tissues in our ears, nose, and throat.
In addition to drinking water, we also need water for other activities, such
as grooming, laundry, cooking, farming, industrial applications, and fire protec-
tion. According to the Water Research Foundation, in the United States we use
about 58.6 gallons of water on average within our homes per capita per day.
The activities that use lots of water include taking showers (,11.1 gallons),
washing clothes (,9.6 gallons), using toilets (,14.2 gallons), and washing dishes
(,0.7 gallon). Faucets and leaks in water systems make up an additional 11.1
and 7.9 gallons of water consumed, respectively. Moreover, the daily indoor per
336 CHAPTER 11 Water Resources, Consumption Rates, and Quality Standards
capita water use is expected to fall to 36.7 gallons in the next few
The total global amount of water years as old toilets and home appliances are replaced.
available is constant—we don’t Although nearly two-thirds of the Earth’s surface is covered with
lose or gain water on the Earth. water, most of this water cannot be consumed directly; it contains
salt and other minerals that must be removed first. To better under-
stand the water cycle, Figure 11.1 is provided. Radiation from the
sun evaporates water; water vapors form into clouds; and (under favorable
conditions), water vapor eventually turns into rain, sleet, hail, or snow and falls
back on the land and into the ocean. On land, depending on the amount of
precipitation, part of the water infiltrates the soil, part of it may be absorbed
by vegetation, and part of it runs as streams or rivers and collects into natural
reservoirs called lakes. Surface water refers to water in reservoirs, lakes, rivers,
and streams. Groundwater, on the other hand, refers to water that has infiltrated
the ground; surface and groundwater eventually return to the ocean, and the
water cycle is completed. In addition to understanding the water cycle, it is also
important to realize that the amount of water that is available to us is constant.
Even though water can change phase from liquid to vapor or from liquid to ice
or snow, the total amount remains constant—we do not lose or gain water on
the Earth. For example, when you take a shower, the water that you use could
end up elsewhere and be used for an entirely different purpose—after it has
been filtered and treated, of course.
FIGURE 11.1 The water cycle.

Source: USGS
Everyone knows that we need water to sustain life, but what you may not
realize is that water plays a significant role in many commercial, industrial, and
agricultural applications. Water is used in all steam power-generating plants to
produce electricity. Fuel is burned in a boiler to generate heat, which in turn
is added to water to change its phase to steam; steam passes through turbine
blades, turning the blades, which in effect run the generator connected to the
turbine, creating electricity. The low-pressure steam liquefies in a condenser and
is pumped through the boiler again, closing a cycle. It is important to under-
stand that in order to cool down the steam (i.e., to change its phase from steam
to liquid water so that it can be pumped back to the boiler), large quantities
of water are drawn into the condenser from nearby rivers or lakes. The water
used by the steam power-generation plants to produce electricity is commonly
classified as a thermoelectric power water supply.
As we discussed in Chapter 9, electricity is also generated by water stored
behind dams. The water is guided into water turbines located in hydroelectric
power plants housed within the dam to generate electricity. Recall that the
potential energy due to height of water stored behind the dam is converted to
kinetic energy (moving energy) as the water flows through and consequently
spins the turbine, which turns the electricity generator.
We also need water to grow fruits, vegetables, nuts, cotton, trees, and so on.
Wells and irrigation channels provide water for farms and agricultural fields.
Large quantities of water are also consumed in mining and industrial activities.
For example, in hydraulic mining, water at high pressure is used to remove
sediment and extract rocks and minerals. Water is also commonly used as a
cooling or cleaning agent in a number of food-processing plants and other
industrial applications. Water is used as a cutting tool as well. High-pressure
water containing abrasive particles is used to cut marble or metals. Thus, water
is not only transported to our homes for our domestic use, but it is also used in
many industrial, agricultural, and mining applications. So you see, understand-
ing how we consume water is very important. As is the case with any new areas
Arina P Habich/Shutterstock.com
you explore, the water resources field has its own terminology.
Therefore, make sure you spend a little time now to familiarize
yourself with the following terms so you can follow the discus-
sions later.
Storm Water When it rains or when ice or snow melts over a

surface, depending on the properties of the surface, the resulting
storm water either is absorbed by the surface or flows over it.
For example, when it rains in a garden, the water is absorbed
by the ground until the soil becomes fully saturated. After the
soil is fully saturated, it can absorb no more water; the water
either accumulates or flows over the surface, depending on its
slope. As you know, water also flows over impervious surfaces,
such as asphalt, concrete parking lots, sidewalks, paved roads,
yexelA/Shutterstock.com
and building rooftops.
Surface Water Water that is available on the surface of

the Earth is called surface water. For example, creeks, rivers,
reservoirs, and lakes are all classified as surface water. A
tributary is a smaller stream or river that flows into a larger
stream or river to eventually create a big river or body of water.
A reservoir represents engineered or natural bodies of water
(such as a lake) that are used to store and control the use and
flow of water. In the United States, reservoirs and lakes cover
approximately 40 million acres (1 acre 5 43,560 square feet).
An estuary represents an area where fresh water and salt
Filip Fuxa/Shutterstock.com water merge—places where rivers meet the ocean or sea.
Wetlands refer to areas that are covered by water during all or
part of a year. The water in wetlands can be present near or at
the surface of the soil.
Aqueduct A conduit that transports water from one location to

another location is called an aqueduct. An example of this is a
conduit that delivers water from a lake at a high elevation (e.g., in
a mountainous area) to a dry region at a lower altitude. Typically,
the water movement is gravity driven from a high elevation to
a low elevation. Be careful not to confuse an aqueduct with a
levee or a dike, which represent engineered or natural ridges or
Four Oaks/Shutterstock.com embankments that run parallel to the edge of a river, stream, or
lake to prevent flooding. Flooding occurs when a stream, river,
lake, sea, or ocean overflows its banks and covers areas that are
inhabited by people. The flood stage denotes the elevation at
which a body of water overflows its banks. Moreover, a flood
plain represents the flat land near a body of water that is affected
during a flood.
Groundwater Water (from rain, melting ice, and snow) that

seeps into the ground and creates wells, springs, or aquifers
is groundwater. An aquifer is a geological storage tank that
contains large quantities of water that we can tap. Geological
Joseph Sohm/Shutterstock.com
formations act as the surfaces and walls of the storage tank.
On the other hand, a water well represents a hole that is excavated to reach
the underground water.
Water Anomalies In recent years, much has been

said about the melting of glaciers due to global climate
change. A glacier represents a relatively large mass of ice
that is created by the compaction of snow due to its own
weight. An ice cap refers to a mass of ice that covers a
land area of less than 50,000 square kilometers, whereas
the term ice sheet is used to refer to areas of ice-covered
land greater than 50,000 square kilometers. Another term
that you may be familiar with is permafrost. Permafrost
refers to the soil that has maintained a temperature below
the freezing point of water 08C for many years. Finally,
geysers represent superheated water eruptions due to
the high pressure and temperature of the water that lies
Poul Riishede/Shutterstock.com
underneath the Earth.
Properties of Water As we mentioned earlier, most of the global water

available cannot be consumed directly because it contains salt and other
minerals that must be removed first. Fresh water refers to water that contains
less than one thousand milligrams of dissolved solids per liter (1,000 mg/L).
Water also can contain substances that would raise its pH value above 7.0 . The
pH value shows the relative acidity of water, with a pH value of 7.0 indicating
neutral; below 7.0 indicating an acidity level (the lower the value, the more
acidity); and above 7.0 indicating an alkaline or basic solution (see Figure 11.2).
Water with pH values greater than 7.0 is usually harmful for agricultural use.
0
1 Battery acid
2 Lemon juice
Increasing 3 Vinegar Acid rain
acidity Adult fish die
4
Fish reproduction affected
5
Normal range of precipitation pH
6
Milk
Neutral
7 Normal range of stream pH
8
Baking soda
9 Sea water
10
Increasing
Milk of Magnesia
alkalinity 11
12 Ammonia
13 Lye
14
FIGURE 11.2 Acidity and alkalinity.

Source: Based on Environment Canada, www.ec.gc.ca/eau-water/default.
asp?lang=En&n=FDF30C16-1
Another water property is hardness, which refers to a measure of concen-

tration of calcium and magnesium in water. For example, from your everyday
experience, you know that when you shower using hard water, you use more
soap; soap does not foam as easily in hard water. Leaching describes a process
where certain materials—nutrients, salts, pesticides, or contaminants—present
in the soil are dissolved in and carried away by water.
Global Water Distribution

Now that you have some basic understanding of water resource terms, let us
consider the distribution of the total available global water. An estimate of the
amount of water available in the world is given in Table 11.1. After you examine
Table 11.1, it should become clear that most of the water resides in the oceans.
Data from Shiklomanov (1993) indicates that 96.5 percent of water
on the Earth resides in oceans, seas, and bays. By some estimates,
Groundwater is the primary source this is equivalent to 321,000,000 cubic miles of water (1,338,000,000
of our water supply. cubic kilometers). The total volume of water available on the Earth
is estimated at about 1.4 billion kilometers cubed (km 3 ). The volume
TA B L E 1 1 . 1 The Water Budget on the Earth

Percent of Percent of
Water Source Water Volume (mi³) Water Volume (km³) Fresh Water Total Water
Oceans, seas, and bays 321,000,000 1,338,000,000 – 96.5
Ice caps, glaciers, and 5,773,000 24,064,000 68.6 1.74

permanent snow
Groundwater 5,614,000 23,400,000 – 1.7
Fresh water 2,526,000 10,530,000 30.1 0.76
Saline 3,088,000 12,870,000 – 0.93
Soil moisture 3,959 16,500 0.05 0.001
Ground ice and permafrost 71,970 300,000 0.86 0.022
Lakes 42,320 176,400 – 0.013
Fresh water 21,830 91,000 0.26 0.007
Saline 20,490 85,400 – 0.007
Atmosphere 3,095 12,900 0.04 0.001
Swamp water 2,752 11,470 0.03 0.0008
Rivers 509 2,120 0.006 0.0002
Biological water 269 1,120 0.003 0.0001

Source: Based on Igor Shiklomanov’s chapter, “World fresh water resources”, in Peter H. Gleick (editor), 1993, Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World’s Fresh Water
Resources (Oxford University Press, New York)
of fresh water is 35 million km 3—about 2.5 percent of the total volume—with

24 million km 3 or 68.6 percent in the form of ice and permanent snow in the
Antarctic and Arctic regions. Ice caps, glaciers, and permanent snow repre-
sent 1.74 percent of the total global water budget, which is equivalent to about
5,773,000 cubic miles of water (24,064,000 cubic kilometers). Groundwater rep-
resents 1.7 percent of the total, which is equivalent to 5,614,000 cubic miles of
water (23,400,000 cubic kilometers).
It is also important to know that even though glaciers and ice caps represent
nearly 70 percent of fresh water, because of their location in Greenland and
Antarctica, the water is not readily available for human consumption. Because
of the lack of easy access to water in glaciers and ice caps, we rely more on
the groundwater and surface water near our cities and towns. Groundwater
represents over 90 percent of the world’s readily available fresh water source,
fresh water lakes contain an additional estimated 91,000 km 3, and rivers contain
2,120 km 3 . To get a feel for the order of magnitude of these numbers where the
quantity of water is represented by one kilometer cubed, imagine a volume
that is defined as 1,000 meters in length (equal to the total length of about 550
people of average height lying down next to each other), 1,000 meters in width,
and 1,000 meters in depth.
EXAMPLE 11.1
As mentioned in Chapter 9, the Hoover Dam is one of the Bureau of
Reclamations’ multipurpose projects on the Colorado River. These proj-
ects control floods; they store water for irrigation, municipal, and indus-
trial use; and they provide hydroelectric power, recreation, and fish and
wildlife habitat. Lake Mead lies behind the Hoover Dam and contains
28,537,000 acre-feet of water. Let us now express this water volume in
gallons and meters cubed (m 3 ).
When following this example, note that an acre-foot is the amount
of water required to cover 1 acre to a depth of 1 ft, one acre is equal to
43,560 ft 2, and 1 ft 3 5 7.48 gallons.
28,537,000 acre-feet of water

 43,560 ft 2   7.48 gallons 
5 (28,537,000 acre)(1 ft of water)   
 1 acre   1 ft 3
5 9.3 3 1012 gallons of water
irisphoto1/Shutterstock.com
28,537,000 acre-feet of water
3
 43,560 ft 2   1 m 
5 (28,537,000 acre)(1 ft of water)   
 1 acre   3.28 ft 
5 35.227 3 10 9 m 3 of water
Think about the magnitude of these numbers: 35 billion cubic meters

or 9,300 billion gallons!
Before You Go On
1. In your own words, explain the water cycle.

2. What do we mean by fresh water?
3. What percentage of the total global water budget is considered fresh water?
4. What is the difference between an aqueduct and a levee or a dike?
5. What do we mean by the term estuary?
Surface water
Tributary
Groundwater
Aquifer
Storm water
Glacier
Permafrost
LO2 11.2 Personal Water Consumption

We now turn our attention to water consumption in our homes due to our daily
activities. In the United States, most of the drinking water comes from surface
water or groundwater. The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) defines a public
water system (PWS) as “one that serves piped water to at least 25 persons or
to 15 service connections for at least 60 days each year.” According to the EPA,
there are over 148,000 public water systems in the United States.
Community water systems (CWS) are public water systems that
On average, inside our homes serve people year-round in their homes. Most people in the United
we use about 60 gallons of water States get their water from a community water system. The EPA
per capita per day in the United also regulates other kinds of public water systems, such as those at
States. schools, campgrounds, factories, and restaurants. It is important to
note that private water supplies, such as wells that serve one or a few
homes, are not regulated by the EPA.
The daily indoor water consumption per capita in the United States is
shown in Figure 11.3. As shown, Americans use the largest amount of water
in flushing toilets, followed by washing clothes and taking showers. Figure 11.3
also shows how this average daily usage has improved over the years due to
conservative measures, such as installing low-flow showers and water-efficient
18.5
Toilets
14.2
15.0
Clothes washers
9.6
11.6
Showers
11.1
10.9
Faucets
11.1
9.5
Leaks
7.9
1.2
Baths
1.5
1.0
Dishwashers
0.7
1.6 1999
Other domestic uses 2016
2.5
FIGURE 11.3 Daily indoor gallons per capita water use in the United States.
Source: Water Research Foundation, Residential End Uses of Water, Version 2: Executive Report
toilets in homes. Before 1992, typical showerheads had flow rates of 5.5 gallons
per minute (gpm). Today, by government mandate, the new showerhead flow
rates cannot exceed more than 2.5 gpm. Today’s low-flow showerheads are
classified as either aerating or laminar flow. To reduce the water flow rate, an
aerating showerhead mixes air with water and creates a mist, whereas a laminar-
flow showerhead creates laminar (no turbulence) streams of water. The aerating
showerheads are not commonly used in humid regions, as they tend to increase
the humidity level at homes more so than the laminar-flow showerheads. Next,
we will discuss what we mean by the terms flow rate and volume flow rate.
Flow Rate or Volume Flow Rate

Flow rate measurements are necessary to determine the amount of water used
in our homes during a specific period of time. City engineers need to know the
daily or monthly volumetric water consumption rates to provide an adequate
supply of water to our homes. Water suppliers also need to know how much
water—how many gallons or cubic meters of water—are used every month by
each home so that they can correctly charge their customers. The volume flow
rate is defined as the volume of the fluid (e.g., water) that flows through a pipe
per unit time:
volume of fluid
volume flow rate 5
time
Some of the more common units for the volume flow rate include liters per
second (L/s), cubic meters per second (m 3/s), cubic meters per day (m 3/day),
gallons per minute (gpm), or gallons per day (gpd). Let us now look at an exam-
ple that shows how to measure the volumetric flow rate of water coming out
of a pipe.
EXAMPLE 11.2
You can use a stopwatch and a one-gallon (or a one-liter) empty milk or
water container to determine the volumetric flow rate of water coming out
of a faucet.
As you place the empty container under the running water, immediately
start the stopwatch. Now imagine that it took 25 seconds to fill the one-gallon
container completely. To calculate the flow rate of the water coming out of
the faucet, you will then perform the following calculations:
step 1
step 2

1 gallon gallons  gallons   60 s  gallons
5 0.04 5  0.04   5 2.4 5 2.4 gpm
25 s s  s   1 minute  minute
EXAMPLE 11.3
New water-saving showerheads
deliver approximately two gal-
lons of water per minute. Assum-
ing that you shower once a day
Sutichak/Shutterstock.com
for five minutes, what is the total
amount of water you consume for
this activity annually?
 gallons   5 minutes   365 days 

amount of water consumed showering 5 2 
 minute   day   year 
 gallons 
5 3,650 
 year 
The flow rate of water coming out of faucets is influenced by the water
pressure inside the pipe. Therefore, as a well-educated citizen, you also need
to understand what we mean by a water pressure of 60 or 80 psi, which are
commonly experienced in water lines at homes in the United States. Pressure
provides a measure of intensity of a force acting over an area. It is defined as
the ratio of a force over a contact surface area as
force
pressure 5 11.1
area
In U.S. Customary units, pressure is usually expressed in pounds per square

inch (psi), which represents the pressure created by a one-pound force over
an area of one inch squared (in 2 ). Therefore, 60 psi represents the pressure for
a situation where 60 pounds is acting over an area of one square inch. If you
had water with a pressure of 60 psi coming out of a pipe with a cross-sectional
area of one square inch and you wanted to block the water flow with a piece of
wood, it would take a force of 60 pounds to prevent the water from coming out.
In the International System (SI) of units, pressure units are expressed in
pascal, where one pascal is the pressure created by one newton force acting
over a surface area of 1 meter squared (m 2 ). In the U.K., the minimum water
pressure is 100 kPa.
EXAMPLE 11.4
To better understand what the magnitude of a pressure represents, consider
the situations shown in Figure 11.4.
Let us first look at the situation depicted in Figure 11.4(a), in which
we lay a solid brick that weighs 6.4 pounds (lbf) or 28 newtons (N) and is
shaped as a rectangular prism with dimensions of 8 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 2 inches (in.)
or 21.6 3 10.2 3 6.4 centimeters (cm) flat on its face. Using Equation (11.1)
for this orientation, the pressure at the contact surface is
force 6.4 lbf lbf
pressure 5 5 5 0.19 2 5 0.19 psi
area (8.5 in.)(4 in.) in
In SI units, this is
force 28 N N
pressure 5 5 5 1,271 2 5 1,271 Pa
area (0.216 m)(0.102 m) m
Note again that one pound per square inch is called one psi, and in SI units,
one newton (N) per square meter is called one pascal (1 N/1 m 2 5 1 Pa).
Now if we were to lay the brick on its end as depicted in Figure 11.4(b), the
pressure due to the weight of the brick becomes
force 6.4 lbf lbf
pressure 5 5 5 0.64 2 5 0.64 psi
area (4 in.)(2.5 in.) in
In SI units, this is
force 28 N N
pressure 5 5 5 4,289 2 5 4,289 Pa
area (0.102 m)(0.064 m) m
(a) (b)
FIGURE 11.4 n experiment demonstrating the concept of

A
pressure: (a) a solid brick resting on its face, and
(b) a solid brick resting on its end. In position
(b), the block creates a higher pressure on the
surface.
It is important to note here that the weight of the brick is 6.4 pound force
(lbf ) or 28 newtons (N) regardless of how it is laid. But the pressure that
is created at the contact surface depends on the magnitude of the contact
surface area. The smaller the contact area, the larger the pressure created
by the same force. You already know this from your everyday experiences.
Which situation would create more pain, pushing (with the same force) on
someone’s arm with a finger or a thumbtack?
EXAMPLE 11.5
Dishwashers—based on whether they are newer or older models—consume
between 6 and 16 gallons of water per cycle. Assuming that a family uses an
older model of a dishwasher (16 gallons per wash) twice a week, what is the
total amount of water consumed by the dishwasher in a year?
amount of water used by dishwasher 5
 gallons   2 cycles (wash)   52 weeks   gallons 
16     5 1,664 
 cycle (wash)   week  year   year 
Many new European dishwashers use less than 10 liters per cycle, which
results in annual water consumption of 1,040 liters.
ppart/Shutterstock.com
EXAMPLE 11.6
Newer clothes washers consume approximately 25 gallons of water per aver-
age load of laundry. Assuming that a family does 6 loads of laundry a week,
what is the total amount of water consumed annually by this activity?
Shell114/Shutterstock.com
amount of water consumed by clothes washer 5

 gallons   6 loads   52 weeks   gallons 
25       5 7,800 
 load   week   year   year 
Many European clothes washers use less than 60 liters of water per aver-
age load, compared to the 25 gallons (95 liters) used by most machines made
in the United States.
EXAMPLE 11.7
An in-bay car-wash system consumes as much as 72 gallons of water per
wash. Assuming that you wash your car once every two weeks, what is the
total amount of water consumed annually by this activity?
Sigur/Shutterstock.com
 gallons   1 wash   52 weeks 

amount of water consumed by car wash 5 72 
 wash   2 weeks   year 
 gallons 
5 1,872 
 year 
Before You Go On
1. What is a public water system?

2. Which one of your daily activities consumes the largest amount of water?
3. In your own words, explain what is meant by a water pressure of 60 psi.
4. How would you measure the volume flow rate of water coming out of a showerhead?
Flow rate
gpm
psi
pascal
LO3 11.3 Water Consumption in Agriculture,

Commercial, and Industrial Sectors
Let us begin this section by considering the United Nations reported data as
it pertains to water, agriculture, and food security as shown in Figure 11.5. If
you study the figure carefully, you should realize that it takes a lot of water to
produce the food that we consume on a daily basis. For example, note that it
takes 1,000 to 3,000 liters (,265 to 800 gallons) of water to produce just one
kilogram (2.2 pounds) of rice or that it takes 13,000 to 15,000 liters (,3,400 to
4,000 gallons) to produce only one kilogram (2.2 pounds) of grain-fed beef.
In addition to food, we have many other needs that require plenty of water.
The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) has been estimating total water consump-
tion in the United States since 1950. They report their findings every five years
for both groundwater and surface water sources. In addition, for bookkeeping
purposes, the USGS groups major water-consuming activities into broad cate-
gories, such as public, domestic, irrigation, livestock, aquaculture, industrial, min-
ing, and thermoelectric power generation, and reports the water-consumption
data for each category.
The total water withdrawal levels and population trends for the United
States during the 1950 to 2015 period are shown in Figure 11.6. Note that the
units of water consumption are expressed in billions of gallons of water per
day. During this period, the water consumption rate does not increase propor-
tionally to the population rise. In other words, the rate of population increase
is not followed by an increase in water consumption rates. In fact, there is a
13 percent decline in the water consumption in 2010 when compared to 2005,
Water, Agriculture, and Food Security
World Population Total World Water Resources

• The daily drinking water 9.7 BILLION
requirement per person is 2 to
4 liters, but it takes 2,000 to 7.8 BILLION
5,000 liters of water to produce 200,000 km3 200,000 km3
one person's daily food.
• It takes 1,000 to 3,000 liters of
water to produce just one kilogram
of rice and 13,000 to 15,000 liters to
produce one kilogram of grain-fed
beef.
• In 2019, the estimated number of
undernourished people worldwide
was 690 million.
• By 2050, the world's water will have 2020 2050 2020 2050
to support the agricultural systems
that will feed and create livelihoods
for an additional 1.9 billion people.
• The extent of land under irrigation in the world is 275 million hectares, which is about 20 percent of all
cropland. Rain-fed agriculture is practiced on the remaining 80 percent of the arable land.
• Due to climate change, Himalayan snow and ice, which provide vast amounts of water for agriculture in
Asia, are expected to decline by 20 percent by 2030.
• Irrigation increases the yields of most crops by 100 to 400 percent, and irrigated agriculture currently
contributes to 40 percent of the world's food production.
FIGURE 11.5 The U.N. data as it pertains to water, agriculture, and food security.
Source: United Nations
Trends in population and fresh water withdrawals by source, 1950–2015

450 350
Groundwater
400 Surface water
300
Total
Withdrawals, in billion gallons per day

350 Population
250
Population, in millions
300
250 200
200 150
150
100
100
50
50
0 0
1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
Year
FIGURE 11.6 The water withdrawal trends in the United States.

Source: Dieter, C.A., Maupin, M.A., Caldwell, R.R., Harris, M.A., Ivahnenko, T.I., Lovelace, J.K., Barber, N.L., and Linsey,
K.S., 2018, Estimated use of water in the United States in 2015: U.S. Geological Survey Circular
and a 9 percent decline in 2015 when compared to 2010. This decline in con-
sumption in the United States may be attributed to conservation measures that
use water more effectively for different activities.
The water consumption by each state is shown in Figure 11.7. As you can
see, California withdraws the largest quantity of water. The states with the larg-
est percentage of water consumption are California, Texas, Idaho, Florida, and
Washin
gton re
ampshi
New H ont
Montana North Dakota Lak
e Superior
Verm Maine
Minnesota
Orego
n L
ak
e
Wisconsin
H
Massachusetts
an
Idaho io
ur
Ontar
South Dakota
Lake Michig
Lake
on
Wyoming Michigan New York

e
Rhode Island
Eri
La
ke Connecticut
Iowa lvania
Nebraska Pennsy New Jersey
Nevad
a Ohio District of Columbia
Utah Illinois Indiana Delaware
West Maryland
Califo Colorado Virginia a
rnia Kansas Missouri Virgini
Kentucky
North
Tennessee Carolina
Arizona EXPLANATION
New Mexico Oklahoma Arkansas South
Carolina Water withdrawals,
Mississippi
in million gallons
Georgia
Alabama per day
Texas 0 to 2,000
Hawaii Louisiana 2,001 to 5,000
5,001 to 10,000
Flo
10,001 to 20,000
rid
a
Alaska U.S. 20,001 to 28,000

Puerto
Virgin
Rico
Islands
FIGURE 11.7 The water withdrawal in each state in 2015.

Arkansas. Twelve states, namely California, Texas, Idaho, Florida, Arkansas, New
York, Illinois, Colorado, North Carolina, Michigan, Montana, and Nebraska,
account for more than 50 percent of the total withdrawals in the United States.
As we mentioned previously, the USGS places major water-consuming
activities into categories and labels them as public, domestic, irrigation, live-
stock, aquaculture, industrial, mining, and thermoelectric power generation. The
water withdrawals in 2015 by each category are shown in Figure 11.8. When
examining this figure, note that thermoelectric power generation, irrigation, and
public supply are among the largest consumers of water in the United States.
The following defined terms are useful when studying Figure 11.8.
It is customary to group major Public supply refers to water that was drawn by public governments.
activities that consume water Most of our domestic water supply (approximately 85 percent) that
we use for drinking, cooking, taking showers, flushing toilets, wash-
into public, domestic, irrigation,
ing dishes and clothes, and watering our lawns is delivered by a pub-
livestock, aquaculture, industrial,
lic supplier. The other 15 percent comes from private wells. Public
mining, and thermoelectric power. suppliers also provide water for businesses, schools, firefighting,
community parks and swimming pools, and for some commercial
applications.
The irrigation category refers to the amount of water that is provided by
engineered systems for agricultural purposes. Areas that lack sufficient rainfall,
such as California, require engineered irrigation systems to grow crops and
fruits. In Figure 11.8, the amount of water used for agricultural activities, such
as dairy operations and feed lots, and to provide drinking water for livestock, is
represented by the livestock category. Aquaculture refers to the farming of fish,
shrimp, and other animals that live in water. The farming of plants and algae
that live in water is also grouped into this category.
The water that is used for industrial purposes, such as making paper, chemi-
cals, or steel, is classified as industrial. Approximately 80 percent of the water
used in this category comes from wells and rivers, and the remaining portion is
publically supplied. The water used for the excavation of rocks and minerals is
classified as mining water. Earlier, we explained that the water used in power
plants to generate electricity is classified as a thermoelectric power supply.
2015 withdrawals by category,

in billion gallons per day
Public supply 39.00
Self-supplied domestic 3.26
Irrigation 118.00
Livestock 2.00
Aquaculture 7.55
Self-supplied industrial 14.80
Mining 4.00
Thermoelectric power 133.00
Total 322 billion gallons per day
FIGURE 11.8 Total water withdrawals in the United States by category (2015 data).
EXAMPLE 11.8
According to the USGS, in 2010, about 355 billion gallons of water per day
were consumed to address various needs in the United States. Let us now
visualize how much water this volume represents in terms of how many
square miles of land can be covered to a depth of 5 feet each year.
When following this example, again note that 1 ft 3 5 7.48 gallons and
1 mile 5 5,280 ft.
 355 3 10 9 gallons   1 ft 3   365 days 

volume 5  
 day   7.48 gallons   year 

 5,280 ft   5,280 ft 
5 ( x miles)  ( x miles)  (5 ft)
 1 mile   1 mile 
And solving for x, we get x 5 352.5 miles.

Think about the amount of water consumed in the United States in 2010
for all activities. The water will cover a square area defined by 352.5 miles by
352.5 miles to a depth of 5 feet!
EXAMPLE 11.9
Referring to Example 11.8, in order to better visualize how much water we
consume in the United States each year, how many hours do you have to
drive your car at 60 miles per hour (mph) to go around the area that is cov-
ered by water to a depth of 5 feet? Can you do it without refilling the gas
tank?
Speed is defined as distance traveled over time. Then, the time that it takes
to cover only one side of the area is given by
distance
speed 5
time
60 miles 352.5 miles
5
hour time (in hours)
Solving for variable time, we get time 5 5.875 hours. To go around the area,
we need to multiply this number by 4 since there are four sides to a square,
which results in 23.5 hours. Therefore, it would take nearly a complete day to
go around the given area that is filled with water to a depth of 5 feet.
As you can tell by now, you would need to refill the gas tank many times
and take some rest stops along the way!
Before You Go On
1. What are the major categories of water consumption? In your own words, explain at least
three categories.
2. Which of the categories discussed in this section consumes the largest amount of water?
3. Which states are among the top water-consuming states? Name at least three states.
4. In your own words, explain what is meant by the aquaculture category.
5. In your own words, explain what is meant by the public supply category.
Thermoelectric power
Aquaculture
LO4 11.4 Drinking Water Standards in the United

States
In Section 11.2, we explained where our tap water comes from. In this section, we
discuss the drinking water standards. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) sets the standards for the maximum level of contaminants that can be in
our drinking water and still be considered safe to drink. The EPA, along with state
and local departments of health and environment, monitors and enforces drinking
water standards. The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) was passed by the United
States Congress in 1974; the highlights of the SDWA are shown in Figure 11.9.
Ilya Andriyanov/Shutterstock.com
As you would expect, human activities and naturally occurring microor-

ganisms contribute to the contaminant level in our water supply. For example,
in agriculture, fertilizers and pesticides or animal waste in large cattle, pig, or
poultry farms contribute to pollution. Other human activities, such as mining,
construction, manufacturing goods, dry cleaning, landfills, and wastewater-
treatment plants, also contribute to pollution. The EPA sets two standards for
the level of water contaminants:
1. Maximum contaminant level goal (MCLG)
The EPA sets two standards for the
2. Maximum contaminant level (MCL)
level of water contaminants: the
maximum contaminant level goal The MCLG represents the maximum level of a given contaminant
and the maximum contaminant in the water that causes no known harmful health effects. On the other
level. It monitors the level of hand, the MCL, which may represent slightly higher levels of contami-
contaminants, such as asbestos, nants in the water, is the level of contaminants that are legally enforce-
cyanide, mercury, lead, and able. The EPA attempts to set the MCL close to the MCLG, but this
goal may not be attainable because of economic or technical reasons.
nitrate, in our water supply.
Examples of drinking water standards are shown in Table 11.2.
11.4 Drinking Water Standards in the United States 353
Highlights of the Safe Drinking Water Act www.epa.gov/sdwa

• Authorizes EPA to set enforceable health standards for
contaminants in drinking water
• Requires public notification of water systems violations and
annual reports (Consumer Confidence Reports) to customers on
contaminants found in their drinking water—www.epa.gov/ccr
• Establishes a federal-state partnership for regulation enforcement
• Includes provisions specifically designed to protect
underground sources of drinking water—www.epa.gov/
sourcewaterprotection
• Requires disinfection of surface water supplies, except those with
pristine, protected sources
• Establishes a multi-billion-dollar state revolving loan fund for
water system upgrades—www.epa.gov/drinkingwatersrf
• Requires an assessment of the vulnerability of all drinking water
sources to contamination—EPA Vulnerability Assessment Fact Sheet
FIGURE 11.9 The highlights of the Safe Drinking Water Act.

Source: Environmental Protection Agency, Drinking Water: Past, Present
and Future, EPA-816-F-00-002
TA B L E 1 1 . 2 Examples of Drinking Water Standards

Contaminant MCLG MCL Source of Contaminant by Industries
Antimony 6 ppb 6 ppb copper smelting, refining, porcelain plumbing fixtures,
petroleum refining plastics, resins, storage batteries
Asbestos 7 M.L. (million 7 M.L. asbestos products, chlorine, asphalt felts and coating, auto
fibers per liter) parts, petroleum refining, plastic pipes
Barium 2 ppm 2 ppm copper smelting, car parts, inorganic pigments, gray ductile
iron, steel works, furnaces, paper mills
Beryllium 4 ppb 4 ppb copper rolling and drawing, nonferrous metal smelting,
aluminum foundries, blast furnaces, petroleum refining
Cadmium 5 ppb 5 ppb zinc and lead smelting, copper smelting, inorganic pigments
Chromium 0.1 ppm 0.1 ppm pulp mills, inorganic pigments, copper smelting, steel works
Copper 1.3 ppm 1.3 ppm primary copper smelting, plastic materials, poultry
slaughtering, prepared feeds
Cyanide 0.2 ppm 0.2 ppm metal heat treating, plating, and polishing
Lead zero 15 ppb lead smelting, steel works and blast furnaces, storage
batteries, china plumbing fixtures
Mercury 2 ppb 2 ppb electric lamps, paper mills
Nickel 0.1 ppm 0.1 ppm petroleum refining, gray iron foundries, primary copper, blast
furnaces, steel
Nitrate 10 ppm 10 ppm nitrogenous fertilizer, fertilizing mixing, paper mills, canned
foods, phosphate fertilizers
Nitrite 1 ppm 1 ppm fertilizers
Selenium 0.05 ppm 0.05 ppm metal coatings, petroleum refining
Thallium 0.5 ppb 2 ppb primary copper smelting, petroleum refining, steel works,
blast furnaces
Source: Environmental Protection Agency, Table of Regulated Drinking Water Contaminants
Viral and Bacterial Contamination Human and animal wastes can

contribute to microbial contamination of water supplies that can lead to
outbreaks of waterborne diseases. Sometimes at water treatment facilities,
some disease-causing microorganisms—commonly known as pathogens—are
not captured by filtration or killed by disinfection means. As a result, when
pathogens find their way into our drinking water supply, they can cause serious
illnesses among seniors, infants, and those with compromised immune systems.
When detected in water supplies, local public health departments issue boiling
water advisories, as shown in Figure 11.10.
Contamination from Fertilizers Excessive levels of nitrate (found in

fertilizers) in drinking water can also cause illness in seniors and infants. In
fact, the “blue baby syndrome” is attributed to high levels of nitrate in tap water
that is used in making baby formula and foods. Water that is contaminated
with nitrate should not be boiled, because when the water boils, some of it
evaporates, resulting in less water with the same amount of nitrate. This results
in a more harmful increase in the concentration level.
Metal Contamination Traces of metals can also be found in our drinking

water supply. For example, lead, which has no nutritional value, can find its way
into our tap water from lead pipes in older buildings or soldering used to connect
pipes. Older homes with lead piping systems can have lead concentration levels
above normal. Lead dissolves into the water running through old pipes; its
concentration depends on factors such as pH level, water temperature, and
water hardness. According to the EPA, “ . . . new homes are also at risk: pipes
legally considered to be ‘lead-free’ may contain up to eight percent lead. These
pipes can leach significant amounts of lead into the water for the first several
months after their installation.” As is the case with water with abnormal levels of
nitrate, water that is contaminated with lead also should not be boiled, because
as explained previously, boiling leads to an increase in the concentration level.
Lead can build up in bones, and concentration levels above 0.015 milligrams
per liter can damage nervous and reproductive systems, resulting in a setback in
mental development and behavioral problems in children. In adults, long-term
exposure can result in kidney problems or high blood pressure. Often, lead
poisoning manifests itself as a blue line in the gums.
Vereshchagin Dmitry/Shutterstock.com
Boil Water Notices for

Microbial Contaminants
When microorganisms, such as

those that indicate fecal contami-
nation, are found in drinking water, water suppliers
are required to issue “Boil Water Notices.” Boiling
water for one minute kills the microorganisms that
cause disease. Therefore, these notices serve as a
precaution to the public.
For more information visit, the U.S. EPA website.
FIGURE 11.10 The EPA’s Boil Water Notices.

Source: Based on Environmental Protection Agency, www.epa.gov/
ground-water-and-drinking-water/emergency-disinfection-drinking-
water, updated February 9, 2021
LO5 11.5 Global Water Quality Issues

The United Nations (UN) estimates nearly 1.5 billion
people depend on groundwater for their drinking water
supply. The United Nations also estimates that approxi-
mately 700 km 3 of groundwater is withdrawn annually
around the world. Rivers with an estimated 263 interna-
tional river basins constitute approximately 45 percent
of the Earth’s surface water. Canada has the most fresh
water lakes in the world (about 50 percent). As a good
global citizen, there are additional important facts that
you need to know about the global water supply. Accord-
ing to the UN Vital Water Graphics Report (excerpts from
John Wollwerth/Shutterstock.com this report are given here):
1. Fresh water resources are unevenly distributed, with much of the water
located far from human populations. Many of the world’s largest river
basins run through thinly populated regions. There are an estimated 263
international rivers, covering 45.3 percent of the land surface of the Earth
(excluding Antarctica).
2. Groundwater represents about 90 percent of the world’s readily
available fresh water resources, and some 1.5 billion people depend upon
groundwater for their drinking water.
3. Agricultural water use accounts for about 75 percent of the total global
consumption—mainly through crop irrigation—while industrial use
accounts for about 20 percent. The remaining 5 percent is used for
domestic purposes.
4. It is estimated that two out of every three people will live in water-
stressed areas by the year 2025. In Africa alone, it is estimated that
25 countries will experience water stress (below 1,700 m 3 per capita per
year) by 2025. Today, 450 million people in 29 countries suffer from water
shortages.
5. Clean water supplies and sanitation remain major problems in many parts
of the world, with 20 percent of the global population lacking access to
safe drinking water. Around 1.1 billion people globally do not have access
to improved water supply sources, while 2.4 billion people do not have
access to any type of improved sanitation facilities. About 2 million people
die every year due to waterborne diseases; most of them are children
less than five years old. A wide variety of human activities also affect the
coastal and marine environment. Population pressures, increasing demand
for space and resources, and poor economic performance all undermine
the sustainable use of our oceans and coastal areas.
6. Serious problems affecting the quality and use of these ecosystems
include the alteration and destruction of habitats and ecosystems. For
example, estimates show that almost 50 percent of the world’s coasts are
threatened by development-related activities. In marine fisheries, most
areas are producing significantly lower yields than in the past. Substantial
increases are never again likely to be recorded for global fish catches.
In contrast, inland and marine aquaculture production is increasing and
now contributes 30 percent of the total global fish yield. The impact of
climate change is projected to include a significant rise in the

According to the World Health level of the world’s oceans. This will cause some low-lying coastal
Organization, each year areas to become completely submerged and will increase human
two million deaths are attributed vulnerability in other areas. Small Island Developing States
to unsafe water, poor sanitation, (SIDS), which are highly dependent upon marine resources, are
and poor hygiene. especially vulnerable, due to both the effects of the sea-level rising
and to changes in marine ecosystems.
The World Health Organization (WHO) is the authority on
global health matters, including water-quality-related health issues. It is respon-
sible for setting standards and for monitoring and providing technical support.
According to the WHO, nearly one billion people lack access to clean drinking
water; as a result, each year millions of deaths are attributed to unsafe water.
The mission of the water sanitation and health division of the World Health
Organization (WHO) is
“The attainment by all peoples of the lowest possible

burden of water and sanitation-related disease
through primary prevention.”
Here are some significant facts about water-related diseases as reported recently
by the WHO.
• Two million annual deaths are attributed to unsafe water, poor sanitation,
and lack of hygiene.
• Nearly 40 countries still report cholera to the WHO. The cholera
bacterium, which is commonly found in water, causes an illness that
infects the intestine with the bacterium. An estimated 1.3 to 4.0 million
cases and 21,000 to 143,000 deaths are reported annually. Symptoms
include diarrhea and vomiting.
• Millions of people are exposed to unsafe levels of naturally occurring
arsenic that causes cancer.
• Malaria causes over 400,000 deaths annually. Malaria is a parasitic
infectious disease that is transmitted by mosquitoes that breed in water.
• Almost 240 million people are infected by parasitic worms that cause
schistosomiasis. This illness causes abdominal pain, blood in stool,
enlarged liver, and an increased risk of bladder cancer.
• Due to unsafe drinking water, sanitation, and hand hygiene, diarrhea is
estimated to kill more than 800,000 people every year.
• Wastewater in agriculture is associated with serious public health risks.
• Four percent of the global disease burden could be prevented by
improving water supply, sanitation, and hygiene.
Source: World Health Organization (WHO)
Underlying issues that add to the challenges in many countries include a

weak infrastructure, an inadequate human resource base, and scarce resources
to improve the situation.
John Wollwerth/Shutterstock.com
Here are some additional troubling facts on sanitation as reported by the

WHO.
• Two billion people do not have access to even basic sanitation facilities,
such as toilets.
• The lack of sanitation facilities forces people to defecate in the open,
in rivers, or near areas where children play or food is prepared, which
increases the risk of transmitting disease. Currently, 673 million people
still practice open defecation. In 10 countries, open defecation is even
increasing due to population growth.
• Examples of diseases transmitted through water contaminated by human
waste include diarrhea, cholera, dysentery, typhoid, and hepatitis A. In
Africa, 115 people die every hour from diseases linked to poor sanitation,
poor hygiene, and contaminated water.
• Health-care facilities need proper sanitation and must practice good
hygiene to control infection. In low- and middle-income countries, nearly
15 percent of patients develop one or more avoidable infections during
stays in health-care facilities.
• Each year more than 200 million people are affected by droughts, floods,
tropical storms, earthquakes, forest fires, and other hazards. Sanitation is
an essential component in emergency response and rehabilitation efforts
to stem the spread of diseases, rebuild basic services in communities, and
help people return to normal daily activities.
• Studies show that improved sanitation reduces diarrhea death rates by a
third. Diarrhea, which is largely preventable, is the second leading cause
of death and a leading cause of malnutrition in children less than five
years old.
• Adequate sanitation encourages children to be at school, particularly girls.
Access to latrines raises school attendance rates for children; an increase
in girls’ enrollment can be attributed to the provision of separate, sanitary
facilities in underdeveloped countries.
• Hygiene education and the promotion of hand washing are simple, cost-
effective measures that can reduce diarrhea cases by up to 45 percent.
Even when ideal sanitation is not available, instituting good hygiene
practices in communities leads to better health. Proper hygiene goes
hand-in-hand with the use of improved facilities to prevent disease.
• The economic benefits of sanitation are persuasive. Every U.S. dollar
invested in improved sanitation translates into an average return of
4.3 dollars. Those benefits are experienced specifically by disadvantaged
children and communities that need them most.
In the discussion opener of this chapter, we asked if you have ever thought
about what your life would be like if you suddenly didn’t have access to water
and adequate sanitation for a day or two. Imagine what it would be like to wake
up tomorrow morning to discover you had no safe water source—nor the ability
to acquire any.
Before You Go On
1. What are the major sources of water contaminants?

2. Explain the difference between the maximum contaminant level goal and maximum
contaminant level.
3. Give examples of industries that contribute to nitrate contamination.
4. Give examples of industries that contribute to asbestos contamination.
5. How do pathogens find their way into our tap water?
6. Would boiling water with excess nitrate levels reduce its concentration?
7. Give examples of diseases that are transmitted through water contaminated by human
waste.
EPA
Pathogen
MCLG
MCL
Summary 359
S U M M A R Y
LO1 Water—Basic Concepts also grouped into this category. Water that is used for
You should be familiar with the water cycle and industrial purposes, such as making paper, chemicals,
realize that the total amount of water available on and steel, is classified as industrial. The water used for
the Earth remains constant. Even though water can the excavation of rocks and minerals is classified as
change its phase from liquid to solid (ice) or from mining water. Finally, the water used in power plants
liquid to vapor, we don’t lose or gain water on the to generate electricity is classified as thermoelectric
Earth. You should be familiar with water resource ter- power. Thermoelectric power generation, irrigation,
minology, such as surface water, groundwater, aqui- and the public supply sectors are among the largest
fer, tributary, estuary, aqueduct, and so on. You also consumers of water in the United States.
should recognize the importance of the distribution
of the total available global water. LO4 Drinking Water Standards in the
United States
LO2 Personal Water Consumption The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) sets
You should be familiar with how much water you con- the standards for the maximum level of contaminants
sume to address your personal needs. It is important to that can be in our drinking water and still be consid-
realize that we use the most amount of water in flushing ered safe to drink. Human activities and naturally
toilets, followed by washing clothes and taking show- occurring microorganisms contribute to the level of
ers. Therefore, we should consider taking conservative contaminants in our water supply. The EPA sets two
measures, such as installing low-flow showers and water- standards for the level of water contaminants: (1) the
efficient toilets in our homes. You should be able to esti- maximum contaminant level goal (MCLG), and (2) the
mate your annual water consumption at home. maximum contaminant level (MCL). The MCLG rep-
resents the maximum level of a given contaminant in
LO3 Water Consumption in Agriculture, the water that causes no known harmful health effects.
Commercial, and Industrial Sectors On the other hand, the MCL, which may represent
slightly higher levels of contaminants in the water, is
The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) has been esti-
the level of contaminants that are legally enforceable.
mating the total water consumption in the United
States since 1950. They report their findings every five
LO5 Global Water Quality Issues
years for both groundwater and surface water sources.
For bookkeeping purposes, the USGS groups major The World Health Organization (WHO) is respon-
water-consuming activities into broad categories, such sible for setting water standards, monitoring the stan-
as public, domestic, irrigation, livestock, aquaculture, dards, and providing technical support. According to
industrial, mining, and thermoelectric power genera- the WHO, nearly one billion people lack access to
tion, and reports the data for each category. The public clean drinking water; as a result, millions of deaths
supply refers to water that was drawn by the govern- are attributed to unsafe water each year. Examples
ment. Most of our domestic water supply is delivered of diseases transmitted through water contaminated
by a public supplier. Public suppliers also provide by human waste include diarrhea, cholera, dysentery,
water for businesses, schools, firefighting, community typhoid, and hepatitis. Diarrhea, which is largely pre-
parks and swimming pools, and (at times) for com- ventable, is the second leading cause of death and a
mercial applications. The irrigation category refers leading cause of malnutrition in children less than five
to the amount of water that was provided by engi- years old. Hygiene education and the promotion of
neered systems for agricultural purposes. The amount hand washing are simple, cost-effective measures that
of water that is used for agricultural activities, such can reduce diarrhea cases by up to 45 percent. Nearly
as dairy operations, feed lots, and providing drinking 40 countries also report cholera to the WHO. An esti-
water for livestock, is represented by the livestock mated 2 billion people still lack access to even basic
category. Aquaculture refers to the farming of spe- sanitation globally. According to the WHO, wastewa-
cies that live in the water, such as fish and shrimp. ter used in agricultural processes is also associated
The farming of plants and algae that live in water is with serious public health risks.
K E Y T E R M S
Aquaculture 350 Geyser 339 Public Water System (PWS) 342

Aqueduct 338 Glacier 339 Reservoir 336
Aquifer 338 Groundwater 336 Storm Water 338
Cholera 356 Hardness 340 Surface Water 336
Community Water System Leaching 340 Thermoelectric Power Water
(CWS) 342 Levee 338 Supply 337
Diarrhea 357 Maximum Contaminant Level Tributary 338
Dike 338 (MCL) 352 Wetlands 338
Estuary 338 Maximum Contaminant Level
Flood 338 Goal (MCLG) 352
Fresh Water 339 Pathogens 354

Each of you is to estimate how
much water you consume each
year for taking showers, flushing
toilets, doing laundry, and wash-
ing dishes. To determine your
shower water consumption:
■■ Obtain a container of a known
volume and time how long it
takes to fill the container.
■■ Calculate the volumetric flow Shell114/Shutterstock.com
Sutichak/Shutterstock.com
rate in gallons per minute

(or liters per minute). Then,
measure the time that you
spend on average when tak-
ing showers. Calculate the
volume of the water you con-
sume on a daily basis. Multi-
ply this daily value by 365 to
get the yearly value.
For the other activities,
look up the size of your toilet ppart/Shutterstock.com Suti Stock Photo/Shutterstock.com
water tank, clothes washing machine, and dishwashing machine. Estimate on average how many times
per day, week, or month you use each of them. Calculate the volume of the water you consume and
determine the yearly value.
Compile your findings into a single, brief report, and present it to the class.
Problems 361
P R O B L E M S
11.1 Assuming that a large family uses a 11.7 Investigate how much water a leaky faucet
dishwasher that uses 10 gallons of water per wastes in one week, one month, and one year.
wash three times a week, what is the total Perform an experiment by placing a container
amount of water consumed by the dishwasher under a leaky faucet and actually measure the
in a year? amount of water accumulated in an hour. You
11.2 An old showerhead delivers approximately can simulate a leaky faucet by not completely
3 gallons of water per minute. Assuming that closing the faucet and letting it drip.
a person showers twice a day for 5 minutes You are to design the experiment. Think
each time, what is the total amount of water about the parameters that you need to
that is consumed for this activity annually? measure. Express your findings in gallons/
11.3 Investigate how low-flow toilets work. day, gallons/week, gallons/month, and gallons/
Estimate how many gallons or liters of year. Also, express your findings in liters/
water could be saved per year by using high- day, liters/week, liters/month, and liters/year.
efficiency toilets for a family of four. At this rate, how much water is wasted by 10
million households with leaky faucets? Write
11.4 A car-wash system consumes 60 gallons of
a brief report to discuss your findings.
water per wash. Assuming that a person
washes their car once every week, what is the 11.8 Using the concepts discussed in this chapter,
total amount of water consumed annually by measure the volumetric flow rate of water out
this activity? of a drinking fountain.
11.5 In the United States, your water consumption 11.9 Visit a home appliance store or go online
charges are typically based on to look up the water consumption of at
least three different brands and sizes of
(a) a monthly administrative fee
dishwashing machines. Create a table
(b) eter charge—depending on the size
m that shows an estimate of annual water
of the line connected to the meter—for consumption for each machine for a family of
example, 5/ 8 inch for residential or 1 to four. State all your assumptions.
4 inches for commercial use; the larger
11.10 Visit a home appliance store or go online to
the line size, the more expensive the
look up the water consumption of at least
meter charge
three clothes-washing machines. Create a
(c) u
sage charge—based on gallons used table that shows an estimate of annual water
per month consumption for each machine for a family of
Moreover, the sewer charge is proportional to four.
the amount of water used in a month. Look 11.11 Investigate household water consumption
up the water and sewer charges for where you rates in Europe and compare them to
live. Express your findings in a brief report. averages for the United States. Discuss your
11.6 Assuming a household water consumption findings in a brief report.
of 70 gallons per day per capita, what was 11.12 Investigate how much water is consumed for
the total amount of water that was consumed irrigation in your state (or country if you live
during 2010 by all of the people in the United outside the United States).
States? (Note: The population of the United
11.13 Investigate how much water is consumed for
States in 2010 was about 309 million people.)
thermoelectric power generation in your state
How much water would have been saved if
(or country if you live outside the United
the per capita consumption was reduced to
States).
60 gallons per day?
11.14 There are over 200,000 water main breaks category in the United States. How much
each year in the United States because the water does this volume represent in terms of
water infrastructure is aging. Investigate square miles of land covered to a depth of 4 ft
what is being done to address this problem each year?
and to create a sustainable national water 11.20 According to the USGS in 2010, about
infrastructure. Discuss your findings in a brief 355 billion gallons of water per day were
report. consumed to address various needs in the
11.15 Investigate how much water is consumed United States. Show that this volume is equal
annually on your campus. Suggest at least to 397,000 thousand acre-feet per year. (Note:
three ways to reduce consumption by An acre-foot is the amount of water required
individuals. Present your results in a brief to cover 1 acre to a depth of 1 ft, 1 acre is
report. equal to 43,560 ft 2 , and 1 ft 3 5 7.48 gallons.)
11.16 Estimate how much water is consumed 11.21 Assume that a family operates a dishwasher
during sporting events (basketball and twice a week that uses 10 liters of water per
football games) on your campus. Suggest wash. What is the total amount of water
ways to reduce consumption. State your consumed by the dishwasher in a year?
assumptions and present your results in a 11.22 Investigate household water consumption
brief report. rates in China, and compare them to averages
11.17 It is recommended that we drink at least for the United States. Discuss your findings in
2 liters of water per day. Estimate how much a brief report.
drinking water you will consume in your 11.23 Investigate household water consumption
lifetime. State your assumptions, and present rates in Australia, and compare them to
your lifetime drinking-water consumption in averages for the United States. Discuss your
both liters and meters cubed (m 3 ) . findings in a brief report.
11.18 Imagine 100 million adults who will live 11.24 Investigate household water consumption
another 65 years. Also assume that each rates in Canada, and compare them to
person would use 0.27 m 3 of water every averages for the United States. Discuss your
day on average. How much water would findings in a brief report.
be consumed by this population over their
11.25 Investigate how much water is consumed
expected remaining lives?
annually in your city or town. Suggest at least
11.19 According to the USGS in 2010, about three ways to reduce consumption. Present
161 billion gallons of water per day were your results in a brief report.
consumed in the thermoelectric power
P roblems 363
Everett–Art/Shutterstock.com
“It is much better to know

something about everything than to
know everything about one thing.”
—Blaise Pascal (1623–1662)
CHA P T E R
12
Understanding the Materials We
Use in Our Daily Lives
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
LO1 Earth—Our Home: describe different layers of the
Earth, its structure, and its properties
LO2 The Phases of Matter and Properties of Materials:
explain the phases of matter and the important
properties of materials
LO3 Metals: describe different metals and their
applications
LO4 Plastics, Glass, Composites, and Wood: describe the
compositions and applications of these materials
LO5 Concrete: describe the basic ingredients of and
construction practices using concrete
Oleksiy Mark/Shutterstock.com, NPeter/Shutterstock.com, Andrey Burmakin/Shutterstock.com,

Fedor Selivanov/Shutterstock.com, karamysh/Shutterstock.com, Alex Ander/Shutterstock.com
Discussion Starter
WHAT IS YOUR SMART PHONE MADE OF?

To make smart phones, manufacturers use precious raw materials that must be extracted and
processed. This consumes natural resources and energy that can affect our air, land, and water,
as well as plants and animals.
A smart phone is made up of various parts

that use a number of materials, such as:
LCD DISPLAYS: Glass, plastic

(made from crude oil),
and liquid crystalline
CIRCUIT BOARDS: Copper, gold,

lead, silver, and palladium
RECHARGEABLE BATTERIES:
Lithium metallic oxide
Source: Based on EPA
A
ccording to the Environmental Protection of copper, 772 pounds (350 kg) of silver, 75 pounds
Agency (EPA), for every one million smart (34 kg) of gold, and 33 pounds (15 kg) of palladium
phones recycled, 35,274 pounds (16,000 kg) are recovered.
To the Students Take a few minutes and think about the furnishings,
appliances, electronic devices, and other products you use every day, including
food and drink containers. Answer the following questions. Justify your answers
with assumptions and simple calculations. How much material—such as metals
(e.g., aluminum, copper, steel), plastics, glass, wood, and concrete—do you think
you would need to consume in your lifetime to maintain a good standard of living?
How much of these materials do you think will be recycled?
366 CHAPTER 12 Understanding the Materials We Use in Our Daily Lives
LO1 12.1 Earth—Our Home

In this chapter, we look more closely at materials that make up the products
that we use every day. We will examine solid materials, such as metals and their
alloys, plastics, glass, and wood, along with those that solidify over time, such
as concrete. First, we need to take a closer look at our home—the Earth—to
better understand where the raw materials used to make products come from.
The Earth is the third planet from the Sun. It has a spherical shape with
a diameter of 7,926.4 miles or 12,756.3 kilometers (km) and an approximate
mass of 13.17 3 10 24 pounds or 5.98 3 10 24 kilograms (kg). To better represent
the Earth’s structure, it is divided into major layers that are located above and
below its surface. For example, the atmosphere represents the air layer that
covers the surface of the Earth. The air extends approximately 90 miles or
140 kilometers (km) from the surface of the Earth to a point called the “edge of
space.” We discussed the atmosphere in detail in Chapter 10. We also explained
the bodies of water that cover the Earth’s surface in Chapter 11.
Our knowledge of what is inside the Earth and its composition continues to
improve with research. Each day we learn from studies of the Earth’s surface
and near-surface rocks, interior heat-transfer rates, gravity and magnetic fields,
and earthquakes. The results of these studies suggest that the Earth’s interior is
made up of different layers with different characteristics, and its mass is com-
posed mostly of iron, oxygen, and silicon (approximately 32 percent
iron, 30 percent oxygen, and 15 percent silicon). Earth also contains
The structure below the Earth’s
other elements, such as sulfur, nickel, magnesium, and aluminum. The
surface is commonly grouped into structure below the Earth’s surface is generally grouped into four
the crust, mantle, outer core, and layers: the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core (see Table 12.1).
inner core. This classification is based on the properties of materials and the
manner by which the materials move or flow.
Inner core
Crust
Outer core
Atmosphere 140 km
Mantle
Crust
6,400 km
Mantle Outer
Inner
core
core
12.1 Earth—Our Home 367
TA B L E 1 2 . 1 The Approximate Mass for Each Layer of the Earth
Percentage of the Earth’s

Approximate Mass (lbm) Approximate Mass (kg) Total Mass
Atmosphere 1.12 3 1019 5.1 3 1018 0.000086
Oceans 3.08 3 1021 1.4 3 1021 0.024
Crust 5.73 3 1022 2.6 3 1022 0.44
Mantle 8.9 3 1024 4.04 3 1024 68.47
Core
Outer core 4.03 3 1024 1.83 3 1024 31.01
Inner core 2.12 3 1023 9.65 3 1022 1.63
The crust makes up about 0.5 percent of the Earth’s total mass and 1 percent
of its volume; because of the ease of access to materials near the crust’s surface,
its composition and structure has been studied extensively. It has a maximum
thickness of approximately 25 miles or 40 kilometers (km). The crust is thicker
under the continents and thinner under the oceanic floors. Scientists have been
able to collect samples of the crust up to a depth of 12 kilometers; however,
because the drilling expenses increase with depth, the progress to deeper loca-
tions has been slow. The Earth’s crust—the oceanic floors and the continents—
is made up of about twelve plates that continuously move at slow rates (a few
centimeters per year). Moreover, the boundaries of these plates (where they
come together) mark regions of earthquake and volcanic activities. Over time,
the collisions of these plates have created mountain ranges around the world.
As shown in Table 12.1, most of the mass of the Earth comes from the
mantle. The mantle is made up of molten rock that lies underneath the crust
and makes up nearly 84 percent of the Earth’s volume. Unlike the crust, what we
know of the mantle’s composition is based on our studies of the propagation of
sound waves, heat flow, earthquakes, and magnetic and gravity fields. Rooted in
these studies and additional investigations is the suggestion that the lower part
of the mantle is made up of iron and magnesium silicate minerals. The mantle
starts approximately 25 miles or 40 kilometers (km) below the Earth’s surface
and extends to a depth of 1,800 miles or 2,900 kilometers.
The inner and outer cores make up about 33 percent of the Earth’s mass and
15 percent of its volume. Our knowledge of the structures of the inner and outer
core comes primarily from the study of the behavior and speed of shear and
compression waves in the core. Based on these studies, the inner core is consid-
ered to be solid, while the outer core is thought to be fluid and composed mainly
of iron. The outer core starts at a depth of 1,800 miles or 2,900 kilometers and
extends to a depth of 3,200 miles or 5,200 kilometers. The inner core is located
between 3,200 and 4,000 miles or 5,200 and 6,400 kilometers below the Earth’s
surface. Let us now consider an example pertaining to this subject.
EXAMPLE 12.1
The volume of a sphere is given by
4
volume 5 p R3
3
where p < 3.14 and R represents the radius of the sphere. In this section,
we said that the inner and outer cores make up about 15 percent of the
Earth’s volume. Using the volume formula for the sphere, let us verify this
number.
4 4
volume of entire Earth 5 p R 3 5 (3.14)(6,400 3 10 3 )3 5 1.1 3 10 21 m 3
3 3
volume of inner and 4 4
5 p R 3 5 (3.14)[6,400 3 10 3 2 2,900 3 10 3 ]3
outer cores 3 3
2,900 km 5 1.8 3 10 20 m 3
volume of inner and outer cores 1.8 3 10 20 m 3
5 < 0.16 or 16%
6,400 km volume of entire Earth 1.1 3 10 21 m 3
Very close to 15 percent!
Before You Go On
1. Name the different layers that make up the Earth.

2. Which layer of the Earth contains the largest amount of mass?
3. Which layer of the Earth is the thickest?
4. What are the major chemical components of the Earth?
Mantle
Oceanic crust
Continental crust
Inner core
Outer core
LO2 12.2 The Phases of Matter and Properties of

Materials
When you look around, you find that matter exists in various forms and shapes.
You also notice that matter changes shape when its conditions or its surround-
ing conditions change. All solid objects, liquids, gases, and living things are made
of matter, and matter itself is made up of atoms or chemical elements. As you
may know, there are 118 known chemical elements to date. Atoms of similar
characteristics are grouped together and shown in the periodic table of chemi-
cal elements (Figure 12.1). Atoms are made up of even smaller particles we call
electrons, protons, and neutrons. In your chemistry class, you will have studied
these ideas in more detail. Atoms are the basic building blocks of all matter.
They are combined naturally or in a laboratory setting to create molecules.
For example, as you already know, water molecules are made of two atoms
of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. A glass of water is made of billions and
billions of homogeneous water molecules. A molecule is the smallest portion
of a given matter that still possesses its microscopic characteristic properties.
Phases of Matter
Matter can exist in four states: solid, liquid, gaseous, and plasma, depending
on its own and its surrounding conditions. Consider the water that we drink
every day. As you already know, under certain conditions, water exists in a solid
form that we call ice. At standard atmospheric pressure, water exists in a
IA VIIIA
1 2
1 H He
1.0079 IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA 4.003
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
6.941 9.012 10.811 12.011 14.007 15.999 18.998 20.180
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg VIIIB Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.990 24.305 IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB IB IIB 26.982 28.086 30.974 32.066 35.453 39.948
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.098 40.078 44.956 47.88 50.942 51.996 54.938 55.845 58.933 58.69 63.546 65.39 69.723 72.61 74.922 78.96 79.904 83.8
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.468 87.62 88.906 91.224 92.906 95.94 98 101.07 102.906 106.42 107.868 112.411 114.82 118.71 121.76 127.60 126.905 131.29
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.905 137.327 138.906 178.49 180.948 183.84 186.207 190.23 192.22 195.08 196.967 200.59 204.383 207.2 208.980 209 210 222
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 114 116 118
7 Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Uun Uuu Uub
223 226.025 227.028 261 262 263 262 265 266 269 272 277
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Lanthanide
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
series 140.115 140.908 144.24 145 150.36 151.964 157.25 158.925 162.5 164.93 167.26 168.934 173.04 174.967
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Actinide
Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
series 232.038 231.036 238.029 237.048 244 243 247 247 251 252 257 258 259 262
FIGURE 12.1 The chemical elements to date (2020).
solid form as long as its temperature is kept under 328 F (08C). Under standard
pressure, if you were to heat the ice and consequently change its temperature,
the ice would melt and change into a liquid form. Under standard atmospheric
pressure, the water remains liquid up to a temperature of 2128 F (1008C) as you
continue heating it. If you were to carry out this experiment
Matter can exist in four states:
further by adding more heat, eventually the water changes its
phase from a liquid into a gas. This phase of water is commonly
solid, liquid, gaseous, or plasma,
referred to as steam. If you had the means to heat the water
depending on its own and the
to even higher temperatures, ones exceeding 3,6008 F (2,0008C),
surrounding conditions. you would find that you can break up the water molecules into
their atoms, and eventually the atoms break up into free
electrons and nuclei that we call plasma.
In general, the properties of a material depend
on its phase. For example, as you know from your
everyday experience, the density of ice is different
from liquid water (ice cubes float in liquid water),
and the density of liquid water is different from that
of steam. Next, we will consider some of the impor-
tant properties of materials.
kubais/Shutterstock.com
Valentyn Volkov/Shutterstock.com focal point/Shutterstock.com
Properties of Materials
Think about all of the products we use in our everyday lives. These products
include TVs, furniture, cars, aircraft, computers, clothing, toys, home appliances,
heating and cooling equipment, health-care devices, and tools and machines
that make various products. Designers of products consider important factors,
such as cost, efficiency, reliability, and safety when designing products, and they
perform tests to make certain that the products they design withstand various
arka38/Shutterstock.com vovan/Shutterstock.com
Alexandru Nika/Shutterstock.com
Oleksandr_Delyk/Shutterstock.com
Oleksiy Mark/Shutterstock.com
risteski goce/Shutterstock.com
Julia Nikitina/Shutterstock.com BassKwong/Shutterstock.com DM7/Shutterstock.com
conditions. Designers also are continuously searching for ways to improve

already existing products, such as cars, cell phones, appliances, and electronics.
Take a moment to think about our infrastructure, including the build-
ings, highways, mass transit systems, airports, communication systems, water
distribution systems, and power plants that supply power to our homes,
manufacturing companies, and offices. All of the raw materials that are used
to make various things come from the Earth. As a result, there are many
people behind the scenes who are responsible for both finding suitable ways
and designing the necessary equipment to extract raw materials, petroleum,
and natural gas from the Earth.
When we use a product, such as a smart phone, an electronic tablet, a car,
a clothes washing machine, an oven, or a refrigerator, we need to be mindful
of what type of materials went into making the product, where the materi-
als came from, how much energy it took to extract the raw materials and
to produce the product, and eventually, what it takes to dispose of it. As we
mentioned previously, there are a number of factors that designers consider
when selecting a material for a specific application. For example, they con-
sider the properties of material, such as density, strength, flexibility, machin-
ability, durability, thermal expansion, electrical and thermal conductivity,
and resistance to corrosion. They also consider the cost of the material.
In general, the properties of a material may be divided into

The properties of a material may three groups: electrical, mechanical, and thermal. In electrical and
be divided into three groups: electronic applications, for example, the electrical resistivity of
electrical, mechanical, and materials, such as a wire, is important. How much resistance to
thermal. the flow of electricity does the material offer? In many structural
and aerospace applications, the mechanical properties of materi-
als are important. These properties include the strength of the
material and strength-to-weight ratio. For example, we want our cars and
planes to be light and yet strong enough to withstand forces. In applications
dealing with fluids (liquids and gases), such as delivering natural gas to our
homes and gasoline to storage facilities, properties like density, viscosity, and
vapor pressure are important. For example, did you know that in order to
reduce smog during summer months, the petroleum refineries are required
to produce gasoline with a lower vapor pressure? This is because the sum-
mer gasoline with the lower vapor pressure will not evaporate as quickly as
the winter gasoline with a higher vapor pressure. The thermal expansion of
materials that make up our roads and bridges is also important because of
the temperature fluctuations that occur from winter to summer.
You may wonder why you need to know about the properties of materials
and have questions similar to the following: “Do I really need to know about
the basic properties of materials?”, “Why is it important for me to learn about
basic properties of materials?”, and “I am not studying to be a designer or an
engineer, so why do I need to know these things?”
Recall from Chapter 1 that, as good global citizens, we need to realize
that the choices we make every day affect all of us. We need to change our
behaviors, especially with respect to the way we consume the finite resources
available on Earth. We need to become lifelong learners so that we can
make informed decisions and anticipate and react to the global changes
caused by technological innovations. Therefore, it is important to have a
basic understanding of material properties so that you can be familiar with
the specifications of a new product and make wise choices
when purchasing it. The meaning of some material properties
is summarized next.
Electrical Resistivity The value of electrical resistivity

is a measure of the resistance of material to the flow of
electricity. For example, plastics and ceramics typically have
high resistivity, whereas metals typically have low resistivity.
Among the best conductors of electricity are silver and
copper. You already know that most electrical wires are
made of copper. The materials with less electrical resistivity
demarcomedia/Shutterstock.com
dissipate less heat and have less loss associated with them
(more energy efficient).
Density Density is defined as mass per unit volume, and is a measure of how
compact the material is for a given volume. For example, the average density
of aluminum alloys is 2,700 kg/m 3 and steel has a density of 7,850 kg/m 3. By
comparison, aluminum has a density that is approximately one-third the density
of steel. It is important to realize that it takes less energy to transport light
products to marketplace than heavy ones.
Roman Samokhin/Shutterstock.com
Tensile Strength The tensile strength of a piece of material is determined

(when pulled) by measuring the maximum tensile load a material specimen in
the shape of a rectangular bar or cylinder can carry without failure. The tensile
strength or ultimate strength of a material is expressed as the maximum tensile
force per unit cross-sectional area of the specimen. For example, steel has a
higher tensile strength than aluminum.
Compression Strength Some materials are stronger in compression (when

pushed) than they are in tension (pulled); concrete is a good example. The
compression strength of a piece of material is determined by measuring the
maximum compressive load a material specimen in the shape of a cylinder or
cube can carry without failure. The ultimate compressive strength of a material
is expressed as the maximum compressive force per unit cross-sectional area
agefotostock/Alamy Stock Photo of the specimen.
Strength-to-Weight Ratio As the term implies, this is the ratio of the strength
of the material to its specific weight (weight of the material per unit volume).
For example, materials such as aluminum alloys with high strength-to-weight
ratios are used in planes.
IM_photo/Shutterstock.com Thermal Expansion The coefficient of linear expansion can be used to

determine the change in the length (per original length) of a material that
occurs if the temperature of the material is changed. Thermal expansion is
an important material property to consider when designing products and
structures (e.g., roads, bridges) that are expected to experience a relatively large
temperature swing during their service lives.
Thermal C o n d u c t i v i t y Thermal
conductivity is a property that shows how
good the material is in transferring thermal
energy (heat) from a high-temperature
region to a low-temperature region within
the material. When selecting a material for
insulation purposes, we consider materials
with very low thermal conductivity. LianeM/Shutterstock.com
Heat Capacity The value of heat capacity

Evoken/Shutterstock.com represents the amount of thermal energy required to raise the temperature of
1 kilogram mass of a material by 18C, or using U.S. Customary Units, this is the
amount of thermal energy required to raise the temperature of one pound mass
of a material by 18F.
Viscosity The value of viscosity of a fluid represents a measure of how easily

the given fluid can flow. The higher the viscosity value is, the more resistance
El Nariz/Shutterstock.com
the fluid offers to flow. For example, it requires less energy to transport water
in a pipe than it does to move oil.
In the next section, we examine the application and properties of common
solid materials—such as metals and their alloys, plastics, glass, and wood—and
those that solidify over time—such as concrete. We also examine the applica-
tion and chemical composition of some common materials that are found in the
products that we use every day.
Alberto Loyo/Shutterstock.com
EXAMPLE 12.2
In this example, we calculate the average density of the Earth using
Earth’s mass
Earth’s average density 5
Earth’s volume
We computed the volume of the Earth in Example 12.1, and the mass of
the Earth is 5.98 3 10 24 kg . Now, if we divide the mass of the Earth by its
volume, we get
5.98 3 10 24 kg kg
Earth’s average density 5 < 5,400 3
1.1 3 10 m
21 3
m
NPeter/Shutterstock.com As you can see, the average density of the Earth is approximately
5.4 times the density of water (1,000 kg/m 3 ). How does the average density of
Earth compare to the densities of metals? As you read the following sections,
pay close attention to the densities of metals.
Before You Go On
1. What are the phases of matter?

2. Give three examples of material properties.
3. Explain what is meant by the density of a material.
Density
Viscosity
Heat capacity
Thermal conductivity
Thermal expansion
LO3 12.3 Metals

In this section, we briefly examine the chemical composition and common
application of metals. We discuss light metals, copper and its alloys, iron,
and steel.
12.3 Metals 375
BACHTUB DMITRII/Shutterstock.com aodaodaodaod/Shutterstock.com
Lightweight Metals
Aluminum, titanium, and magnesium, because of their
small densities (relative to steel), are commonly referred
to as lightweight metals. Because of their relatively high
strength-to-weight ratios, lightweight metals are used in
many structural and aerospace applications.
Aluminum Aluminum and its alloys have densities

that are approximately one-third the density of steel.
Pure aluminum is very soft; thus it is generally used in
Jirat Teparaksa/Shutterstock.com
electronic applications and in making reflectors and foils.
Because pure aluminum is soft and has a relatively small
tensile strength, it is alloyed with other metals to make it
stronger, easier to weld, and to increase its resistance to corrosive environments.
Aluminum is commonly alloyed with copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), magnesium (Mg),
manganese (Mn), silicon (Si), and lithium (Li). Generally speaking, aluminum
and its alloys resist corrosion, are easy to mill and cut, and can be brazed or
welded. Aluminum parts also can be joined using adhesives. They are good
conductors of electricity and heat and thus have relatively high thermal
conductivity and low electrical resistance values. Aluminum is fabricated in
sheets, plates, foil, rods, and wire, and it is extruded to make window frames or
automotive parts. You are already familiar with everyday examples of common
aluminum products, including beverage cans, household aluminum foil, non-rust
staples in tea bags, and so on. The use of aluminum in various sectors of our
economy is shown in Figure 12.2.
As shown in Figure 12.2, most of the aluminum produced is consumed by
the packaging, transportation, building, and electrical sectors. Because
of their light weight and strength, composite materials (we explain
Aluminum, titanium, and
composite materials later in this chapter) are being substituted for
magnesium, because of their aluminum in aerospace applications, for example, in military and com-
small densities (relative to steel), mercial planes, helicopters, and satellites. As you already know from
are commonly referred to as your everyday experience with packing materials, plastics, paper, and
lightweight metals. glass are also used as alternatives to aluminum; in construction, steel
and wood serve as substitutes for aluminum.
4%
7%
7% Packaging
31% Transportation
Building
9%
Electrical
Machinery
14% Consumer durables
Other
28%
FIGURE 12.2 Aluminum use by various sectors.
Titanium Titanium has an excellent strength-to-weight ratio. It is used

in applications where relatively high temperatures from 7508F up to
1,1008 F (4008C up to 6008C) are expected. Titanium alloys are used in the fan
and the compressor blades of engines of commercial and military airplanes. In
fact, without the use of titanium alloys, the engines on commercial airplanes
would not have been possible. Like aluminum, titanium is alloyed with other
metals to improve its properties.
Titanium alloys show excellent resistance to corrosion. Titanium is quite
expensive compared to aluminum, and is heavier than aluminum, having a
density which is roughly one-half that of steel. Because of their relatively high
strength-to-weight ratios, titanium alloys also are used in both commercial and
military airplane airframes (fuselage and wings) and landing gear components.
Titanium alloys are a metal of choice in many products; you can find them in
golf clubs, bicycle frames, tennis racquets, and spectacle frames. Because of their
excellent corrosion resistance, titanium alloys have been used in the tubing in
desalination plants as well. Replacement hips and other joints are examples of
additional applications where titanium is currently being used.
dvande/Shutterstock.com Rudy Umans/Shutterstock.com Chayatorn Laorattanavech/Shutterstock.com
12.3 Metals 377
6%
Titanium dioxide
Welding rod coating, and
for manufacturing
carbides, chemicals, and
metal
94%
FIGURE 12.3 The percentage of titanium mineral concentrate use by

sector.
As shown in Figure 12.3, about 94 percent of the titanium mineral con-

centrate is consumed as titanium dioxide (TiO2 ), which is commonly used as
pigments in paint, plastics, and paper. The remaining 6 percent is used in the
manufacturing of welding rods, chemicals, and metals.
Magnesium With its silvery white appearance, magnesium is another

lightweight metal that looks like aluminum. However, it is lighter, having
a density of approximately 1,700 kg/m 3. Pure magnesium does not provide
good strength for structural applications, and because of this fact it is alloyed
with other elements, such as aluminum, manganese, and
zinc to improve its properties. Magnesium and its alloys are
used in nuclear applications, dry cell batteries, aerospace
applications, and some automobile parts as sacrificial anodes
to protect other metals from corrosion. In the United States,
magnesium oxide and other compounds are recovered from
seawater and lake brines. Magnesium compounds are also
used in agricultural, chemical, and industrial applications.
Copper and Its Alloys

Copper is a good conductor of electricity. Because of this prop-
Mariusz Szczygiel/Shutterstock.com
erty, copper is commonly used in many electrical applications,
including home wiring. Copper and many of its alloys are also
good conductors of heat; this thermal property makes copper
a good choice for heat exchanger applications in air condition-
ing and refrigeration systems. Copper alloys are also used for
tubes, pipes, and fittings in plumbing and heating applications.
Copper is alloyed with zinc, tin, aluminum, nickel, and other
elements to modify its properties. When copper is alloyed with
zinc, it is commonly called brass. The mechanical properties
of brass depend on the exact composition of percent copper
and percent zinc. Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin. When
copper is alloyed with aluminum, it is referred to as aluminum
bronze. Copper and its alloys are also used in water tubes, heat
exchangers, hydraulic brake lines, pumps, and screws.
Constantine Pankin/Shutterstock.com
9%
10% Building construction
Electric and electronic

products
49% Transportation equipment
12%
Consumer and general
products
Industrial machinery and

equipment
20%
FIGURE 12.4 Copper use by various sectors.
EXAMPLE 12.3
According to the Aluminum Association, 60.2 billion aluminum cans were
recycled in a recent year. Given that a 12-ounce empty aluminum soda can
has an approximate mass of 0.029 pound-mass (lbm) or 13 grams, let us cal-
culate how many tons of aluminum were recycled.
amount of  0.029 lbm   1 ton 
aluminum recycled 5 (60.2 3 10 cans ) 
9

1 can   2,000 lbm 
5 872,900 tons < 8.73 3 10 5 tons
or
 0.013 kg 
5 (60.2 3 10 9 cans )  5 782.6 3 10 6 kg
 1 can 
It is important for us to know that it takes less energy to recycle alu-
minum than to produce new aluminum. The recycling takes approximately
Blackspring/Shutterstock.com 8 percent of the energy required to produce new aluminum.
The percentage of copper consumption in various sectors of our economy

is shown in Figure 12.4. As shown in this figure, the majority of the copper
extracted is consumed in building construction and electrical and electronic
products. Other materials are used in the place of copper in our homes. For
example, today we use plastic water or drain pipes, optical fibers instead of
copper wires, or aluminum alloys in heating and cooling devices,
such as home or automobile radiators.
Iron and Steel

Steel is a common material that is used in the framework of build-
ings and bridges, as well as in the bodies of appliances, such as
refrigerators, ovens, dishwashers, washers, and dryers. It is also
commonly used to make cooking utensils. Steel is an alloy of iron
with approximately 2 percent or less carbon. Pure iron is soft and
Joe Gough/Shutterstock.com thus not good for structural applications, but the addition of even
12.3 Metals 379
a small amount of carbon to iron hardens it and gives steel better mechanical
properties such as greater strength.
The properties of steel can be modified by adding other elements, such as
chromium, nickel, manganese, silicon, and tungsten. For example, chromium
is used to increase the resistance of steel to corrosion. In general, steel can be
classified into three broad groups:
1. Carbon steels containing approximately 0.015 to 2 percent carbon
2. Low-alloy steels having a maximum of 8 percent alloying elements
3. High-alloy steels containing more than 8 percent of alloying elements
arbon steels constitute most of the world’s steel consumption; thus you
C
will commonly find them in the body of appliances and cars. Low-alloy
steels have good strength and are commonly used as machine or tool parts
and as structural members. High-alloy steels, such as stainless steel, contain
approximately 10 to 30 percent chromium and up to
35 percent nickel. The 18 / 8 stainless steels, which contain
OZaiachin/Shutterstock.com
18 percent chromium and 8 percent nickel, are commonly
used for tableware and kitchenware products. Finally, cast
iron is also an alloy of iron that has 2 to 4 percent carbon.
Note that the addition of extra carbon to the iron
changes its properties completely. In fact, cast iron
Steel is an alloy of iron with
is a brittle material, whereas most iron alloys con-
approximately 2% or less carbon. taining less than 2 percent carbon are ductile. As
The addition of carbon to iron shown in Figure 12.5, most of the steel consump-
gives steel greater strength. tion goes to steel service centers, construction, and
automotive industries. Svetlana Lukienko/
Shutterstock.com
Nickel
The percentage of the United States nickel consumption by sector and
end-uses is shown in Figures 12.6 and 12.7. As shown in Figure 12.6, over
40 percent of the nickel consumed in the United States goes into
stainless and alloy steel production. High-alloy steels, such as stainless steels,
contain approximately 10 to 30 percent chromium and up to 35 percent
nickel. Figure 12.7 shows the percentage of end-uses of nickel, with
transportation leading at 32 percent. Stainless steel accounts for over
60 percent of nickel use worldwide.
25% Steel service centers

37% Construction
Transportation
(automotive)
Cans and containers
Other
22%
3% 13%
FIGURE 12.5 The percentage of steel consumption by sector.
5%
9%
Stainless and alloy steel

production
Nonferrous alloys and

44%
superalloys
42% Electroplating
Other
FIGURE 12.6 Percentage of nickel consumption by sector.
8%
Transportation
6% Chemical industry
6%
32% Electrical equipment
Metal products
8% Construction
Petroleum industry
8%
Household applicances
Industrial machinery
8% 10% 14%
Other
FIGURE 12.7 Percentage of nickel consumption by end-use.
Zinc
As mentioned previously, copper is alloyed with zinc, aluminum, nickel, and
other elements to modify its properties. Zinc also is alloyed with other materials
to increase the resistance of that material to corrosion. As shown in Figure 12.8,
8%
16%
Galvanizing
Zinc-based alloys
55% Brass and bronze
21% Other uses
FIGURE 12.8 The percentage of zinc consumption by end-use.
12.3 Metals 381
55 percent of the zinc consumed is for galvanizing, and 16 percent is used for
making brass and bronze. Zinc is also consumed by the rubber, chemical, and
paint industries.
EXAMPLE 12.4
The body of a typical clothes dryer is constructed from approximately
100 pounds (45 kg) of steel. In a recent year, 6.5 million clothes dryers were
sold in the United States. Let us estimate how many tons (or kilograms) of
steel went into making the dryers.
amount of steel consumed making the dryers
 100 lbm   1 ton 
(6.5 3 10 6 dryer )    2,000 lbm  5 325,000 tons
 1 dryer
or
 45 kg 
5 (6.5 3 10 6 dryer )  5 292.5 3 10 6 kg
 1 dryer 
Now think about the amount of steel that goes into making other appli-
Ivonne Wierink/Shutterstock.com ances, such as dishwashers, refrigerators, clothes washing machines, and
ovens, each year!
Before You Go On
1. What is a lightweight metal?

2. What is the difference between steel and iron?
3. Give examples of applications in which titanium is used.
4. Give examples of aluminum use.
5. Give examples of copper use.
Steel
Bronze
Brass
18/8 stainless steel
LO4 12.4 Plastics, Glass, Composites, and Wood

Plastics
In the latter part of the 20th century, plastics increasingly became the material
of choice for many applications. They are lightweight, strong, inexpensive, and
easily made into various shapes. Over 100 million metric tons of plastic are
produced annually worldwide. Of course, this number increases as the demand
for inexpensive, durable, and disposable material grows. Most of you are already
familiar with examples of plastic products, including grocery and trash bags,
home-cleaning containers, vinyl siding, polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) piping, valves, and fittings that are readily available
in home improvement centers. Styrofoam™ plates and
cups, soft drink containers, plastic forks, knives, spoons,
and sandwich bags are other examples of plastic products
that are consumed every day.
Polymers are the backbone of what we call plastics.
They are chemical compounds that have large, molecu-
lar, chainlike structures. Plastics are often classified into
two categories: thermoplastics and thermosets. When
heated to certain temperatures, the thermoplastics can
be molded and remolded. For example, when you recycle
Styrofoam™ dishes, they can be heated and reshaped
into cups, bowls, or other shapes. By contrast, thermosets
Africa Studio/Shutterstock.com cannot be remolded into other shapes by heating. The
application of heat to thermosets does not soften the
material for remolding; instead, the material simply
breaks down. There are many other ways of classifying plastics; for instance,
they may be classified on the basis of their chemical composition, molecular
structure, molecular arrangement, or densities. For example, based on their
chemical composition, polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, and
polystyrene are the most commonly produced plastics. A grocery bag is an
example of a product made from high-density polyethylene (HDPE). How-
ever, note that in a broader sense both polyethylene and polystyrene are ther-
moplastics. In general, the way molecules of a plastic are arranged influences
its mechanical and thermal properties.
Plastics have relatively small thermal and electrical conductivity values.
Some plastic materials—such as Styrofoam™ cups—are designed to have air
trapped in them to reduce the heat conduction even more. Plastics are easily
colored by using various metal oxides. For example, titanium oxide and zinc
oxide are used to give a plastic sheet its white color. Carbon is used to give
plastic sheets their black color—as seen in black trash bags. Depending on the
application, other additives are added to the polymers to obtain specific char-
acteristics, such as rigidity, flexibility, enhanced strength, or a longer life span,
which prevent any change in the appearance or mechanical properties of the
plastic over time. As with other materials, research is being performed every
day to make plastics stronger and more durable, to control the aging process,
to make them less susceptible to sun damage, and to control water and gas dif-
fusion through them. The latter is especially important when the goal is to add
shelf-life to food that is wrapped in plastic.
Silicon
Silicone is a synthetic compound
that consists of silicon, oxygen, Silicon is a nonmetallic chemical element that is used quite exten-
sively in the manufacturing of transistors and various electronic and
carbon, and hydrogen. Be sure not
computer chips. Pure silicon is not found in nature; it is found in the
to confuse it with silicon, which is
form of silicon dioxide in sands and rocks or combined with other
a nonmetallic chemical. elements, such as aluminum, calcium, sodium, or magnesium, in the
form commonly referred to as silicates. Silicon, because of
its atomic structure, is an excellent semiconductor—a mate-
rial whose electrical conductivity properties can be changed
to act either as a conductor of electricity or as an insula-
tor (preventer of electricity flow). Silicon is also used as an
alloying element with other elements such as iron and cop-
per to give steel and brass certain desired characteristics.
Be sure not to confuse silicon with silicones, which are
synthetic compounds consisting of silicon, oxygen, carbon,
and hydrogen. You find silicones in lubricants, varnishes, and
water-proofing products.
F. ENOT/Shutterstock.com
Glass
Glass is commonly used in products such as windows, light
bulbs, housewares (such as drinking glasses), chemical containers, beverage and
beer containers, and decorative items. The composition of the glass depends on
its application.
Silica Glass The most widely used form of glass is soda-lime-silica glass. The
materials used in making soda-lime-silica glass include sand (silicon dioxide),
limestone (calcium carbonate), and soda ash (sodium carbonate). Other
materials are added to create desired characteristics for specific applications.
For example, bottle glass contains approximately 2 percent aluminum oxide,
and glass sheets contain about 4 percent magnesium oxide. Metallic oxides are
also added to give glass various colors. For example, silver oxide gives glass a
yellowish stain, and copper oxide gives glass its bluish, greenish color, with the
degree of color depending on the amount added to the composition of the glass.
Optical glasses have specific chemical compositions and are quite expensive.
The composition of optical glass influences its refractive index and its light-
dispersion properties.
Glass that is made completely from silica (silicon
dioxide) has properties that are sought after by many
industries such as fiber optics, but it is expensive to
manufacture because the sand has to be heated to
temperatures exceeding 1,7008C. Silica glass has a
low coefficient of thermal expansion, high electrical
resistivity, and high transparency to ultraviolet light.
Because silica glass has a low coefficient of thermal
expansion, it is used in high-temperature applica-
tions. Ordinary glass has a relatively high coefficient
of thermal expansion; therefore, when its temperature
is changed suddenly, it breaks easily due to thermal
Dmitry Kalinovsky/Shutterstock.com stresses developed by the temperature rise. Glass
cookware contains boric oxide and aluminum oxide to reduce

its coefficient of thermal expansion.
Glass Fibers Glass fibers are commonly used today in

fiber optics, which is the branch of science dealing with the
transmission of data, voice, and images through thin glass
or plastic fibers. Every day, copper wires are replaced by
transparent glass fibers in telecommunications to connect
computers together in networks. The glass fibers typically have
an outer diameter of 0.0125 millimeters (mm) or 12 microns,
zentilia/Shutterstock.com with an inner transmitting core diameter of 0.01 millimeters
(mm) or 10 microns. Infrared light signals in the wavelength
ranges of 0.8 to 0.9 meter (m) or 1.3 to 1.6 meters (m) are generated by light-
emitting diodes or semiconductor lasers and travel through the inner core of
glass fiber.
The optical signals generated in this manner can travel to distances as far
as 100 kilometers (km) without any need to amplify them again. Plastic fibers
made of polymethylmethacrylate, polystyrene, or polycarbonate are also used
in fiber optics. These plastic fibers are, in general, cheaper and more flexible
than glass fibers. But when compared to glass fibers, plastic fibers require more
amplification of signals due to their greater optical losses. They are generally
used in networking computers in a building.
Composites
Because of their light weight and good strength, composite materials are becom-
ing increasingly the materials of choice for a number of products and aerospace
applications. Today you find composite materials in artificial teeth, military and
commercial planes, helicopters, satellites, fast-food restaurant tables and chairs,
and many sporting goods. They are also commonly used to repair the bodies of
automobiles. In comparison to conventional materials (such as met-
als), composite materials can be lighter and stronger. For this reason,
Composites are created by
composite materials are used extensively in aerospace applications.
combining two or more solid
Composites are created by combining two or more solid mate-
materials to make a new material rials to make a new material that has properties that are superior
that has properties that are to those of the individual components. Composite materials con-
superior to those of the individual sist of two main ingredients: matrix materials and fibers. Fibers are
components. embedded in matrix materials, such as ceramics, plastics, aluminum,
or other metals.
Lighthunter/Shutterstock.com Lighthunter/Shutterstock.com
Depending upon what type of host matrix material is

used to create the composite material, the composites may
be classified into three classes:
1. polymer-matrix composites
2. metal-matrix composites
3. ceramic-matrix composites
Glass, graphite, and silicon-carbide fibers are among
those used in the construction of composite materials.
The strength of the fibers is increased when embedded
in the matrix material, and the composite material created
faboi/Shutterstock.com in this manner is lighter and stronger. Moreover, once a
crack starts in a single material due to either excessive load-
ing or imperfections in the material, the crack propagates
to the point of failure. In a composite material, on the other hand, if one or a few
fibers fail, it does not necessarily lead to failure of other fibers or the material as
a whole. Furthermore, the fibers in a composite material can be oriented either
in a certain direction or many directions to offer more strength in the direction
of expected loads. Therefore, composite materials are designed for specific load
applications. For instance, if the expected load is uniaxial—meaning that it is
applied in a single direction—then all the fibers are aligned in the direction of
the expected load. For applications expecting multi-direction loads, the fibers
are aligned in different directions to make the material equally strong in various
directions.
Wood
In Chapter 9, we discussed wood as a fuel and that, because of its abundance in
many parts of the world, it has been a material of choice for many applications
throughout history. Wood is a renewable resource, and because of its ease of
workability and strength, it has been used to make many products. Wood also
Artazum/Shutterstock.com
has been used as fuel in stoves and fireplaces. Today, wood is still used in a vari-
ety of products ranging from telephone poles to toothpicks. Common examples
of wood products include hardwood flooring, roof trusses, furniture frames,
kitchen cabinets, wall supports, doors, decorative items, window frames, trim-
ming in luxury cars, tongue depressors, clothespins, baseball bats, bowling pins,
fishing rods, and wine barrels. Wood is also the main ingredient that is used to
make various paper products. Whereas a steel structural member is susceptible
to rust, wood is prone to fire, termites, and rotting.
Wood is an anisotropic material, meaning that its properties are direction-
dependent. For example, under axial loading (when pulled), wood is stronger in
a direction parallel to a grain than it is in a direction across the grain. However,
wood is stronger in a direction normal to the grain when it is bent. The proper-
ties of wood also depend on its moisture content; the lower the moisture con-
tent, the stronger the wood is. The density of wood is generally a good indication
of its strength. As a rule of thumb, the higher the density of wood, the stronger it
is. Moreover, any defects (such as knots) affect
the load-carrying capacity of wood. Of course,
the location of the knot and the extent of the
defect also directly affect its strength.
Timber is commonly classified as softwood
and hardwood. Softwood timber is made from
trees that have cones (coniferous), such as pine,
spruce, and Douglas fir. On the other hand,
hardwood timber is made from trees that have
broad leaves or flowers. Examples of hard-
woods include walnut, maple, oak, and beech.
This classification of wood into softwood and
hardwood should be used with caution, as there
are some hardwood timbers that are actually
symbiot/Shutterstock.com softer than softwoods.
EXAMPLE 12.5
A 500-ml plastic PET water bottle has an approximate mass of 10 grams or
0.022 pound mass (lbm). Assuming that we drink at least 2 liters of water
every day, how many pounds of plastic went into making enough 500-ml
water bottles for 1 billion people?
amount of plastic consumed making water bottles

 4 3 10 9 bottles   0.022 lbm   365 days   1 ton 
5
 1 day   1 bottle  
 1 year   2,000 lbm 
5 16,060,000 tons < 16 million tons!
or
 4 3 10 9 bottles   0.01 kg   365 days  kg

5      5 146 3 10 8
 1 day  1 bottle  1 year  year
Now think about the amount of plastic that goes into making other prod-
ucts each year!
12.5 Concrete 387
Before You Go On
1. Give examples of plastics in use.

2. What is the difference between thermoplastics and thermosets?
3. What is the difference between silicon and silicone?
4. What materials are used in making soda-lime-silica glass?
Polymer
Thermoplastics
Silicon
Silicone
Composite material
Softwood
Hardwood
LO5 12.5 Concrete
Today, concrete is commonly used in the construction of roads, bridges, build-

ings, tunnels, and dams. What is normally called concrete consists of three main
ingredients: aggregate, cement, and water. Aggregate refers to materials such
as gravel and sand, and cement refers to the bonding material that holds the
aggregate together. The type and size (fine to coarse) of aggregate used in
making concrete varies depending on the application. The amount of water
used in making concrete (water-to-cement ratio) also influences its strength. Of
course, the mixture must have enough water so that the concrete can be poured
and have a consistent cement paste that completely wraps around
all aggregates. The ratio of amount of cement to aggregate used in
Concrete is a mixture of cement, making concrete also affects the strength and durability of concrete.
aggregate (such as sand and Another factor that influences the cured strength of concrete is
gravel), and water. the temperature of its surroundings when it is poured. A chemical
accelerator is added to cement when the concrete is poured in cold
climates. The additive accelerates the curing process to counteract the
effect of the low temperature of the surroundings. You may have also noticed
that, as you walk by newly poured concrete for a driveway or sidewalk, water
is sprayed onto the concrete for some time after it is poured. This is to control
the rate of contraction of the concrete as it sets.
logoboom/Shutterstock.com
Concrete is a brittle material that supports compressive loads much better

than it does tensile loads. Because of this fact, concrete is commonly reinforced
with steel bars or a steel mesh of thin metal rods to increase its load-bearing
capacity, especially in the sections where tensile stress is expected. Concrete is
poured into forms that contain metal mesh or steel bars. Reinforced concrete
is used in foundations, floors, walls, and columns. Another common construc-
tion practice is the use of precast concrete. Precast concrete slabs, blocks, and
structural members are fabricated in less time with less cost in factory settings
where surrounding conditions are controlled. The precast concrete parts are
then moved to the construction site where they are erected. This practice saves
time and money.
As we mentioned previously, concrete has a higher compressive strength
than tensile strength. Because of this fact, concrete is also prestressed in the
following manner. Before concrete is poured into forms that have the steel rods
or wires, the steel rods or wires are stretched; after the concrete has been poured
and after enough time has elapsed, the tension in the rods or wires is released.
This process, in turn, compresses the concrete. The prestressed concrete then
wrangler/Shutterstock.com
12.5 Concrete 389
2% 3%
10%
Ready mix concrete
12% Concrete product

manufacturers
Contractors (Road paving)
Building materials
73% Other
FIGURE 12.9 The percentage of cement use by sectors.
acts as a compressed spring, which becomes uncompressed under the action

of tensile loading. Therefore, the prestressed concrete section will not experi-
ence any tensile stress until the section has been completely uncompressed. It
is important to note once again the reason for this practice is that concrete is
weak under tension.
The percentage of cement use by various sectors is shown in Figure 12.9. As
you might expect, the economy and construction projects in particular define
the amount of cement produced.
EXAMPLE 12.6
Typical two-car driveways are 18 feet wide, 20 feet long, and 4 inches thick.
According to a recent U.S. Census Bureau survey, there are approximately
133 million housing units in the United States. Let us now estimate the
volume of concrete used in making two-car driveways for 10 million houses.
If the average capacity of a concrete delivery truck is approximately 200 ft 3,
how many truck loads did it take to pour the concrete?
volume of concrete consumed in making 10 million driveways

  1 ft  
(18 ft)(20 ft)(4 in. ) 
  12 in.  
5 (10 3 10 6 driveways )   5 12 3 10 ft
8 3
 1 driveway 
 
number of truck loads
 1 truck load 
5 (12 3 10 8 ft 3 )  5 6,000,000 truck loads
 200 ft 3 
1.2 billion cubic feet of concrete and 6 million truck loads!

Now think about the volume of the concrete poured every year
to build sidewalks, roads, buildings, and so on. Also think about
how much energy it takes to extract and deliver the materials
karamysh/Shutterstock.com that make up the concrete to job sites.
Before You Go On
1. What are the main ingredients of concrete?

2. How is prestressed concrete made?
3. What is precast concrete?
Aggregate
Precast concrete
Prestressed concrete
S U M M A R Y
LO1 Earth—Our Home LO2 The Phases of Matter and Properties of

You should have a good understanding of the structure of Materials
the Earth: its size, layers, and its chief chemical composi- You should understand the phases of matter and
tion. You also should be familiar with the basic elements, the basic properties of materials, such as density,
such as aluminum, zinc, iron, copper, nickel, and mag- thermal conductivity, and viscosity. Matter may
nesium, that we extract from the Earth to make prod- exist as solid, liquid, gaseous, or plasma, and can
ucts. The Earth has a spherical shape with a diameter of change phase when its condition or its surround-
7,926.4 miles (12,756.3 kilometers) and an approximate ings are changed. A good example is water: it may
mass of 13.17 3 10 24 pounds (5.98 3 10 24 kilograms). exist in a solid (ice), liquid (water), or gaseous
It is divided into major layers that are located above (steam) form.
and below its surface. The Earth’s mass is composed Material properties depend on many factors,
mostly of iron, oxygen, and silicon (approximately including the exact chemical composition and how
32 percent iron, 30 percent oxygen, and 15 percent the material was processed. Material properties
silicon). It also contains other elements, such as sulfur, also change with temperature and time as the mate-
nickel, magnesium, and aluminum. The structure below rial ages. In your own words, you should be able
the Earth’s surface is generally grouped into four lay- to explain some of the basic material properties.
ers: crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core. The crust For example, the value of electrical resistivity is a
makes up about 0.5 percent of the Earth’s total mass measure of the resistance of a material to the flow
and 1 percent of its volume. The mantle is made up of of electricity; density is a measure of how compact
molten rock that lies underneath the crust and makes the material is for a given volume; and thermal
up nearly 84 percent of the Earth’s volume. The inner conductivity is a property of a material that shows
core and outer core make up about 33 percent of the how good the material is in transferring thermal
Earth’s mass and 15 percent of its volume. The inner energy (heat) from a high-temperature region to a
core is considered to be solid, while the outer core is low-temperature region within the material.
thought to be fluid and composed mainly of iron.
S ummary 391
LO3 Metals that are consumed every day. Polymers are the backbone
You should also be familiar with common applications of what we call plastics. They are chemical compounds
of basic materials, such as light metals and their alloys, that have large, chainlike molecular structures. Plastics
along with steel and its alloys. Aluminum, titanium, and are often classified into two categories: thermoplastics and
magnesium, because of their small densities (relative to thermosets. When heated to certain temperatures, thermo-
steel), are commonly referred to as lightweight metals and plastics can be molded and remolded. By contrast, ther-
are used in many structural and aerospace applications. mosets cannot be remolded into other shapes by heating.
Aluminum and its alloys have densities that are Silicon is a nonmetallic chemical element that is
approximately one-third the density of steel. Alumi- used quite extensively in the manufacturing of transis-
num is commonly alloyed with other metals, such as tors and various electronic and computer chips. It is
copper, zinc, and magnesium. Everyday examples of found in the form of silicon dioxide in sands and rocks
common aluminum products include beverage cans, or combined with other elements, such as aluminum,
household aluminum foil, rust-resistant staples in tea calcium, sodium, or magnesium, in the form commonly
bags, building insulation, and so on. referred to as silicates. Silicon, because of its atomic
Titanium has an excellent strength-to-weight-ratio. It structure, is an excellent semiconductor, which is a
is used in applications where relatively high temperatures, material whose electrical conductivity properties can
from 400 up to 6008C, are expected. Titanium alloys are be changed to act either as a conductor of electricity or
used in the fan and compressor blades of engines of com- as an insulator (preventer of electricity flow).
mercial and military airplanes. Titanium alloys also are Glass is commonly used in products, such as win-
used in golf clubs, bicycle frames, and spectacle frames. dows, light bulbs, houseware (drinking glasses), chemi-
Magnesium is another lightweight metal that looks cal containers, beverage and beer containers, and
like aluminum but is lighter than it. It is commonly decorative items. The composition of the glass depends
alloyed with other elements, such as aluminum, man- on its application. The most widely used form of glass
ganese, and zinc, to improve its properties. Magnesium is soda-lime-silica glass. The materials used in making
and its alloys are used in nuclear applications, dry cell soda-lime-silica glass include sand (silicon dioxide),
batteries, and aerospace applications. limestone (calcium carbonate), and soda ash (sodium
Copper is a good conductor of electricity and heat; carbonate). Other materials are added to create desired
because of these properties, it is commonly used in characteristics for specific applications. Silica glass
many electrical, heating, and cooling applications. Cop- fibers are commonly used today in fiber optics, which
per alloys are also used for tubes, pipes, and fittings in is a branch of science that deals with transmitting data,
plumbing. When copper is alloyed with zinc, it is com- voice, and images through thin glass or plastic fibers.
monly called brass. Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin. Composite materials are found in military planes,
Steel is a common material used in the frame- helicopters, satellites, commercial planes, fastfood res-
work of buildings and bridges, as well as in the body taurant tables and chairs, and many sporting goods. In
of appliances, such as refrigerators, ovens, dishwash- comparison to conventional materials, such as metals,
ers, clothes-washers, and dryers. Steel is an alloy of composite materials can be lighter and stronger. Com-
iron with approximately 2 percent or less carbon. The posite materials consist of two main ingredients: matrix
properties of steel can be modified by adding other ele- materials and fibers. Fibers are embedded in matrix
ments, such as chromium, nickel, manganese, silicon, materials, such as aluminum or other metals, plastics, or
and tungsten. The 18 / 8 stainless steels, which contain 18 ceramics. Glass, graphite, and silicon carbide fibers are
percent chromium and 8 percent nickel, are commonly examples of fibers used in the construction of composite
used for tableware and kitchenware products. Cast iron materials. The strength of the fibers is increased when
is also an alloy of iron that has 2 to 4 percent carbon. embedded in the matrix material, and the composite
material created in this manner is lighter and stronger.
Common examples of wood products include
LO4 Plastics, Glass, Composites, and Wood hardwood flooring, roof trusses, furniture frames,
Plastic products include grocery and trash bags, soft wall supports, doors, decorative items, window frames,
drink containers, home-cleaning containers, vinyl sid- kitchen cabinets, trimming in luxury cars, tongue
ing, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) piping, valves, and fittings. depressors, clothespins, baseball bats, bowling pins,
Styrofoam™ plates and cups, plastic forks, knives, spoons, fishing rods, and wine barrels. Timber is commonly
and sandwich bags are other examples of plastic products classified as either softwood or hardwood. Softwood
timber is made from trees that have cones (conifer- bars or steel mesh that consists of thin metal rods to
ous), such as pine, spruce, and Douglas fir. On the increase its load-bearing capacity. Another common
other hand, hardwood timber is made from trees that construction practice is the use of precast concrete. Pre-
have broad leaves or flowers. cast concrete slabs, blocks, and structural members are
fabricated in less time with lower costs in factory set-
LO5 Concrete tings where the surrounding conditions are controlled.
Concrete is used in the construction of roads, bridges, Because concrete has a higher compressive strength
buildings, tunnels, and dams. It consists of three main than tensile strength, it is prestressed by pouring it into
ingredients: aggregate, cement, and water. Aggregate forms that have steel rods or wires. The steel rods or
refers to materials such as gravel and sand, and cement wires are stretched, so the prestressed concrete then
refers to the bonding material that holds the aggre- acts as a compressed spring which becomes uncom-
gate together. Concrete is usually reinforced with steel pressed under the action of tensile loading.
K E Y T E R M S
Brass 377 Hardwood 386 Silicones 383

Bronze 377 Heat Capacity 373 Softwood 386
Cast Iron 379 Inner Core 367 Stainless Steel 379
Composites 384 Lightweight Metals 375 Strength-to-Weight Ratio 372
Compression Strength 373 Mantle 367 Tensile Strength 373
Concrete 387 Outer Core 367 Thermal Conductivity 373
Crust 367 Precast Concrete 388 Thermal Expansion 373
Density 372 Prestressed Concrete 388 Thermoplastics 382
Electrical Resistivity 372 Reinforced Concrete 388 Thermosets 382
Glass Fibers 384 Silicon 383 Viscosity 373

1. Every day, we use a wide range of paper products at home and school.
These paper products are made from different paper grades. Wood
pulp is the main ingredient used in making a paper product, and a
common practice is to grind the wood first and cook it with some
chemicals. Investigate the composition, processing methods, and
annual consumption rate of the following grades of paper products in
the United States or your country. Write a brief report discussing your
findings. The paper products to investigate should include: printing
paper, sanitary paper, glassine and waxing paper, paper bags, card- HomeStudio/Shutterstock.com
board boxes, and paper towels.

2. The 18 / 8 stainless steels, which contain 18 percent chromium and 8 percent nickel,
are commonly used for tableware and kitchenware products. Investigate how much
iron, carbon, chromium, and nickel are consumed in a typical home with standard
kitchen and silverware sets. Write a brief report to your instructor discussing your
assumptions and findings.
AlenKadr/
Shutterstock.com
Problems 393
P R O B L E M S
12.1 Identify and list at least five different club shafts. Write a brief summary report
materials that are used in making a car. discussing your findings.
12.2 Name at least five different materials that are 12.12 Investigate the characteristics of titanium
used in making a refrigerator. alloys used in medical implants for hips
12.3 Identify and list at least five different and other joint replacements. Write a brief
materials that are used in making your TV set summary report discussing your findings.
or computer. 12.13 Cobalt-chromium alloys, stainless steel,
12.4 List at least five different materials that are and titanium alloys are three common
used in making a building envelope (walls, biomaterials that have been used as
floors, roofs, windows, and doors). surgical implants. Investigate the use of
these biomaterials, and write a brief report
12.5 List at least five different materials used to
discussing the advantages and disadvantages
fabricate window and door frames.
of each.
12.6 List some of the materials used in the
12.14 Endoscopy refers to a medical examination
fabrication of LED lights.
of the inside of a human body by means of
12.7 Identify at least five products around your inserting a lighted optical instrument through
home that contain plastics. a body opening. Fiberscopes operate in the
12.8 In a brief report, discuss the advantages and visible wavelengths and consist of two major
disadvantages of using Styrofoam™ or paper components. One part consists of a bundle
for coffee or tea cups. of fibers that illuminates the examined area,
12.9 As you already know, roofing materials and the other transmits the images of the
keep water from penetrating into the roof examined area to the physician through
structure. There is a wide range of roofing a display device. Investigate the design of
products available on the market today. For fiberscopes or the fiber-optic endoscope, and
example, asphalt shingles, which are made discuss your findings in a brief report.
by impregnating a dry felt with hot asphalt, 12.15 Crystal glass tableware that sparkles is
are used on some houses. Other houses use sought after by many people as a sign of
wood shingles, such as red cedar or redwood. affluence. This crystal commonly contains
A large number of houses use interlocking lead monoxide. Investigate the properties of
clay tiles, whereas some use steel as roofing crystal glass in detail, and write a brief report
materials. Investigate the properties and the discussing your findings.
characteristics of various roofing materials. 12.16 You all have seen grocery bags that have
Write a brief report discussing your findings. labels and printed information on them.
12.10 Visit a home improvement center (hardware/ Investigate how information is printed on
lumber store) in your town and gather plastic bags. For example, a common practice
information about various types of insulating includes using a wet-inking process; another
materials that are used in houses. Write process makes use of lasers and heat-transfer
a brief report discussing the advantages, decals. Discuss your findings in a brief report.
disadvantages, and characteristics of various 12.17 Teflon™ and Nylon™ are trade names of
insulating materials, including their thermal plastics that are used in many products.
characteristics in terms of R-value. Look up the actual chemical names of these
12.11 Investigate the characteristics of titanium products, and give at least five examples of
alloys used in sporting equipment such as where they are used.
bicycle frames, tennis racquets, and golf
12.18 Investigate how the following basic wood Discuss your findings and assumptions in a
products are made: plywood, particle board, brief report.
veneer, and fiberboard. Also investigate 12.24 Estimate the amount of paper that you use
common methods of wood preservation. every year. Consider your printing habits and
Discuss your findings in a brief report. What needs, loose and bonded paper, and book,
is the environmental impact of both the magazine, and newspaper consumption.
production and use of treated wood products How much wood would it take to meet your
in this question? demand? Discuss your assumptions and
12.19 Investigate the common uses of cotton and its findings in a brief report.
typical properties. Discuss your findings in a 12.25 Investigate where the major nickel mines
brief report. are located in the world and how much they
12.20 Look around your home and estimate how produce. Discuss your findings in a brief
many meters or feet of visible copper wire are report.
in use. Consider extension and power cords 12.26 Investigate where the major zinc mines are
for common items such as your hairdryer, TV, located in the world and how much they
cell phone charger, computer charger, lamps, produce. Discuss your findings in a brief
printer cable, refrigerator, microwave oven, report.
and so on. Write a brief report and discuss
12.27 Investigate where the major aluminum mines
your findings.
are located in the world and how much they
12.21 How many cans or glasses of soda or juice do produce. Discuss your findings in a brief
you drink every day? Estimate your annual report.
aluminum and or glass consumption. Express
12.28 By some estimates, we consume twice as
your results in kilograms or pounds per year.
many goods as we did fifty years ago. As a
12.22 Investigate how much steel was used in result, our appetite for raw materials—from
making the following appliances: clothes wood to steel—keeps increasing. The rise in
dryer, dishwasher, refrigerator, and oven. world population and our increased standard
Discuss your findings in a brief report. of living only exacerbates this problem. What
12.23 This is a group assignment. Investigate how can you do to reverse this trend? Discuss
much concrete is used to make a sidewalk or your suggestions as backed up by data in a
walkway. Estimate the amount of concrete brief report.
used to make walkways on your campus.
P roblems 395
Stocksnapper/Shutterstock.com
“The selfish spirit of commerce

knows no country, and feels no
passion or principle but that of gain.”
—Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826)
CHA P T E R
13
Municipal and Industrial Waste
and Recycling
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
LO1 Municipal Waste: describe how we generate waste
through the activities of our daily lives
LO2 Industrial Waste: describe industrial waste and how
much of it is generated
LO3 Recycling and Composting: understand the
importance of recycling and composting
Peter Gudella/Shutterstock.com, Evan Lorne/Shutterstock.com, Chaikom/Shutterstock.com,

Olivier Le Queinec/Shutterstock.com, sunsetman/Shutterstock.com,
Huguette Roe/Shutterstock.com
Discussion Starter
Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) 2018 Total MSW Generation (by material)
292.4 million tons
Generation in the United States Other, 2% Misc. inorganic wastes, 1%
E
Rubber and leather, 3%
ach year, the U.S. Environmental Glass, 4%
Protection Agency (EPA) collects

and reports data on the generation
Textiles,
and disposal of waste in the United States. Paper and
6%
According to the latest EPA data, in 2018, paperboard,
Wood, 23%
“The total generation of municipal solid 6%
waste (MSW) in 2018 was 292.4 million
tons (U.S. short tons, unless specified) or 4.9 Metals,
pounds per person per day. Of the MSW gen- 9%
erated, approximately 69 million tons were Food,
Yard trimmings, 22%
recycled and 25 million tons were composted.
12%
Together, almost 94 million tons of MSW were
recycled and composted, which is equivalent Plastics,
to a 32.1 percent recycling and composting 12%
rate. An additional 17.7 million tons of food
were managed by other methods. Other food Source: United States Environmental Protection Agency, Facts and Figures about
management includes the following man- Materials, Waste and Recycling
agement pathways: animal feed, bio-based

materials/biochemical processing, co-diges-
tion/anaerobic digestion, donation, land
application and sewer/wastewater treatment.”
Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) Generation Rates from 1960 to 2018

400 8.0
292.4
Per capita generation (lbs/person/day)
Total MSW generation (million tons)
300 6.0
262.1 268.1 268.7
253.7 251.1
243.5
4.6 4.5
4.7 4.7 4.9
3.8 4.5 4.5 4.6 4.5
200 3.7 217.3 4.0
3.3 3.3 208.3
3.0
2.7
166.3
151.6
127.8
100 121.1 2.0
104.4
88.1
0 0.0
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2016 2017 2018
Year
Source: United States Environmental Protection Agency, Facts and Figures about Materials, Waste and Recycling
398 CHAPTER 13 Municipal and Industrial Waste and Recycling
Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) Recycling and Composting Rates from 1960 to 2018
100 40%
93.7 94.0 93.9
91.0
85.4
35.0%
Total MSW recycled and composted (million tons)
79.8
Percent of generation recycled and composted

34.7% 34.9%
34.0%
28.5%
75 31.4% 32.1% 30%
69.5
25.7%
55.8
50 20%
16.0%
33.2
10.1%
9.6%
25 10%
6.4% 7.3%
6.2% 6.6%
5.6 16.7
14.5
8.0 9.3
6.5
0 0%
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2016 2017 2018
Year
Source: United States Environmental Protection Agency, Facts and Figures about Materials, Waste and Recycling
To the Students: What do you think is your MSW footprint every year? How
much material do you think you recycle each year? What material do you think
constitutes the largest amount of your waste?
LO1 13.1 Municipal Waste

In Chapter 12, we discussed common materials that are used in
Waste can be classified into making products that we use in our daily lives. We examined solid
municipal and industrial waste. materials such as metals and their alloys, plastics, glass, wood, and
materials that solidify over time such as concrete. In this chapter, we
look at what happens to these materials when they are discarded.
Waste can be classified into two broad categories of municipal and industrial
waste. Municipal waste is essentially the trash that we, as individuals, throw away
every day. It consists of items such as food scraps, packaging materials, bottles,
tissue paper, and so on. On the other hand, as the name implies, industrial waste
refers to waste that is produced in industry. This category includes materials
from construction and renovation; demolition materials; medical discards; and
waste generated during the exploration, development, and production of fossil
fuels, mining rocks, and minerals. According to the EPA, the amount
The amount of municipal waste of waste generated in the United States has been increasing from
generated in the United States has 2.7 pounds per person per day in 1960 to 4.9 pounds per person
been increasing from 2.7 pounds per day in 2018. In 2018, in the United States we generated about
per person per day in 1960 to 290 million tons of municipal waste. Think about this number! As good
4.9 pounds per person per day in global citizens, we should be concerned not only about the space that
2018. our waste occupies in landfills, but we also need to think carefully about
the entire life cycle of a piece of material or a product. For example,
when you throw away a piece of wrapping paper, you need to think
about all of the natural resources used: the trees that were harvested to make the
paper and the amount of energy (e.g., fossil fuel) that was consumed to produce,
process, transport, and finally dispose of it.
The amount of trash generated in the United States by material type is
shown in Figure 13.1. When examining this figure, note that items such as paper
and paperboard, food scraps, and plastics make up a large portion of our waste.
To better understand the amount and type of products that are discarded, it is
customary to group trash into additional sub-categories. For example, the EPA
reports the amount of waste generation and recovery using sub-categories such
as durable goods, nondurable goods, containers and packaging materials, and
plastic packaging.
80
70 67.4
63.1
60
50
Million tons
40
35.7 35.4
30
25.6
20 18.1 17.0
12.3
10 9.2
4.6 4.1
0
Paper and Food Plastics Yard Metals Wood Textiles Glass Rubber and Other Misc.
paperboard trimmings leather inorganic
Materials waste
FIGURE 13.1 The amount of municipal solid waste discarded (by material) in 2018.
Source: United States Environmental Protection Agency
Durable goods cover products such as small and major

appliances, furniture, carpets and rugs, rubber tires, and
lead-acid batteries. By nondurable goods, the EPA refers
to products such as office paper, newspapers, books, maga-
zines, paper plates and cups, tissue paper and paper towels,
disposable diapers, plastic plates and cups, trash bags, cloth-
ing and footwear, towels, sheets, and so on. The contain-
ers and packaging category covers glass packing (beer and
soft drink bottles, wine and liquor bottles, and jars), steel
packing (cans), aluminum packing (beer and soft drink
cans and foil), and paper and paper packing (corrugated
boxes, bags and sacks, wrapping paper, etc.). Plastic packag-
ing includes polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles and
jars; high-density polyethylene (HDPE) bottles; and bags,
sacks, and wraps. Other wastes include food scraps and yard
trimmings. Let us now look at each of these categories in
more detail.
Plastics in Products
The amount of plastics in durable goods, nondurable goods,
and containers and packing that was generated, recovered,
and discarded in 2018 is shown in Figure 13.2. The detailed
breakdown of plastics found in various products is shown
in Table 13.1. When examining Table 13.1, note that in the
Phil McDonald/Shutterstock.com
United States, we generated about 1,030,000 tons of plastic
plates and cups, 1,230,000 tons of trash bags, 3,130,000 tons
of plastic bottles and jars, and 4,200,000 tons of bags, sacks,
and wraps. How much are you contributing to this waste?
Durable goods 13.69
Nondurable goods 7.46
Other packaging 4.46
Bags, sacks, and wraps 4.20
PET bottles and jars and

3.88
HDPE natural bottles
Other containers 1.99
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Million tons
FIGURE 13.2 The amount of plastic products generated in MSW (2018 data).
TA B L E 1 3 . 1 Plastics in Products in MSW (2018 Data, in Thousands of Tons and

Percent of Generation by Resin)
Combusted with
Generation Recycleda Energy Recovery Landfilled
(Thousand (Thousand (Percent of (Thousand (Thousand
Products Category tons) tons) generation) tons) tons)
Durable Goods
PET 660
HDPE 1,590
PVC 180
LDPE/LLDPE 2,130
PP 4,590
PS 760
Other resins 3,780
Total Plastics in Durable
Goods 13,690 930 6.8% 1,740 11,020
Nondurable Goods b
Plastic Plates and Cupsc

LDPE/LLDPE 20
PLA 30
PP 160
PS 820
Subtotal Plastic Plates
and Cups 1,030 Neg. Neg. 200 830
Trash Bags
HDPE 230
LDPE/LLDPE 1,000
Subtotal Trash Bags 1,230 240 990
All Other Nondurablesd
PET 770
HDPE 690
PVC 270
LDPE/LLDPE 1,710
PLA 40
PP 1,570
PS 130
Other resins 20
Subtotal All Other
Nondurables 5,200 180 3.5% 980 4,040
Total Plastics in Nondurable Goods, by resin
PET 770
HDPE 920
PVC 270
LDPE/LLDPE 2,730
(Continues)

Percent of Generation by Resin) (continued)
Combusted with
Total Plastics in Nondurable Goods, by resin (continued)
PLA 70
PP 1,730
PS 950
Other resins 20
Total Plastics in
Nondurable Goods 7,460 180 2.4% 1,420 5,860
Plastic Containers & Packaging
Bottles and Jarse
PET 3,130 910 29.1% 440 1,780
Natural Bottlesf
HDPE 750 220 29.3% 100 430
Other Plastic Containers
HDPE 1,600 290 18.1%
PVC 20 Neg.
LDPE/LLDPE 40 Neg.
PP 250 20 8.0%
PS 80 Neg.
Subtotal Other Containers 1,990 310 15.6% 330 1,350
Bags, Sacks and Wraps
HDPE 640 50 7.8%
PVC 70
LDPE/LLDPE 2,780 370 13.3%
PP 570
PS 140
Subtotal Bags, Sacks and
Wraps 4,200 420 10.0% 740 3,040
Other Plastics Packaging g
PET 730 70 9.6%

HDPE 800 Neg.
PVC 300 Neg.
LDPE/LLDPE 910 Neg.
PLA 20 Neg.
PP 1,010 30 3.0%
PS 330 20 6.1%
Other resins 360 Neg.
Subtotal Other Packaging 4,460 120 2.7% 850 3,490

Percent of Generation by Resin) (continued)
Combusted with
otal Plastics in Containers & Packaging, by resin
T
PET 3,860 980 25.4%
HDPE 3,790 560 14.8%
PVC 390 Neg.
LDPE/LLDPE 3,730 370 9.9%
PLA 20 Neg.
PP 1,830 50 2.7%
PS 550 20 3.6%
Other resins 360 Neg.
Total Plastics in
Containers & Packaging 14,530 1,980 13.6% 2,460 10,090
Total Plastics in MSW, by resin
PET 5,290 980 18.5%
HDPE 6,300 560 8.9%
PVC 840 Neg.
LDPE/LLDPE 8,590 370 4.3%
PLA 90 Neg.
PP 8,150 50 0.6%
PS 2,260 20 0.9%
Other resins 4,160 1,110 26.7%
Total Plastics in MSW 35,680 3,090 8.7% 5,620 26,970
a
Mechanical and non-mechanical recycling.
b
Nondurable goods other than containers and packaging.
c
Due to source data aggregation, PET cups are included in “Other Plastic Packaging.”
d
All other nondurables include plastics in disposable diapers, clothing, footwear, etc.
e
Injection stretch blow molded PET containers as identified in Report on Postconsumer PET Container Recycling Activity in 2017. National Association for PET
Container Resources. Recycling includes caps, lids and other material collected with PET bottles and jars.
White translucent homopolymer bottles as defined in the 2017 United States National Postconsumer Plastics Bottles Recycling Report. American Chemistry
f
Council and the Association of Postconsumer Plastic Recyclers.

g
Other plastic packaging includes coatings, closures, lids, caps, clamshells, egg cartons, produce baskets, trays, shapes, loose fill, etc. PP and HDPE caps and
lids recycled with PET bottles and jars are included in the recycling estimate for PET bottles and jars. Other resins include commingled/undefined plastic
packaging recycling. Some detail of recycling by resin omitted due to lack of data.
Neg. 5 negligible, less than 5, 000 tons
HDPE 5 High density polyethylene
LDPE 5 Low density polyethylene
LLDPE 5 Linear low density polyethylene
PET 5 Polyethylene terephthalate
PP 5 Polypropylene
PLA 5 Polylactide
PS 5 Polystyrene
PVC 5 Polyvinyl chloride
EXAMPLE 13.1
According to the 2010 census, the United States total population reached
308,745,538 (nearly 309 million) people. Given the number of people and
the 250 million tons of waste that was produced in that year, let us calculate
the waste generation per person per day.
We can calculate the average waste generation per person per day (for
2010) by taking the following steps:
waste generation per person per day
 250,000,000 tons of trash   2,000 pounds   1 year   U.S. population 
5   
 year ? U.S. population   1 ton  365 days   308,745,538 persons 
 pounds 
5 4.43 
 person ? day 
Note: The units read pounds per person per day.
EXAMPLE 13.2
In 2010, 2,670,000 tons of plastic bottles and jars were produced. Let us
examine what this value represents on average in terms of plastic bottles and
jars generated per person per year.
plastic bottle and jar generation per person per year

 2,670,000 tons   2,000 pounds   U.S. population 
5   
 year ? U.S. population   1 ton  308,745,538 persons 
 pounds 
5 17.3 
 person ? year 
Note: The units read pounds per person per year.
Paper and Paperboard Products

Each year in the United States, we also generate and discard a relatively large
amount of paper and paperboard products. Table 13.2 presents the amount of
paper and paperboard products from nondurable goods and in containers and
Schlegelfotos/Shutterstock.com bakhistudio/Shutterstock.com
TA B L E 1 3 . 2 Paper and Paperboard Products in MSW (2018 in thousands of tons and

percent of generation)
Combusted
with Energy
Generation Recycled Recovery Landfilled
Product Category tons) tons) generation) tons) tons)
Nondurable Goods
Newspapers/Mechanical 5,050 3,270 64.8% 350 1,430
Papersa
Books 690
Magazines 980
Office-type Papersb 3,970
Marketing Mailc 3,670
Other Commercial Printing 2,000
Tissue Paper and Towels 3,790
Paper Plates and Cups 1,420
Other Nonpackaging Paperd 3,920
Subtotal Nondurable Goods
excluding Newspapers/
Mechanical Paperse 20,440 8,810 43.1% 2,280 9,350
Total Paper and Paperboard
Nondurable Goods 25,490 12,080 47.4% 2,630 10,780
Containers and Packaging
Corrugated Boxes 33,260 32,090 96.5% 230 940
Gable Top/Aseptic Cartonsf 630
Folding Cartons 5,370
Other Paperboard 50
Packaging
Bags and Sacks 1,090
Other Paper Packaging 1,500
Subtotal Containers and
Packaging excluding
Corrugated Boxese 8,640 1,800 20.8% 1,340 5,500
Total Paper and
Paperboard Containers
and Packaging 41,900 33,890 80.9% 1,570 6,440
Total Paper and
Paperboard 67,390 45,970 68.2% 4,200 17,220
a
Starting in 2010, newsprint and groundwood inserts expanded to include directories and other mechanical papers previously counted as Other Commercial Printing.
b
High-grade papers such as copy paper and printer paper, both residential and commercial.
c
Formerly called Third Class Mail and Standard Mail by the U.S. Postal Service.
d
Includes paper in games and novelties, cards, etc.
Valid default values for separating out paper and paperboard sub-categories for recycling, combustion with energy recovery, and landfilling from subtotal
e
mixed paper were not available.

f
Includes milk, juice, and other products packaged in gable top cartons and liquid food aseptic cartons.
Neg. 5 Less than 5, 000 tons or 0.05 percent.
EXAMPLE 13.3
In 2010, 3,490,000 tons of tissue paper and paper towel waste were produced
in the United States. Let us examine what this value represents on average
in terms of waste per person per year.
tissue paper and paper towel waste per person per year
 3,490,000 tons   2,000 pounds   U.S. population 
5   
 year ? U.S. population   1 ton  308,745,538 persons 
 pounds 
5 22.6 
 person ? year 
packaging that was generated, recovered, and discarded in 2018. When study-
ing Table 13.2, note that nearly 980,000 tons of magazine waste, 3,970,000 tons
of office-type papers, and 1,420,000 tons of paper plate and cup waste were
generated. What paper and paperboard products contribute to your waste
footprint?
Metal Products
Think about all of the aluminum soft drink containers that are thrown away
every day. In 2018, the United States generated nearly 1,920,000 tons of
aluminum waste from soft drink cans, beer cans, and foil. Add to that the appli-
ances, automobiles, and metal cans that are also discarded. Table 13.3 shows
the amount of metal products from durable and nondurable goods and from
containers and packaging that was generated, recovered, and discarded in the
United States.
Glass Products
Glass products make up another large portion of our waste, as shown in
Figure 13.3. The detailed quantities of glass from durable goods and containers
and packaging that was generated, recovered, and discarded in 2018 is shown
in Table 13.4.
Evan Lorne/Shutterstock.com vladimir salman/Shutterstock.com
TA B L E 1 3 . 3 Metal Products in MSW (2018 in thousands of tons and percent of

generation)
Combusted with
Generation Recycled Energy Recovery Landfilled
Durable Goods
Ferrous Metalsa 16,990 4,730 27.8% 2,200 10,060
Aluminumb 1,750 NA NA 270 1,480
Leadc 1,710 1,690 98.8% 20
Other Nonferrous
Metalsd 800 Neg. Neg. 80 720
Total Metals in
Durable Goods 21,250 6,420 30.2% 2,550 12,280
Nondurable Goods
Aluminum 220 NA NA 40 180
Containers and Packaging
Steel
Cans 1,580 1,120 70.9% 90 370
Other Steel Packaging 630 510 81.0% 20 100
Total Steel Packaging 2,210 1,630 73.8% 110 440
Aluminum
Beer and Soft Drink
Canse 1,330 670 50.4% 130 530
Other Cans 80 NA NA 20 60
Foil and Closures 510 NA NA 100 410
Total Aluminum
Packaging 1,920 670 34.9% 250 1,000
Total Metals in
Containers and
Packaging 4,130 2,300 55.7% 360 1,470
Total Metals 25,600 8,720 34.1% 2,950 13,930
Ferrous 19,200 6,360 33.1% 2,310 10,530
Aluminum 3,890 670 17.2% 560 2,660
Other nonferrous 2,510 1,690 67.3% 80 740
a
Ferrous metals (iron and steel) in appliances, furniture, tires, and miscellaneous durables.
b
Aluminum in appliances, furniture, and miscellaneous durables.
c
Lead in lead-acid batteries.
d
Other nonferrous metals in appliances and miscellaneous durables.
e
Aluminum can recycling does not include used beverage cans imported to produce new beverage cans.
NA 5 Not Available
Details may not add to totals due to rounding.
Beer and soft drink bottles* 4.7
Other bottles and jars 3.3
Durable goods 2.5
Wine and liquor bottles 1.8 *includes carbonated drinks and non-carbonated
water, teas, flavored drinks, and ready-to-drink
alcoholic coolers and cocktails.
0 1 2 3 4 5
Million tons
FIGURE 13.3 Glass products generated in MSW (2018 data).

TA B L E 1 3 . 4 Glass Products in MSW (2018 in thousands of tons and percent of

generation)
Combusted with
Durable Goodsa 2,460 Neg. Neg. 330 2,130
Containers and
Packaging
Beer and Soft Drink
Bottlesb 4,650 1,840 39.6% 550 2,260
Wine and Liquor
Bottles 1,810 720 39.8% 210 880
Other Bottles and
Jars 3,330 500 15.0% 550 2,280
Total Glass
Containers 9,790 3,060 31.3% 1,310 5,420
Total Glass 12,250 3,060 25.0% 1,640 7,550
Glass as a component of appliances, furniture, consumer electronics, etc.
a
b
Includes carbonated drinks and non-carbonated water, teas, flavored drinks, and ready-to-drink alcoholic coolers and cocktails.
Neg. 5 Less than 5, 000 tons or 0.05 percent .
Rubber and Leather

What happens to the tires or shoes that we throw away? How much rubber or
leather do we generate each year, and how much of it is discarded or r ecovered?
Table 13.5 shows the amount of rubber and leather products in municipal solid
waste, including durable and nondurable goods. How much waste do you
contribute in this area during your lifetime?
JCVStock/Shutterstock.com
TA B L E 1 3 . 5 Rubber and Leather Products in MSW (2018 in thousands of tons and

percent of generation)
Combusted with
Durable Goods
Rubber in Tiresa 4,180 1,670 40.0% 1,730 780
Other Durablesb 3,800 Neg. Neg. 540 3,260
Total Rubber and Leather
Durable Goods 7,980 1,670 20.9% 2,270 4,040
Nondurable Goods
Clothing and Footwear 900 Neg. Neg. 180 720
Other Nondurables 280 Neg. Neg. 50 230
Total Rubber and Leather
Nondurable Goods 1,180 Neg. Neg. 230 950
Total Rubber and Leather 9,160 1,670 18.2% 2,500 4,990
a
Automobile and truck tires. Does not include other materials in tires.
b
Includes carpets and rugs and other miscellaneous durables.
Neg. 5 Less than 5, 000 tons or �0.05
0.05 percent.
percent
EXAMPLE 13.4
Based on how far you drive your car each year (e.g., 10,000 or 12,000 miles)
and the quality of your car tires, you may change your tires every 4 to 5 years.
Let us look at how many tires you would throw away from driving your
current and future cars for the next 50 years.
number of tires thrown away during next 50 years per cars you own
 4 tires   50 years   tires 
5    5 50 
 4 years   cars you own   cars you own 
Think about it! For 100 million car owners, this value adds up to 5 billion
tires!
As you can see from the result of Example 13.4, discarded tires are a
major source of waste. Each year, we discard hundreds of millions of tires that
find their way into stockpiles and landfills. Fortunately, we are finding new
uses for these discarded tires. For example, the United States Army Corps of
Engineers—a federal agency with nearly 37, 000 military and civilian personnel
and the world’s largest public engineering design and construction management
agency—utilized discarded tires to protect a marshland from wave actions in
Alabama. The EPA’s Office of Research and Development is currently research-
ing how to use discarded tires for rubberized asphalt, bridge erosion protection,
and highway sound barriers.
Before You Go On
1. What are the two broad categories of waste?

2. Give examples of municipal waste.
3. Give examples of industrial waste.
4. Give examples of durable and nondurable goods.
Municipal waste
Durable goods
Nondurable goods
13.2 Industrial Waste 411
LO2 13.2 Industrial Waste

Now that you have some basic understanding of municipal waste,
let us turn our attention to industrial waste. Industrial waste
makes up a significant portion of solid waste in the United States.
It consists of construction, renovation, and demolition materials.
It also represents the waste that is created during the exploration,
development, and production of fossil fuels (e.g., coal, natural
gas, crude oil). Medical waste (that is, waste materials gener-
ated at clinics, dental offices, veterinary and human hospitals,
and medical research laboratories) is also classified as industrial
Robert Asento/Shutterstock.com
waste. Examples of medical waste include discarded needles,
blood-soaked bandages, surgically removed body organs or parts,
cultures, surgical gloves, and instruments. According to the EPA,
industrial facilities—such as manufacturers of organic and inor-
ganic chemicals, plastics, resins, steel, clay, glass, concrete, paper,
and food—dispose over seven billion tons of solid waste every
year. During demolition projects dealing with structures (such as
buildings, roads, or bridges), many materials (such as concrete,
beams, wood, asphalt, glass, bricks, steel, doors, and windows) are
thrown away.
Hazardous Waste
As the name implies, hazardous waste refers to waste that, if
improperly disposed, could be harmful to human health and
the environment. Household examples of hazardous waste
include most cleansers, paint, pesticides, batteries, and used car
oil. These products often contain toxic or corrosive ingredients.
For example, putting paint in the trash or pouring it down a
drain or a storm sewer will eventually lead to environmental
problems.
Candace Hartley/Shutterstock.com
Solid Waste Management

As a society, we can manage our waste in a number of ways. To start with, con-
sider source reduction at the manufacturing level. Changing the way we design
and package products can reduce the amount of plastics, paper, metal, or glass
that we use. Material substitution is another way to manage our industrial waste.
For example, when designing products, we should use materials that are envi-
ronmentally friendly. We can also purchase products with longer life spans (e.g.,
a high-mileage tire instead of a low-mileage tire). When applicable, consider
purchasing food and other consumable items in bulk quantities to reduce the
amount of packaging materials. We can buy cereal in bags instead of boxes, or
purchase a coffee brick instead of a coffee can. If possible, reuse some materials
or share them with others. For example, one can usually find secondary uses
for glass and plastic containers, waste paper, and clothing. We can also borrow
or rent items for temporary use, or buy or sell things at a garage sale. Consider
buying extended warranties or repairing things instead of throwing them away.
As you can see, there are a number of ways we can reduce our waste.
As stated previously, the most important thing to remember is that you should
not only think about the space that your trash occupies in a landfill, but also con-
sider the entire life cycle of the trash. Remind yourself when you throw something
away what natural resources were consumed to make the product. Also think about
the amount of energy used to produce, process, transport, and finally dispose of it!
Landfills
Let us now look at where our trash ends up. Today’s landfills are designed to
receive both municipal and industrial waste and are built in areas far away
from flood plains, wetlands, and other sensitive locations to protect the environ-
ment. Their designs incorporate composite liners to protect the groundwater
and underlying soil from the solid waste stream. Landfills also have environ-
mental monitoring systems to check for harmful gas emissions and signs of
groundwater contamination. They also have leachate collection and removal
systems. Leachate refers to a liquid that acts as a trap to draw harmful sub-
stances. Leachate can contain a high concentration of
environmentally harmful materials, and if not properly
removed, it can potentially drain from a landfill and
harm the environment.
To protect the public health, landfills are regularly
covered with layers of soil to control insects, contain
litter, and reduce odor. Some hazardous materials cannot
be sent to landfills, including paints, pesticides, batteries,
and motor oil. Unfortunately, in many d eveloping coun-
tries landfills represent a public health hazard because
they do not adhere to stringent standards. The regional
distribution of landfill facilities in the United States is
Huguette Roe/Shutterstock.com
shown in Figure 13.4.
600
500
400
Number of landfills
300
200
100
0
Northeast South Midwest West
FIGURE 13.4 Number of landfills in the

United States (2018).
Source: United States Environmental
Protection Agency. Landfill Methane
Outreach Program (LMOP) Facility-level
database. Data represents MSW landfills
open July 2019
Before You Go On
1. Give examples of construction, renovation, and demolition waste.

2. Give examples of medical waste.
3. Give examples of hazardous waste.
4. Discuss at least three ways we can manage our waste.
5. Describe some of the basic characteristics of today’s landfill design.
Industrial waste
Medical waste
Hazardous waste
Leachate
LO3 13.3 Recycling and Composting

We can manage waste by reducing (the amount that we throw away), recycling,
and composting. As mentioned previously, according to the EPA, the United
States generated about 290 million tons of trash and only recycled and com-
posted 94 million tons of this material in 2018. This ratio represents a recycling
and composting rate of 32 percent:
recycling and composting rate

 94 million tons recycled and composted 
5
 290 million tons waste generated  (100%)
5 32%
Think about it! Only one-third of all trash generated was recycled or
composted. On a per-person per day basis, out of 4.9 pounds of trash, only
1.6 pounds of the trash was recycled and composted. Although we can do
better, it is important to realize that as a society—over the years—we have
been increasing our recycling and composting activities. Our recycling
trend during the past five decades is shown in Figure 13.5. From examining
this figure, note that in 1960 the recycling and composting rate was only
6.4 percent.
Municipal solid waste (MSW) recycling and composting rates from 1960 to 2018
100 40%
93.7 94.0 93.9
91.0
85.4
35.0%
Total MSW recycled and composted (million tons)
79.8
34.7% 34.9%
Percent of generation recycled and composted

34.0%
75 32.1% 30%
28.5% 31.4%
25.7% 69.5
55.8
50 20%
16.0%
33.2
9.6% 10.1%
25 7.3% 10%
6.4% 6.2% 6.6%
5.6 6.5 16.7

14.5
8.0 9.3
0 0%
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2016 2017 2018
Year
FIGURE 13.5 The total and the percent of total municipal solid waste recycled in the United
States from 1960 through 2018.
Recycling
As you already know, recycling has many advantages. When we recycle, we
reduce landfill use, consume less energy, and use our natural resources more
effectively. To promote recycling, communities take advantage of different
schemes. Some communities offer curbside services, whereas in others, residents
may have to drop off recyclables at designated centers or return products such
as bottles and cans to collect a refund that was deposited during the purchase
of the products. Once recyclables are collected, cleaned, and sorted, they are
offered as a commodity for sale. Manufacturers that purchase recycled com-
modities then use them in making their products. You are familiar with many
products that contain recycled materials, such as cardboard boxes and alumi-
num, glass, and plastic containers.
Let us now examine the available recycling data in more detail. The number
of material recovery facilities for each region of the United States is shown in
Table 13.6. As of 2018, there were 532 facilities with a total capacity of over
91, 000 tons per day. The percentage of population served by recycling services
from 2015 to 2016 is shown in Figure 13.6.
The percentage of materials recovered by weight of total recovery in 2018
is shown in Figure 13.7. As shown, paper and paperboard have the highest
TA B L E 1 3 . 6 Material Recovery Facilities (2018 a)

Region Number Estimated Throughput (tons per day)
NORTHEAST 128 22,528
SOUTH 142 23,718
MIDWEST 139 18,016
WEST 123 26,867
U.S. Total 532 91,129
a
Number of facilities and throughput include bale and ship operations receiving fiber, mainly old corrugated cardboard (OCC), that bale and ship with no
additional processing. Throughput is the tons of waste processed by the facility.
Source: United States Environmental Protection Agency. Governmental Advisory Associates, Inc. Data provided August 2019
No recycling
services available, 6%
Access to drop-off
services, 21%
Curbside recycling
automatically
provided, 53%
Subscription-based
curbside
(no uptake of
service),
14%
Subscription-based curbside
(assumed uptake of service),
6%
FIGURE 13.6 The percent of population served by

type of recycling service.
Source: The Sustainable Packaging Coalition,
2015–2016 Centralized Study on Availability of Recycling
percentage followed by yard trimmings. There are many other ways that we
can study our waste and recycling patterns, as shown in Figures 13.8 through
13.13. The data contained in these figures are self-explanatory. Spend some time
and study each of them carefully.
As we discussed in Chapter 12, metals are found in many everyday products.
As a result, it is important to carefully study the recycling of metals such as iron,
steel, aluminum, copper, zinc, and nickel. The source of data for the following
section is the EPA, Advancing Sustainable Materials Management, 2018 Fact
Sheet, and the 2020 United States Geological Survey (U.S.G.S.), Mineral
Commodity Summaries.
Rubber and leather, 1.5%
Textiles, 1.7%
Other, 1.4%
Glass, 2.7%
Plastics, 2.8%
Wood, 2.8%
Metals,
7.8%
Paper and paperboard,

41.2%
Food,
18.2%
Yard trimmings,
20.0%
FIGURE 13.7 Materials recovered in percent by weight of total recovery

(2018 data).
Source: EPA, Advancing Sustainable Materials Management: 2018 Fact Sheet
Other wastes,
2.9%
Glass, 4.2%
Wood,
6.2% Paper and
paperboard,
23.1%
Metals,
8.8%
Rubber, leather, and

textiles, 8.9%
Food scraps,
21.6%
Yard trimmings,
12.1%
Plastics,
12.2%
FIGURE 13.8 Materials generated in percent of total generation (2018 data).

Source: EPA, Advancing Sustainable Materials Management: 2018 Fact Sheet
Other wastes, 4.3%
Glass, 5.2%
Yard trimmings,
7.2%
Food scraps,
24.1%
Wood,
8.3%
Metals,
9.5%
Plastics,
18.5%
Paper and
paperboard,
11.8%
Rubber, leather, and
textiles, 11.1%
FIGURE 13.9 Materials discarded in percent of total discard (2018

data).
Source: EPA, Advancing Sustainable Materials Management: 2018 Fact
Sheet
Other materials, 6.8%
Rubber and
leather,
2.3%
Plastics,
14.8%
Paper and
paperboard,
50.5%
Textiles, 25.5%
FIGURE 13.10 Nondurable goods generated in percent of total

generation (2018 data).
Sheet
Wood, other,
Metals, 14.4%
5.0%
Paper and
Glass, 11.9% paperboard,
51.0%
Plastics,
17.7%
FIGURE 13.11 Containers and packing generated in percent of total

generation (2018 data).
Sheet
Wood, other,
23.1%
Plastics,
33.1%
Metals,
4.8%
Glass, 17.8%
21.1%
FIGURE 13.12 Containers and packing discarded in percent of total

discarded (2018 data).
Sheet
Rubber and leather,

3.3% Other, 9.5%

Plastics, 37.0%
20.1%
Textiles, 30.2%
FIGURE 13.13 Nondurable goods discarded in percent of total

discarded (2018 data).
Sheet
Iron and Steel Let us begin with steel, as steel consumption

is a good indicator of economic growth; an increase in steel
consumption usually means an increase in industrial activities.
Moreover, most of the foundries in the United States are
designed to recycle iron and steel scraps. The recycling and
re-melting of iron and steel scraps require less energy (as
compared to producing materials from raw minerals) and
reduce the need for landfill space, thus reducing the impact on
the environment. Recycled steel from discarded automobiles,
appliances, cans, and construction steel (e.g., plates, beams,
PAKULA PIOTR/Shutterstock.com rebar) make up the major source for new products. In 2010
(latest data available), the bodies of millions of end-of-life
vehicles were shredded and recycled in foundries. In fact, the amount of recycled
steel produced exceeded the demand for steel for domestic production of new
vehicles. The recycling rates for appliances, steel cans, aluminum cans, and
construction materials in 2018 were approximately 60, 71, 50, and 76 percent,
respectively.
Aluminum According to the 2020 U.S.G.S. Mineral Commodity Summaries, “in

2019, aluminum recovered from purchased scrap in the United States was about
3.4 million tons, of which about 56% came from new (manufacturing) scrap and
44% from old (discarded aluminum) scrap products. Aluminum recovered from
old scrap was equivalent to about 45% of apparent consumption.” The apparent
consumption is formally defined as the sum of the domestic production plus
recovery from old aluminum scrap plus net import.
Copper In 2019, approximately 1, 850, 000 metric tons of copper were consumed;
out of this amount, 160, 000 tons were recovered through recycling. The recycled
amount accounted for about 9 percent of total consumption in that year.
Zinc and Nickel In 2019, approximately 30, 000 tons of zinc were recovered
from recycling activities. This figure is equivalent to about 25 percent of the total
amount of zinc produced in the United States. In the same year, about 47% of
nickel consumed was recovered from recycling activities.
Composting
Each year we throw away large quantities of food, fruit and
vegetable skins and cores, grass clippings, yard trimmings,
coffee grounds, tea bags, egg shells, and so on. This category
makes up more than 30 percent of our trash. Composting
offers an environmentally friendly alternative to throwing
food and yard trimmings in landfills. Composting refers to
the biological decomposition or decay of food wastes, yard
trimmings, and other organic materials. Normally, composting
leads to a dark, soil-like material that is used as fertilizer to
Evan Lorne/Shutterstock.com
provide nutrients for plants and microorganisms. In addition
to reducing the amount of waste shipped to landfills, compost-
ing reduces the need for chemical fertilizers. Materials that are
commonly composted include:
• Coffee grounds and filters
• Fruits and vegetables
• Leaves
• Nut shells
• Tea bags
• Yard trimmings
• Hair and fur
• Grass clippings
• Egg shells
• Shredded newspaper
• Sawdust
Yard trimmings can be combined with a variety of organic wastes to create
products with certain chemical characteristics. The United States’ municipal
solid-waste composting capacity in 2018 is shown in Figure 13.14. As shown in
this figure, the western states lead with a throughput of more than 5 tons per
million people. The number of facilities in the United States that compost yard
trimmings is shown in Figure 13.15. The midwest has over 1,400 facilities to
handle yard trimmings.
Tons/day throughput/million persons

5
0
FIGURE 13.14 Municipal solid waste

composting throughput
(2018).
Source: U.S. Census Bureau;
BioCycle, November 2011, BioCycle,
October 2017, Mariposa County, CA;
Marlborough, MA; Nantucket, MA;
Faribault County, MN; Gallatin County,
MT; Delaware County, NY; Medina
County, OH; Rapid City, SD; and Sevier
County, TN websites
1,600
1,400
1,200
Number of facilites
1,000
800
600
400
200
0
FIGURE 13.15 Yard trimming composting

facilities (2018).
Source: Goldstein, N. “The State of
Organics,” BioCycle, October 2017.
United States composting facilities
data reported for 2015–2017. Facilities
composting yard trimmings, food waste,
and mixed organics. Excludes 740 facilities
composting manure, biosolids, mixed
MSW, or not defined.
Waste-to-Energy
As shown in Table 13.7 and Figure 13.16, there are
75 waste-to-energy facilities in the United States
(2018 data) that convert waste to electricity. These
facilities use different technologies to produce
energy from waste: Mass-burn plants are designed
to burn waste in a single combustion chamber with
excess air to ensure that all waste is burned; modu-
lar systems are smaller in size and moveable; and
refuse-derived fuel systems first shred and sepa-
rate noncombustible from combustible materials.
The system then uses the combustible materials
Ulrich Mueller/Shutterstock.com as supplemental fuel. A schematic of a waste-to-
energy plant based on a refuse-derived fuel system
is shown in Figure 13.17; note the pollution control
system consists of stages where nitrogen oxide, mercury, acid gases, and particu-
late matter are removed and tested.
TA B L E 1 3 . 7 Municipal Waste-to-Energy Plants (2018)

Region Number Operational Design Capacity (tons per day)
NORTHEAST 37 44,807
SOUTH 19 32,194
MIDWEST 14 11,524
WEST 5 6,530
U.S. Totala 75 95,055
a
Includes mass burn, modular, and refuse-derived fuel combustion facilities.
Source: Based on “The 2018 ERC Directory of Waste-to-Energy Facilities.” Energy Recovery Council (ERC). 2018
900
800
Tons/day capacity/million persons
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
FIGURE 13.16 Municipal waste-to-energy

capacity (2018).
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Energy
Recovery Council (ERC), December 2018
Water vapor
and cleaned
flue gasses
3
14 Megawatt
electricity
Steam Steam
turbine
1 generator
Flue gases 2
5
Trash 4
storage
bunker
Ash
Tipping hall
Ash to landfill
Ash conveyor belt
Pollution control system

1 2 3 4 5
Nitrogen Mercury Acid gas Particulate Pollution
oxide & dioxin removal removal control
removal removal system system tests
system system
Waste-to-energy
• 90% reduction of trash volume
• Power generation
• Pollution control
FIGURE 13.17 A waste-to-energy plant.

Source: Based on www.ecomaine.org
Before You Go On
1. What do we mean by composting?

2. Name at least four items that can be composted.
Vocabulary—State the meaning of the following term:
Waste-to-energy
S U M M A R Y
LO1 Municipal Waste It also represents medical waste and the waste
By now you should know how we generate waste and that is created during exploration, development,
be mindful of the entire life cycle of trash. Before and production of fossil fuels. You also should be
you throw something away, think about the natu- familiar with the basic components and design of
ral resources that were used to make the item and landfills.
how much energy it took to produce, process, trans- Hazardous waste refers to waste that, if improp-
port, and eventually dispose of it. Waste is classified erly disposed, can be harmful to human health and
into two broad categories: municipal and industrial. the environment. Household examples of hazardous
Municipal waste is the trash that we throw away every waste include most cleansers, paint, pesticides, batter-
day, and it consists of items such as food scraps, pack- ies, and used car oil. These products may contain toxic
aging materials, bottles, cans, and so on. or corrosive ingredients.
You should also be familiar with the concepts
of durable and nondurable goods. The EPA reports LO3 Recycling and Composting
the amount of waste generation and recovery using We can manage waste by reducing, recycling, and
the following categories: durable goods, nondurable composting. When we recycle, we limit landfill use,
goods, containers and packing materials, and plas- consume less energy, and use our natural resources
tic packing. Durable goods include products such as more effectively. Each year we throw away large
major and small appliances, furniture, carpets and quantities of food, fruit and vegetable skins, and so on.
rugs, rubber tires, and lead-acid batteries. By nondu- This category makes up more than 30 percent of our
rable goods, the EPA refers to products such as office trash. Composting offers an environmentally friendly
paper, newspaper, books, magazines, paper plates and alternative to throwing food and yard trimmings in
cups, tissue paper and paper towels, disposable dia- landfills. Composting refers to the biological decom-
pers, plastic plates and cups, trash bags, clothing and position or decay of food wastes, yard trimmings, and
footwear, towels, sheets, and so on. other organic materials. There are also facilities that
convert waste to electricity by using available tech-
LO2 Industrial Waste nologies to produce energy from waste.
Industrial waste makes up a significant portion
of solid waste in the United States. It consists of
construction, renovation, and demolition materials.
K E Y T E R M S
Composting 420 Industrial Waste 398 Nondurable Goods 400

Durable Goods 400 Leachate 412 Waste-to-Energy Facility 422
Hazardous Waste 411 Municipal Waste 398
Problems 425

This project will help you determine how much
trash you generate each year. Maintain a daily log-
book to keep track of what you throw away each
day for at least a week. Project your findings into
monthly and annual amounts, compile your find-
ings into a single report, and present it to the class.
State all your assumptions and suggest ways to
reduce waste and increase recycling. Artieskg/Shutterstock.com
P R O B L E M S
13.1 During the holiday seasons, we tend to year in a mass-burn facility in your region.
produce more waste. For example, we discard Discuss your findings in a brief report.
more wrapping paper, cards, and shopping 13.6 As we mentioned in Chapter 10, methane
bags. Moreover, according to the EPA, each contributes to global climate change. To
year over 30 million live Christmas trees are reduce methane emissions from landfills and
sold in North America. Suggest at least five to promote its recovery and use as an energy
ways to reduce waste during the holidays. source, the EPA offers a program entitled
13.2 Consumer electronics and their components the Landfill Methane Outreach Program.
(e.g., batteries and printer ink cartridges) Investigate how landfill gas is converted to
are increasingly becoming a major portion energy and the types of collection systems
of our trash. Suggest at least three ways to in use today. Discuss your findings in a brief
reduce waste caused by electronics and their report.
components. 13.7 Use Figure 13.5 to determine the amount of
13.3 Products containing mercury pose health municipal solid waste that was recycled in
hazards, and as a result, they must be disposed 1960, 1970, 1980, 1990, 2000, and 2010.
of properly. Some clocks, mirrors, button cell 13.8 Estimate the amount of plastic that is in the
batteries, switches, relays, and thermostats are water bottles that you throw away each year.
among products that may contain mercury. State your assumptions.
Identify at least five products in your daily
13.9 There are some organic materials that you
life containing mercury that you were not
should not compost. For example, meat and
aware of and identify alternatives to these
fish bones could attract flies and rodents.
products that do not use mercury.
Give examples of other organic materials that
13.4 Use the tables given in this chapter to look should not be composted.
up the following information: total plastic,
13.10 According to the EPA, low concentration
glass, and paper and paperboard generation
levels of prescription and over-the-counter
in nondurable goods.
drugs and chemicals used to make cosmetics
13.5 There are many facilities across the world and personal care products are found in
that deal with energy recovery from waste. our water supply. Investigate how these
Investigate how much waste material was substances find their way into our water
converted into electricity in the most recent supply and how they should be disposed of
properly. Discuss your findings in a brief should be disposed of properly. Write a

report. one-page summary of your findings.
13.11 According to the United States Census 13.16 Investigate the recycling activities in
Bureau data, each year hundreds of your community. Prepare a colorful and
thousands of residential and nonresidential informative brochure to increase awareness
buildings are demolished, resulting in millions of these activities in your community.
of tons of debris. Investigate what is being 13.17 Investigate current practices dealing with
done to recycle some of the recovered items recycling of used motor oil. Discuss your
such as doors, windows, and beams. Discuss findings in a brief report.
your findings in a brief report.
13.18 Recylemania is a competition designed to
13.12 Investigate the role and mission of the U.S. promote recycling among colleges in the
Green Building Council. Write an executive United States. Visit the Recylemania website
summary discussing your findings. to find ways to actively participate in the
13.13 Each year, we discard hundreds of millions challenge. Use the knowledge you have
of tires that find their way into stockpiles gained from this course.
and landfills. Investigate the current state 13.19 Each year, millions of people stop at rest
of scrap-tire management in your region. areas along U.S. Interstates. Investigate
Discuss your findings in a brief report. recycling activities at rest stops in your state.
13.14 Each year, mining activities generate large Prepare a one-page summary sheet showing
quantities of waste. Investigate this area of your findings.
industrial waste and report your findings to 13.20 Each year, millions of people attend
your instructor. professional and collegiate sporting events.
13.15 Each compact fluorescent light bulb, on Investigate recycling activities at sporting
average, contains 4 milligrams of mercury. facilities on your campus, and write a brief
Investigate how these types of light bulbs report discussing your findings.
Problems 427
Panos Karas/Shutterstock.com
“The greatest injustices proceed

from those who pursue excess, not by
those who are driven by necessity.”
—Aristotle (384–322 BC)
Sustainability
PA RT
4
I
n Part Four, we discuss important factors that influence sustainability and introduce
you to the United Nations’ 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the Earth
Charter, which eloquently put into words an ethical guideline for building a sustain-
able, just, and peaceful global society in the 21st century. We also introduce you to key
sustainability concepts, methods, and tools. Every good global citizen must develop a
keen understanding of the Earth’s finite resources, environmental and socioeconomic
issues related to sustainability, ethical aspects of sustainability, and the necessity for
sustainable development. You will learn about life-cycle analysis, resource and waste
management, and environmental impact analysis. You will also become familiar with
sustainable-development indicators, such as the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC)
and Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) rating systems.
CHAPTER 14 Sustainability
429
CHA P T E R
14
Sustainability
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
LO1 How Does One Define Sustainability?: describe the
important factors that affect sustainability
LO2 The Earth Charter: describe the Earth Charter
LO3 Key Sustainability Concepts, Assessments, and Tools:
explain the key sustainability concepts, assessments,
and tools such as life-cycle analysis
LO4 Apply What You Have Learned—Knowledge Is Power:
make specific plans to make the world a better place
joyfull/Shutterstock.com, beeboys/Shutterstock.com, MikeDotta/Shutterstock.com,

tackune/Shutterstock.com, Van de Wiel Photography/Shutterstock.com
Discussion Starter
I
n the discussion starter of Chapter 1,
we said that we all want to make the
world a better place: “How do we
do it, and where do we start?” We also
quoted Leo Tolstoy, who said:
“Everyone thinks of changing the
world, but no one thinks of changing
oneself.”
The knowledge that you have
gained from studying the previous
thirteen chapters allows you to under-
stand your daily environmental impact
by estimating how much water, food,
Gustavo Frazao/Shutterstock.com
and material you consume and dis-
card, how much energy you expend, lifestyle and habits. Consider the saying, “knowl-
and how much emissions are actually due to your edge is power.”
To the Students: The question is then, “How are you planning to use this power
and apply what you have learned to change yourself to make the world a better
place?” What are your specific plans?
LO1 14.1 How Does One Define Sustainability?

There are many factors that we must consider when we try to define sustainabil-
ity. By now, you should have a good understanding of the basic human needs and
demands of a growing world population. As a society, we are expected to design
and provide goods and services that increase the standard of living and advance
health care while also considering the links between Earth’s finite resources and
related environmental, social, ethical, technical, and economical factors.
• As a society, we create and consume many different products and services.
We need energy for building structures, growing food, and providing
access to clean water.
• Meeting these human needs causes pollution. Stationary, mobile, and
natural sources all contribute to outdoor air pollution. Human activities,
such as mining, construction, manufacturing, and agriculture, contribute to
water pollution.
• CO2 emissions are influenced by a variety of factors, such as population
size, the amount of energy consumed per unit of gross domestic product
(GDP), or the wealth of a population. Richer populations consume more
products; thus they tend to emit more CO2.
432 CHAPTER 14 Sustainability
• The energy use per capita in the world has been increasing steadily,
particularly in developing countries as their economies grow.
• Adding to these concerns, the population of the world is expected to rise
from over 7 billion to about 9.3 billion people by the mid-21st century.
As you can see, in order to address our needs and maintain a good standard
of living, we face problems of locating raw materials, finding energy sources, and
reducing pollution and waste. Let us now look at how we got here and consider
the history of transformative industries and innovations that have shaped our
lives today.
The Industrial Revolution

The industrial revolution refers to the beginning of a period where machines
transformed the manufacturing, transportation, agricultural, metallurgical,
textile, and energy sectors. As shown in Figure 14.1, the initial period was
FIGURE 14.1 The industrial revolution timeline.

Source: elenabsl/Shutterstock.com
followed by other periods in history with more innovations and advance-

ments in technology.
Industry 1.0: The First Industrial Revolution The first industrial

revolution started in Britain in the late 18th century. This period saw many
products being produced by machines that were powered by steam. Prior to
this, products had been made by hand and crop fields were cultivated by using
animal power, resulting in products and food that were expensive and time-
consuming to produce.
Industry 2.0: The Second Industrial Revolution Nearly a century later,

the second industrial revolution began. This era was the beginning of a mass-
production period. At this point automation in manufacturing was introduced
where oil, gas, and electricity powered the assembly lines. During this period,
telephones were also adopted for long-distance communication.
Industry 3.0: The Third Industrial Revolution In the mid-20th century,

the advent of computers and programmable logic controllers helped automate
various manufacturing processes. This period is also known for the birth of
electronics and more advanced telecommunication systems.
Industry 4.0: The Fourth Industrial Revolution Today, we are

experiencing the fourth industrial revolution, which is marked by smart
devices, autonomous systems, and advanced automation systems that learn
and are powered by enormous amounts of data provided by sensors. These
innovations have led to better decision making and a more efficient way of
doing things.
The next industrial revolution, Industry 5.0 , will deal with human-smart
machine interaction. As machines learn more and become more intelligent, they
will work with humans to solve problems through shared cognitive computing
and human creativity.
Population Age Structure

As mentioned previously, the population of the world is expected to grow
from over 7 billion at present to about 9.3 billion people by the mid-21st
century. Moreover, the age structure of the world population is changing.
It is important to note that the change in population age structure will play
an important role in how the government of a given country will plan for
important activities related to education, workforce development, health care
services, housing, and so on.
The world’s population age structure in 2019 is shown in Table 14.1. As
shown, nearly half of the world’s population were between the ages of 25 and
64, and the under 15 and the over 65 age groups represented 25.6 percent and
9.1 percent of the total population, respectively. The population age structure
of the world continues to change as shown in Figure 14.2. By the end of this
century, the United Nations projects that the number of people in the over
65 age group will surpass the under 15 age group. This is quite a contrast when
compared to the 2019 data.
TA B L E 1 4 . 1 The World’s Population Age Structure in 2019

Percentage of population under age 15 25.6
Percentage of population ages 15–24 15.6
Percentage of population ages 25–64 49.7
Percentage of population ages 65+ 9.1
Potential support ratio (persons 25–64 per 65+) 5.5
Annual rate of population change (percentage) 1.1
Total fertility (live births per woman) 2.45
Life expectancy at birth (years) 72.6
Total population (billions) 7.7
Source: Data from United Nations
Total population Population by broad age groups

13 7
12
Medium variant 6 95% prediction interval
11
Total population (billions)
10
Population (billions)
5
9 25–64
8 4
7 65+
3
6 0–14
5 2
4 95% prediction interval
1
3 15–24
2 0
1950 1975 2000 2025 2050 2075 2100 1950 1975 2000 2025 2050 2075 2100
Year Year
Average annuel rate of population change Population in 2019

3.0 100
Males Females
90
2.5 95% prediction interval
80
2.0
70
1.5 60
Percent
1.0 50
Age
Medium variant
0.5 40
0.0 30
20
–0.5
10
–1.0
0
1950 1975 2000 2025 2050 2075 2100 500 400 300 200 100 0 100 200 300 400 500
Year Population (milions)
FIGURE 14.2 The world’s population age structure projection.

Note: Medium–variant projections for 2020–2100 are shown as thin colored lines, and uncertainty is shown in
lighter shades for 95 percent prediction intervals.
Source: United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division
The United Nations Global Goals for Sustainable

Development
In response to the challenges that humans face globally, the United Nations has
established seventeen goals for sustainable development (un.org).
MintArt/Shutterstock.com
Goal 1: No Poverty Economic growth must be inclusive to provide sustainable

jobs and promote equality. More than 700 million people still live in extreme
poverty.
Donate what you don’t use.
Goal 2: Zero Hunger Food and agriculture sectors offer key solutions for
development, which are key for the eradication of hunger and poverty. More
than 800 million people are undernourished, while a third of the world’s food
is wasted.
Avoid wasting food.
Goal 3: Good Health and Well-Being Ensuring healthy lives and promoting
the well-being of all are essential to a sustainable world.
Vaccinate your family.
Goal 4: Quality Education Obtaining a quality education is the foundation

for improving people’s lives and sustainable development. Today, 617
million children and adolescents lack a minimum proficiency in reading and
mathematics.
Help educate the children in your community.
Goal 5: Gender Equality Gender equality is not only a fundamental human

right, but it is also a necessary foundation for a peaceful, prosperous, and
sustainable world.
Help empower women and girls to ensure their equal rights.
Goal 6: Clean Water and Sanitation Clean, accessible water for all is an
essential part of the world we want to live in. Water scarcity affects more than
40 percent of the world’s population.
Avoid wasting water.
Goal 7: Affordable and Clean Energy Energy is a central requirement for

nearly every major challenge and opportunity for a sustainable future. Three
billion people still lack clean cooking fuels and technologies.
Use only energy-efficient products.
Goal 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth Sustainable economic growth

requires society to create conditions that allow people to have quality jobs.
One-fifth of the world’s young people currently cannot pursue education,
employment, or training.
Create job opportunities for youth.
Goal 9: Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure Investments in

infrastructure are crucial to achieving sustainable development. Roads,
water, sanitation, and electricity remain scarce in many developing
countries.
Encourage your government to fund projects that provide basic infrastructure.
Goal 10: Reduced Income Inequalities To reduce inequalities, policies

should be universal in principle, paying attention to the needs of disadvantaged
and marginalized populations. The poorest 40 percent of the Earth’s population
earns less than 25 percent of the global income.
Support the marginalized and disadvantaged.
Goal 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities There needs to be a future

in which cities provide opportunities for all with access to basic services, energy,
housing, transportation, and more. Nine out of ten urban residents breathe
polluted air.
Bike, walk, or use public transportation.
Goal 12: Responsible Consumption and Production By 2050, the

equivalent of almost three planets could be required to sustain current
lifestyles.
Recycle paper, plastic, glass, and aluminum.
Goal 13: Climate Action Climate change is a global challenge that affects
everyone, everywhere. Global emission of carbon dioxide has increased by
almost 50 percent since 1990.
Act now to prevent climate change.
Goal 14: Life Below Water Careful management of this essential global
resource is a key feature of a sustainable future. Over three billion people
depend on marine and coastal biodiversity for their livelihoods.
Avoid using plastic bags to keep the oceans clean.
14.2 The Earth Charter 437
Goal 15: Life On Land The world needs to sustainably manage forests, combat
desertification, halt and reverse land degradation, and halt biodiversity loss.
Forests are home to more than 80 percent of all terrestrial species of animals,
plants, and insects.
Plant a tree and help protect the environment.
Goal 16: Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions Access to justice for all
is key, as is building effective, accountable institutions at all levels. In 2018, the
number of people fleeing war, persecution, and conflict exceeded 70 million.
Stand up for human rights.
Goal 17: Partnerships Revitalize the global partnership for sustainable

development.
Lobby your government to boost development financing.
As you can see, we cannot come up with a simple definition for sustainabil-
ity since many factors must be considered. The term sustainability also means
different things to different people and organizations. However, one of the gen-
erally accepted definitions for sustainability is
“design and development that meets the needs of the

present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs.”
LO2 14.2 The Earth Charter

We remind you again that in order to address our energy needs, clean air and
water requirements, and food supply intelligently, we need to work together.
Unfortunately, international competition for the Earth’s finite resources contin-
ues to increase today as each nation works hard to address its own energy, water,
and food needs. Recall the example of the human body, which is made of many
interacting parts that work well together and share resources effectively; when
any part of our body—as small as a tooth—is in pain, the body as a whole is
uncomfortable until the pain is gone. We should develop a similar, holistic view
of our collective societies—one that increases commonality of human purpose
and gives a greater meaning to life beyond the walls of our homes, the boundar-
ies of our cities, and the borders of our countries.
To emphasize the sense of global interdependence and shared responsibility
for the well-being of the entire human family, the Earth Charter was introduced
by an independent international commission on June 29, 2000, in The Hague,
Netherlands. The Earth Charter eloquently puts into words an ethical guideline
for building a sustainable, just, and peaceful global society in the 21st century.
The Earth Charter, which is presented here, is intended as both a vision of hope
and a call to action.
Earth Charter
Preamble has overburdened ecological and social systems.
The foundations of global security are threatened.
We stand at a critical moment in Earth’s history, a
These trends are perilous—but not inevitable.
time when humanity must choose its future. As
the world becomes increasingly interdependent
The Challenges Ahead
and fragile, the future at once holds great peril and
great promise. To move forward we must recog- The choice is ours: form a global partnership to care
nize that in the midst of a magnificent diversity of for Earth and one another or risk the destruction
cultures and life forms we are one human family of ourselves and the diversity of life. Fundamen-
and one Earth community with a common destiny. tal changes are needed in our values, institutions,
We must join together to bring forth a sustainable and ways of living. We must realize that when basic
global society founded on respect for nature, uni- needs have been met, human development is pri-
versal human rights, economic justice, and a cul- marily about being more, not having more. We have
ture of peace. Towards this end, it is imperative that the knowledge and technology to provide for all
we, the peoples of Earth, declare our responsibility and to reduce our impacts on the environment. The
to one another, to the greater community of life, emergence of a global civil society is creating new
and to future generations. opportunities to build a democratic and humane
world. Our environmental, economic, political,
Earth, Our Home social, and spiritual challenges are interconnected,
and together we can forge inclusive solutions.
Humanity is part of a vast evolving universe. Earth,
our home, is alive with a unique community of life.
Universal Responsibility
The forces of nature make existence a demanding
and uncertain adventure, but Earth has provided To realize these aspirations, we must decide to live
the conditions essential to life’s evolution. The resil- with a sense of universal responsibility, identifying
ience of the community of life and the well-being ourselves with the whole Earth community as well
of humanity depend upon preserving a healthy as our local communities. We are at once citizens
biosphere with all its ecological systems, a rich vari- of different nations and of one world in which the
ety of plants and animals, fertile soils, pure waters, local and global are linked. Everyone shares respon-
and clean air. The global environment with its finite sibility for the present and future well-being of
resources is a common concern of all peoples. The the human family and the larger living world. The
protection of Earth’s vitality, diversity, and beauty spirit of human solidarity and kinship with all life is
is a sacred trust. strengthened when we live with reverence for the
mystery of being, gratitude for the gift of life, and
The Global Situation humility regarding the human place in nature.
We urgently need a shared vision of basic val-
The dominant patterns of production and
ues to provide an ethical foundation for the emerg-
consumption are causing environmental devas-
ing world community. Therefore, together in hope
tation, the depletion of resources, and a massive
we affirm the following interdependent principles
extinction of species. Communities are being under-
for a sustainable way of life as a common standard
mined. The benefits of development are not shared
by which the conduct of all individuals, organiza-
equitably and the gap between rich and poor is
tions, businesses, governments, and transnational
widening. Injustice, poverty, ignorance, and violent
institutions is to be guided and assessed.
conflict are widespread and the cause of great suf-
fering. An unprecedented rise in human population Source: earthcharter.org
The basic principles of the Earth Charter include respect and care for the
community of life, ecological integrity, social and economic justice, and democ-
racy, nonviolence, and peace. The Earth Charter in its entirety, with a complete
list of principle descriptions, is given in Appendix D. Take some time to read it
carefully and contemplate how you can answer the call to action.
LO3 14.3 Key Sustainability Concepts, Assessments,

and Tools
In an article published nearly two decades ago in the American Society of Civil
Engineers News titled “Board of Direction Views Sustainability Strategy as
Key Priority,” William Wallace, the author of “Becoming Part of the Solution,”
offered five issues that must be understood:
1. The world’s current economic development is not sustainable—the world
population already uses approximately 20 percent more of the world’s
resources than the planet can sustain.
2. The effects of outpacing the Earth’s carrying capacity have now reached
crisis proportions—extreme weather events causing huge losses, such
as the prospect of rising sea levels threatening coastal cities. Global
population increase outstrips the capacity of institutions to address it.
3. An enormous amount of work will be required if the world is to shift to

sustainable development—a complete overhaul of the world’s processes,
systems, and infrastructure will be needed.
4. The engineering community should be leading the way toward sustainable

development, but it has not yet assumed that responsibility. Civil
engineers have few incentives to change. Most civil engineers deliver
conventional engineering designs that meet building codes and protect
the status quo.
5. People outside the engineering community are capitalizing on new

opportunities—accounting firms and architects are examples cited by
Wallace. The architects bring their practices into conformity with the
U.S. Green Building Council’s Leadership in Energy and Environmental
Design (LEED) Green Building Rating System.
You can learn about LEED by visiting www.usgbc.org/LEED. As stated on
their website,
“LEED is an internationally recognized green

building certification system, providing third-party
verification that a building or community was
designed and built using strategies aimed at improving
performance across all the metrics that matter most:
energy savings, water efficiency, CO2 emissions

reduction, improved indoor environmental quality,
and stewardship of resources and sensitivity to their
impacts. Developed by the U.S. Green Building
Council (USGBC), LEED provides building owners
and operators a concise framework for identifying
and implementing practical and measurable green
building design, construction, operations and
maintenance solutions.”
In addition to LEED, there are many other organizations based on agricul-

ture, business, community development, energy, and environmental concerns
that deal with sustainability.
We need good global citizens who can help develop and establish solutions
that address our needs for infrastructure, energy, water, and food while simul-
taneously addressing sustainability issues. The potential shortage of citizens
with a firm grasp of the concept of sustainability—people who can apply the
sustainability methods and tools to their problem-solving and decision-making
processes—could have serious consequences for our future.
Next, we introduce you to a key sustainability assessment method called
life-cycle analysis.
Key Sustainability Assessment: Life-Cycle

Analysis
We use a lot of products in our daily lives: clothing, Step 1: The life-cycle analysis starts with the defi-
running shoes, furniture, TVs, phones, hair driers, nition of the scope of the analysis. First, the purpose
coffee machines, computers, cars, refrigerators, or the goal of the analysis must be clearly defined.
ovens, dishwashers, and so on. Life-cycle analysis Questions such as the following should be asked
looks at the raw material and the energy consump- and answered: “What is it that you want to study?
tion, emissions, and other factors related to a prod- Why do you want to study it? How detailed should
uct over its entire life from its origin to its disposal: the study be?”
from its inception and birth to its death. Generally, a
Step 2: Next, you perform what is called an inven-
life-cycle analysis consists of four steps:
tory analysis. You need to make a chart showing
1. Purpose or goal definition all of the components in a system or product’s life
2. Inventory analysis cycle and show how these components are related
3. Impact assessment (we discussed the definition of a system and its
4. Improvement components in Chapter 2).
You must then col- was used to deliver the water to your home or
lect data for each com- office, and so on? Don’t forget about the amount
ponent in terms of raw of energy that was consumed in the process of
material, energy use, and extracting and delivering the fossil fuels them-
emissions. For example, selves—the sources of energy—that were used
if you were to perform during raw material extraction, manufacturing,
a life-cycle analysis on a transportation, usage, and disposal of the coffee
system, such as an auto- machine.
matic coffee machine,
you would need to con- Step 3: The third step in the life-cycle analysis
sider many different is called impact assessment. For this step, you
components. You can need to analyze the magnitude of environmental
start with the coffee itself impact. For example, you need to consider emis-
Pavel Shchegolev/Shutterstock.com
that would eventually be sions due to burning all of the fossil fuels that are
brewed in the machine associated with extraction of the raw materials,
and ask questions such as “How much energy and manufacturing, and transportation to the stores.
water did it take to grow the beans? How much You also need to consider emissions associated
energy did it take to transport the beans to a pro- with the energy that is consumed during the use-
cessing plant? How much energy did it take to ful life and during the disposal phase of the cof-
roast and grind the beans? How much energy did fee machine. Remember, garbage and recycling
it take to package and deliver the coffee to a super- trucks also burn fossil fuels that produce emis-
market?” You can then ask similar questions about sions. As you can see, a comprehensive life-cycle
the production and delivery of the paper coffee analysis requires a great deal of data and is very
filters to stores. complex.
Next, you proceed with the actual machine Step 4: The final step involves improvement. Based
components and ask similar questions about the on what is learned, the designer should then mod-
parts of the coffee machine that are made from ify the product to have a smaller environmental
plastics, metal, and glass. Ask about their pro- footprint. You, as a good global citizen and the
duction, how different components (parts) were consumer of the product, also have an important
assembled, and how the coffee machine was pack- role to play. Even though you might not be able to
aged and transported to the store. conduct a thorough analysis, you can obtain use-
Finally, you need to estimate the coffee ful information for your decisions using a limited
machine’s consumption in terms of water and life-cycle analysis, particularly when comparing
energy. You also need to consider how the cof- different products.
fee, thousands of filters, and the coffee machine
are disposed of. How many pounds or kilograms
of coffee beans, paper filters, plastic, metal, and
Key Sustainability Tools
glass were consumed? How much energy was The life-cycle assessment, environmental assess-
required to extract the raw materials to make ment, and U.S. Green Building Council Leadership
the parts, assemble them, transport them to the in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) rat-
manufacturing place, and eventually transport ing system each serve as sustainability tools. In
the finished product (the coffee machine) to a addition to these tools, there are many resource,
store? How many kilowatt-hours (kWh) will the waste, and emission calculators available online
coffee machine consume during its lifetime? How through various government and international
much water will be consumed? How much energy agencies.
Before You Go On
1. List some of the United Nations’ goals for sustainable development.

2. What is the Earth Charter?
3. What are the steps in a life-cycle analysis?
4. Use an example from a product you use every day to explain the life-cycle analysis.
LEED
life-cycle analysis
LO4 14.4 Apply What You Have Learned—Knowledge

Is Power
You have heard the old saying, “Knowledge is power.” How are you planning
to use your power? You may not realize it, but you now have many tools in
your toolbox that you can use to analyze your daily water, material, and energy
consumption, as well as waste and emissions due to your activities. Table 14.2
summarizes the focus of each chapter that you have studied and indicates how
the knowledge gained from each chapter may be applied. A brief review of the
topics covered in each chapter follows Table 14.2. Moreover, at the end of this
chapter, there is a list of projects that you can initiate on your campus or in your
community. You can also visit the Association for the Advancement of Sustain-
ability in Higher Education (AASHE) website, which contains over 700 case
studies from 18 countries covering various topics, including water,
energy, building design and construction, transportation, and waste.
Fundamental Dimensions and Systems of

Units
You should have a good understanding of the fundamental dimen-
sions used in your everyday life. We realize that we need only a
few physical dimensions or quantities to describe our surround-
ings and daily events. For example, we need a length dimension
to describe how tall, how long, or how wide something is. Time
is another physical dimension that we need to answer questions
such as “How old are you?” You also should know that based on
what we know about our world today, we need seven fundamental
rangizzz/Shutterstock.com dimensions to describe our surroundings. They are length, mass,
TA B L E 1 4 . 2 A Summary of Topics Covered in This Book and How to Apply Them

How to Apply What You Have
Chapter Topic Focus Learned
1 Basic human We need clean air, clean water, food, The solution to any problem
needs shelter, and energy to address our needs. starts with understanding the
Both the population of the world and the problem. Before coming up with
energy use per capita in the world have solutions, you need to develop a
been increasing steadily. We use more of clear understanding of what the
the world’s resources than the planet can problems are.
sustain. Human activities are contributing
to outdoor air and water pollution.
2 Fundamental Certain physical quantities are used to These physical quantities allow you
dimensions and describe and quantify our surroundings to understand and quantify your
units and activities. These physical quantities needs and waste. For example, you
include length, mass, time, temperature, can estimate how much material
and electric current. These are divided went into making a product, or
into units such as meter or foot, second, the relationship between the
kilogram or pound, degrees Celsius or room temperature setting and
Fahrenheit, and ampere. the energy consumption of a
heating unit in winter.
3 Evidence-based Evidence-based analysis refers to an We need to make sure that the
analysis approach that is based on scientific solutions that we come up with
principles, scientific research, scientific are based on sound scientific
data, and mathematical and statistical principles, reliable data, and
models. In recent years, the use of this verifiable mathematical and
systematic approach to sustainability has statistical models.
resulted in more reliable decisions.
4 Electronic Spreadsheets are used to record, organize, These tools allow you to
spreadsheets and analyze data using formulas, or present perform analyses of your
the results of an analysis in chart forms. footprints from water and
energy use and contributions
to emissions and waste.
Spreadsheets allow you to
present your findings in ways
that are easily understood.
5 Energy, power, To quantify the requirements to move You can quantify how much
energy content objects such as our cars, to lift things energy it takes to address your
of fuels, and like an elevator, or to heat or cool our daily needs, for example, to
efficiency homes, energy is defined and classified open a garage door, to move
into different categories such as kinetic, a car, to heat a home, to heat
potential, and thermal energy. water for a shower, or to lift an
Power represents how fast you are elevator. You can also estimate
expending energy. The energy content of how much fossil fuel it will take
a fuel quantifies the amount of energy that to perform these tasks.
is released when a unit mass (kilogram or
pound) or a unit volume (cubic meter, cubic
foot, liter, or gallon) of a fuel is burned. All
machines have efficiencies that are less than
100%; in other words, they require more
input than what they put out.
(Continues)
TA B L E 1 4 . 2 A Summary of Topics Covered in This Book and How to Apply Them (continued)
6 Electric power It is important to understand the electric When you buy and use a
power consumption requirements for product that consumes
typical home appliances, electronics, and electricity, you can calculate
lighting systems. Ampere, resistance, how much energy the product
voltage, and electric power constitute will consume daily or annually
the basic concepts of electricity. You and how much coal or natural
should also be familiar with basic lighting gas is burned in a power plant
terminology. For example, the amount of to provide the electric power
light emitted by a lamp is expressed in needed to operate the product.
lumens, and efficacy is the ratio of how
much light is produced by a lamp (in
lumens) compared to how much energy is
consumed by the lamp (in watts).
7 Heating and Heat always flows from a high-temperature You can calculate how much
cooling of region to a low-temperature region. There fuel it takes to keep your house
buildings are three different mechanisms by which warm in winter and cool in
thermal energy is transferred: conduction, summer. You can use historical
convection, and radiation. The R-value of a degree-day data to estimate
material provides a measure of resistance the monthly and annual energy
to heat flow; the higher the value, the more consumption rates.
resistance to heat flow the material offers.
Daylighting refers to the use of windows
and skylights to bring natural light into a
building. Factors that are considered when
selecting windows and skylights include
the U-factor, solar heat gain coefficient,
air leakage, sunlight transmittance, visible
transmittance, and light-to-solar gain. A
degree day is the difference between 658F
(typically) and the average temperature of
the outside air during a 24-hour period.
8 Energy Your personal energy consumption depends You can estimate energy
consumption on your standard of living, and industrial consumption and set a goal
and non- energy consumption depends on economic to reduce it by a certain
renewable activities such as production, distribution, percentage each year. You can
energy sources use, and trade of goods and services. Energy also estimate the equivalent
use also depends on the weather. Currently, amount of fuel that won’t be
petroleum, coal, and natural gas make up burned due to the savings.
most of the fuel used in generating energy.
You should have a good grasp of how
we consume energy through industrial
activities, in buildings, and by transporting
people and goods. Nearly one-third of
the U.S. energy consumption is spent
transporting people and products; gasoline
and diesel fuel account for nearly 85% of
energy consumed by vehicles.

9 Renewable Currently, renewable energy accounts When selecting a renewable
energy sources: for a small percentage of our energy energy source, such as a solar
solar, wind, sources. Solar systems can be classified system or a wind turbine,
hydro, and as active, passive, and photovoltaic you can first perform simple
biomass systems. The amount of solar radiation calculations and then use the
available at a place depends on many results of your calculation to
factors, including geographical location, make informed decisions.
season, local landscape and weather,
and time of day. Wind energy is a form
of solar energy. The power generated by
the wind is directly proportional to the
speed of the wind cubed. Hydropower
represents the power of moving water
that is converted into electricity using a
number of techniques. Biomass refers to
organic materials, such as wood, plants,
or algae, that are grown specifically to
be converted to produce biofuels using
different processes. Ethanol refers to
alcohol-based fuel that is made from
sugar found in crops such as corn and
sugar cane. Biodiesel refers to fuel made
from vegetable oils, animal fats, or
recycled restaurant grease.
10 Emissions and Carbon dioxide plays an important role You can calculate your carbon
air quality in sustaining plant life; however, if the dioxide footprint due to your
atmosphere contains too much carbon daily activities, such as driving
dioxide, it will result in the greenhouse a car, taking a shower, watching
effect. The Environmental Protection TV, or powering your electronic
Agency (EPA) measures the concentration devices.
levels of six major air pollutants: carbon
monoxide (CO), lead (Pb), nitrogen
dioxide (NO2 ), ozone (O3 ),
sulfur dioxide (SO2 ), and particulate
matter (PM). The indoor levels of
pollutants may be many times higher
than outdoor levels. The World Health
Organization (WHO) sets the global air
quality standards and monitors and
provides technical support.
(Continues)
TA B L E 1 4 . 2 A Summary of Topics Covered in This Book and How to Apply Them (continued)
11 Water The total amount of water available on You can estimate your annual
resources and Earth remains constant; we don’t lose water consumption and make
consumption or gain water. You should be familiar a plan to reduce it by a certain
with how much water you consume to amount.
address your personal needs. The U.S.
Geological Survey (USGS) groups major
water-consuming activities into broad
categories, such as public, domestic,
irrigation, livestock, aquaculture,
industrial, mining, and thermoelectric
power generation and reports the data
for each category. Human activities and
naturally occurring microorganisms
contribute to the level of contaminants
in our water supply. The EPA sets the
standards for the maximum level of
contaminants that can be in our drinking
water and still be considered safe to
drink. The WHO is responsible for setting
water standards and monitoring and
providing technical support globally.
12 Materials— Products are typically made from metals, You can estimate how much
what products plastics, glass, composites, or wood; material you consume annually
are made from construction materials include wood, and devise a plan to reduce
aluminum, steel, and concrete. your consumption.
13 Waste and Before you throw away something, you You can estimate how many
recycling should think about the natural resources durable and nondurable
that were used to make the item and how goods you throw away and
much energy it took to produce, process, come up with a plan to reduce
transport, and eventually dispose of it. The the amount by a certain
EPA reports the amount of municipal and percentage. You can manage
industrial waste. Each year, we also throw waste by reducing, recycling, or
away large quantities of food, fruit and composting.
vegetable skins, and so on. Composting
offers an environmentally friendly
alternative to throwing food and yard
trimmings in landfills.
14 Life-cycle Life-cycle analysis looks at the raw material Before making decisions,
assessment and the energy consumption, emissions, you can perform a life-cycle
and other factors related to a product over analysis (even a limited version)
its entire life, from its origin to its disposal to obtain useful information,
(birth to death). particularly when comparing
different products.
time, temperature, electric current, amount of substance, and luminous inten-

sity. Not only do we need to define these physical dimensions to describe our
surroundings, but we also need some way to scale or divide them into units. For
example, the time dimension can be divided into both small and large portions,
such as seconds, minutes, hours, days, months, and years. The SI system is the
most common system of units used in the world; you should be familiar with its
units of length (meter), time (second), mass (kilogram), temperature (Kelvin
or degree Celsius), electric current (ampere), amount of substance (mole), and
luminous intensity (candela). The SI system also makes use of a series of pre-
fixes and symbols of decimal multiples, such as mega (M), giga (G), and kilo (k).
You should also be familiar with the U.S. Customary units of length (foot), time
(second), mass (pound-mass), temperature (degree Rankine or degree Fahr-
enheit), electric current (ampere), amount of substance (mole), and luminous
intensity (candela). Every product that you own or will purchase is considered
a system and is made of components.
Evidence-Based Analysis
Evidence-based analysis refers to an approach that is based on scientific princi-
ples, scientific research, scientific data, and mathematical and statistical models.
In recent years, the use of this systematic approach in a wide range of topics,
including sustainability, has resulted in more reliable decisions.
It is important to understand the importance of linear models in describing
problems and their solutions. Linear models are the simplest form of equations
used to describe a range of situations. You should also understand the impor-
tant role of probability and statistics in various areas and be familiar with their
terminologies.
Probability deals with the branch of science that attempts to predict the
likelihood of an event to occur. In probability, each time you repeat
an experiment is called a trial. The result of an experiment is called an
outcome, and a random experiment is one that has random outcomes—
random outcomes cannot be predicted exactly.
Statistics is the area of science that deals with the collection, organization,
analysis, and interpretation of data. Statistics also deals with methods
and techniques that can be used to draw conclusions about the charac-
teristics of something with a large number of data points—commonly
called a population—using a smaller portion of the entire data.
One simple way of organizing data (for drawing conclusions) is to identify
the lowest and the highest data points and then group the data into equal inter-
vals or ranges. When data is organized in this manner, it is commonly referred
to as a grouped frequency distribution. Another way of showing the range of
data and their frequency is by using a bar graph or a histogram. The height of
the bars shows the frequency of the data within the given ranges.
You should also have a good grasp of statistical measures of central ten-
dency and variation. You should know how to compute basic statistical infor-
mation, such as mean, variance, and standard deviation, for a set of data points.
You also should understand that the value of the mean alone does not provide
useful information about the dispersion of data; the standard deviation value
gives a better idea about how scattered (or spread out) the data is.
A probability distribution shows the probability values for the occurrence

of the outcomes of an experiment. When a probability distribution has a bell-
shaped curve, it is called a normal distribution. It is also important to know that
the detailed bell shape of a normal-distribution curve is determined by its mean
and standard deviation values. An experiment with a small standard deviation
will produce a tall, narrow curve, whereas a large standard deviation will result
in a short, wide curve. You should also know that the area under any given
normal distribution should always be equal to 1.
Electronic Spreadsheets
Spreadsheets are used to record, organize, and analyze data using formulas or
to present the results of an analysis in chart form. There are three ways to refer
to a cell address in a formula: absolute, relative, and mixed references. Excel
offers a large selection of built-in functions that can be used to analyze data.
Excel functions are grouped into various categories, including mathematical
and trigonometric, statistical, financial, and logical.
Excel offers many choices when it comes to creating charts: column charts
(or histograms), pie charts, line charts, or xy charts. At times, it is convenient
to show the plot of two or more variables versus the same variable on a single
chart. By now, you should know how to create such plots. You should also know
how to use Excel to find an equation that best fits a set of data.
Energy, Power, and Efficiency

We need energy to create goods, build shelter, cultivate and process food, and
maintain our living places at comfortable temperatures. Energy can have differ-
ent forms, and to better explain quantitatively the requirements to move objects
such as our cars, to lift things like an elevator, or to heat or cool our homes,
energy is defined and classified into different categories, such as kinetic, poten-
tial, and thermal energy. Kinetic energy is used to quantify how much energy is
required to move something. The energy required to lift an object over a verti-
cal distance is called potential energy. Thermal energy or heat transfer occurs
whenever a temperature difference exists within an object or between a body
and its surroundings. The units of kinetic and potential energy are joules ( J) or
pound force-feet (lbf?ft). The three units that are commonly used to quantify
thermal energy are the British thermal unit (Btu), the calorie, and the joule ( J).
One British thermal unit (Btu) represents the amount of thermal energy needed
to raise the temperature of one pound mass (lbm) of water by one degree
Carlos Neto/Shutterstock.com
Fahrenheit (8F). The calorie represents the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of one gram (g) of water by one degree Celsius (8C).
Power is the time rate of doing work or how fast you are expending energy.
The value of power required to do the work (perform a task) represents how
fast you want the work (task) done. The heating value or energy content of a
fuel quantifies the amount of energy that is released when a unit mass (kilogram
or pound) or a unit volume (cubic meter, cubic foot, liter, or gallon) of a fuel is
burned. All machines and systems require more input than what they put out.
You should know the basic definition of efficiency, which is
what you want to get out of a system

efficiency 5
what you need to put into the system
Electricity and Electric Power

As a good global citizen, you need to know about your home’s electric power
distribution system and consumption. You should know that in the United
States a typical house has a total 200 amperage rating. You should be familiar
with the basic principles of electricity; for example, the electric resistance is
measured in units of ohms (V). An element with one ohm resistance allows a
current flow of one ampere (A) when there exists a potential of one volt (V)
across the element. The flow of electric charge is called the electric current or
simply current. The electric current is measured in amperes. One ampere or
“amp” (A) is defined as the flow of one unit of charge per second.
Voltage represents the amount of work required to move a charge between
two points, and the amount of charge that is moving between the two points per
unit time is called current. Moreover, direct current (dc) is the flow of electric
charge that occurs in one direction. Batteries and photovoltaic systems create
direct current. Alternating current (ac) is the flow of electric charge that period-
ically reverses. Alternating current is created by generators at power plants. The
current drawn by various electrical devices at your home is alternating current.
At the heart of every home electrical distribution system is wire. Electrical
wires are typically made of copper or aluminum. The actual size of the wires
is commonly expressed in terms of gage number as denoted by the American
Wire Gage (AWG). You should recall that the smaller the gage number, the
bigger the wire diameter. The National Electrical Code, published by the Fire
Protection Association, contains specific information on the type of wires used
for general wiring. You also should know what the power consumptions are for
typical home appliances and electronics, such as refrigerators; electric stoves;
microwaves; dishwashing machines; clothes washing machines; clothes dryers;
heating, cooling, and ventilating units; TVs; computers; and radios.
ER_09/Shutterstock.com
Familiarize yourself with basic lighting terminology and know how to cal-
culate power consumption rates for lighting systems. When purchasing light
bulbs, you should look for illumination and efficacy ratings. Illumination refers
to the distribution of light on a horizontal surface, and the amount of light
emitted by a lamp is expressed in lumens. A common unit of illumination
intensity is the footcandle, which is equal to one lumen distributed over an
area of one square-foot. For example, to find your way around at night, you
will need between 5 to 20 footcandles. Efficacy is the ratio of how much light
is produced by a lamp (in lumens) compared to how much energy is consumed
by the lamp (in watts). How true the colors of an object appear when illu-
minated by a light source is represented by the color rendition index (CRI).
The color rendition index has a scale of 1 to 100 with a 100-watt incandes-
cent light bulb having a CRI value of approximately 100. There are different
types of lighting systems, including incandescent light bulbs, fluorescent lamps,
compact fluorescent lamps, high-intensity discharge (HID) lamps, and light-
emitting diode (LED) lights.
Thermal Energy: Heat Loss and Gain in Buildings

Thermal energy transfer occurs whenever a temperature difference exists.
Recall that heat always flows from a high-temperature region to a low-tem-
perature region. The three different mechanisms by which thermal energy is
transferred are referred to as the modes of heat transfer. The three modes of
heat transfer are conduction, convection, and radiation.
Conduction refers to the mode of heat transfer that occurs when a tem-
perature difference exists in a medium. The R-value of a material provides a
measure of resistance to heat flow: the higher the value, the more resistance to
heat flow the material offers.
Convection heat transfer occurs when a fluid (a gas or a liquid) in motion
comes into contact with a solid surface whose temperature differs from the
moving fluid. There are two broad areas of convection heat transfer: forced
and free (natural). Forced convection refers to situations where the flow of
fluid is forced by a fan or a pump. Free convection, on the other hand, refers
to situations where the flow of fluid occurs naturally due to density variation
in the fluid.
All matter emits thermal radiation. The higher the temperature of the sur-
face of the object, the more thermal energy is emitted by the object. Unlike
the conduction and convection modes, heat transfer by radiation can occur in a
vacuum. Daylighting refers to the use of windows and skylights to bring natural
light into a building. The National Fenestration Rating Council defines the rat-
ings for window and skylight energy performance. Factors that are considered
when selecting windows and skylights include the U-factor, solar heat gain
coefficient, air leakage, sunlight transmittance, visible transmittance, and light-
to-solar gain. A degree-day (DD) is the difference between 658F (typically) and
the average temperature of the outside air during a 24-hour period. In practice,
historical degree-day values (based on the average of data over many years) are
used to estimate monthly and annual energy consumptions to heat buildings.
Energy Consumption Rates and Non-Renewable

Energy Sources
Your personal energy consumption depends on your standard of living, and
industrial energy consumption depends on economic activities, such as produc-
tion, distribution, use, and trade of goods and services. Energy use also depends
on the weather. Currently, petroleum, coal, and natural gas provide over
80 percent of all the fuel used in generating energy. You should have a good
understanding of how we consume energy at home and in commercial build-
ings. Commercial buildings include retail and service areas, malls and stores,
car dealerships, dry cleaners, gas stations, professional and government offices,
banks, schools and colleges, hospitals, and hotels.
Electricity and natural gas are the most common energy
sources used in residential and commercial buildings. Nearly one-
third of the United States energy consumption is spent transport-
ing people and products. Most of the transportation energy is
consumed by automobiles and light trucks; gasoline and diesel
fuel account for nearly 85 percent of energy consumed by vehi-
cles. Automobiles are the most common modes of transportation
in the United States, with most of these vehicles fueled by either
gasoline or diesel. You also should know how much gasoline is
processed from a barrel of crude oil and which countries are
muratart/Shutterstock.com among the world’s top five oil producers. The liquid fuel con-
sumption rates are expected to increase in the coming years. Nearly one hun-
dred countries produce crude oil. In a refinery, from each barrel of oil—which is
equal to 42 gallons—19 gallons of gasoline are made. The remaining 23 gallons
are turned into diesel, heating oil, jet fuel, and other petroleum-based products.
Diesel fuel accounts for nearly one-fifth of the total transportation fuel con-
sumption in the United States. Fuel oil is a petroleum product used to heat
homes in the United States—especially in the northeast. Heating oil and die-
sel fuel are similar in composition; the main difference between the two fuels
is sulfur content. Heating oil has more sulfur than diesel fuel does. It is also
important to know that the natural gas transportation network in the United
States is made up of nearly 3 million miles of mainline and secondary pipelines.
You should be able to explain the process for making and distributing liquefied
petroleum gases (LPGs). Refineries and natural gas processing plants also make
millions of barrels per day of LPGs, such as propane. A gas such as propane is
referred to as liquid petroleum gas because it is stored in a tank under relatively
high pressures, which makes it liquid. The LPGs become gas once released from
the pressurized tank. In the northeast, a liquid petroleum gas, such as propane,
is used for cooking and to heat water and homes. Propane is also used in the
chemical industry to make plastics and other materials.
Coal is a fossil fuel which, based on its carbon and energy content, is clas-
sified into anthracite, bituminous, subbituminous, and lignite. Most of the coal
mined in the United States is used for generating electricity.
Currently, nuclear energy represents 4 and 9 percent of the world and United
States energy sources, respectively. There are two processes by which nuclear
energy is harnessed: nuclear fission and nuclear fusion. Nuclear power plants
use nuclear fission to heat water to create steam to turn the turbines that in turn
run the generators that produce electricity. In nuclear fission, to release energy,
atoms of uranium are bombarded by neutrons. This process splits the atoms of
uranium and releases more neutrons and energy in the form of heat and radia-
tion. The additional neutrons go on to bombard other uranium atoms, and the
process keeps repeating itself, leading to a chain reaction.
The fuel most widely used by nuclear power plants is uranium 235 or simply
U-235. U-235 is relatively rare and must be processed from uranium that is mined.
After it is processed, the uranium fuel is made into ceramic pellets that are stacked
end-to-end to form fuel rods. The fuel rods are then bundled together to create fuel
assemblies which are used in the reactor core of a nuclear power plant. Because the
spent fuel assemblies are highly radioactive, they must be stored in pools under-
water for several years before they are then moved to dry cask concrete or steel
storage containers that are cooled by air. Eventually, the spent fuel assemblies are
moved from interim storage sites to permanent underground storage facilities.
Currently, in the United States, there are 56 nuclear power plants with
94 reactors which produce about 800 billion kilowatt-hours of electricity annually.
Today, there are 30 countries in the world that have nuclear power plants, with
the top 10 countries generating nearly 2,230 billion kilowatt-hours of electricity.
Renewable Energy
Renewable energy refers to solar energy, wind energy, hydro-energy, and bio-
mass. Solar energy starts with the sun at an average distance of approximately
150 million kilometers from the Earth. The solar radiation can be divided into
three bands: ultraviolet, visible, and infrared. The visible band comprises about
48 percent of useful radiation for heating, and the infrared makes up the rest.
The amount of radiation available at a place depends on many factors including
geographical location, season, local landscape and weather, and time of day. As
solar energy passes through the Earth’s atmosphere, some of it is absorbed; some
of it is scattered; and some of it is reflected by clouds, dust, pollutants, forest fires,
and water vapor. The solar radiation that reaches the Earth’s surface without
being diffused is called direct beam solar radiation. On a clear day at noon when
the sun appears at its highest point in the sky, the greatest amount of solar energy
reaches a horizontal surface on the Earth. Seasonal effects are also important;
during the winter, the sun’s angle is lower than it is in the summer, which results
in a lower amount of radiation being intercepted by a horizontal surface.
Solar energy systems can be categorized into active,
passive, and photovoltaic systems. There are two basic
types of active solar heating systems: liquid and air. The
liquid systems make use of water, water-antifreeze mix-
ture, or other liquids to collect solar energy. In such sys-
tems, the liquid is heated in a solar collector, and then
heat is transferred to a storage system. In contrast, in air
systems, the air is heated in “air collectors” and is trans-
ported to storage or space using blowers. The passive
solar systems do not make use of any mechanical compo-
nents, such as collectors, pumps, blowers, or fans, used to
collect, transport, or distribute solar heat to various parts
of a building. Instead, a direct passive solar system uses
large glass areas on the south wall of a building and a thermal mass to collect
the solar energy. The solar energy is stored in interior thick masonry walls and
floors during the day and is released at night.
A photovoltaic system converts light energy directly into electricity. A pho-
tovoltaic (PV) cell is the backbone of any photovoltaic system. Photovoltaic cell
materials include crystalline silicon, polycrystalline silicon, and amorphous sili-
con. The manufacturers of photovoltaic systems combine cells to form a mod-
ule, and then modules are combined to form an array. A photovoltaic system
consists of batteries, a charge controller, and an inverter. A charge controller
protects the batteries from overcharging. An inverter is a device that converts
direct current into alternating current. Photovoltaic systems are classified into
stand-alone systems, hybrid systems, or grid-tied systems.
Wind energy is a form of solar energy. It is important to understand that the
wind speed increases with vertical distance from the ground, and the power
generated by wind is directly proportional to the speed of the wind cubed.
Not all wind power can be captured. If that were to happen, the air behind the
rotor would have a zero speed, which would mean that no air flows over the
blades. Two types of wind turbines are used to extract the energy from the wind:
vertical axis and horizontal axis. Wind turbines are typically classified as small
(,100 kW), intermediate (,250 kW), and large (250 kW to 8 MW).
Hydro-energy represents the energy of moving water that is converted into
electricity using a number of techniques including impoundment, diversion, and
pumped storage hydropower. The impoundment approach makes use of dams
to store water. The water is guided into water turbines located in hydroelec-
tric power plants housed within the dam to generate electricity. The diversion
technology diverts part of the water running through a river through turbines.
This technology does not require a large dam and makes use of the natural flow
of water. The pumped storage technique pumps the water from a lower eleva-
tion and stores it in a higher elevation at night when the energy demand is low.
During the daytime when the energy use is high, the water is released from the
higher elevation storage to the lower elevation to produce electricity.
Biomass refers to organic materials, such as forest and wood trimmings, plants,
fast growing grasses and trees, crops, or algae that are grown specifically to be
converted to produce biofuels using different processes. Wood is considered a

biomass fuel. Throughout our history, wood has been used as fuel in stoves and
fireplaces. Today, wood is still a major source of energy for people in many devel-
oping countries. In recent years, sawdust has been compressed to form pellets—
commonly known as wood pellets—that are burned in heating stoves. The wood
and paper product industries use their wood waste as fuel to generate electric-
ity. In recent years, much attention has been focused on algae as biofuel. Algae
are small aquatic organisms that convert sunlight to energy. They can be grown
in algae farms, which are basically large human-made ponds. Some algae store
energy in the form of oil that can be extracted by breaking down the cell structure
using solvents or sound waves. The extracted oil is then refined to serve as biofuel.
Ethanol refers to an alcohol-based fuel that is made from sugar found in crops
such as corn and sugar cane. Biodiesel refers to fuel made from vegetable oils,
animal fats, or recycled restaurant grease. Most of the ethanol produced in the
United States is made from corn and is mixed with gasoline; most of the biodiesel
fuel comes from soybean oil and is mixed with diesel fuel derived from petroleum.
Air and Air Quality Standards

It is important to know the characteristics of the atmosphere, the difference
between climate and weather, and the consequences of the greenhouse effect.
Air is a mixture of mostly nitrogen and oxygen, and small amounts of other
gases, such as argon, carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxide. The air
surrounding the Earth, depending on its temperature, can be divided into four
regions: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere. Weather
represents atmospheric conditions, such as the temperature that could occur
during a period of hours or days. Climate, on the other hand, represents the
average weather conditions over a long period of time (i.e., decades or centu-
ries). Carbon dioxide plays an important role in sustaining plant life; however,
if the atmosphere contains too much carbon dioxide, it will not allow the Earth
to cool down effectively by radiation, which
results in the greenhouse effect.
The Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) measures the concentration level of
pollutants in many urban areas and collects
air quality information. The source of outdoor
air pollution is classified into three broad cate-
gories: stationary, mobile, and natural sources.
The EPA is responsible for setting standards
for six major air pollutants: carbon monox-
ide (CO), lead (Pb), nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ),
ozone (O3 ), sulfur dioxide (SO2 ), and particu-
late matter (PM). The EPA also is continu-
ously working to set standards and monitor
the emission of pollutants that cause acid rain,
Len Green/Shutterstock.com
which damages bodies of water and fish, build-
ings, and national parks. The EPA works with individual states to reduce the
amount of sulfur in fuels and set more stringent emission standards for cars, buses,
trucks, and power plants. Because we all contribute to air pollution, we need to
be aware of the consequences of our lifestyles and find ways to reduce emissions.
According to EPA studies of human exposure to air pollutants, indoor lev-
els of pollutants may be many times higher than outdoor levels. Some common
health symptoms caused by poor indoor air quality include headaches, fatigue,
and shortness of breath. The factors that influence indoor air quality are classi-
fied into several categories: the heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC)
system; sources of indoor air pollutants; and occupants. In order to save energy,
we are building tight houses with lower ventilation rates that also have lower air
infiltration compared to older structures. We are also using more synthetic building
materials in newly built homes that can give off harmful vapors. Moreover, we are
using more chemical pollutants, such as pesticides and household cleaners. There
are several ways to control the level of contaminants: (1) source elimination or
removal, (2) source substitution, (3) proper ventilation, (4) exposure control, and
(5) air cleaning. It is very important that you bring indoor air quality issues to the
attention of your friends, classmates, and family. We all need to be well-educated
on this topic and do our part to create and maintain a healthy indoor air quality.
The World Health Organization (WHO) is the authority on global health
matters, including air-quality-related health issues. The WHO is responsible for
setting and monitoring air quality standards and for providing the technical sup-
port needed to achieve these standards. According to the WHO, air pollution is
a major global environmental risk to health that causes respiratory infections,
heart disease, and lung cancer. Each year, nearly 2 million premature deaths
are attributed to indoor air pollution in developing countries. The latest WHO
air-quality guidelines recommend limits for the concentration of selected air
pollutants, such as particulate matter (PM), ozone (O3 ), nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ),
and sulfur dioxide (SO2 ).
Water Sources, Consumption Rates, and Quality

Standards
The total amount of water available on Earth remains constant; even though
water can change phase from liquid to solid (ice) or from liquid to vapor, we don’t
lose or gain water. You should be familiar with how much water you consume
to address your personal needs. You should also realize that we use the greatest
amount of water in flushing toilets, followed by washing clothes and taking show-
ers. We should consider taking conservative measures, such as installing low-flow
showers and water efficient toilets in our homes.
The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) has been estimating total water consump-
tion in the United States since 1950. They report their findings every five years
for both the groundwater and surface water sources. For bookkeeping purposes,
the USGS groups major water-consuming activities into broad categories, such as
public, domestic, irrigation, livestock, aquaculture, industrial, mining, and thermo-
Ilya Andriyanov/Shutterstock.com
electric power generation, and reports the data for each category. A public water
supply refers to water that is drawn by the government. Most of our domestic
water supply is delivered by a public supplier. Public suppliers also provide water
for businesses, schools, firefighting, community parks and swimming pools, and at
times for commercial applications. The irrigation category refers to the amount
of water that is provided by engineered systems for agricultural purposes. The
amount of water that is used for activities, such as dairy operations, feed lots,
and providing drinking water for livestock is represented by the livestock cat-
egory. Aquaculture refers to farming fish, shrimp, and other animals that live in
water. The farming of plants and algae that live in water is also grouped into this
category. The water that is used for industrial purposes, such as making paper,
chemicals, or steel, is classified as industrial. The water used for the excavation of
rocks and minerals is classified as mining water. Finally, the water used in power
plants that generate electricity is classified as thermoelectric power. Thermoelec-

tric power generation, irrigation, and public supply sectors are among the largest
consumers of water in the United States.
The EPA sets the standards for the maximum level of contaminants that can
be in our drinking water and still be considered safe to drink. Human activities
and naturally occurring microorganisms contribute to the level of contaminants
in our water supply. The EPA sets two standards for the level of water contami-
nants: (1) the maximum contaminant level goal (MCLG) and (2) the maximum
contaminant level (MCL). The MCLG represents the maximum level of a given
contaminant in the water that causes no known harmful health effects. On the
other hand, the MCL, which may represent slightly higher levels of contami-
nants in the water, is the level of contaminants that are legally enforceable.
The WHO is also responsible for setting and moni-
toring water standards and providing technical support.
According to the WHO, nearly one billion people lack
access to clean drinking water; as a result, millions of deaths
are attributed to unsafe water each year. Examples of dis-
eases transmitted through water contaminated by human
waste include diarrhea, cholera, dysentery, typhoid, and
hepatitis. Diarrhea is largely preventable, but it remains
a major killer responsible for over a million deaths every
year, mostly among children five years old and younger
living in developing countries. Hygiene education and the
promotion of hand washing are simple, cost-effective mea-
John Wollwerth/Shutterstock.com sures that can reduce diarrhea cases by up to 45 percent.
Many countries still report cholera to the WHO, while billions of people still lack
access to adequate sanitation globally. Also, according to the WHO, wastewater in
agriculture is associated with serious public health risks.
Common Materials that We Use Every Day

Products are typically made from metals, plastics, glass, composites, or wood;
construction materials include wood, aluminum, copper, steel, and concrete.
Aluminum, titanium, and magnesium, because of their small densities (relative
to steel), are commonly referred to as lightweight metals and are used in many
structural and aerospace applications.
Aluminum and its alloys have densities (density 5 mass/volume) that are
approximately one-third the density of steel. Aluminum is commonly alloyed
with other metals, such as copper, zinc, and magnesium. Everyday examples of
common aluminum products include beverage cans, household aluminum foil,
staples in tea bags that do not rust, and building insulation.
Titanium has an excellent strength-to-weight ratio. Titanium alloys are used
in golf clubs, bicycle frames, and spectacle frames. Magnesium is another light-
weight metal that looks like aluminum, but it is lighter. Magnesium is commonly
alloyed with other elements, such as aluminum, manganese, and zinc, in order
to improve its properties. Magnesium and its alloys are used in nuclear applica-
tions, in dry-cell batteries, and in aerospace applications.
Copper is a good conductor of electricity and heat, and because of these prop-
erties, it is commonly used in many electrical, heating, and cooling applications.
Copper alloys are also used as tubes, pipes, and fittings in plumbing. When copper
is alloyed with zinc, it is commonly called brass. Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin.
Steel is an alloy of iron with approximately 2 percent or less carbon. The
properties of steel can be modified by adding other elements, such as chromium,
nickel, manganese, silicon, and tungsten. The 18 / 8 stainless steels, which con-
tain 18 percent chromium and 8 percent nickel, are commonly used for table-
ware and kitchenware products. Cast iron is also an alloy of iron that has 2 to
4 percent carbon. Steel is a common material that is used in the framework of
buildings and bridges; the body of appliances, such as refrigerators, ovens, dish-
washers, and clothes washers and dryers; and cooking utensils.
Plastic products include grocery and trash bags, soft drink containers, house-
hold cleaning containers, vinyl siding, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) piping, valves, and
fittings. Styrofoam™ plates and cups, plastic forks, knives, spoons, and sandwich
bags are other examples of plastic products that are consumed every day. Plas-
Svetlana Lukienko/Shutterstock.com
tics are often classified into two categories: thermoplastics and thermosets. When
heated to certain temperatures, thermoplastics can be molded and remolded. By
contrast, thermosets cannot be remolded into other shapes by heating. Silicon is a
nonmetallic chemical element that is used quite extensively in the manufacturing
of transistors and various electronic and computer chips. It is found in the form
of silicon dioxide in sands and rocks or combined with other elements—such as
aluminum, calcium, sodium, or magnesium—in a form that is commonly referred
to as silicates. Silicon, because of its atomic structure, is an excellent semiconductor,
which is a material whose electrical conductivity properties can be changed to act
either as a conductor of electricity or as an insulator (preventer of electricity flow).
Glass is commonly used in products such as windows, light bulbs, house-
wares (like drinking glasses), chemical containers, beverage and beer containers,
and decorative items. The composition of the glass depends on its application.
The most widely used form of glass is soda–lime–silica glass. The materials used
in making soda–lime–silica glass include sand (silicon dioxide), limestone (cal-
cium carbonate), and soda ash (sodium carbonate). Other materials are added
to create desired characteristics for specific applications. Silica glass fibers are
commonly used today in fiber optics, which is a branch of science that deals with
transmitting data, voice, and images through thin glass or plastic fibers.
Composite materials are found in military planes, helicopters, satellites, com-
mercial planes, fast-food restaurant tables and chairs, and many sporting goods.
In comparison to conventional materials (such as metals), composite materials
can be lighter and stronger. Composite materials consist of two main ingredients:
matrix materials and fibers. Fibers are embedded in matrix materials, such as alu-
minum or other metals, plastics, or ceramics. Glass, graphite, and silicon carbide
fibers are examples of the types of fibers used in the construction of composite
materials. The strength of the fibers is increased when embedded in the matrix
material, and the composite material created in this manner is lighter and stronger.
Common examples of wood products include hardwood flooring, roof
trusses, furniture frames, wall supports, doors, decorative items, window frames,
kitchen cabinets, trimming in luxury cars, tongue depressors, clothespins, base-
ball bats, bowling pins, fishing rods, and wine barrels. Timber is commonly clas-
sified as softwood and hardwood. Softwood timber is made from trees that have
cones (coniferous), such as pine, spruce, and Douglas fir. On the other hand,
hardwood timber is made from trees that have broad leaves or flowers.
Concrete is used in the construction of roads, bridges, buildings, tunnels, and
dams. Concrete consists of three main ingredients: aggregate, cement, and water.
Aggregate refers to materials such as gravel and sand, and cement refers to the
bonding material that holds the aggregate together. Concrete is usually reinforced
with steel bars or steel mesh that consists of thin metal rods to increase its load-
bearing capacity. Another common construction practice is the use of precast
concrete. Precast concrete slabs, blocks, and structural members are fabricated
Summary 457
in less time and at less cost in factory settings where the surrounding conditions
are controlled. Because concrete has a higher compressive strength than tensile
strength, it is prestressed by pouring it into forms that have steel rods or wires.
The steel rods or wires are stretched so that the pre-stressed concrete then acts as
a compressed spring, which will un-compress under the action of tensile loading.
Municipal and Industrial Waste and Recycling

We should be mindful of how much waste we generate and consider the entire
life cycle of trash. Before you throw away something, you should think about
the natural resources that are used to make the item and how much energy it
takes to produce, process, transport, and eventually dispose of it.
Municipal waste is the trash that we throw away every day: food scraps, pack-
aging materials, bottles, cans, and so on. The EPA reports the amount of waste
generation and recovery using the following categories: durable goods, non-
durable goods, containers and packing materials, and plastic packing. Durable
goods cover products such as major and small appliances, furniture, carpets and
rugs, rubber tires, and lead-acid batteries. Nondurable goods represent products
such as office papers, newspapers, books, magazines, paper plates and cups, tis-
sue paper and paper towels, disposable diapers, plastic plates and cups, trash
bags, clothing and footwear, towels, and sheets.
Industrial waste refers to rubbish that is produced in industry. A signifi-
cant portion of solid waste in the United States is industrial waste. It consists
of construction, renovation, and demolition materials. It also
represents medical refuse and the waste that is created during
the exploration, development, and production of fossil fuels.
We can manage waste by reducing, recycling, and com-
posting. When we recycle, we reduce landfill use, consume less
energy, and use our natural resources more effectively. Each year
we throw away large quantities of food, fruit and vegetable skins,
and so on. This category makes up more than 30 percent of our
trash. Composting offers an environmentally friendly alternative
to throwing food and yard trimmings in landfills. Composting
refers to the biological decomposition or decay of food wastes,
Evan Lorne/Shutterstock.com yard trimmings, and other organic materials.
S U M M A R Y
LO1 How Does One Define Sustainability? and shared responsibility for the well-being of the
In response to challenges that we all face, the United entire human family, the Earth Charter was intro-
Nations has identified seventeen goals for sustain- duced by an independent international commission
able development. These goals include ending pov- on June 29, 2000, in The Hague, Netherlands. The
erty and hunger in the world and providing access Earth Charter eloquently puts into words an ethical
to clean water, sanitation, and affordable and clean guideline for building a sustainable, just, and peaceful
energy for all. global society in the 21st century. The Earth Char-
ter is intended as both a vision of hope and a call
to action. The Earth Charter consists of six sections:
LO2 The Earth Charter
Preamble, Earth—Our Home, The Global Situation,
In order to address our energy, clean air and water, The Challenges Ahead, Universal Responsibility, and
and food supply intelligently, we need to work together. Principles.
To emphasize the sense of global interdependence
LO3 Key Sustainability Concepts, Key Sustainability Assessment: Life-Cycle

Assessments, and Tools Analysis
Life-cycle analysis looks at the raw material and the
Key Sustainability Concepts
energy consumption, emissions, and other factors
One of the generally accepted definitions of sus- related to a product over its entire life—from its origin
tainability is “design and development that meets the to its disposal; from its inception and birth to its death.
needs of the present without compromising the abil- Generally, the life-cycle analysis consists of four steps:
ity of future generations to meet their own needs.”
1. Purpose or goal definition
As a society, we are expected to design and provide
2. Inventory analysis
goods and services that increase the standard of liv-
3. Impact assessment
ing and advance health care while addressing serious
4. Improvement
environmental and sustainability concerns. We must
consider the link among Earth’s finite resources and Key Sustainability Tools
environmental, social, ethical, technical, and economi- The life-cycle assessment, environmental assess-
cal factors. ment, and U.S. Green Building Council Leadership
Ethics refers to the study of morality and the in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) rating
moral choices that we all have to make in our lives. system serve as sustainability tools to evaluate our
Professional societies, such as those in medicine and environmental impact and sustainability. In addition
engineering, have long established guidelines, stan- to these tools, there are many resource, waste, and
dards, and rules that govern the conduct of their emission calculators available online through various
members. These rules are also used by the members government and international agencies.
of the board of ethics of the professional organization
to interpret ethical dilemmas that are submitted by a LO4 Apply What You Have Learned—
complainant. As good global citizens, it is important Knowledge Is Power
to realize that we must also hold to the highest stan-
dards of honesty and integrity, particularly when it You have heard the old saying: “knowledge is power.”
comes to the Earth—our home. How are you planning to use your power? Start with
your home, your community, or your campus.
K E Y T E R M S
Earth Charter 437 Life-Cycle Analysis 440
P R O B L E M S
Each day, students participate in sustainability proj- Bike-Share Program This project could be funded by
ects in their homes, campuses, or cities. They are help- the student activity fees or the city to allow students
ing to make their communities better places to live and citizens to check out bicycles for a certain period
and work. Here are examples of projects that were ini- of time using their ID or credit cards. How many
tiated on campuses across the country. These projects bicycles, helmets, and locks do you need to provide in
also can be extended to other municipalities. Consider order to have a successful program?
a similar project that is suitable for your campus or
Ride-Share Program This can be a web-based system
city. For your project, apply what you have learned
that matches participants in the same geographical
by calculating how much energy savings, water sav-
area to encourage carpooling. Those who participate
ings, and reduction in waste and emissions could be
in these types of programs can share the cost of fuel
expected from such a project.
and the parking permit.
Problems 459
Photovoltaic Parking Rooftops These systems can pro- conservation. Think of other means to educate new
vide shaded parking for bicycles and cars. The photovol- students on campus.
taic system that generates electricity can be installed
Recycling Develop activities during sporting events
on a parking lot’s rooftop. The initial investment costs
on your campus to reduce the amount of trash and
for these types of projects are normally high, so they
increase recycling. You can also develop an end-of-
will require some form of partnership with the city or
semester recycling drive where you collect and donate
state government and the utilities company.
clothing, old electronics, and food that normally end
Solar Hot-Water Systems These systems provide up in the trash.
hot water for use on campus for different purposes,
You can come up with many more similar projects
such as cafeterias, labs, or swimming pools. Again,
on your own for your home, work, and community!
the initial investment costs for these types of projects
Don’t forget, we are all in this together!
are normally high, so they will require some form of
partnership with the city or state government and the The Association for the Advancement of Sustain-
utilities company. ability in Higher Education (AASHE) has over 700
case studies from 18 different countries on various
Campus Vegetable Gardens These types of projects
topics. These case study areas include water resources
promote growing some of the vegetables used in the
and use, energy, building design and construction,
cafeterias on campus. If land is not available, you may
transportation, and waste. For more information,
want to consider creating green roofs, which are roofs
visit their website at hub.aashe.org/browse/types/
of building that are partially or completely covered
casestudy/?search=&content_type=casestudy&topic
with vegetation. In addition to serving as a garden
s=curriculum&country=#charts-panel.
space, green roofs also provide energy savings for the
buildings; the green roofs reduce heat loss through
the roof of the building during winter and reduce heat
gain during summer. The campus gardens could also
have composting components where student volun-
teers take food waste to composting bins located in
the campus gardens.
Heating of Buildings Students can work with facility
engineers to develop policies for classroom and office
temperatures to be set slightly lower during occupied
hours. You can promote wearing extra layers of cloth-
ing to students and faculty.
Water Collection Systems Rainwater collection sys-
tems can provide water for your campus gardens or
flushing toilets.
Biodiesel Production Student volunteers can collect
cafeteria waste cooking oil on your campus to be con-
verted into biodiesels. Photo by Boyer/Roger Viollet/Getty Images
Awareness Programs Focus on the first-year students “The great aim of education is
to promote saving energy and water and encourag- not knowledge but action.”
ing waste reduction. For example, you can arrange
to have dormitories go dark for a short period of —Herbert Spencer (1820–1903)
time to bring attention to energy consumption and
Appendix A
A Summary of Formulas
5
temperature (8C) 5 [temperature (8 F) 2 32]
9
9
temperature (8 F) 5 temperature (8C) 1 32
5
work 5 (force)(distance)
 1  1
kinetic energy 5   (mass)(speed)2 5   mV 2
 2  2
work 5 change in kinetic energy of the object

 1    1  
5 (force)(distance) 5   (mass)(speed)2  2   (mass)(speed)2 

 2   final 
change in potential energy 5 (weight of the object)(change in elevation)

weight of the object

5 (mass of the object)(acceleration due to gravity)(change in elevation)
work energy
power 5 5
time time
desired output
efficiency 5
required input
voltage 5 (resistance)(current) 5 V 5 (R)(I )
electric power 5 (voltage)(current) 5 P 5 (V )(I )
light produced (lumens)

efficacy 5
energy consumed by the lamp (W)
460
APPENDIX A A Summary of Formulas 461

 T1 2 T2 
Fourier’s law for conduction heat transfer, q 5 kA 
 L 
temperature difference
heat flow 5
thermal resistance
Newton’s law of cooling for convection heat transfer, q 5 hA(Ts 2 Tf )
Radiant energy emitted, q 5 «s ATs4
 Btu 
building heat loss  3 24 hrs
 h 
QDD 5
design temperature difference (8 F)
Qmonthly 5 (QDD )(monthly degree days)
Qyearly 5 (QDD )(yearly degree days)
mass
density 5
volume
volume
volume flow rate 5
time
mass
mass flow rate 5
time
mass flow rate 5 (density)(volume flow rate)
 1
wind power 5 (efficiency)   (air density)(sweep area)(speed)3
 2
hydro power 5 (overall efficiency)(mass flow rate)(acceleration due to gravity)(change in elevation)
Appendix B
Conversion Factors
Quantity From SI to U.S. Customary From U.S. Customary to SI
Length 1 m 5 39.37 in. 1 in. 5 0.0254 m
1 m 5 3.28 ft 1 ft 5 0.3048 m
1 km 5 0.62 mile 1 mile 5 1.61 km
Volume* 1 liter 5 0.264 gallon 1 gallon 5 3.785 liters
Mass 1 kg 5 2.20 lbm 1 lbm 5 0.45 kg
Density 1 kg/m3 5 0.0624 lbm/ft 3 1 lbm/ft 3 5 16.025 kg/m3
Force, Weight 1 N 5 0.225 lbf 1 lbf 5 4.45 N
Pressure 1 Pa 5 1.45 3 1024 lbf/in2 1 lbf/in2 5 6,895 Pa
Work, Energy 1 J 5 0.737 ft ? lbf 1 ft ? lbf 5 1.356 J
Power 1 kW 5 1.341 hp 1 hp 5 0.746 kW
Temperature 5 9
8C 5 ( 8F 2 32) 8F 5 8C 1 32
9 5
*1 ft 3 5 7.48 gallons
1 m3 5 1,000 liters
462
Appendix C
Some Useful Data

density of water 5 1,000 kg/m 3 5 62.4 lbm/ft 3
density of air 5 1.2 kg/m 3 5 0.076 lbm/ft 3
The Energy Content of Common Fuels

Coal One pound 10,000 Btu (10.5 3 10 6 J)
Diesel One gallon 139,000 Btu (146.6 3 10 6 J)
Gasoline One gallon 124,000 Btu (130.8 3 10 6 J)
Fuel oil (home heating oil) One gallon 139,000 Btu (146.6 3 10 6 J)
Natural Gas One cubic foot 1,000 Btu (1.05 3 10 6 J)
Wood One cord (128 ft 3 ) (4 feet by 4 feet by 20,000,000 Btu (21.13 109 J)
8 feet pile of wood stacked neatly)
Examples of American Wire Gage (AWG) for Solid Copper Wire

American Wire Gage
(AWG) Number Diameter (mils) Current Common Use
00 365.0 200 A Service entrance
0 150 A
1 289.0
2 258.0 100 A Service panels
5 182.0
6 162.0 60 A Electric furnaces
7 144.0 40 A Kitchen appliances, receptacles,
light fixtures
10 91.0 30 A
12 81.0 20 A Residential wiring
14 64.0 15 A Lamps, light fixtures
16 51.0
18 40.0
20 32.0
463
464 APPENDIX C Some Useful Data
Thermal Conductivity of Some Common Materials

Material Thermal Conductivity (W/m ? 8 C)
Air (at atmospheric pressure) 0.0263
Aluminum (pure) 237
Aluminum alloy (4.5% copper, 1.5% magnesium, 177
0.6% manganese)
Asphalt 0.062
Bronze (90% copper, 10% aluminum) 52
Brass (70% copper, 30% zinc) 110
Brick 1.0
Concrete 1.4
Copper (pure) 401
Glass 1.4
Gold 317
Human fat layer 0.2
Human muscle 0.41
Human skin 0.37
Iron (pure) 80.2
Stainless steels 13.4 to 15.1
Lead 35.3
Paper 0.18
Platinum (pure) 71.6
Sand 0.27
Silicon 148
Silver 429
Zinc 116
Water (liquid) 0.61
Typical Values of Heat Transfer Coefficients

Heat Transfer Coefficient, h Heat Transfer Coefficient, h
Convection Type (W/m2 ? 8 C) (Btu/h ? ft 2 ? 8 F)
Free Convection
Gases 2 to 25 0.35 to 4.4
Liquids 50 to 1,000 8.8 to 175
Forced Convection
Gases 25 to 250 4.4 to 44
Liquids 100 to 20,000 17.6 to 3,500
APPENDIX C Some Useful Data 465
A < 1001
B 1001 – 2000
C 2001 – 3000
D 3001 – 4000
E 4001 – 5000
F 5001 – 6000
G 6001 – 7000
H 7001 – 9000
I >9000
The annual degree-days for the United States.

Source: NOAA
CO 2 Emissions by the Source of Energy

Source of Energy Pounds of CO2 Emission (average values)
1,000 cubic feet of natural gas 120
1 gallon of gasoline 20
1 gallon of diesel 22
1 gallon of fuel oil 22.5
1 gallon of propane 12.4
Kilograms of CO2 (average values)
10 cubic meters of natural gas 19.2
1 liter of gasoline 2.4
1 liter of diesel 2.6
1 liter of fuel oil 2.7
1 liter of propane 1.5
466 APPENDIX C Some Useful Data
The Outdoor and Indoor Pollutants, the WHO Recommended Limits, and
Their Health Effects ( m g 5 microgram 5 10 26 gram)
Pollutant Limits Causes/Health Effects
PM2.5 10 mg/m3 annual mean Indoor open fire and leaky stoves in developing countries
25 mg/m3 24-hour mean Industrial activities/vehicles/power production
PM10 20 mg/m3 annual mean Cardiovascular and respiratory diseases, lung cancer
O3 100 mg/m3 8-hour mean Vehicles/industrial activities
Breathing problems, asthma, reduced lung function, lung
diseases, and heart disease
NO2 40 mg/m3 annual mean Industrial activities/vehicles/power production/human activities
200 mg/m3 1-hour mean Reduced lung function
SO2 20 mg/m3 24-hour mean Industrial/power production/human activities
500 mg/m3 10-minute mean When combined with water, it produces acid rain
Respiratory problems, reduced lung function, infections of
the respiratory tracts
Examples of Drinking Water Standards

Contaminant MCLG MCL Source of Contaminant by Industries
Antimony 6 ppb 6 ppb copper smelting, refining, porcelain plumbing fixtures,
petroleum refining, plastics, resins, storage batteries
Asbestos 7 M.L. (million 7 M.L. asbestos products, chlorine, asphalt felts and coating,
fibers per liter) auto parts, petroleum refining, plastic pipes
Barium 2 ppm 2 ppm copper smelting, car parts, inorganic pigments, gray ductile
iron, steel works, furnaces, paper mills
Beryllium 4 ppb 4 ppb copper rolling and drawing, nonferrous metal smelting,
aluminum foundries, blast furnaces, petroleum refining
Cadmium 5 ppb 5 ppb zinc and lead smelting, copper smelting, inorganic pigments
Chromium 0.1 ppm 0.1 ppm pulp mills, inorganic pigments, copper smelting, steel works
Copper 1.3 ppm 1.3 ppm primary copper smelting, plastic material, poultry
slaughtering, prepared feeds
Cyanide 0.2 ppm 0.2 ppm metal heat treating, plating, and polishing
Lead zero 15 ppb lead smelting, steel works and blast furnaces, storage
batteries, china plumbing fixtures
Mercury 2 ppb 2 ppb electric lamps, paper mills
Nickel 0.1 ppm 0.1 ppm petroleum refining, gray iron foundries, primary copper, blast
furnaces, steel
Nitrate 10 ppm 10 ppm nitrogenous fertilizer, fertilizing mixing, paper mills, canned
foods, phosphate fertilizers
Nitrite 1 ppm 1 ppm
Selenium 0.05 ppm 0.05 ppm metal coating, petroleum refining
Thallium 0.5 ppb 2 ppb primary copper smelting, petroleum refining, steel works,
blast furnaces
APPENDIX C Some Useful Data 467
The Approximate Mass for Each Layer of the Earth

Percentage of the
Approximate Mass (pounds) Approximate Mass (kg) Earth’s Total Mass
Atmosphere 1.12 3 1019 5.1 3 1018 0.000086
Oceans 3.08 3 1021 1.4 3 1021 0.024
Crust 5.73 3 1022 2.6 3 1022 0.44
Mantle 8.9 3 1024 4.04 3 1024 68.47
Outer core 4.03 3 1024 1.83 3 1024 31.01

Core
Inner core 2.12 3 1023 9.65 3 1022 1.63
IA VIIIA
1 2
1 H He
1.0079 IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA 4.003
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
6.941 9.012 10.811 12.011 14.007 15.999 18.998 20.180
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg VIIIB Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.990 24.305 IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB IB IIB 26.982 28.086 30.974 32.066 35.453 39.948
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.098 40.078 44.956 47.88 50.942 51.996 54.938 55.845 58.933 58.69 63.546 65.39 69.723 72.61 74.922 78.96 79.904 83.8
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.468 87.62 88.906 91.224 92.906 95.94 98 101.07 102.906 106.42 107.868 112.411 114.82 118.71 121.76 127.60 126.905 131.29
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.905 137.327 138.906 178.49 180.948 183.84 186.207 190.23 192.22 195.08 196.967 200.59 204.383 207.2 208.980 209 210 222
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 114 116 118
7 Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Uun Uuu Uub
223 226.025 227.028 261 262 263 262 265 266 269 272 277
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Lanthanide
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
series 140.115 140.908 144.24 145 150.36 151.964 157.25 158.925 162.5 164.93 167.26 168.934 173.04 174.967
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Actinide
Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
series 232.038 231.036 238.029 237.048 244 243 247 247 251 252 257 258 259 262
The chemical elements to date (2020).
Appendix D
The Earth Charter

Preamble verburdened ecological and social systems. The
o
foundations of global security are threatened.
We stand at a critical moment in Earth’s history, a time These trends are perilous—but not inevitable.
when humanity must choose its future. As the world
becomes increasingly interdependent and fragile, the The Challenges Ahead
future at once holds great peril and great promise. To
move forward we must recognize that in the midst The choice is ours: form a global partnership to care
of a magnificent diversity of cultures and life forms for Earth and one another or risk the destruction
we are one human family and one Earth community of ourselves and the diversity of life. Fundamen-
with a common destiny. We must join together to tal changes are needed in our values, institutions,
bring forth a sustainable global society founded on and ways of living. We must realize that when basic
respect for nature, universal human rights, economic needs have been met, human development is pri-
justice, and a culture of peace. Towards this end, it is marily about being more, not having more. We have
imperative that we, the peoples of Earth, declare our the knowledge and technology to provide for all
responsibility to one another, to the greater commu- and to reduce our impacts on the environment. The
nity of life, and to future generations. emergence of a global civil society is creating new
opportunities to build a democratic and humane
Earth, Our Home world. Our environmental, economic, political, so-
cial, and spiritual challenges are interconnected,
Humanity is part of a vast evolving universe. Earth, and together we can forge inclusive solutions.
our home, is alive with a unique community of life.
The forces of nature make existence a demanding and Universal Responsibility
uncertain adventure, but Earth has provided the con-
ditions essential to life’s evolution. The r esilience of To realize these aspirations, we must decide to live
the community of life and the well-being of humanity with a sense of universal responsibility, identify-
depend upon preserving a healthy biosphere with all ing ourselves with the whole Earth community as
its ecological systems, a rich variety of plants and well as our local communities. We are at once citi-
animals, fertile soils, pure waters, and clean air. The zens of different nations and of one world in which
global environment with its finite resources is a com- the local and global are linked. Everyone shares
mon concern of all peoples. The protection of Earth’s responsibility for the present and future well-being
vitality, diversity, and beauty is a sacred trust. of the human family and the larger living world.
The spirit of human solidarity and kinship with all
life is strengthened when we live with reverence for
The Global Situation the mystery of being, gratitude for the gift of life,
The dominant patterns of production and con- and humility regarding the human place in nature.
sumption are causing environmental devastation, We urgently need a shared vision of basic values
the depletion of resources, and a massive extinction to provide an ethical foundation for the emerging
of species. Communities are being undermined. The world community. Therefore, together in hope we
benefits of development are not shared equitably affirm the following interdependent principles for
and the gap between rich and poor is widening. a sustainable way of life as a common standard by
Injustice, poverty, ignorance, and violent conflict
which the conduct of all individuals, organizations,
are widespread and the cause of great suffering. businesses, governments, and transnational institu-
An unprecedented rise in human population has tions is to be guided and assessed.
468
APPENDIX D The Earth Charter 469
Principles b. Establish and safeguard viable nature and

biosphere reserves, including wild lands and
I. RESPECT AND CARE FOR THE marine areas, to protect Earth’s life support
COMMUNITY OF LIFE systems, maintain biodiversity, and preserve
1. Respect Earth and life in all its diversity. our natural heritage.
a. Recognize that all beings are interdependent c. Promote the recovery of endangered
and every form of life has value regardless species and ecosystems.
of its worth to human beings. d. Control and eradicate non-native or
b. Affirm faith in the inherent dignity of all genetically modified organisms harmful
human beings and in the intellectual, artistic, to native species and the environment,
ethical, and spiritual potential of humanity. and prevent introduction of such harmful
2. Care for the community of life with organisms.
understanding, compassion, and love. e. Manage the use of renewable resources,
such as water, soil, forest products, and
a. Accept that with the right to own, manage,
marine life, in ways that do not exceed rates
and use natural resources comes the duty to
of regeneration and that protect the health
prevent environmental harm and to protect
of ecosystems.
the rights of people.
f. Manage the extraction and use of non-
b. Affirm that with increased freedom,
renewable resources such as minerals and
knowledge, and power comes increased
fossil fuels in ways that minimize depletion
responsibility to promote the common good.
and cause no serious environmental damage.
3. Build democratic societies that are just, 6. Prevent harm as the best method of
participatory, sustainable, and peaceful. environmental protection and, when knowledge
a. Ensure that communities at all levels is limited, apply a precautionary approach.
guarantee human rights and fundamental a. Take action to avoid the possibility of
freedoms and provide everyone an serious or irreversible environmental
opportunity to realize their full potential. harm even when scientific knowledge is
b. Promote social and economic justice, incomplete or inconclusive.
enabling all to achieve a secure and b. Place the burden of proof on those who
meaningful livelihood that is ecologically argue that a proposed activity will not cause
responsible. significant harm, and make the responsible
4. Secure Earth’s bounty and beauty for present parties liable for environmental harm.
and future generations. c. Ensure that decision making addresses
a. Recognize that the freedom of action of the cumulative, long-term, indirect, long
each generation is qualified by the needs of distance, and global consequences of
future generations. human activities.
b. Transmit to future generations values, d. Prevent pollution of any part of the
traditions, and institutions that support the environment and allow no build-up of
long-term flourishing of Earth’s human and radioactive, toxic, or other hazardous
ecological communities. substances.
e. Avoid military activities damaging to the
II. ECOLOGICAL INTEGRITY environment.
5. Protect and restore the integrity of Earth’s 7. Adopt patterns of production, consumption,
ecological systems, with special concern for and reproduction that safeguard Earth’s
biological diversity and the natural processes regenerative capacities, human rights, and
that sustain life. community well-being.
a. Adopt at all levels sustainable development a. Reduce, reuse, and recycle the materials
plans and regulations that make used in production and consumption
environmental conservation and rehabilitation systems, and ensure that residual waste can
integral to all development initiatives. be assimilated by ecological systems.
470 APPENDIX D The Earth Charter
b. Act with restraint and efficiency when using 10. Ensure that economic activities and institutions
energy, and rely increasingly on renewable at all levels promote human development in an
energy sources such as solar and wind. equitable and sustainable manner.
c. Promote the development, adoption, and a. Promote the equitable distribution of
equitable transfer of environmentally sound wealth within nations and among nations.
technologies. b. Enhance the intellectual, financial,
d. Internalize the full environmental and technical, and social resources of
social costs of goods and services in the developing nations, and relieve them of
selling price, and enable consumers to onerous international debt.
identify products that meet the highest c. Ensure that all trade supports sustainable
social and environmental standards. resource use, environmental protection, and
e. Ensure universal access to health care that progressive labor standards.
fosters reproductive health and responsible d. Require multinational corporations and
reproduction. international financial organizations to act
f. Adopt lifestyles that emphasize the quality of transparently in the public good, and hold
life and material sufficiency in a finite world. them accountable for the consequences of
8. Advance the study of ecological sustainability their activities.
and promote the open exchange and wide 11. Affirm gender equality and equity as
application of the knowledge acquired. prerequisites to sustainable development and
ensure universal access to education, health
a. Support international scientific and
care, and economic opportunity.
technical cooperation on sustainability, with
special attention to the needs of developing a. Secure the human rights of women and girls
nations. and end all violence against them.
b. Recognize and preserve the traditional b. Promote the active participation of women in
knowledge and spiritual wisdom in all all aspects of economic, political, civil, social,
cultures that contribute to environmental and cultural life as full and equal partners,
protection and human well-being. decision makers, leaders, and beneficiaries.
c. Ensure that information of vital importance c. Strengthen families and ensure the safety
to human health and environmental and loving nurture of all family members.
protection, including genetic information, 12. Uphold the right of all, without discrimination,
remains available in the public domain. to a natural and social environment supportive
of human dignity, bodily health, and spiritual
III. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC JUSTICE well-being, with special attention to the rights
9. Eradicate poverty as an ethical, social, and of indigenous peoples and minorities.
environmental imperative. a. Eliminate discrimination in all its forms,
a. Guarantee the right to potable water, clean such as that based on race, color, sex, sexual
air, food security, uncontaminated soil, orientation, religion, language, and national,
shelter, and safe sanitation, allocating the ethnic or social origin.
national and international resources required. b. Affirm the right of indigenous peoples
b. Empower every human being with the to their spirituality, knowledge, lands and
education and resources to secure a resources and to their related practice of
sustainable livelihood, and provide social sustainable livelihoods.
security and safety nets for those who are c. Honor and support the young people of
unable to support themselves. our communities, enabling them to fulfill
c. Recognize the ignored, protect the their essential role in creating sustainable
vulnerable, serve those who suffer, and societies.
enable them to develop their capacities and d. Protect and restore outstanding places of
to pursue their aspirations. cultural and spiritual significance.
APPENDIX D The Earth Charter 471
IV. DEMOCRACY, NONVIOLENCE, c. Enhance the role of the mass media in

AND PEACE raising awareness of ecological and social
13. Strengthen democratic institutions at all levels, challenges.
and provide transparency and accountability in d. Recognize the importance of moral and
governance, inclusive participation in decision spiritual education for sustainable living.
making, and access to justice.
15. Treat all living beings with respect and
a. Uphold the right of everyone to consideration.
receive clear and timely information on
environmental matters and all development a. Prevent cruelty to animals kept in human
plans and activities which are likely to societies and protect them from suffering.
affect them or in which they have an b. Protect wild animals from methods of
interest. hunting, trapping, and fishing that cause
b. Support local, regional and global civil extreme, prolonged, or avoidable suffering.
society, and promote the meaningful c. Avoid or eliminate to the full extent
participation of all interested individuals possible the taking or destruction of non-
and organizations in decision making. targeted species.
c. Protect the rights to freedom of opinion, 16. Promote a culture of tolerance, nonviolence,
expression, peaceful assembly, association, and peace.
and dissent. a. Encourage and support mutual understanding,
d. Institute effective and efficient access to solidarity, and cooperation among all peoples
administrative and independent judicial and within and among nations.
procedures, including remedies and redress b. Implement comprehensive strategies
for environmental harm and the threat of to prevent violent conflict and use
such harm. collaborative problem solving to manage
e. Eliminate corruption in all public and and resolve environmental conflicts and
private institutions. other disputes.
f. Strengthen local communities, enabling c. Demilitarize national security systems to the
them to care for their environments, and level of a non-provocative defense posture,
assign environmental responsibilities to the and convert military resources to peaceful
levels of government where they can be purposes, including ecological restoration.
carried out most effectively. d. Eliminate nuclear, biological, and toxic
14. Integrate into formal education and life-long weapons and other weapons of mass
learning the knowledge, values, and skills destruction.
needed for a sustainable way of life. e. Ensure that the use of orbital and outer
a. Provide all, especially children and youth, space supports environmental protection
with educational opportunities that and peace.
empower them to contribute actively to f. Recognize that peace is the wholeness
sustainable development. created by right relationships with oneself,
b. Promote the contribution of the arts other persons, other cultures, other life,
and humanities as well as the sciences in Earth, and the larger whole of which all are
sustainability education. a part.
Index
A Anthracite, 251
Appliances, electric power consumption of,
refrigerator and air conditioner power
consumption, 166–169
Absolute cell reference, Excel, 99–100 164–166, 236–237 residential power, 162–169
Absolute temperature scales, 48 Aquaculture, 350 sustainability and, 449–451
Acceleration due to gravity, 44–48 Aqueducts, 338 thermal energy and, 449–450
Acidity of water, 339 Aquifer, 338 U-factor, 450
Active cell, Excel, 92 Arithmetic operations, Excel, 95 United States energy consumption and, 230–239
Active solar collection systems, 270–273 Association for the Advancement of Bureau International des Poids et Measures
Aerating water flow, 343 Sustainability in Higher Education (BIPM), 44
Agricultural sector, water consumption use, (AASHE), 442
Air
348–350 Atmosphere. See also Air
carbon dioxide emissions and, 314–319 C
atmosphere, 21–23, 453 carbon dioxide (CO2) in, 310 Caloric imbalance, 11
carbon dioxide in, 22–23 climate, 311–312, 453 Calorie (C), consumption requirements, 8–11,
clean, importance of, 8 composition of, 21–22, 309–311, 366–367 125, 135
composition of, 21–22 greenhouse gases in, 312–313, 453 Calorie, unit of energy, 9, 135
greenhouse gases, 22–23 mass of, 367 Calories vs. calorie, 9, 125
human need for, 8, 21–23 mesosphere, 310–311 Candela (cd), 44–45, 51
natural environment and, 21–23 ozone effects on, 310 Carbon dioxide (CO2)
sustainability and, 453–454 solar energy affected by, 261–264 air quality and, 22–23, 310, 312–319
Air cleaning, 326 stratosphere, 310–311 atmosphere, role of in, 22, 310
Air conditioners, power consumption of, 166–169 sustainability and, 453 effect on atmosphere, 22
Air pollution thermosphere, 310–311 emissions, 22–23, 314–319, 465
carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, 23 troposphere, 310–311 energy sector consumption and, 315
carbon monoxide (CO) concentration, 320, 321 water vapor for cloud formation, 336 footprint estimation, 316
Clean Air Act regulations for, 320–322 weather, 311–312, 453 greenhouse effect from, 23, 312–313
EPA categories and standards, 320–323 Atomic structure of materials, 369 sources of energy for, 317–318, 391, 465
EPA estimates, 309 United States energy consumption and, 314–319
lead (Pb) concentration, 320, 321
measurement of pollutants, 320 B world energy emitters of, 23, 314–319
Carbon monoxide (CO) emissions, 320, 321
mobile sources, 8, 320 Bacterial water contamination, 354 Cast iron, 379
natural sources, 8, 320 Bar graphs (histograms), 79–80 Cells in Excel
nitrogen dioxide (NO2) concentration, 320, 322 Base units, see Units addresses, 93
ozone (O3) concentration trends, 322 Batteries (chemical reaction) columns and rows of, 93, 95
particulate matter (PM), 320, 323 electric current, recharging and, 182–183 Insert menu, 95
pollutant reduction, 320–323 power generation and, 176, 182–183 range of, 94
population growth effects on, 309 solar power storage from, 275–277 references, 99–100
stationary sources, 8, 320 Biodiesel, renewable energy use, 297, 453 Celsius (8C) scale, 44–45, 48–49
sulfur dioxide (SO2) concentration, 320, 323 Biomass Central tendency and variation, 76, 81–83
World Health Organization (WHO) algae, 296, 453 Charge controller, photovoltaic systems, 277
recommended limits, 328–329, 466 biodiesel, 297, 453 Chart Wizard, Excel, 107–109
Air quality, 308–333, 453–454 ethanol, 296, 453 Chemical reaction (batteries), 176, 182–183
atmosphere composition and, 309–311 renewable energy as, 294–297 Cholera, water quality and, 356
carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, 22–23, 310, sustainability and, 452–453 Clean Air Act, 320–322
312–319 wood, 294–296, 452–453 Climate, weather compared to, 311–312, 453
energy consumption and, 314–319 world installed capacity of, 300 Climate change (global), 312, 339. See also
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 309, Bituminous coal, 251 Greenhouse gases
320–323, 453–454 Blades, wind turbines, 282–283 Coal
global issues, 328–329 Boil water notices, 354 energy consumption of, 227, 249–251
greenhouse gases and, 312–313, 453 Brake, wind turbine rotors, 283 energy content of, 145
indoor (IAQ), 324–327, 466 Brass, 377 energy reserves of, 226
outdoor (air pollution), 320–323, 466 British thermal unit (Btu), 125, 139 heating value of, 144–145
ozone (O3) effects on, 310–311, 322, 328–329 Bronze, 377 mining of, 249–251
pollutants, sources of, 325, 466 Buildings sustainability and, 451
sustainability and, 453–454 commercial building categories, 238–239 types of, 251
weather and climate, comparison of, conduction of heat, 450 Coefficient of performance (COP), 167
311–312, 453 radiation of heat, 450 Color rendition index (CRI), 171–172, 449
World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines, convection of heat, 450 Column header, Excel, 93
328–329, 454, 466 daylighting, 170, 450 Commercial sector
Air solar collector systems, 270 degree day (DD) for, 450 electricity in, 238–239
Algae, renewable energy use, 296, 453 electricity in, 162–175, 450 energy consumption in, 18–19
Alkalinity of water, 339 fuel oil consumption, 143, 146, 245, 451 water consumption, 348, 350
Alternating current (ac), 53, 156–157 heat transfer modes, 449–450 world energy consumption, 223–224
Aluminum, 375–376, 419–420, 455 heat loss and gain, 449–450 United States energy consumption, 238–239
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning Communication
Air Conditioning (ASHRAE) codes, 326 (HVAC) systems, 326 conflict resolution using, 31
American Wire Gage (AWG), 164, 449, 463 home appliances in, 164–166 presentations, oral, 29–30
Amount (quantity) of a substance, 37, 44–45, 51. indoor air quality (IAQ), 324–327 reports, written, 29
See also Mass lighting systems, 170–175 sustainability and, 28–31
Ampere (A), 44–45, 51, 156 National Fenestration Rating Council for, 450 teamwork, 30–31
Amplitude, 157 natural gas in, 450 Community water systems (CWS), 342
Anemometer, 282 non-renewable energy use, 220–258, Compact fluorescent lamp (CFL), 173
Annual fuel utilization efficiency (AFUE), 147 450–451 Components of systems, 59–61
472
INDEX 473
Composites, 384–385, 456 statistical models, 76–78 Efficiency

Composting, 398, 413–414, 420–421 surveys on climate change, 67 annual fuel utilization efficiency (AFUE), 147
Compression strength, 373 sustainability use of, 447–448 coefficient of performance (COP), 167
Compressor, 166–167 Daylighting, 146–148, 170, 450 energy efficiency ratio (EER), 147, 167
Concrete, 387–389, 456–457 Decimal multiple symbols, 44, 46 energy systems, 144–148
Condenser, 166–167 Degree day (DD), 450, 465 equations for, 144
Conduction, thermal energy, 450 Density, 372, 463 furnaces, 147
Conflict resolution using communication, 31 Dialog boxes, Excel, 107 heating value of fuel and, 144–148
Consumption rates. See also Heating value Diarrhea, water quality and, 357 internal combustion engines, 146
of fuel; Energy consumption; Power Diesel fuel light efficacy and, 171–175
consumption energy consumption of, 244–245 photovoltaic cells, 275, 277
agriculture sector, 348–350 energy content of, 145 refrigeration and cooling systems, 146–147,
commercial sector, 18–19, 223–224, 238–239 production of, 241–243 167–168
community water systems (CWS), 342 sustainability and, 451 seasonal energy efficiency ratio (SEER), 147,
energy and power relationship, 137–141 Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 9–11 167–168
energy efficiency ratio (EER), 147, 167 Diffuse radiation, 262–264 steam power plants, 177, 179–180
Energy Information Administration (EIA) Dike, 338 sustainability and, 448
sectors, 18–19, 223–224, 230–239 Dimensional homogeneity, 54–58 wind turbines, 285
energy units for, 17, 125, 222–223 Dimensions, 3, 36–65, 442, 447 Electric charge, flow of, 156, 182–183
flow rate, 343–347 amount of a substance, 37, 44–45, 51 Electric current (I)
heating value of fuels, 142–148, 225, 227 components of systems, 59–61 alternating current (ac), 53, 156–157
industrial sector, 18–19, 223–224, 239 conversion of units, 54–58 ampere (A), 44–45, 51, 156
non-renewable energy, 220–258, 450–451 dimensional homogeneity, 54–58 battery recharging and, 182–183
personal water use, 342–347 electric current, 37, 44–45, 51, 53 dimension of, 37, 40
population growth effects on, 24–25, 348–349 force, 39, 44–50 direct current (dc), 156–157
power for electricity, 159–169 fundamental, 3, 37 electrical potential, 156–157
power rates for, 159–161 length, 37, 39, 44–45, 49, 51 flow of electric charge, 156, 182–183
public water system (PWS), 342 luminous intensity, 37, 44–45 frequency, 53, 157
residential sector, 18–19, 223–224, 236–238 mass, 37, 39, 44–47, 49–50, 51 hertz (Hz), 53, 157
seasonal energy efficiency ratio (SEER), 147, physical laws and, 41–43 Ohm’s law for, 158
167–168 physical quantities as, 38–40 resistance (R) and, 158
sustainability and, 450–451 role of, 3, 37 units of, 44–45
transportation sector, 18–19, 223–224, 231–235 sustainability and, 442, 447 voltage (V) and, 156–158
United States Geological Survey (USGS) data, systems and components, 59–61 Electric power
348–350 systems of units for, 44–53 American Wire Gage (AWG), 164
United States, 18–19, 230–239 temperature, 37, 39–40, 44–45, 50–51 commercial sector consumption, 238–239
volume flow rate, 343–347 time, 37, 39, 44–45, 47–48 energy consumption rates, 159–169
water, 342–351 units and, 37, 40–41, 44–58 formula for, 159
world, 17–18, 221–229 Direct beam solar radiation, 262–264, 452 generation of, 176–184
Containers and packaging, municipal waste Direct current (dc), 156–157, 277 home appliances, 164–166
from, 400 Direct passive solar collection systems, 274 inverter for, 276
Contaminants, management of, 326 Diversion (turbines), hydro-energy from, 291 kilowatt-hour (kWh), 159
Controller, wind turbines, 282–283 Domestic hot water (DHW) tank, 270–271 photovoltaic systems for, 184, 275–280
Convection, thermal energy, 450 Domestic water supply, 350 refrigerators and air conditioners, 166–169
Conversion factors, 462 Drinking water, 352–358 residential distribution, 162–164
Conversion of units, 54–58 bacterial contamination, 354 residential sector consumption, 164–169,
Copper, 377–378, 420, 455, 463 boil water notices, 354 236–238
Core of the Earth (inner and outer), 21, 366–367 contaminant sources, 353 standards and codes for, 169
Correction factor for mass and weight, 49–50, 129 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), sustainability and, 449
Coulomb (C), 156 352–354, 455 symbols for, 163
Crude oil, 226, 240–244 fertilizer contamination, 354 transmission and distribution of, 177–179
Crust of the Earth, 21, 366–367 global water quality, 355–358 United States energy consumption from,
Cumulative frequency, 79–80 maximum contaminant level (MCL), 352 236–239
Current (I), see Electric current maximum contaminant level goal Electrical potential, see Voltage
Curve fitting, 112–115, 623 (MCLG), 352 Electrical properties of materials, 372
metal contamination, 354 Electrical resistivity, 372
D Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), 352–353
sanitation and water quality, 357–358, 455
Electrical symbols, 163
Electricity, 154–189
Dams, see Hydro-energy standards, 352–354, 455 alternating current (ac), 53, 156–157
Data sustainability and, 454–455 ampere (A), 156
carbon dioxide emissions, 314–319 United Nations (UN) vital water graphics chemical reaction (batteries), 176, 182–183
materials discarded and recovered, 415–419 report, 355–356 circuits, 158
National Renewable Energy Lab (NREL), viral contamination, 354 coulomb (C), 156
266–268 water-related diseases, 356 current (I), 156–158
non-renewable energy sources, 222–225, 230–231 World Health Organization (WHO), direct current (dc), 156–157
plotting two sets with different ranges, 109–111 356–358, 455 flow of electric charge, 156
United Nations (UN), 26, 348, 355–356 Durable goods, 399–400 human need for, 155
United States energy consumption, 230–231, 318 hydro-energy, generation from, 181–182,
United States Geological Survey (USGS),
348–350 E 289–294
light production (photoemission), 176, 183–184
water consumption, 335, 348–350 Earth lighting systems, 170–175, 239
water quality, 355–356 atmosphere, 21–23, 366–367 magnetism (power plants), 176–182
world energy consumption, 222–225, 318 climate, 311–312 Ohm’s law, 158
Data analysis, 66–89, 447–448 crust, 21, 366–367 photovoltaic systems for, 184, 275–280
central tendencies and variations in, 76, 81–83 global water distribution, 340–341 power consumption, 159–169
evidence-based, 68–69, 447–448 greenhouse effect, 22–23 power generation of, 176–184
frequency distribution, 78–80, 447 inner and outer core, 21, 366–367 power transmission and distribution of, 177–179
linear models, 69–74 mantle, 21, 366–367 residential and commercial sector uses, 236–239
mean, 81–82, 85 mass of each layer, 367, 467 residential consumption and distribution of,
normal distribution, 83–85, 448 natural environment of, 20–22 162–169
probability and statistics, 75–85, 447 raw materials from, 366–368 resistance (R), 158
probability distribution, 83–85, 448 weather, 311–312 solar energy, generation from, 184, 275–280
probability models, 76–77 Earth Charter, 437–439, 468–471 standards and codes for, 169
standard deviation, 81–83 Efficacy, 171–175, 449 sustainability and, 449
474 INDEX
Electricity (Continued) non-renewable energy source rates, 220–258, mass-to-weight relationship, 44–48
United States consumption of, 236–238 450–451 newton (N) for, 44–45
voltage (V), 156–158, 449 residential sector use, 18–19, 223–224 pound force (lbf) for, 49–50
wind energy, generation from, 287–288 sustainability and, 450–451 weight as, 44–48
world generation of, 155 total fuel/energy use, 19–20 work performance and, 127
Electronic spreadsheets (Excel), 90–120, 448 transportation sector use, 18–19, 223–224, Formula bar, Excel, 93
cell addresses, 93 231–235 Formulas
cell ranges, 94 United States consumption, 17–20, 230–239, arithmetic operations, 95
cell references, 99–100 314–319 cell references in, 99–100
dialog box, 107 world consumption, 17–18, 221–229, 314–319 equal sign (5) for, 95
problem solving use of, 91–92 Energy efficiency ratio (EER), 147, 167 Excel, 95–100
formulas created in, 95–100 Energy Information Administration (EIA), mathematical equations, 460–461
functions, 101–106 18–19 Fossil fuels
inserting cells, columns, and rows, 93, 95 Energy reserves (non-renewable), 225–226 acquiring from nature, 240
naming worksheets, 93 Environment coal, 144, 249–251
plotting, 107–115 air quality, 308–333 crude oil production, 240–244
sustainability use of, 448 atmosphere (air), 21–23, 309–311, 366–367 diesel fuel, 145, 241–245
visual basic for applications (VBA), 91 climate, 311–312 emission standards, 246
window components, 92–93 climate change (global), 312, 339 energy consumption rates, 240–251
workbook, 91, 93 composting and, 398, 413–414, 420–421 energy content of, 145, 225, 227
worksheets, 93–106 Earth’s structure, 21–22 fuel oil, 143, 146, 245
Elements, periodic table of, 369, 467 greenhouse gases, 22–23, 312–313 gasoline production, 241–244
Elevation (lift), 132–135. See also Potential human needs and, 20–26 heating oil, 245–246
energy material (natural resources) use, 364–395 heating value of, 142–148, 225, 227
Emissions natural, 20–21 liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), 247, 249
carbon dioxide (CO2), 312–319 recycling and, 398, 413–420 natural gas, 142–143, 247–248
carbon monoxide (CO), 320, 321 types of, 20 propane, 247, 249
energy consumption and, 314–319 waste disposal effects on, 15, 396–427 United States oil production, 241–244
energy sources of, 318 water, 23–26, 334–363 world oil production, 241
greenhouse gases, 312–313 weather, 311–312 Frequency, 53, 157
lead (Pb), 320, 321 Environmental footprint, 16–17 Frequency distributions
methane, 313 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) cumulative, 79–80
nitrogen dioxide (NO2), 320, 322 Advancing Sustainable Materials grouped, 78
standards for fossil fuels, 246 Management, 415 histograms (bar graphs) for, 79–80
sulfur dioxide (SO2), 320, 323 air pollution categories and standards, 320–323, probability and statistics, 78–80
Energy 453–454 sustainability use of, 447
biomass, 294–297 drinking water standards, 352–354, 455 Fresh water, 339–340
British thermal unit (Btu), 125, 139 emissions estimates, 309 Fuel
building heat loss and gain, 449–450 materials discarded and recovered, 415–419 biodiesel, 297, 453
calorie, 125, 136 maximum contaminant level (MCL), 352, 455 consumption for energy, 142–148
Calorie (C), 125, 136 maximum contaminant level goal (MCLG), efficiency of, 144–148
change in, 130, 132–135 352, 455 energy content of, 145–146, 389, 463
consumption rates, 125, 220–258 municipal solid waste (MSW) generation, ethanol, 296, 453
content of fuels, 145, 225, 227 397–398 fossil fuels, 225, 227, 240–251
electricity, 154–189, 275–280 population growth effects on air pollution, 309 gasoline consumption, 232–235
environmental footprint and, 16–17 sustainability and, 453–454, 455 heating value of, 142–148, 225, 227
force and, 127 waste generation and disposal data, 15 renewable energy as, 294–297
fossil fuels, 142–148, 225, 227, 240–251 Estuary, 338 transportation sector trends, 232–235
heat transfer, 130–159 Ethanol, renewable energy use, 296, 453 world energy consumption of, 17–18, 221–223
heating value of fuel, 142–148 Ethical guidelines to sustainability, 437–439 wood, 294–296, 452–453
human need for, 16–20, 123, 125–127 Ethics, principle of, 68–69 Fuel economy rating, 234–235
hydro-, 181–182, 289–294 Evacuated-tube solar collectors, 271–272 Fuel oil, 143, 146, 245, 451
internal, 135 Evaporator, 166–167 Fuel rods and assemblies, 252
joule (J), 80, 127, 128, 132 Evidence-based data analysis, 68–69, 447–448. Functions in Excel
kilowatt-hour (kWh), 53, 125 See also Data analysis built-in uses, 101–106
kinetic, 126, 128–132, 448 Excel, see Electronic spreadsheets (Excel) Insert function ( fx), 101
non-renewable sources, 220–258 logical functions, 104–106
nuclear, 180–181, 252–253
potential, 126, 132–135, 448 F mathematical uses, 102
now() and today() functions, 103
pound-force-foot (lbf·ft), 76, 129 Fahrenheit (8F) scale, 48–49, 50–51 relational operators, 105
power and, 124–152, 448 Fertilizers, water contamination from, 354 visual basic for applications (VBA), 91
power consumption, 159–169 Fill command, Excel, 99–100 Fundamental dimensions, 3. See also Dimensions
relationship to power, 137–141, 373 Flooding, 338 Furnaces, efficiency of, 147
renewable, 260–305 Flow rate, 343–347
solar, 261–280
speed and, 128–132
Fluorescent lighting, 173
Food G
steam, 176–180 caloric imbalance, 11 Gaseous state, 369–370
sustainability and, 448, 450–451 Calorie requirements, 8–11 Gasoline
temperature and, 135–136 calorie vs. Calories, 9 energy consumption of, 228–229
thermal, 126, 135–136, 142–148, 190–219, 448 Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 9–11 energy content of, 146
units of, 17, 125, 128–129, 132, 135–136, 138–139 energy consumption and, 11 fuel economy rating, 234–235
wind, 281–288 dollar expense (food dollar) and, 11–13 production of, 241–244
work and, 125–127 human need for, 8–13 transportation sector consumption, 232–235
Energy consumption. See also hunger map, 13 Gear box, wind turbines, 282–283
Consumption rates Food dollar (expense), 11–13 General Conference of Weights and Measure
carbon dioxide emissions from, 314–319 Foot (ft), 49, 51 (CGPM), 44
commercial sector use, 18–19, 223–224 Footcandle, 171 Geysers, 339
data for energy sources, 222–225, 230–232, 318 Force Glaciers, 339
Energy Information Administration (EIA), 18 conversion of units, 55 Glass
environmental footprint and, 16–17 correction factor for mass and weight, 49–50 fibers, 384
food production and, 11 dimension of, 39 material properties and use of, 383–384
fuel types, 17–18, 142–148, 222–223 direct contact, 39 municipal solid waste (MSW) products, 406, 408
human need and, 16–20, 67–72, 222–223 exertion of, 39 silica, 383–384
industrial sector use, 18–19, 223–224 gravity, 39, 44–48 sustainability and, 456
INDEX 475
Global citizens Hydroelectric power plants, 181–182, 289–290 Light production (photoemission), 176, 183–184
attributes for sustainability, 27–28 Hydropower, 289, 299 Lighting systems, 170–175
decisions and evidence-based analysis, 68 audit, 175
ethical principles of, 68–69
human needs and concerns of, 5–6 I color rendition index (CRI), 171–172
daylighting, 170
material properties, understanding of, 370–372 Ice cap, 339 efficacy, 171–175
responsibility of, 3, 5–6 Ice sheet, 339 fluorescent, 173
role of, 3 Illuminating Engineering Society (IES), 175 high-intensity discharge (HID), 173–174
Global distribution of water, 340–341 Illumination, 171, 449 illumination, 171
Global energy consumption, see World energy Impoundment (dams), hydro-energy from, incandescent, 171–172
consumption 289–290 light-emitting diode (LED), 174
Gravity, 39, 41, 44–48 Incandescent lighting, 171–172 source color, 171–172
acceleration due to, 44–48 Indirect-gain passive solar collection systems, 274 units for illumination from, 171
force as, 39 Indoor air quality (IAQ), 324–327 Lightweight metals, 375–377
law of gravitational attraction, 41, 44–47 air cleaning, 326 Lignite, 251
weight and, 44–48 ASHRAE codes, 326 Linear models, 69–74
Greek alphabet for linear models, 70 contaminants, management of, 326 characteristics of, 73
Greenhouse effect, 312, 453 health issues related to, 324–325 evidence-based analysis using, 69–74
Greenhouse gases, 22–23, 312–313 heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning Greek alphabet for, 70
Grid-tied photovoltaic systems, 275, 278 (HVAC) systems, 326 linear equations for, 72–74
Groundwater, 25, 336, 338–339 local exhaust control, 326 math symbols for, 69
Grouped frequency distribution, 78 pollutants, sources of, 325 Roman numerals for, 70
source elimination, 326 slope values, 72–73
H source substitution, 326
Industrial revolution, sustainability and, 432–433
systems of linear equations for, 74
temperature distribution, example of, 70–72
Hardness of water, 340 Industrial sector Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), 247, 249, 451
Hardwood, 386 energy consumption, 18–19, 233–234, 239 Liquid flat-panel solar collectors, 270–271
Hazardous waste, 411 water consumption, 348, 350 Liquid state, 369–370
Heat capacity, 373 Industrial waste Liter (L), 53
Heat transfer coefficient (h), 464 generation of, 398–399, 400 Local exhaust control, 326
Heat transfer, see Thermal energy hazardous waste, 411 Logical functions, Excel, 104–106
Heating oil, 245–246 landfills for, 412 Lumens, 171
Heating values of fuel, 142–148 solid waste management, 411–412 Luminous intensity, 37, 44–45, 51
annual fuel utilization efficiency (AFUE), 147 sustainability and, 457 Lux, 171
efficiency of, 144–148 Infrared radiation, 23, 262
energy content of fuel, 145–146
energy systems and, 144–148
Insert function ( fx), Excel, 101
Insert menu, 95 M
furnace efficiency, 147 Internal combustion engines, efficiency of, 146 Magnesium, 377, 455
internal combustion engine efficiency, 146 Internal energy, 135 Magnetism, 176. See also Power plants
refrigeration and cooling system efficiency, International System (SI) of units Magnitude, 51–52
146–147 conversion of, 50, 55–58 Mantle of the Earth, 21, 366–367
seasonal energy efficiency ratio (SEER), 147 fundamental units of, 44–49 Mass
thermal energy generation, 142–148 magnitude relationships in, 52–53 acceleration and, 45–48
Heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning prefixes for, 44–46 conversion of units, 55, 58
(HVAC) systems, 326 Inverter, photovoltaic systems, 276 correction factor for weight and, 49–50, 129
Hertz (Hz), 53, 157 Iron, 378–379, 419 dimension of, 37, 39
High-intensity discharge (HID) lighting, 173–174 Irrigation, 350 kilogram (kg) for, 44–45
Histograms (bar graphs), 79–80, 447 kinetic energy and, 128–129
Home heating oil (fuel oil), energy content of, 146
Hoover Dam project, 293 J layers of the Earth, 367, 467
pound mass (lbm) for, 49–50, 51
Horizontal axis turbines, wind energy, 282–283 Joule (J), 127, 128, 132, 136 weight relationship to, 44–47
Horizontal surface collection, 264 Material recovery facilities, 414–415
Horsepower (hp), 53, 138–139
Hubs, wind turbines, 282–283 K Materials, 364–395, 455–457
atomic structure of, 369
Human needs Kelvin (K) scale, 44–45, 48, 50–51 composites, 384–385, 456
air, 8, 21–23 Kilogram (kg), 44–45 compression strength, 373
air quality and, 308–333 Kilowatt (kW), 138 concrete, 387–389, 456–457
electricity, 155 Kilowatt-hour (kWh), 53, 125, 138, 159 density, 372
energy consumption and, 11, 16–20, 123, 125–127, Kinetic energy, 126, 128–132, 448 electrical resistivity, 372
222–223 change in, 130 glass, 383–384, 456
environment and, 20–26 mass and, 128–129 heat capacity, 373
food, 8–13 speed and, 128–132 metals, 374–381, 419–420, 455–456
global citizen responsibility, 5–6, 27–28 sustainability and, 448 natural resources for, 365, 371
household expenses, 13 work and, 128–132 periodic table of elements, 369, 467
natural resources for, 14 units of, 128–129 phases of matter, 369–370
personal water consumption, 342–347 use of, 126, 128 plastics, 382, 456
population impact on, 6–7 properties of, 370–374
standard of living and, 6
sustainability and, 26–32 L raw sources for, 366–368
recovery of (recycling), 365, 378, 382, 415–420
waste disposal awareness, 15, 398–399 Laminar water flow, 343 silicon, 383
water, 8, 23–26, 334–338 Landfills, 412 strength-to-weight ratio, 372, 373
Hunger map, 13 Leaching, 340 sustainability and, 455–457
Hybrid photovoltaic systems, 275 Lead (Pb) emissions, 320, 321 tensile strength, 373
Hydro-energy Leadership in Energy and Environmental thermal conductivity, 373, 464
diversion (turbines), 291 Design (LEED) ratings, 439–440 thermal expansion, 373
electricity generation from, 181–182, 289–294 Leather products, municipal waste from, 409 viscosity, 373
Hoover Dam project, 293 Length wood, 385–386, 456
impoundment (dams), 289–290 conversion of units, 55–58 Math symbols, 69
power generation equations, 291–292 dimension of, 37, 39 Mathematical formulas (equations), 460–461
power plants, 181–182, 289–290 foot (ft) for, 49, 51 Maximum contaminant level (MCL), 352, 455
pumped storage hydropower, 291–292 meter (m) for, 44–45 Maximum contaminant level goal (MCLG),
sustainability and, 452 Levee, 338 352, 455
United States hydroelectric capacity, 290 Life-cycle analysis, 440–441 Mean (arithmetic average), 81–82, 85
world installed capacity of, 299 Light-emitting diode (LED) lighting, 174 Mechanical properties of materials, 372
476 INDEX
Menu bar (tab), Excel, 92 heating value of fossil fuels, 225, 227 Potential energy, 126, 132–135, 448
Mesosphere, 310–311 nuclear energy, 252–253 change in, 132–135
Metals, 374–381, 455–456 renewable energy compared to, 221 sustainability and, 448
aluminum, 375–376, 419–420, 455 sustainability and, 450–451 units of, 132
brass, 377 United States consumption rates, 17–20, 230–239 use of, 126, 132
bronze, 377 world consumption rates, 17–18, 221–229 Pound force (lbf), 49–50
cast iron, 379 Normal (probability) distribution, 83–85, 448 Pound-force-foot (lbf·ft), 129
copper, 377–378, 420, 455 now() and today() functions, Excel, 103 Pound mass (lbm), 49–50, 51
iron, 378–379, 419 Nuclear energy Pounds per square inch (psi), 344–345
lightweight, 375–377 electricity generation from, 180–181, 253 Power. See also Power consumption; Power
magnesium, 377, 455 fuel rods and assemblies, 252 generation
municipal solid waste (MSW) products, generation of, 252–253 electric, 159–169, 176–184, 373–374, 449
406–407 power plants, 180–181, 252 energy relationship to, 137–141, 373, 448
nickel, 379–380, 420 sustainability and, 451 horsepower (hp) for, 53, 138–139
recycling, 419–420 uranium (U-235) for, 252 kilowatt (kW) and kilowatt-hour (kWh), 138
steel, 378–379, 419, 455–456 Nuclear fission, 181, 451 pound-force-foot per second (lbf·ft/s), 138–139
stainless steel, 379 Nuclear fusion, 181 requirement, 137–138
sustainability and, 455–456 SI and U.S. Customary unit relationships, 139
titanium, 376–377, 455
water contamination from, 354 O sustainability and, 448–449
units of, 53, 138–139
zinc, 380–381, 420 Observation, physical laws based on, 42–43 watt (W), 53, 138
Meter (m), 44–45 Ohms (Ω), 158 Power consumption, 159–169
Methane, greenhouse effect from, 313 Ohm’s law, 158 appliances, 164–169
Mining water, 350 Outcome, 76, 447 electric, 159–169
Mixed cell reference, Excel, 99 Outdoor air quality, 320–323. See also Air pollution energy rates, 159–161
Mole (mol), 44–45, 51 Ozone (O3), 310–311, 322, 328–329 kilowatt-hour (kWh), 159
Movement, see Kinetic energy refrigerators and air conditioners, 166–169
Municipal solid waste (MSW), 397–398, 413–414
generation, 397–398 P residential electrical distribution, 162–164
standards and codes for, 169
recycling, 413–414 Paper and paperboard products, municipal waste Power generation
Municipal waste, 398–410, 457 from, 404–406 batteries, 176, 182–183
containers and packaging, 400 Parabolic (U-shaped) solar collectors, 272 chemical reaction (batteries), 176, 182–183
durable goods, 399–400 Particulate matter (PM) trends, 320, 323 current flow and, 182–183
generation of, 398–399 Pascal, 345 efficiency of, 177, 179–180
glass products, 406, 408 Passive solar collection systems, 274–275 electricity from, 176–184, 285–294
leather products, 409 Pathogens, 354 hydropower, 181–182, 289–294
material types and quantities, 399 Period (cycle), electrical current, 157 light production (photoemission), 176, 183–184
metal products, 406–407 Periodic table of elements, 369, 467 magnetism (power plants), 176–182
nondurable goods, 399–400 Permafrost, 339 nuclear energy, 180–181
paper and paperboard products, 404–406 Phases of matter, 369–370 photoemission, 183–184
plastic packaging, 400 Photoemission (light generation of electricity), photovoltaic systems, 184, 275–280
plastics in products, 400–404 183–184 power plants (magnetism), 176–182
rubber products, 409–410 Photovoltaic array, 275–277 thermoelectric power, 337, 350
sustainability and, 457 Photovoltaic (PV) cell, 275, 277 wind capacity, 285–287
Photovoltaic systems Power plants, 176–182
N array, 275–277
electricity generation from, 184, 275–280
boiler for steam, 176–177
efficiency of, 177, 179–180
Name box, Excel, 93 battery storage for, 275–277 hydroelectric, 181–182, 289–290
National Electrical Code, 449 cell efficiency, 275, 277 nuclear, 180–181
National Fenestration Rating Council, 450 charge controller, 277 photovoltaic, 277
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), 169 grid-tied, 275, 278 schematics of, 177, 182
National Renewable Energy Lab (NREL), hybrid, 275 steam, 176–180
266–268 inverter, 276 transportation of electricity from, 177–179
National Society of Professional Engineers Code solar energy collection from, 275–280, 452 Power transmission and distribution, 177–179
of Ethics, 68–69 stand-alone, 275 Presentations, oral communication from, 29–30
Natural gas sustainability and, 452 Pressure, units of, 344–345
energy consumption of, 227, 247–248 United States solar resources, 278 Primary cell, 182
energy content of, 146, 450 Physical laws, 41–43 Probability and statistics, 75–85, 447–448
energy reserves of, 226 Plasma, state of, 369–370 central tendency and variation, 76, 81–83
heating value of, 142–143 Plastics cumulative frequency, 79–80
processing and transportation of, 247–248 fibers, 384 everyday use of, 75–76
Natural resources. See also Materials material properties and use of, 382 frequency distributions, 78–80, 447
biomass, 294–297 municipal solid waste (MSW) products, histograms, 79–80, 447
energy consumption rates of, 220–258 400–404 mean (arithmetic average) for, 81–82, 85
global water distribution, 340–341 packaging, 400 normal (probability) distribution, 83–85, 448
human need for, 14 polymers, 382 outcome, 76, 447
hydro-energy, 289–294 sustainability and, 456 population, 77, 447
non-renewable energy uses of, 18–20, 220–258 thermoplastics, 382 probability models, 76–77
raw material sources, 365, 371 thermosets, 382 random experiment, 76, 447
recycling recovery of, 365 Plotting relative frequency, 76–77
renewable energy from, 260–305 Chart Wizard for, 107–109 risk and, 76
solar, 261–269 curve fitting, 112–115, 623 standard deviation and, 81–83, 85
water, 23–26, 334–363 Excel, 107–115 statistical models, 76–78
water cycle, 25–26, 336 trendlines, 113–114 sustainability use of, 447–448
wind, 281–288 two sets of data with different ranges, 109–111 trial, 76, 447
Newton (N), 44–45 Pollutants, sources of, 325 Probability models, 76–77
Newton’s law of gravitational attraction, 41, 44–45 Population, statistics and, 77, 447 Problem solving
Newton’s second law of motion, 41–42, 44 Population age structure, sustainability and, conflict resolution and, 31
Nickel, 379–380, 420 433–434 evidence-based analysis for, 3
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) emissions, 320, 322 Population growth spreadsheets for, 3
Nondurable goods, 399–400 air pollution, effects on, 309 teamwork for, 30–31
Non-renewable energy impact on human needs, 6–7 Product life cycle, 60
consumption rates from, 220–258, 450–451 water consumption and, 348–349 Propane, 247, 249
fossil fuels, 225, 227, 240–251 water resources and requirements, 24–25 Properties of materials, 370–374. See also Materials
INDEX 477
Public water supply, 350 Silicon, 383 drinking water quality, 454–455
Public water system (PWS), 342 Silicones, 383 Earth Charter, 437–439
Pumped storage hydropower, 291–292 Slope values for linear models, 72–73 efficiency and, 448
Small Island Developing States (SIDS), 356 electricity and, 449
R Smart Grid, 178–179
Smart phone materials, 365
electronic spreadsheets for, 448
energy and, 448, 450–451
Radiation, see Solar radiation Softwood, 386 ethical guidelines, 437–439
Radiation bands, 261–262 Solar collection systems evidence-based analysis for, 447–448
Random experiment, 76, 447 active, 270–273 fundamental dimensions and, 442, 447
Rankine (R) scale, 48, 50–51 air, 270 global citizen responsibilities for, 27–28
Recycling direct passive, 274 heat loss and gain, 449–450
advantages of, 414 domestic hot water (DHW) tank, 270–271 human needs and, 26–32
aluminum, 378, 419–420 evacuated tubes, 271–272 industrial revolution and, 432–433
composting and, 398, 413–414, 420–421, 457 indirect-gain passive, 274 industrial waste and, 457
copper, 420 liquid flat-panel, 270–271 Leadership in Energy and Environmental
iron and steel, 419 parabolic (U-shaped), 272 Design (LEED) ratings, 439–440
materials discarded and recovered data, 415–419 passive, 274–275 life-cycle analysis, 440–441
material recovery facilities, 414–415 photovoltaic, 275–280, 377, 452 material use and, 455–457
municipal solid waste (MSW), 413–414 solar energy and, 270–280, 377, 452 municipal waste and, 457
nickel, 420 sunspace, 273–274 non-renewable energy sources and, 450–451
nondurable goods, 399–400 sustainability and, 452 population age structure and, 433–434
plastics, 382 Solar collector tilt angle, 265–266 power and, 448–449
population served by, 415 Solar energy. See also Solar radiation probability and statistics for, 447–448
recovery of natural resource materials, 365, 457 atmospheric effects on, 261–264 recycling and, 457
sustainability and, 457 collection systems, 270–280, 452 renewable energy sources and, 451–453
waste-to-energy facilities, 422–423 horizontal surface collection, 264 social responsibility of, 431–432
waste disposal, 398, 413–420 radiation bands, 261–262, 451 strategies for, 439
zinc, 420 radiation collection, 262–269 teamwork for, 30–31
Reducing waste, 413 seasonal (orbital) effects on, 262–265 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals
Refrigerant, 166 solar collector tilt angle, 265–266 (SDGs), 435–437
Refrigeration and cooling systems, 146–147, solar intensity, 262–265 units and, 442, 447
166–168 sustainability and, 451–452 water consumption and sources, 454–455
Refrigerators, power consumption of, 166–169 world installed capacity of, 299 Sweep area, wind turbine blades, 283–284
Relational operators, Excel, 105 Solar intensity, 262–265 Systems, 59–61, 144–148. See also Solar collection
Relative cell reference, Excel, 99–100 Solar radiation systems
Relative frequency, 76–77 greenhouse gases and, 22–23 components of, 59–61
Renewable energy, 260–305, 451–453 diffuse, 262–264 energy efficiency of, 144–148
algae, 296, 453 direct beam, 262–264, 452 product life cycle and, 60
biodiesel, 297, 453 infrared, 23, 246–247, 262
biomass, 294–297, 452–453
ethanol, 296, 453
National Renewable Energy Lab (NREL) data
for, 266–268 T
hydro-energy, 289–294, 452 solar energy and, 261–264, 451–452 Teamwork, communication from, 30–31
non-renewable energy compared to, 221 ultraviolet, 262 Temperature
photovoltaic systems, 275–280, 452 visible, 262, 376–377, 451 absolute scales, 48
solar collection systems, 270–280, 452 water cycle process from, 25 Celsius (8C), 44–45, 48–49
solar energy, 261–269, 451–452 Solid state, 369–370 conversion of units, 50, 55
sustainability and, 451–453 Solid waste management, 411–412 dimension of, 37, 39–40
United States consumption, 261 Source color, 171–172 Fahrenheit (8F), 48–49, 50–51
wind energy, 281–288, 452 Speed, 47–48, 128–132 heat transfer and differences of, 135–136
wood, 294–296, 453 acceleration due to gravity and, 47–48 Kelvin (K) scale, 44–45, 48, 50–51
world trends in, 297–300 function of time, 47–48 lighting source color, 171–172
Reports, written communication from, 29 kinetic energy and, 128–132 Rankine (R) scale, 48, 50–51
Reservoirs, 336, 338 Spreadsheets, 3. See also Electronic spreadsheets SI and U.S. Customary unit relationships, 50
Residential sector (Excel) thermal energy transfer and, 135–136
American Wire Gage (AWG), 164 Stainless steel, 379 units for, 44–45, 48–49, 50
amperage rating, 162 Stand-alone photovoltaic systems, 275 Temperature distribution, example of, 70–72
electricity in, 162–169, 236–238 Standard deviation, 81–83, 85 Tensile strength, 373
energy consumption in, 19, 164–169 Statistical models, 76–78 Thermal conductivity, 373, 464
energy distribution in, 162–164 Statistics, see Probability and statistics Thermal energy
home appliances in, 164–166, 236–237 Status bar, Excel, 93 building heat loss and gain, 449–450
refrigerators and air conditioners, 166–169 Steam, gaseous state of, 370 conduction, 450
world energy consumption in, 223–224 Steam power plants, 176–180 convection, 450
United States consumption in, 236–238 Steel, 378–379, 419, 455–456 daylighting, 450
Resistance (R), 158 Storm water, 338 degree day (DD), 450
Risk (probability and statistics), 76 Stratosphere, 310–311 heat transfer as, 135–136, 382–383, 449–450
Roman numerals for linear models, 70 Strength of materials, 372–373 heating value of fuel, 142–148
Rotor solidity, 283–284 Strength-to-weight ratio, 372–373 internal energy and, 135
Rotors, wind turbines, 282–283 Subbituminous coal, 251 radiation, 450
Row header, Excel, 93 Sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions, 320, 323 sustainable energy and, 447, 449–450
Rubber products, municipal waste from, 409–410 Sunspace for solar collection, 273–274 temperature changes and, 135–136
Surface water, 25, 336, 338 units of, 135–136
S Surveys on climate change, 67
Sustainability, 26–32, 428–459
use of, 126, 135
Thermal expansion, 373
Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), 352–353 air quality standards and, 378–379, 453–454 Thermal properties of materials, 372
Sanitation, world concerns about, 357–358 applications: knowledge is power, 431, 442–457 Thermodynamics, second law of, 42–43
Seasonal (orbital) effects on solar energy, Association for the Advancement of Sustainability Thermoelectric power supply, 337, 350
262–265 in Higher Education (AASHE), 442 Thermoplastics, 382
Seasonal energy efficiency ratio (SEER), 147, atmosphere characteristics and, 453 Thermosets, 382
167–168 book layout for, 443–446 Thermosphere, 310–311
Second (s), 44–45 buildings and, 49–451 Throttling device, 166
Secondary cell, 182 communication and, 28–31 Time
Sensitivity analysis, 235 conflict resolution and, 31 dimension of, 37, 39
Sick buildings, 324 consumption rates and, 450–451 speed as a function of, 47–48
Silica glass, 383–384 defining, 26, 431–437 second (s) for, 44–45, 51
478 INDEX
Titanium, 376–377, 455 Viral water contamination, 354 Watt (W), 53, 138
Title bar, Excel, 92 Viscosity, 373 Weather, climate compared to, 311–312, 453
Ton of refrigeration or cooling, 168 Visible radiation, 262, 451 Weight, 44–48
Toolbar buttons, Excel, 92 Visual basic for applications (VBA), 91 acceleration due to gravity and, 44–48
Transmission lines, 177–179 Voltage (V), 156–158, 183, 449 correction factor for mass and, 49–50, 129
Transportation of electricity, 177–179 battery connections for, 183 law of gravitational attraction and, 44–47
Transportation sector current (I) and, 156–157 mass relationship to, 44–47
energy consumption from, 18–19, 450–451 Ohm’s law for, 158 Wetlands, 338
fuel trends in, 232–235 sustainability and, 449 What-if scenario, 235
sustainability and, 18–19, 450–451 Volume, units of, 53 Wind energy
world energy consumption rates, 223–224 Volume flow rate, 343–347 Betz limit, 283
United States energy consumption rates, efficiency and, 285
231–235
Trendlines, 113–114 W electricity generation from, 287–288
energy extraction calculations, 284–287
Trial (probability and statistics), 76, 447 Waste disposal, 15, 396–427, 457 horizontal axis turbines, 282–283
Tributary, 338 composting, 398, 413–414, 420–421 rotor solidity, 283–284
Troposphere, 310–311 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) data, rotors, 282–283
Turbines for wind energy, 282–285 15, 397–398 sustainability and, 452
hazardous materials, 411 turbines for, 282–285
U human awareness of, 15, 398–399
industrial waste, 398–399, 411–412, 457
United States wind resources, 281
vertical axis turbines, 282–283
U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), 9 landfills, 412 wind power capacity, 285–287
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services municipal solid waste (MSW) generation, wind speed and, 281–282
(HHS), 9 397–398 world installed capacity of, 299
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), see municipal waste, 398–410, 457 Window components, Excel, 92–93
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) recycling, 398, 413–420, 457 Wood
Ultraviolet radiation, 262 reducing, 413 energy content of, 146
Underwriters Laboratories (UL), 169 solid waste management, 411–412 hardwood, 386
United Nations (UN) sustainability and, 457 heating value of, 144
Brundtland Commission Report, 26 waste-to-energy facilities, 422–423 properties of, 386
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), Waste-to-energy facilities, 422–423 raw material uses, 385–386
435–437 Water. See also Drinking water; Hydro-energy renewable energy use, 294–296
water consumption data, 348 acidity and alkalinity of, 339 softwood, 386
vital water graphics report, 355–356 anomalies, 339 sustainability and, 453
United States energy consumption aqueducts, 338 Work
carbon dioxide emissions from, 314–319 availability of, 26 energy and, 125–127
commercial sector, 18–19, 236, 238–239 clean, importance of, 8 force as, 127
data for energy sources, 230–232 climate change and, 339 joule (J), 127
fuel types, 17–20 consumption, 342–351, 454–455 kinetic energy and, 128–132
industrial sector, 18–19, 239 contaminant sources, 353 spending energy for, 127
non-renewable energy, 230–239 domestic supply, 350 Workbook, Excel, 91, 93
oil production and, 241–244 drinking water standards, 352–354, 455 Worksheets, Excel, 93–106
renewable energy, 261 fresh water, 339–340 tabs, 93
residential sector, 18–19, 236–238 global distribution of, 340–341 workbooks compared to, 93
sector evaluation, 230–239 global quality of, 355–358 naming, 93
transportation sector, 18–19, 231–235 groundwater, 25, 336, 338–339 cells in columns and rows, 93, 95
world consumption compared to, 18, 314–319 hardness of, 340 addresses, 93
United States Geological Survey (USGS) health concerns and, 355–358 cell ranges, 94
Mineral Commodity Summaries, 415, 419–430 human need for, 8, 23–26, 334–338 Insert menu, 95
water consumption data, 348–350, 454–455 natural environment and resources of, 23–26 formulas, 95–100
Units population growth effects on, 24–25, 348–349 functions, 101–106
correction factors, 49–50, 129 pressure, 344–345 World energy consumption
conversion factors, 462 public supply, 350 carbon dioxide emissions from, 314–319
conversion of, 54–58 resources, 334–363 commercial sector, 223–224
decimal multiple symbols, 44, 46 reservoirs, 336, 338 data for energy sources, 222–225
dimensional homogeneity and, 54–58 sanitation and water quality, 357–358, 455 fuel types, 17–18
dimensions and, 37, 40–41 statistics, 335 electricity, generation of, 155
electricity, 156–157, 171 storm, 338 energy reserves (non-renewable) for, 225–226
energy, 17, 125, 128–129, 132, 135–136, 138–139 surface, 25, 336, 338 fossil fuels, heating value of, 225, 227
energy consumption, 17, 125, 222–223 sustainability and, 454–455 human need and, 17–18, 222–223
examples of, 45, 51–52 United Nations (UN) statistics and reports, 348, industrial sector, 223–224
fundamental (base), 44–53 355–356 non-renewable energy sources, 221–229
illumination, 171 units for, 25, 344–345 oil production and, 241
International System (SI), 44–49, 51–53, 128, world resources, 24–25 per capita comparison of, 18
138–139 Water budget, 340–341 residential sector, 223–224
magnitude relationships and, 51–52 Water consumption, 342–351. See also Drinking transportation sector, 223–224
power, 53, 138–139 water United States consumption compared to, 18,
power consumption, 167–168 agricultural sector use, 348–350 314–319
prefixes, 44–46 commercial sector use, 348, 350 World Health Organization (WHO)
pressure, 344–345 community water systems (CWS), 342 air quality guidelines, 328–329, 454
refrigeration and cooling, 167–168 flow rate, 343–347 sanitation and water quality, 357–358, 455
sustainability and, 442, 447 industrial sector use, 348, 350 sustainability and, 454, 455
systems of, 44–53 personal consumption, 342–347 water-related diseases, 356
thermal energy, 135–136 population growth and, 348–349 World trends in renewable energy, 297–300
U.S. Customary system, 49–53, 129, 138–139 public water system (PWS), 342
work, 127
Uranium (U-235), 252
sustainability and, 454–455
United Nations (UN) data for, 335, 348 Y
United States Geological Survey (USGS) for, Yaw motor, wind turbines, 282–283
V 348–350, 454–455
Vapor-compression cycle, 166

volume flow rate, 343–347
Water cycle, 25–26, 336 Z
Vertical axis turbines, wind energy, 282–283 Water-related diseases, 356 Zinc, 380–381, 420

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ENERGY,

Australia • Brazil • Canada • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States

Product Director: Mark Santee

Product Assistant: Simeon Lloyd-Wingard

Content Manager: Alexander Sham

IP Analyst: Deanna Ettinger ISBN: 978-0-357-67614-1

Text and Image Permissions Researcher: Cengage

Compositor: Straive Cengage is a leading provider of customized learning solutions

Cover Image: chinaface/Getty Images

Printed in the United States of America

2 Fundamental Dimensions and Systems of Units 36

3 Evidence-Based Data Analysis 66

5 Energy and Power 124

7 Thermal Energy: Heat Loss and Gain in Buildings 190

8 Energy Consumption Rates and Non-Renewable Energy Sources 220

9 Renewable Energy 260

10 Air and Air Quality Standards 308

11 Water Resources, Consumption Rates, and Quality Standards 334

12 Understanding the Materials We Use in Our Daily Lives 364

13 Municipal and Industrial Waste and Recycling 396

14.3 Key Sustainability Concepts, Assessments, and Tools 439

Appendix A: A Summary of Formulas 460

We all realize the importance of understanding fundamental concepts deal-

Changes in the Second Edition

• Greater focus on global interdependency and global data, critical

Part One: Basic Concepts

Chapter 2 explains the role and importance of fundamental dimensions

Part Two: Energy

Part Three: Environment

Part Four: Sustainability

Active Learning Features

Learning Objectives (LO)

Apply What You Have Learned

Saeed Moaveni is a successful engineer, author, and educator. Dr. Moaveni is a

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CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Energy, Environment, and Sustainability

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LO1 1.1 Basic Human Needs

This book is an attempt to introduce you to these important issues that

Year-1900 Year-2000 Year-2050

0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,400 1,600

We Need Clean Water Our next essential need is water. Droughts

We Need Food To lead a normal active life, we need to consume

consume more calories than you expend,

ODPHP, 2020–2025 Dietary Guidelines for Americans, www.dietaryguidelines.gov/

FIGURE 1.2 The food dollar.

Education, reading, 2.4%

FIGURE 1.3 The share of U.S. household consumption expenditures

FIGURE 1.4 The 2020 World Hunger Map.

We Need Natural Resources to Make Goods and Provide Services In

WHAT IS YOUR SMART PHONE MADE OF?

A smart phone is made up of many parts

LCD DISPLAYS: Glass, plastic

CIRCUIT BOARDS: Copper, gold,

Source: Based on EPA

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