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COLLEGE ALGEBRA and 11e
Ron Larson
The Pennsylvania State University
The Behrend College
Australia • Brazil • Canada • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States
College Algebra © 2022, 2018 Cengage Learning, Inc.
with CalcChat® and CalcView® WCN: 02-300
Eleventh Edition
Unless otherwise noted, all content is © Cengage.
Ron Larson
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Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2020
Contents
P Prerequisites 1
P.1 Review of Real Numbers and Their Properties 2
P.2 Exponents and Radicals 14
P.3 Polynomials and Special Products 26
P.4 Factoring Polynomials 34
P.5 Rational Expressions 41
P.6 The Rectangular Coordinate System and Graphs 51
Summary and Study Strategies 60
Review Exercises 62
Chapter Test 65
Proofs in Mathematics 66
P.S. Problem Solving 67
Equations, Inequalities, and

1 Mathematical Modeling 69
1.1 Graphs of Equations 70
1.2 Linear Equations in One Variable 81
1.3 Modeling with Linear Equations 90
1.4 Quadratic Equations and Applications 100
1.5 Complex Numbers 114
1.6 Other Types of Equations 121
1.7 Linear Inequalities in One Variable 131
1.8 Other Types of Inequalities 140
Review Exercises 152
Chapter Test 155
2 Functions and Their Graphs 159

2.1 Linear Equations in Two Variables 160
2.2 Functions 173
2.3 Analyzing Graphs of Functions 187
2.4 A Library of Parent Functions 198
2.5 Transformations of Functions 205
2.6 Combinations of Functions: Composite Functions 214
2.7 Inverse Functions 222
Chapter Test 235
Cumulative Test for Chapters P–2 236
iii
iv Contents
3 Polynomial Functions 241

3.1 Quadratic Functions and Models 242
3.2 Polynomial Functions of Higher Degree 251
3.3 Polynomial and Synthetic Division 264
3.4 Zeros of Polynomial Functions 273
3.5 Mathematical Modeling and Variation 287
Chapter Test 304
4 Rational Functions and Conics 309

4.1 Rational Functions and Asymptotes 310
4.2 Graphs of Rational Functions 318
4.3 Conics 327
4.4 Translations of Conics 341
Chapter Test 355
5 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 359

5.1 Exponential Functions and Their Graphs 360
5.2 Logarithmic Functions and Their Graphs 371
5.3 Properties of Logarithms 381
5.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations 388
5.5 Exponential and Logarithmic Models 398
Chapter Test 415
Cumulative Test for Chapters 3–5 416
6 Systems of Equations and Inequalities 421

6.1 Linear and Nonlinear Systems of Equations 422
6.2 Two-Variable Linear Systems 432
6.3 Multivariable Linear Systems 444
6.4 Partial Fractions 456
6.5 Systems of Inequalities 464
6.6 Linear Programming 474
Chapter Test 489
Contents v
7 Matrices and Determinants 493

7.1 Matrices and Systems of Equations 494
7.2 Operations with Matrices 507
7.3 The Inverse of a Square Matrix 521
7.4 The Determinant of a Square Matrix 530
7.5 Applications of Matrices and Determinants 538
Chapter Test 557
8 Sequences, Series, and Probability 561

8.1 Sequences and Series 562
8.2 Arithmetic Sequences and Partial Sums 572
8.3 Geometric Sequences and Series 581
8.4 Mathematical Induction 590
8.5 The Binomial Theorem 600
8.6 Counting Principles 608
8.7 Probability 618
Chapter Test 635
Cumulative Test for Chapters 6–8 636
Appendices
Appendix A: Errors and the Algebra of Calculus A1
Appendix B: Concepts in Statistics (online)*
B.1 Representing Data
B.2 Analyzing Data
B.3 Modeling Data
Alternative Version of Chapter P (online)*
P.1 Operations with Real Numbers
P.2 Properties of Real Numbers
P.3 Algebraic Expressions
P.4 Operations with Polynomials
P.5 Factoring Polynomials
P.6 Factoring Trinomials
Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises and Tests A9

Index A90
Index of Applications (online)*
*Available at the text companion website LarsonPrecalculus.com
Preface
Welcome to College Algebra with CalcChat® & CalcView®, Eleventh Edition. I am excited to offer you
a new edition with more resources than ever that will help you understand and master algebra. This text
includes features and resources that continue to make College Algebra a valuable learning tool for students
and a trustworthy teaching tool for instructors.
College Algebra provides the clear instruction, precise mathematics, and thorough coverage that you expect
for your course. Additionally, this new edition provides you with free access to a variety of digital resources:
• GO DIGITAL—direct access to digital content on your mobile device or computer

• CalcView.com—video solutions to selected exercises
• CalcChat.com—worked-out solutions to odd-numbered exercises and access to online tutors
• LarsonPrecalculus.com—companion website with resources to supplement your learning
These digital resources will help enhance and reinforce your understanding of the material presented
in this text and prepare you for future mathematics courses. CalcView® and CalcChat® are also
available as free mobile apps.
Features
NEW GO DIGITAL
Scan the QR codes on the pages of this text to GO DIGITAL on
your mobile device. This will give you easy access from anywhere to
instructional videos, solutions to exercises and Checkpoint problems, GO DIGITAL
Skills Refresher videos, Interactive Activities, and many other resources.
UPDATED ®
The website CalcView.com provides video solutions
of selected exercises. Watch instructors progress
step-by-step through solutions, providing guidance
to help you solve the exercises. The CalcView mobile
app is available for free at the Apple® App Store®
or Google Play™ store. You can access the video
solutions by scanning the QR Code® at the
beginning of the Section exercises, or visiting the
CalcView.com website.
UPDATED ®
Solutions to all odd-numbered exercises and tests are provided for free at CalcChat.com. Additionally,
you can chat with a tutor, at no charge, during the hours posted at the site. For many years, millions of
students have visited my site for help. The CalcChat mobile app is also available as a free download
at the Apple® App Store® or Google Play™ store.
App Store is a service mark of Apple Inc. Google Play is a trademark of Google Inc.
QR Code is a registered trademark of Denso Wave Incorporated.
vi
vii
Preface
REVISED LarsonPrecalculus.com
All companion website features have been
updated based on this revision, including
two new features: Skills Refresher and
Review & Refresh. Access to these features
is free. You can view and listen to worked-out
solutions of Checkpoint problems in English
or Spanish, explore examples, download data
sets, watch lesson videos, and much more.
SKILLS REFRESHER
NEW Skills Refresher For a refresher on finding
This feature directs you to an instructional video the sum, difference,
where you can review algebra skills needed to master product, or quotient of two
the current topic. Scan the on-page code or go to polynomials, watch the video
LarsonPrecalculus.com to access the video. at LarsonPrecalculus.com.
NEW Review and Refresh

These exercises will help you to reinforce previously learned
skills and concepts and to prepare for the next section. View and
listen to worked-out solutions of the Review & Refresh exercises
in English or Spanish by scanning the code on the first page
of the section exercises or go to LarsonPrecalculus.com.
NEW Vocabulary and Concept Check

The Vocabulary and Concept Check appears at the beginning
of the exercise set for each section. It includes fill-in-the-blank,
matching, or non-computational questions designed to help
you learn mathematical terminology and to test basic
understanding of the concepts of the section.
NEW Summary and Study Strategies

The “What Did You Learn?” feature is a section-by-section
overview that ties the learning objectives from the chapter to the
Review Exercises for extra practice. The Study Strategies give
concrete ways that you can use to help yourself with your
study of mathematics.
REVISED Algebra Help

These notes reinforce or expand upon concepts, help you learn how to study mathematics, address
special cases, or show alternative or additional steps to a solution of an example.
viii Preface
REVISED Exercise Sets

The exercise sets have been carefully and extensively examined to ensure they are rigorous and
relevant, and include topics our users have suggested. The exercises have been reorganized and
titled so you can better see the connections between examples and exercises. Multi-step, real-life
exercises reinforce problem-solving skills and mastery of concepts by giving you the opportunity
to apply the concepts in real-life situations. Two new sets of exercises, Vocabulary and Concept
Check and Review & Refresh, have been added to help you develop and maintain your skills.
Section Objectives
A bulleted list of learning objectives provides you the opportunity to preview what will be
presented in the upcoming section.
Side-By-Side Examples
Throughout the text, we present solutions to
many examples from multiple perspectives—
algebraically, graphically, and numerically.
The side-by-side format of this pedagogical
feature helps you to see that a problem can
be solved in more than one way and to see
that different methods yield the same result.
The side-by-side format also addresses
many different learning styles.
Checkpoints
Accompanying every example, the Checkpoint
problems encourage immediate practice and
check your understanding of the concepts
presented in the example. View and listen
to worked-out solutions of the Checkpoint
problems in English or Spanish at
LarsonPrecalculus.com. Scan the
on-page code to access the solutions.
Technology
The technology feature gives suggestions for effectively using tools such as calculators, graphing
utilities, and spreadsheet programs to help deepen your understanding of concepts, ease lengthy
calculations, and provide alternate solution methods for verifying answers obtained by hand.
Historical Notes
These notes provide helpful information regarding famous mathematicians and their work.
186 Chapter 2 Functions and Their Graphs
ix
Preface
Modeling Data In Exercises 81–84, determine which 87.
of the following functions
c 88.
f (x) = cx, g(x) = cx2, h(x) = c√ x , and r(x) =
Summarize
∣∣ x f (x) =
The Summarize
can be used to model the data and feature at the
determine the value
end of
of the constant ceach
that will makehelps
section the function fit the data
you organize the
in the table.
lesson’s key concepts into a concise
81. summary, providing you with a
x −4 −1 0 1 4
valuable study tool. Use this feature
y −32 −2 0 −2 −32
to prepare for a homework assignment, 89. x3 − 3
82. to help you study for an exam, or as a 90. x3 + 2
x −4 −1 0 1 4
review for previously covered sections. 91. 0=−
− 14 1
y −1 0 4 1 92. 0 = 2
83.
x −4 −1 0 1 4 identify the
y −8 −32 Undefined 32 8 93.
Algebra of Calculus
84.
Throughout the text, special emphasis is given to the x −4 −1 0 1 4
algebraic techniques used in calculus. Algebra of Calculus y 6 3 0 3 6
examples and exercises are integrated throughout the text
and are identified by the symbol . 85. Error Analysis Describe the error.
The functions
1
f (x) = √x − 1 and g(x) =
Error Analysis √x − 1
This exercise presents a sample solution that contains a 95. y = 2x
have the same domain, which is the set
common error which you are asked to identify. of all real numbers x such that x ≥ 1. ✗ 96.
97.
y = x4
y = x2
98. y = x3
How Do You See It? 86. HOW DO YOU SEE IT? The graph
represents the height h of a projectile after
The How Do You See It? feature in each section presents t seconds.
a real-life exercise that you will solve by visual inspection ((3)2 +
using the concepts learned in the lesson. This exercise is
h 99.
30
excellent for classroom discussion or test preparation.
Height (in feet)
25 (9 32)
100.
20 9
15 1 1
10 3 − 2
101.
Project 5 6−4
t
The projects at the end of selected sections involve in-depth 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 − √19
102.
applied exercises in which you will work with large, real-life Time (in seconds) 9
data sets, often creating or analyzing models. These projects (a) Explain why h is a function of t. √32
103.
are offered online at LarsonPrecalculus.com. (b) Approximate the height of the projectile
3
4 −
after 0.5 second and after 1.25 seconds. √4
104.
(c) Approximate the domain of h. (1 +
Collaborative Project (d) Is t a function of h? Explain.
You can find these extended group projects at
LarsonPrecalculus.com. Check your understanding
of the chapter concepts by solving in-depth, real-life
problems. These collaborative projects provide an
interesting and engaging way for you and other students
to work together and investigate ideas.
9780357452080_0202.indd 186
Instructor Resources
Built by educators, WebAssign from Cengage is a fully customizable online

solution for STEM disciplines. WebAssign includes the flexibility, tools, and
content you need to create engaging learning experiences for your students. The
patented grading engine provides unparalleled answer evaluation, giving students
instant feedback, and insightful analytics highlight exactly where students are
struggling. For more information, visit cengage.com/webassign.
Complete Solutions Manual

This manual contains solutions to all exercises from the text, including
Chapter Review Exercises and Chapter Tests, and Practice Tests with solutions.
The Complete Solutions Manual is available on the Instructor Companion Site.
Cengage Testing Powered by Cognero®

Cengage Testing, Powered by Cognero®, is a flexible online system that allows
you to author, edit, and manage test bank content online. You can create multiple
versions of your test in an instant and deliver tests from your LMS or exportable PDF
or Word docs you print for in-class assessment. Cengage Testing is available
online via cengage.com.
Instructor Companion Site

Everything you need for your course in one place! Access and download
PowerPoint® presentations, test banks, the solutions manual, and more.
This collection of book-specific lecture and class tools is available
online via cengage.com.
Test Bank
The test bank contains text-specific multiple-choice and free response test forms
and is available online at the Instructor Companion Site.
LarsonPrecalculus.com
In addition to its student resources, LarsonPrecalculus.com also has resources to
help instructors. If you wish to challenge your students with multi-step and group
projects, you can assign the Section Projects and Collaborative Projects. You can
assess the knowledge of your students before and after each chapter using the
pre- and post-tests. You can also give your students experience using an online
graphing calculator with the Interactive Activities. You can access these features
by going to LarsonPrecalculus.com or by scanning the on-page code .
MathGraphs.com
For exercises that ask students to draw on the graph, I have provided free,
printable graphs at MathGraphs.com. You can access these features by going to
MathGraphs.com or by scanning the on-page code at the beginning of the
section exercises, review exercises, or tests.
Student Resources
Prepare for class with confidence using WebAssign from Cengage. This online
learning platform, which includes an interactive eBook, fuels practice, so that you
truly absorb what you learn and prepare better for tests. Videos and tutorials walk
you through concepts and deliver instant feedback and grading, so you always know
where you stand in class. Focus your study time and get extra practice where you
need it most. Study smarter with WebAssign! Ask your instructor today how you can
get access to WebAssign, or learn about self-study options at cengage.com/webassign.
Student Study Guide and Solutions Manual

This guide offers step-by-step solutions for all odd-numbered text exercises,
Chapter Tests, and Cumulative Tests. It also contains Practice Tests. For more
information on how to access this digital resource, go to cengage.com
Note-Taking Guide
This is an innovative study aid, in the form of a notebook organizer, that helps
students develop a section-by-section summary of key concepts. For more
information on how to access this digital resource, go to cengage.com
Of the many features at this website, students have told me that the videos are
the most helpful. You can watch lesson videos by Dana Mosely as he explains
various mathematical concepts. Other helpful features are the data downloads
(editable spreadsheets so you do not have to enter the data), video solutions of the
Checkpoint problems in English or Spanish, and the Student Success Organizer.
The Student Success Organizer will help you organize the important concepts
of each section using chapter outlines. You can access these features by going
to LarsonPrecalculus.com or by scanning the on-page code .
CalcChat.com
This website provides free step-by-step solutions to all odd-numbered exercises
and tests. Additionally, you can chat with a tutor, at no charge, during the hours
posted at the site. You can access the solutions by going to CalcChat.com or by
scanning the on-page code on the first page of the section exercises, review
exercises, or tests.
CalcView.com
This website has video solutions of selected exercises. Watch instructors progress
step-by-step through solutions, providing guidance to help you solve the exercises.
You can access the videos by going to CalcView.com or by scanning the on-page
code on the first page of the section exercises, review exercises, or tests.
MathGraphs.com
For exercises that ask you to draw on the graph, I have provided free, printable
graphs at MathGraphs.com. You can access the printable graphs by going to
MathGraphs.com or by scanning the on-page code on the first page of
the section exercises, review exercises, or tests.
xi
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank the many people who have helped me prepare the text and the
supplements package. Their encouragement, criticisms, and suggestions have been
invaluable.
Thank you to all of the instructors who took the time to review the changes in
this edition and to provide suggestions for improving it. Without your help, this book
would not be possible.
Reviewers of the Eleventh Edition

Ivette Chuca, El Paso Community College
Russell Murray, St. Louis Community College-Meramec
My Linh Nguyen, The University of Texas at Dallas
Michael Wallace, Northern Virginia Community College
Reviewers of the Previous Editions

Gurdial Arora, Xavier University of Louisiana; Darin Bauguess, Surry Community
College; Timothy Andrew Brown, South Georgia College; Blair E. Caboot, Keystone
College; Russell C. Chappell, Twinsburg High School, Ohio; Shannon Cornell,
Amarillo College; Gayla Dance, Millsaps College; John Elias, Glenda Dawson
High School; John Fellers, North Allegheny School District; Paul Finster, El Paso
Community College; Paul A. Flasch, Pima Community College West Campus;
Vadas Gintautas, Chatham University; Lorraine A. Hughes, Mississippi State
University; Shu-Jen Huang, University of Florida; Renyetta Johnson, East Mississippi
Community College; George Keihany, Fort Valley State University; Brianna Kurtz,
Daytona State College; Mulatu Lemma, Savannah State University; Darlene Martin,
Lawson State Community College; William Mays Jr., Salem Community College;
Marcella Melby, University of Minnesota; Jonathan Prewett, University of Wyoming;
Denise Reid, Valdosta State University; Professor Steven Sikes, Collin College;
Ann Slate, Surry Community College; David L. Sonnier, Lyon College; David H.
Tseng, Miami Dade College—Kendall Campus; Kimberly Walters, Mississippi
State University; Richard Weil, Brown College; Solomon Willis, Cleveland
Community College; Kathy Wood, Lansing Catholic High School;
Bradley R. Young, Darton College
My thanks to Robert Hostetler, The Behrend College, The Pennsylvania State

University, David Heyd, The Behrend College, The Pennsylvania State University,
and David C. Falvo, The Behrend College, The Pennsylvania State University, for
their significant contributions to previous editions of this text.
I would also like to thank the staff at Larson Texts, Inc. who assisted with
proofreading the manuscript, preparing and proofreading the art package, checking
and typesetting the supplements, and developing the websites LarsonPrecalculus.com,
CalcView.com, CalcChat.com, and MathGraphs.com.
On a personal level, I am grateful to my spouse, Deanna Gilbert Larson, for her
love, patience, and support. Also, a special thanks goes to R. Scott O’Neil. If you
have suggestions for improving this text, please feel free to write to me. Over the
past two decades, I have received many useful comments from both instructors and
students, and I value these comments very highly.
Ron Larson, Ph.D.

Professor of Mathematics
Penn State University
www.RonLarson.com
xii
P P.1
Prerequisites
Review of Real Numbers and Their Properties
GO DIGITAL
P.2 Exponents and Radicals

P.3 Polynomials and Special Products
P.4 Factoring Polynomials
P.5 Rational Expressions
P.6 The Rectangular Coordinate System and Graphs
Chapter P Section 6 Exercise 39
PREV. 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 NEXT
P.1 Federal Deficit (Exercises 47–50, p. 13) P.6 Flying Distance (Exercise 44, p. 58)
1
left, © Gary718/Shutterstock.com; right, © Song_about_summer/Shutterstock.com
2 Chapter P Prerequisites
P.1 Review of Real Numbers and Their Properties

Represent and classify real numbers.
Order real numbers and use inequalities.
Find the absolute values of real numbers and find the distance
between two real numbers.
Evaluate algebraic expressions.
Use the basic rules and properties of algebra.
Real Numbers
Real numbers can describe quantities in everyday life such as age, miles per gallon,
and population. Real numbers are represented by symbols such as
Real numbers can represent
4
many real-life quantities. For −5, 9, 0, , 0.666 . . . , 28.21, √2, π, and √ 3 −32.
example, in Exercises 47–50 3

on page 13, you will use real Three commonly used subsets of real numbers are listed below. Each member in these
numbers to represent the subsets is also a member of the set of real numbers. (The three dots, called an ellipsis,
federal surplus or deficit. indicate that the pattern continues indefinitely.)
{ 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . } Set of natural numbers
{ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . } Set of whole numbers
{ . . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . } Set of integers
A real number is rational when it can be written as the ratio pq of two integers,
where q ≠ 0. For example, the numbers
1 1 125
= 0.3333 . . . = 0.3, = 0.125, and = 1.126126 . . . = 1.126
3 8 111
Real
are rational. The decimal form of a rational number either repeats (as in 55 = 3.145 )
173
numbers
or terminates (as in 2 = 0.5). A real number that cannot be written as the ratio of two
1
integers is irrational. The decimal form of an irrational number neither terminates nor
Irrational Rational repeats. For example, the numbers
numbers numbers
√2 = 1.4142135 . . . ≈ 1.41 and π = 3.1415926 . . . ≈ 3.14
are irrational. (The symbol ≈ means “is approximately equal to.”)
Integers Noninteger Several common subsets of the real numbers and their relationships to each other
fractions
(positive and
are shown in Figure P.1.
negative)
EXAMPLE 1 Classifying Real Numbers
Negative Whole
Determine which numbers in the set { −13, − √5, −1, − 3, 0, 8, √2, π, 7} are
1 5
integers numbers
(a) natural numbers, (b) whole numbers, (c) integers, (d) rational numbers, and
(e) irrational numbers.
Natural Zero Solution
numbers
a. Natural numbers: { 7 } b. Whole numbers: { 0, 7 }
Common subsets of the real numbers c. Integers: { −13, −1, 0, 7 } d. Rational numbers: { −13, −1, − 13, 0, 58, 7}
e. Irrational numbers: { − √5, √2, π}
Figure P.1
Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com
Repeat Example 1 for the set { −π, − 14, 63, 12√2, −7.5, −1, 8, −22}.
Scan the to access digital content available for this page.

GO DIGITAL
© Gary718/Shutterstock.com
Real numbers are represented graphically on the real number line. When you draw
a point on the real number line that corresponds to a real number, you are plotting the
real number. The point representing 0 on the real number line is the origin. Numbers
to the right of 0 are positive, and numbers to the left of 0 are negative, as shown in
Figure P.2. The term nonnegative describes a number that is either positive or zero.
Origin
Negative Positive
direction −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 direction
The real number line
Figure P.2
As illustrated in Figure P.3, there is a one-to-one correspondence between real numbers

and points on the real number line.
− 53
0.75 π − 2.4 2
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
Every real number corresponds to exactly Every point on the real number line
one point on the real number line. corresponds to exactly one real number.
Figure P.3
EXAMPLE 2 Plotting Points on the Real Number Line

Plot the real numbers on the real number line.
7 2
a. − b. 2.3 c. d. −1.8
4 3
Solution The figure below shows all four points.
− 1.8 − 74 2
3
2.3
−2 −1 0 1 2 3
a. The point representing the real number

7
− = −1.75 Write in decimal form.
4
lies between −2 and −1, but closer to −2, on the real number line.
b. The point representing the real number 2.3 lies between 2 and 3, but closer to 2, on
the real number line.
c. The point representing the real number
2
= 0.666 . . . Write in decimal form.
3
lies between 0 and 1, but closer to 1, on the real number line.
d. The point representing the real number −1.8 lies between −2 and −1, but closer to
−2, on the real number line. Note that the point representing −1.8 lies slightly to
the left of the point representing − 74.
Plot the real numbers on the real number line.

5 3
GO DIGITAL
a. b. −1.6 c. − d. 0.7
2 4
Ordering Real Numbers

One important property of real numbers is that they are ordered. If a and b are real
numbers, then a is less than b when b − a is positive. The inequality a < b denotes
the order of a and b. This relationship can also be described by saying that b is greater
a b than a and writing b > a. The inequality a ≤ b means that a is less than or equal to b,
−1 0 1 2 and the inequality b ≥ a means that b is greater than or equal to a. The symbols <, >,
a < b if and only if a lies to the left ≤, and ≥ are inequality symbols.
of b. Geometrically, this implies that a < b if and only if a lies to the left of b on the
Figure P.4 real number line, as shown in Figure P.4.
EXAMPLE 3 Ordering Real Numbers

Place the appropriate inequality symbol (< or >) between the pair of real numbers.
−4 −3 −2 −1 0
(a)
a. −3, 0 b. −2, −4 c. 14, 13
Solution
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 a. On the real number line, −3 lies to the left of 0, as shown in Figure P.5(a). So, you
(b) can say that −3 is less than 0, and write −3 < 0.
b. On the real number line, −2 lies to the right of −4, as shown in Figure P.5(b). So,
1 1
4 3
you can say that −2 is greater than −4, and write −2 > −4.
0 1 c. On the real number line, 14 lies to the left of 13, as shown in Figure P.5(c). So, you can
say that 14 is less than 13, and write 14 < 13.
(c)
Figure P.5 Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com
Place the appropriate inequality symbol (< or >) between the pair of real numbers.
a. 1, −5 b. 32, 7 c. − 23, − 34
EXAMPLE 4 Interpreting Inequalities

See LarsonPrecalculus.com for an interactive version of this type of example.
Describe the subset of real numbers that the inequality represents.
x≤2
x a. x ≤ 2 b. −2 ≤ x < 3
0 1 2 3 4
Solution
(a)
a. The inequality x ≤ 2 denotes all real numbers less than or equal to 2, as shown in
−2 ≤ x < 3 Figure P.6(a). In the figure, the bracket at 2 indicates 2 is included in the interval.
x b. The inequality −2 ≤ x < 3 means that x ≥ −2 and x < 3. This “double inequality”
−2 −1 0 1 2 3 denotes all real numbers between −2 and 3, including −2 but not including 3, as
(b) shown in Figure P.6(b). In the figure, the bracket at −2 indicates −2 is included in
Figure P.6 the interval, and the parenthesis at 3 indicates that 3 is not included in the interval.
Describe the subset of real numbers that the inequality represents.

a. x > −3 b. 0 < x ≤ 4
Inequalities can describe subsets of real numbers called intervals. In the bounded
intervals on the next page, the real numbers a and b are the endpoints of each interval.
The endpoints of a closed interval are included in the interval, whereas the endpoints
of an open interval are not included in the interval.
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Bounded Intervals on the Real Number Line
Let a and b be real numbers such that a < b.

Notation Interval Type Inequality Graph
[a, b] Closed a ≤ x ≤ b x
a b
(a, b) Open a < x < b x

a b
[a, b) a ≤ x < b x
a b
(a, b] a < x ≤ b x
a b
The reason that the four types of intervals above are called bounded is that each
has a finite length. An interval that does not have a finite length is unbounded. Note
in the unbounded intervals below that the symbols ∞, positive infinity, and − ∞,
negative infinity, do not represent real numbers. They are convenient symbols used to
describe the unboundedness of intervals such as (1, ∞) or (− ∞, 3].
Unbounded Intervals on the Real Number Line

ALGEBRA HELP
Let a and b be real numbers.
Whenever you write an interval
containing ∞ or − ∞, always Notation Interval Type Inequality Graph
use a parenthesis and never a [a, ∞) x ≥ a x
a
bracket next to these symbols.
This is because ∞ and − ∞ are (a, ∞) Open x > a x
never included in the interval. a
(− ∞, b] x ≤ b x
b
(− ∞, b) Open x < b x
b
(− ∞, ∞) Entire real line −∞ < x < ∞ x
GO DIGITAL
EXAMPLE 5 Representing Intervals
x Verbal Algebraic Graphical
−2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
a. All real numbers greater than (−1, 3) or −1 < x < 3 See Figure P.7(a).
(a) −1 and less than 3
b. All real numbers greater than [2, ∞) or x ≥ 2 See Figure P.7(b).
x
−1 0 1 2 3 4 5
or equal to 2
(b) c. All real numbers less than or (− ∞, 2] or x ≤ 2 See Figure P.7(c).
equal to 2
x
d. All real numbers greater than (−3, 5] or −3 < x ≤ 5 See Figure P.7(d).
−1 0 1 2 3 4 5
−3 and less than or equal to 5
(c)
x
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 a. Represent the interval [−2, 5) verbally, as an inequality, and as a graph.
(d) b. Represent the statement “x is less than 4 and at least −2” as an interval, an
Figure P.7 inequality, and a graph.
Absolute Value and Distance

The absolute value of a real number is its magnitude, or the distance between the origin
and the point representing the real number on the real number line.
Definition of Absolute Value
If a is a real number, then the absolute value of a is
∣a∣ = {−a,
a, a ≥ 0
.
a < 0
5 Notice in this definition that the absolute value of a real number is never negative.
x ∣ ∣
For example, if a = −5, then −5 = − (−5) = 5, as shown in Figure P.8. The
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 absolute value of a real number is either positive or zero. Moreover, 0 is the only real
Absolute value as the distance from the
number whose absolute value is 0. So, 0 = 0. ∣∣
origin
Figure P.8 Properties of Absolute Values
∣∣
1. a ≥ 0 ∣ ∣ ∣∣
2. −a = a
∣ ∣ ∣ ∣∣ ∣
3. ab = a b 4.
∣∣
a
b
=
∣a∣, b ≠ 0
∣b∣
EXAMPLE 6 Finding Absolute Values
∣ ∣
a. −15 = 15 b.
3
=
3 ∣∣
2 2
c. ∣−4.3∣ = 4.3 d. − ∣−6∣ = − (6) = −6

Evaluate each expression.
∣∣
a. 1 b. −
∣∣3
4
c.
2
−3
d. − 0.7
∣ ∣ ∣ ∣
EXAMPLE 7 Evaluating an Absolute Value Expression
Evaluate
∣x∣ for (a) x > 0 and (b) x < 0.
x
Solution
∣x∣ = x = 1.
a. If x > 0, then x is positive and x = x. So, ∣∣ x x
∣x∣ = −x = −1.
b. If x < 0, then x is negative and x = −x. So, ∣∣ x x
Evaluate
∣x + 3∣ for (a) x > −3 and (b) x < −3.
x+3
GO DIGITAL
The Law of Trichotomy states that for any two real numbers a and b, precisely
one of three relationships is possible:
a = b, a < b, or a > b. Law of Trichotomy
In words, this property tells you that if a and b are any two real numbers, then a is equal
to b, a is less than b, or a is greater than b.
EXAMPLE 8 Comparing Real Numbers

Place the appropriate symbol (<, >, or =) between the pair of real numbers.
a. −4 ∣ ∣■∣3∣ b. ∣−10∣■∣10∣ c. − ∣−7∣■∣−7∣
Solution
∣ ∣ ∣∣ ∣ ∣ ∣∣
a. −4 > 3 because −4 = 4 and 3 = 3, and 4 is greater than 3.
∣ ∣ ∣ ∣
b. −10 = 10 because −10 = 10 and 10 = 10. ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣
∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ ∣
c. − −7 < −7 because − −7 = −7 and −7 = 7, and −7 is less than 7.
Place the appropriate symbol (<, >, or =) between the pair of real numbers.
a. −3 ∣ ∣■∣4∣ b. − ∣−4∣■− ∣4∣ c. ∣−3∣■− ∣−3∣
Absolute value can be used to find the distance between two points on the real
7 number line. For example, the distance between −3 and 4 is
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
∣−3 − 4∣ = ∣−7∣
=7 Distance between −3 and 4
The distance between −3 and 4 is 7.
Figure P.9 as shown in Figure P.9.
Distance Between Two Points on the Real Number Line
Let a and b be real numbers. The distance between a and b is
∣
d(a, b) = b − a = a − b . ∣ ∣ ∣
EXAMPLE 9 Finding a Distance

Find the distance between −25 and 13.
Solution
The distance between −25 and 13 is
∣−25 − 13∣ = ∣−38∣ = 38. Distance between −25 and 13
One application of finding the The distance can also be found as follows.
distance between two points on
the real number line is finding a ∣13 − (−25)∣ = ∣38∣ = 38 Distance between −25 and 13
change in temperature.
Find the distance between each pair of real numbers.

a. 35 and −23 b. −35 and −23 c. 35 and 23
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© Alexander Uhrin/Shutterstock.com
Algebraic Expressions
One characteristic of algebra is the use of letters to represent numbers. The letters are
variables, and combinations of letters and numbers are algebraic expressions. Here
are a few examples of algebraic expressions.
4
5x, 2x − 3, , 7x + y
x2 + 2
Definition of an Algebraic Expression
An algebraic expression is a collection of letters (variables) and real

numbers (constants) combined using the operations of addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, and exponentiation.
The terms of an algebraic expression are those parts that are separated by addition.
For example, x 2 − 5x + 8 = x 2 + (−5x) + 8 has three terms: x 2 and −5x are the
variable terms and 8 is the constant term. For terms such as x2, −5x, and 8, the
numerical factor is the coefficient. Here, the coefficients are 1, −5, and 8.
EXAMPLE 10 Identifying Terms and Coefficients

Algebraic Expression Terms Coefficients
1 1 1
a. 5x − 5x, − 5, −
7 7 7
b. 2x2 − 6x + 9 2x2, −6x, 9 2, −6, 9
3 1 4 3 1 4 1
c. + x −y , x , −y 3, , −1
x 2 x 2 2
Identify the terms and coefficients of −2x + 4.
The Substitution Principle states, “If a = b, then b can replace a in any

expression involving a.” Use the Substitution Principle to evaluate an algebraic
expression by substituting values for each of the variables in the expression. The next
example illustrates this.
EXAMPLE 11 Evaluating Algebraic Expressions

Value of Value of
Expression Variable Substitution Expression
a. −3x + 5 x=3 −3(3) + 5 −9 + 5 = −4
b. 3x 2 + 2x − 1 x = −1 3(−1)2 + 2(−1) − 1 3−2−1=0
2x 2(−3) −6
c. x = −3 =3
x+1 −3 + 1 −2
Note that you must substitute the value for each occurrence of the variable.
Evaluate 4x − 5 when x = 0.
GO DIGITAL
Basic Rules of Algebra

There are four arithmetic operations with real numbers: addition, multiplication,
subtraction, and division, denoted by the symbols +, × or ∙ , −, and ÷ or ,
respectively. Of these, addition and multiplication are the two primary operations.
Subtraction and division are the inverse operations of addition and multiplication,
respectively.
Definitions of Subtraction and Division
Subtraction: Add the opposite. Division: Multiply by the reciprocal.
(b) = b .
1 a
a − b = a + (−b) If b ≠ 0, then ab = a
In these definitions, −b is the additive inverse (or opposite) of b, and 1b is the
multiplicative inverse (or reciprocal) of b. In the fractional form ab, a is the
numerator of the fraction and b is the denominator.
The properties of real numbers below are true for variables and algebraic
expressions as well as for real numbers, so they are often called the Basic Rules of
Algebra. Formulate a verbal description of each of these properties. For example, the
first property states that the order in which two real numbers are added does not affect
their sum.
Basic Rules of Algebra
Let a, b, and c be real numbers, variables, or algebraic expressions.

Property Example
Commutative Property of Addition: a+b=b+a 4x + x 2 = x 2 + 4x
Commutative Property of Multiplication: ab = ba (4 − x) x 2 = x 2(4 − x)
Associative Property of Addition: (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) (x + 5) + x 2 = x + (5 + x 2)
Associative Property of Multiplication: (ab) c = a(bc) (2x ∙ 3y)(8) = (2x)(3y ∙ 8)
Distributive Properties: a(b + c) = ab + ac 3x(5 + 2x) = 3x ∙ 5 + 3x ∙ 2x
(a + b)c = ac + bc ( y + 8) y = y ∙ y + 8 ∙ y
Additive Identity Property: a+0=a 5y 2 + 0 = 5y 2
Multiplicative Identity Property: a∙1=a (4x 2)(1) = 4x 2
Additive Inverse Property: a + (−a) = 0 5x 3 + (−5x 3) = 0
( )
1 1
Multiplicative Inverse Property: a ∙ = 1, a ≠ 0 (x 2 + 4) 2 =1
a x +4
Subtraction is defined as “adding the opposite,” so the Distributive Properties are

also true for subtraction. For example, the “subtraction form” of a(b + c) = ab + ac
is a(b − c) = ab − ac. Note that the operations of subtraction and division are neither
commutative nor associative. The examples
7 − 3 ≠ 3 − 7 and 20 ÷ 4 ≠ 4 ÷ 20
show that subtraction and division are not commutative. Similarly
5 − (3 − 2) ≠ (5 − 3) − 2 and 16 ÷ (4 ÷ 2) ≠ (16 ÷ 4) ÷ 2
demonstrate that subtraction and division are not associative.
GO DIGITAL
EXAMPLE 12 Identifying Rules of Algebra

Identify the rule of algebra illustrated by the statement.
a. (5x 3)2 = 2(5x 3) b. (4x + 3) − (4x + 3) = 0
1
c. 7x ∙ = 1, x ≠ 0 d. (2 + 5x 2) + x 2 = 2 + (5x 2 + x 2)
7x
Solution
a. This statement illustrates the Commutative Property of Multiplication. In other
words, you obtain the same result whether you multiply 5x3 by 2, or 2 by 5x3.
b. This statement illustrates the Additive Inverse Property. In terms of subtraction, this
property states that when any expression is subtracted from itself, the result is 0.
c. This statement illustrates the Multiplicative Inverse Property. Note that x must be a
nonzero number. The reciprocal of x is undefined when x is 0.
d. This statement illustrates the Associative Property of Addition. In other words, to
form the sum 2 + 5x2 + x2, it does not matter whether 2 and 5x2, or 5x2 and x2 are
added first.
Identify the rule of algebra illustrated by the statement.
ALGEBRA HELP a. x + 9 = 9 + x b. 5(x3 ∙ 2) = (5x3)2 c. (2 + 5x2)y2 = 2 ∙ y2 + 5x2 ∙ y2

Notice the difference between
the opposite of a number and a
negative number. If a is already Properties of Negation and Equality
negative, then its opposite, −a,
is positive. For example, if Let a, b, and c be real numbers, variables, or algebraic expressions.
a = −5, then Property Example
−a = −(−5) = 5. 1. (−1) a = −a (−1)7 = −7
2. − (−a) = a − (−6) = 6
3. (−a)b = − (ab) = a(−b) (−5)3 = − (5 ∙ 3) = 5(−3)
4. (−a)(−b) = ab (−2)(−x) = 2x
5. − (a + b) = (−a) + (−b) − (x + 8) = (−x) + (−8)
= −x − 8
1
6. If a = b, then a ± c = b ± c. 2 + 3 = 0.5 + 3
7. If a = b, then ac = bc. 42 ∙ 2 = 16 ∙ 2
GO DIGITAL 8. If a ± c = b ± c, then a = b. 1.4 − 1 = 75 − 1 1.4 = 75
9. If ac = bc and c ≠ 0, then a = b. 3x = 3 ∙ 4 x=4
ALGEBRA HELP
The “or” in the Zero-Factor Properties of Zero
Property includes the possibility
that either or both factors may Let a and b be real numbers, variables, or algebraic expressions.
be zero. This is an inclusive 1. a + 0 = a and a − 0 = a 2. a ∙ 0 = 0
or, and it is generally the
way the word “or” is used in 0 a
3. = 0, a ≠ 0 4. is undefined.
mathematics. a 0
5. Zero-Factor Property: If ab = 0, then a = 0 or b = 0.
Properties and Operations of Fractions
Let a, b, c, and d be real numbers, variables, or algebraic expressions such that

b ≠ 0 and d ≠ 0.
a c
1. Equivalent Fractions: = if and only if ad = bc.
b d
ALGEBRA HELP a −a a −a a
In Property 1, the phrase 2. Rules of Signs: − = = and =
b b −b −b b
“if and only if” implies two
statements. One statement is: a ac
3. Generate Equivalent Fractions: = , c ≠ 0
If ab = cd, then ad = bc. b bc
The other statement is: If a c a±c
4. Add or Subtract with Like Denominators: ± =
ad = bc, where b ≠ 0 and b b b
d ≠ 0, then ab = cd. a c ad ± bc
5. Add or Subtract with Unlike Denominators: ± =
b d bd
a c ac
6. Multiply Fractions: ∙ =
b d bd
a c a d ad
7. Divide Fractions: ÷ = ∙ = , c ≠ 0
b d b c bc
EXAMPLE 13 Properties and Operations of Fractions

x 3 ∙ x 3x 7 3 7 2 14
a. = = Property 3 b. ÷ = ∙ = Property 7
5 3 ∙ 5 15 x 2 x 3 3x
3 x x 2x
a. Multiply fractions:
5
∙ 6 b. Add fractions:
10
+
5
If a, b, and c are integers such that ab = c, then a and b are factors or divisors of c.
A prime number is an integer that has exactly two positive factors—itself and 1—such
as 2, 3, 5, 7, and 11. The numbers 4, 6, 8, 9, and 10 are composite because each can be
written as the product of two or more prime numbers. The number 1 is neither prime
nor composite. The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic states that every positive
integer greater than 1 is prime or can be written as the product of prime numbers in
precisely one way (disregarding order). For example, the prime factorization of 24 is
24 = 2 ∙ 2 ∙ 2 ∙ 3.
Summarize (Section P.1)

1. Explain how to represent and classify real numbers (pages 2 and 3). For
examples of representing and classifying real numbers, see Examples 1 and 2.
2. Explain how to order real numbers and use inequalities (pages 4 and 5). For
examples of ordering real numbers and using inequalities, see Examples 3–5.
3. State the definition of the absolute value of a real number (page 6). For
examples of using absolute value, see Examples 6–9.
4. Explain how to evaluate an algebraic expression (page 8). For examples
involving algebraic expressions, see Examples 10 and 11.
5. State the basic rules and properties of algebra (pages 9–11). For examples
involving the basic rules and properties of algebra, see Examples 12 and 13.
GO DIGITAL
P.1 Exercises See CalcChat.com for tutorial help and worked-out solutions
to odd-numbered exercises.
GO DIGITAL
Vocabulary and Concept Check

In Exercises 1–4, fill in the blanks.
1. The decimal form of an ________ number neither terminates nor repeats.
2. The point representing 0 on the real number line is the ________.
3. The ________ of an algebraic expression are those parts that are separated by addition.
4. The ________ ________ states that if ab = 0, then a = 0 or b = 0.
∣ ∣
5. Is 3 − 10 equal to 10 − 3 ? Explain. ∣ ∣
6. Match each property with its name.
(a) Commutative Property of Addition (i) a ∙ 1 = a
(b) Additive Inverse Property (ii) a(b + c) = ab + ac
(c) Distributive Property (iii) a + b = b + a
(d) Associative Property of Addition (iv) a + (−a) = 0
(e) Multiplicative Identity Property (v) (a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
Skills and Applications

C lassifying Real Numbers In Exercises Representing an Interval In Exercises 25–28,
7–10, determine which numbers in the set represent the statement as an interval, an inequality,
are (a) natural numbers, (b) whole numbers, and a graph.
(c) integers, (d) rational numbers, and (e) irrational
25. y is nonpositive.
numbers.
26. y is no more than 25.
7. { −9, − 72, 5, 23, √3, 0, 8, −4, 2, −11}
27. t is at least 10 and at most 22.
8. { √5, −7, − 73, 0, 3.14, 54 , −3, 12, 5}
28. k is less than 5 but no less than −3.
9. { 2.01, 0.6, −13, 0.010110111 . . . , 1, −6 }
10. { 25, −17, − 12 5 , √9, 3.12, 2 π, 18, −11.1, 13}
Evaluating an Absolute Value Expression In
1
Exercises 29–38, evaluate the expression.

Plotting and Ordering Real Numbers
In Exercises 11–16, plot the two real numbers on the
29. ∣−10∣ 30. ∣0∣
real number line. Then place the appropriate inequality 31. ∣3 − 8∣ 32. ∣6 − 2∣
symbol ( < or > ) between them. 33. ∣−1∣ − ∣−2∣ 34. −3 − ∣−3∣
11. −4, −8 12. 1, 16 35. 5∣−5∣ 36. −4∣−4∣
3
13. 56, 23 14. − 87, − 37
37.
∣x + 2∣, x < −2 38.
∣x − 1∣, x > 1
15. −5.2, −8.5 16. − 43, −4.75 x+2 x−1
Interpreting an Inequality In Exercises 17–20, Comparing Real Numbers In Exercises 39–42, place
describe the subset of real numbers that the inequality the appropriate symbol ( <, >, or =) between the pair
represents. of real numbers.
17. x ≤ 5 18. x < 0 39. −4 ■ 4

∣ ∣ ∣∣ 40. −5■− 5 ∣∣
19. −2 < x < 2 20. 0 < x ≤ 6 41. − −6 ■ −6
∣ ∣ ∣ ∣ 42. − −2 ■− 2∣ ∣ ∣∣
Representing an Interval In Exercises 21–24, Finding a Distance In Exercises 43– 46, find the
represent the interval verbally, as an inequality, and as distance between a and b.
a graph. 43. a = 126, b = 75 44. a = −20, b = 30
21. [4, ∞) 22. (− ∞, 2) 45. a = − 52, b = 0
23. [−5, 2) 24. (−1, 2] 46. a = − 14, b = − 11
4
A blue exercise number indicates that a video solution can be seen at CalcView.com.
Federal Deficit Exploring the Concepts

In Exercises 47–50, use the bar graph, which shows True or False? In Exercises 61 and 62, determine
the receipts of the federal government (in billions whether the statement is true or false. Justify your answer.
of dollars) for selected years from 2012 through
2018. In each exercise, 61. Every nonnegative number is positive.
you are given the 62. If a < 0 and b < 0, then ab > 0.
expenditures of the
federal government. 63. Error Analysis Describe the error.
Find the magnitude
of the surplus or
5(2x + 3) = 5 ∙ 2x + 3 = 10x + 3 ✗
deficit for the year.
(Source: U.S. Office
of Management and 64. OW DO YOU SEE IT? Match each
H
Budget) description with its graph. Explain.
(i)
3600 1.87 1.88 1.89 1.90 1.91 1.92 1.93
(in billions of dollars)
3400 3329.9
3268.0
3200 (ii)
Receipts
3021.5 1.87 1.88 1.89 1.90 1.91 1.92 1.93

3000
2800 (a) The price of an item is within $0.03 of $1.90.
2600
2450.0
(b) The distance between the prongs of
2400 an electric plug may not differ from
1.9 centimeters by more than 0.03 centimeter.
2012 2014 2016 2018
Year
65. Conjecture Make a conjecture about the value of the
Year Receipts, R Expenditures, E ∣R − E∣ expression 5n as n approaches 0. Explain.
47. 2012 ■ $3526.6 billion ■ 66. Conjecture Make a conjecture about the value of the
48. 2014 ■ $3506.3 billion ■ expression 5n as n increases without bound. Explain.
49. 2016 ■ $3852.6 billion ■
Video solutions at
50. 2018 ■ $4109.0 billion ■ Review & Refresh
Finding Greatest Common Factor and Least
Identifying Terms and Coefficients In Exercises Common Multiple In Exercises 67–70, find
51–54, identify the terms. Then identify the coefficients (a) the greatest common factor and (b) the least common
of the variable terms of the expression. multiple of the numbers.
51. 7x + 4 52. 6x 3 − 5x 67. 6, 8 68. 10, 25
53. 4x + 0.5x − 5
3
69. 27, 36, 54 70. 49, 98, 112
54. 3√3x 2 + 1
Evaluating an Expression In Exercises 71–74,
Evaluating an Algebraic Expression In Exercises evaluate the expression.
55 and 56, evaluate the expression for each value of x.
(If not possible, state the reason.) 71. − (3 ∙ 3) 72. (−3)(−3)
(−5)(−5) − (5 ∙ 5)
55. x2 − 3x + 2 (a) x = 0 (b) x = −1 73. 74.
−5 (−5)(−5)(−5)
x−2
56. (a) x = 2 (b) x = −2
x+2 Finding a Prime Factorization In Exercises 75–78,
find the prime factorization of the number.
Operations with Fractions In Exercises 57– 60,
perform the operation. (Write fractional answers in 75. 48 76. 250
simplest form.) 77. 792 78. 4802
2x x 3x x
57. − 58. + Evaluating an Expression In Exercises 79–82,
3 4 4 5
evaluate the expression.
3x 5 2x 6
59.
10
∙6 60.
3
÷
7
79. 3.785(10,000) 80. 1.42(1,000,000)
81. 6.091000 82. 8.603100,000
© Gary718/Shutterstock.com
P.2 Exponents and Radicals

Use properties of exponents.
Use scientific notation to represent real numbers.
Use properties of radicals.
Simplify and combine radical expressions.
Use properties of rational exponents.
Integer Exponents and Their Properties

Repeated multiplication can be written in exponential form.
Repeated Multiplication Exponential Form
a∙a∙a∙a∙a a5
(−4)(−4)(−4) (−4)3
(2x)(2x)(2x)(2x) (2x)4
Real numbers and algebraic
expressions are often written
with exponents and radicals. Exponential Notation
For example, in Exercises 85
and 86 on page 25, you will use If a is a real number and n is a positive integer, then
an expression involving rational
exponents to find the times an = a ∙ a ∙ a . . . a
required for a funnel to empty
n factors
for different water heights.
where n is the exponent and a is the base. You read an as “a to the nth power.”
An exponent can also be negative or zero. Properties 3 and 4 below show how to
use negative and zero exponents.
Properties of Exponents
Let a and b be real numbers, variables, or algebraic expressions, and let m and n
be integers. (All denominators and bases are nonzero.)
Property Example
1. a ma n = a m+n 32 ∙ 34 = 32+4 = 36 = 729
am x7
2. = am−n = x7− 4 = x 3
an x4
() ()
1 1 n 1 1 4
3. a−n = = y−4 = =
an a y4 y
4. a0 = 1 (x 2 + 1)0 = 1
5. (ab)m = am bm (5x)3 = 53x3 = 125x3
1
6. (am)n = amn ( y3)−4 = y3(−4) = y−12 =
y12
(b) (x)
a m am 2 3 23 8
7. = = 3
= 3
bm x x
∣ ∣ ∣∣
8. a2 = a 2 = a2 ∣(−2)2∣ = ∣−2∣2 = 22 = 4 = (−2)2
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© iStockPhoto.com/micropic
The properties of exponents listed on the preceding page apply to all integers
m and n, not just to positive integers. For instance, by Property 2, you can write
24
= 24− (−5) = 24+5 = 29.
2−5
Note how the properties of exponents are used in Examples 1–4.
EXAMPLE 1 Evaluating Exponential Expressions

(2)
44 7 2
a. (−5)2 b. −52 c. 2 ∙ 24 d. e.
46
Solution
a. (−5)2 = (−5)(−5) = 25 Negative sign is part of the base.
ALGEBRA HELP b. −52 = − (5)(5) = −25 Negative sign is not part of the base.
It is important to recognize the
difference between expressions c. 2 ∙ 2 4 = 21+4 = 25 = 32 Property 1
such as (−5)2 and −52. In 44 1 1

(−5)2, the parentheses tell d. = 44−6 = 4−2 = 2 = Properties 2 and 3
46 4 16
you that the exponent applies
(2)
to the negative sign as well as 7 2 72 49
e. = = Property 7
to the 5, but in −52 = − (52), 22 4
the exponent applies only to
the 5. So, (−5)2 = 25 whereas Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com
−52 = −25.
a. −34 b. (−3)4
35
c. 32 ∙ 3 d. 38
TECHNOLOGY EXAMPLE 2 Evaluating Algebraic Expressions

Be sure you know how to use
parentheses when evaluating Evaluate each algebraic expression when x = 3.
exponential expressions using
1
a graphing utility. The figure a. 5x−2 b. (−x)3
3
below shows that a graphing
utility follows the order of Solution
operations, so (−5)2 = 25.
a. When x = 3, the expression 5x−2 has a value of
Without the parentheses,
the result is −25. 5 5
5x−2 = 5(3)−2 = 2 = .
3 9
(-5)2
25 1
-52 b. When x = 3, the expression (−x)3 has a value of
-25 3
1 1 1
(−x)3 = (−3)3 = (−27) = −9.
3 3 3
Evaluate each algebraic expression when x = 4.

1
a. −x−2 b. (−x)4
4
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EXAMPLE 3 Using Properties of Exponents

Use the properties of exponents to simplify each expression.
(5xy )
3 2
a. (−3ab4)(4ab−3) b. (2xy2)3 c. 3a(−4a2)0 d.
Solution
a. (−3ab4)(4ab−3) = (−3)(4)(a)(a)(b4)(b−3) = −12a 2b
b. (2xy 2)3 = 23(x)3( y 2)3 = 8x3y6
c. 3a(−4a 2)0 = 3a(1) = 3a
52(x 3)2 25x 6
(y)
5x 3 2
d. = = 2
y2 y

ALGEBRA HELP
Rarely in algebra is there only Use the properties of exponents to simplify each expression.
one way to solve a problem.
( )
3x4 2
Do not be concerned when a. (2x−2y3)(−x 4y) b. (4a2b3)0 c. (−5z)3(z2) d.
x2y2
the steps you use to solve a
problem are not exactly the
same as the steps presented in EXAMPLE 4 Rewriting with Positive Exponents
this text. It is important to use
steps that you understand and, 1
a. x−1 = Property 3
of course, steps that are justified x
by the rules of algebra. For 1 1(x 2)
example, the fractional form b. = Property 3 (The exponent −2 does not apply to 3.)
3x−2 3
of Property 3 is
x2
=
()
−m
().
m
a b Simplify.
= 3
b a
12a3b−4 12a3 ∙ a2
So, you might prefer the steps c. = Property 3
4a−2b 4b ∙ b4
below for Example 4(d).
3a5
( ) ( )
3x 2 −2 y 2 y2 = Property 1
= = 4 b5
y 3x 2 9x
3−2(x 2)−2
( )
−2
3x 2
d. = Properties 5 and 7
y y−2
3−2x−4
= Property 6
y−2
y2
= Property 3
32x 4
y2
= Simplify.
9x 4
Rewrite each expression with positive exponents. Simplify, if possible.

3a−3 b4
a. 2a−2 b.
15ab−1
( ) x −1
c. d. (−2x2)3(4x3)−1
10
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TECHNOLOGY Scientific Notation

Most graphing utilities Exponents provide an efficient way of writing and computing with very large (or very
automatically switch to small) numbers. For example, there are about 366 billion billion gallons of water on
scientific notation when Earth—that is, 366 followed by 18 zeros.
showing large (or small)
numbers that exceed the 366,000,000,000,000,000,000 Decimal form
display range, as shown It is convenient to write such numbers in scientific notation. This notation has the form
below. Note that the figure ±c × 10n, where 1 ≤ c < 10 and n is an integer. So, the number of gallons of water
uses 3.66E20 to represent on Earth, written in scientific notation, is
3.66 × 1020 and 9.1E−28
to represent 9.1 × 10−28. 3.66 × 100,000,000,000,000,000,000 = 3.66 × 1020.
The positive exponent 20 tells you that the number is large (10 or greater) and that the
366000000000000
3.66E20
decimal point has been moved 20 places. A negative exponent tells you that the number
0.0000000000000 is small (less than 1). For example, the mass (in grams) of one electron is approximately
9.1E-28
9.1 × 10−28 = 0.00000000000000000000000000091.
28 decimal places
EXAMPLE 5 Scientific Notation

a. 0.0000782 = 7.82 × 10−5 Small number negative exponent
b. 836,100,000 = 8.361 × 108 Large number positive exponent
Write 45,850 in scientific notation.
EXAMPLE 6 Decimal Form

a. −9.36 × 10−6 = −0.00000936 Negative exponent small number
b. 1.345 × 102 = 134.5 Positive exponent large number

TECHNOLOGY
The figure below shows Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com
two ways to enter numbers
in scientific notation on a Write −2.718 × 10−3 in decimal form.
graphing utility.
(2.4*109)(4.5*10-6)
EXAMPLE 7 Using Scientific Notation
(3.0*10-5)(1.5*103)
240000 (2,400,000,000)(0.0000045)
Evaluate .
(2.4E9)(4.5E-6)
(3.0E-5)(1.5E3)
(0.00003)(1500)
240000
Solution Begin by rewriting each number in scientific notation. Then simplify.
(2,400,000,000)(0.0000045) (2.4 × 109)(4.5 × 10−6)
In the second way, the =
(0.00003)(1500) (3.0 × 10−5)(1.5 × 103)
numbers were entered using
an exponential key such as (2.4)(4.5)(103)
=
(4.5)(10−2)
EE or EXP .
= (2.4)(105)
= 240,000
Evaluate (24,000,000,000)(0.00000012)(300,000).
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Radicals and Their Properties

A square root of a number is one of its two equal factors. For example, 5 is a square
root of 25 because 5 is one of the two equal factors of 25. In a similar way, a cube root
of a number is one of its three equal factors, as in 125 = 53.
Definition of nth Root of a Number
Let a and b be real numbers, and let n be a positive integer, where n ≥ 2. If

a = bn
then b is an nth root of a. If n = 2, then the root is a square root. If n = 3,
then the root is a cube root.
Some numbers have more than one nth root. For example, both 5 and −5 are square
roots of 25. The principal square root of 25, written as √25, is the positive root, 5.
Principal nth Root of a Number
Let a be a real number that has at least one nth root. The principal nth root of a
is the nth root that has the same sign as a. It is denoted by a radical symbol
√
n a. Principal nth root
The number n is the index of the radical, and the number a is the radicand.
When n = 2, omit the index and write √a rather than √ 2 a. (The plural of index
is indices.)
A common misunderstanding is that the square root sign implies both negative
and positive roots. This is not correct. The square root sign implies only a positive
root. When a negative root is needed, you must use the negative sign with the square
root sign.
Incorrect: √4 = ±2 ✗ Correct: − √4 = −2 and √4 = 2
EXAMPLE 8 Evaluating Radical Expressions

a. √36 = 6 because 62 = 36.
b. − √36 = −6 because − (√36) = − (√62) = − (6) = −6.
√125 = because ( )
3
5 5 53 125
c. 3 = = .
64 4 4 43 64
5 −32 = −2 because (−2)5 = −32.
d. √
4 −81 is not a real number because no real number raised to the fourth power
e.
√
produces −81.
Evaluate each expression, if possible.

a. − √144 b. √−144
c. √2564 d. − √278
3
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Here are some generalizations about the nth roots of real numbers.
Generalizations About nth Roots of Real Numbers

Real Number a Index n Root(s) of a Example
a > 0 n a, −√
√ 4 81 = 3, −√
√ 4 81 = −3
n is even. n a
3 −8 = −2
a > 0 or a < 0 n is odd. √
n a √
a < 0 n is even. No real roots √−4 is not a real number.
a=0 n is even or odd. n 0 = 0
√ 5 0 = 0
√
Integers such as 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, and 36 are perfect squares because they have
integer square roots. Similarly, integers such as 1, 8, 27, 64, and 125 are perfect cubes
because they have integer cube roots.
Properties of Radicals
Let a and b be real numbers, variables, or algebraic expressions such that the
indicated roots are real numbers, and let m and n be positive integers.
Property Example
( n a)
n am = √
1. √
m
( 3 8 ) = (2)2 = 4
3 82 = √
√
2
2. √
n a
∙√
n b =√
n ab √5 ∙ √7 = √5 ∙ 7 = √35
√ab , √279 = √3
4 27
√
n a √
3. = n b≠0 4 9
= 4 4
√
n b √
4. √
m√n a = √a
mn √
3
√10 = √
6 10
5. (√ ) =a (√3 )2 = 3
n a n
n an = a .
6. For n even, √ ∣∣ √(−12)2 = −12 = 12 ∣ ∣
ALGEBRA HELP For n odd, √
n an = a. 3
√ (−12) = −12 3
A common special case of

Property 6 is
√a2 = a . ∣∣ EXAMPLE 9 Using Properties of Radicals

Use the properties of radicals to simplify each expression.
a. √8 ∙ √2 b. (√ )
3 5 c. √
3 x3 d. √
6 y6 3
Solution
a. √8 ∙ √2 = √8 ∙ 2 = √16 = 4 Property 2
b. ( 3 5 3
√ =5 ) Property 5
c. 3 x3
√ =x Property 6
d. 6 y6 = y
√ ∣∣ Property 6
Use the properties of radicals to simplify each expression.

√125
a. 3 1252 c. √
b. √ ∙ 3 x d.
3 x2 √ √√x
√5
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Simplifying Radical Expressions

An expression involving radicals is in simplest form when the three conditions below
are satisfied.
1. All possible factors are removed from the radical.
2. All fractions have radical-free denominators (a process called rationalizing the
denominator accomplishes this).
3. The index of the radical is reduced.
To simplify a radical, factor the radicand into factors whose exponents are multiples
of the index. Write the roots of these factors outside the radical. The “leftover” factors
ALGEBRA HELP
make up the new radicand.
When you simplify a radical,
it is important that both the
original and the simplified EXAMPLE 10 Simplifying Radical Expressions
expressions are defined for the
Perfect cube Leftover factor
same values of the variable.
For instance, in Example 10(c),
√75x3 and 5x√3x are both 3 24 = √
a. √ 3 8
∙3=√
3 23
∙ 3 = 2√
3 3
defined only for nonnegative
Perfect Leftover
values of x. Similarly, in 4th power factor
Example 10(e), √ 4
(5x)4 and
∣∣
5 x are both defined for all
real values of x. 4 48 = √
b. √ 4 16
∙3=√
4 24
∙ 3 = 2√4 3
c. √75x3 = √25x 2 ∙ 3x = √(5x)2 ∙ 3x = 5x√3x

d. 3 24a4 = √
√ 3 8a3
∙ 3a = √
3 (2a)3
∙ 3a = 2a √
3 3a
4 (5x)4 = 5x = 5 x
e. √ ∣ ∣ ∣∣
Simplify each radical expression.

3 −135x3
a. √32 b. √
3 250 c. √24a5 d. √
Radical expressions can be combined (added or subtracted) when they are like
radicals—that is, when they have the same index and radicand. For example, √2,
3√2, and 12√2 are like radicals, but √3 and √2 are unlike radicals. To determine
whether two radicals can be combined, first simplify each radical.
EXAMPLE 11 Combining Radical Expressions

a. 2√48 − 3√27 = 2√16 ∙ 3 − 3√9 ∙ 3 Find square factors.
Find square roots and
= 8√3 − 9√3 multiply by coefficients.
= (8 − 9)√3 Combine like radicals.
= − √3 Simplify.
b. 3 16x
√ − 3 54x 4
√ = 3 8
√ ∙ 2x − 3 27x 3
√ ∙ 2x Find cube factors.
= 2√
3 2x − 3x√
3 2x Find cube roots.
= (2 − 3x) 3 2x
√ Combine like radicals.
Simplify each radical expression.

GO DIGITAL a. 3√8 + √18 b. √
3 81x5 − √
3 24x2
To remove radicals from a denominator or a numerator, use a process called

rationalizing the denominator or rationalizing the numerator. This involves
multiplying by an appropriate form of 1 to obtain a perfect nth power (see Example 12).
Note that pairs of expressions of the form a√b + c√d and a√b − c√d are
conjugates. The product of these two expressions contains no radicals. You can use
this fact to rationalize a denominator or a numerator (see Examples 13 and 14).
EXAMPLE 12 Rationalizing Single-Term Denominators

5 5 √3
a. = ∙ √3 is rationalizing factor.
2√3 2√3 √3
5√3
= Multiply.
2(3)
5√3
= Simplify.
6
2 2 3 52
√
b.
3 5
=
3 5
∙ 3 2
3 52 is rationalizing factor.
√
√ √ √ 5
3 52
2√
= Multiply.
3 53
√
3 25
2√
= Simplify.
5
5 1
Rationalize the denominators of (a) and (b) .
3√2 3 25
√
EXAMPLE 13 Rationalizing a Denominator with Two Terms
2 2 3 − √7 Multiply numerator and

= ∙ denominator by conjugate
3 + √7 3 + √7 3 − √7 of denominator.
2(3 − √7)
= Distributive Property
3(3 − √7) + √7(3 − √7)
2(3 − √7 )
= Distributive Property
3(3) − 3(√7 ) + √7(3) − √7(√7 )
2(3 − √7 )
= Simplify.
(3)2 − (√7 )2
2(3 − √7 )
= Simplify.
2
= 3 − √7 Divide out common factor.
8
Rationalize the denominator: .
√6 − √2
Sometimes it is necessary to rationalize the numerator of an expression. For
instance, in Section P.5 you will use the technique shown in Example 14 on the next
page to rationalize the numerator of an expression from calculus.
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EXAMPLE 14 Rationalizing a Numerator

√5 − √7 √5 − √7 √5 + √7 Multiply numerator and denominator
2
=
2
∙ by conjugate of numerator.
√5 + √7
ALGEBRA HELP
Do not confuse the expression =
(√5 )2 − (√7 )2 Simplify.
√5 + √7 with the expression 2(√5 + √7 )
√5 + 7. In general, √x + y 5−7
does not equal √x + √y. = Property 5 of radicals
2(√5 + √7 )
Similarly, √x 2 + y 2 does not
−2
equal x + y. = Simplify.
2(√5 + √7 )
−1
= Divide out common factor.
√5 + √7
2 − √2
Rationalize the numerator: .
3
Rational Exponents and Their Properties
Definition of Rational Exponents
If a is a real number and n is a positive integer (n ≥ 2) such that the principal

nth root of a exists, then a1n is defined as
a1n = √
n
a.
Moreover, if m is a positive integer that has no common factor with n, then
a mn = (a1n)m = (√ a)
m
n
and a mn = (a m)1n = √
n m
a .
ALGEBRA HELP
Be sure you understand that the The numerator of a rational exponent denotes the power to which the base is raised,
expression a mn is not defined and the denominator denotes the index or the root to be taken.
unless √n a is a real number.
For instance, (−8)13 is defined Power

3 −8 = −2 but
because √ Index
(−8) is undefined because
26
b mn = (√ ) =√
6 −8 is not a real number. m
√ n b n bm
When you are working with rational exponents, the properties of integer exponents
still apply. For example, 212213 = 2(12) + (13) = 256.
EXAMPLE 15 Changing From Radical to Exponential Form

a. √3 = 312
b. √(3xy)5 = √
2 (3xy)5 = (3xy)52
4 x3 = (2x)(x34) = 2x1+(34) = 2x74

c. 2x √
3 27, (b) √x3y5z, and (c) 3x√

3 x2 in exponential form.
Write (a) √
GO DIGITAL
TECHNOLOGY EXAMPLE 16 Changing From Exponential to Radical Form

There are several ways to use
a graphing utility to evaluate
a. (x 2 + y 2)32 = (√x 2 + y 2 ) = √(x 2 + y 2)3
3
radicals and rational exponents,
as shown below. Consult the
b. 2y34z14 = 2( y3z)14 = 2√
4 y3z
user’s guide for your graphing
utility for specific keystrokes. 1 1
c. a−32 = =
a32 √a3
3
√(-8)2
4 d. x 0.2 = x15 = √
5 x
(-8)2/3
4
Write each expression in radical form.

a. (x2 − 7)−12 b. −3b13c23
c. a0.75 d. (x2)25
Rational exponents are useful for evaluating roots of numbers on a calculator, for
reducing the index of a radical, and for simplifying expressions in calculus.
EXAMPLE 17 Simplifying with Rational Exponents

1 1
a. (−32)−45 = (√ ) −4
5 −32 = (−2)−4 = =
(−2)4 16
b. (−5x53)(3x−34) = −15x(53)−(34) = −15x1112, x≠0
ALGEBRA HELP 9 a3 = a39 = a13 = √
c. √ 3 a Reduce index.
The expression in Example
d. √
3 √125 = √ 6 (5)3 = 536 = 512 = √5
6 125 = √
17(b) is not defined when
x = 0 because 0−34 is not a e. (2x − 1)43(2x − 1)−13 = (2x − 1)(43)−(13) = 2x − 1, x ≠ 12
real number. Similarly, the
expression in Example 17(e) is Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com
not defined when x = 12 because
Simplify each expression.
(2 ∙ 12 − 1)−13 = (0)−13 a. (−125)−23 b. (4x2y32)(−3x−13y−35)
is not a real number. c. √
3 √
4 27 d. (3x + 2)52(3x + 2)−12

1. Make a list of the properties of exponents (page 14). For examples that use
these properties, see Examples 1–4.
2. Explain how to write a number in scientific notation (page 17). For examples
involving scientific notation, see Examples 5–7.
3. Make a list of the properties of radicals (page 19). For examples involving
radicals, see Examples 8 and 9.
4. Explain how to simplify a radical expression (page 20). For examples of
simplifying radical expressions, see Examples 10 and 11.
5. Explain how to rationalize a denominator or a numerator (page 21). For
examples of rationalizing denominators and numerators, see Examples 12–14.
6. State the definition of a rational exponent (page 22). For examples involving
rational exponents, see Examples 15–17.
GO DIGITAL
GO DIGITAL

In Exercises 1 and 2, fill in the blanks.
1. In the exponential form an, n is the ________ and a is the ________.
2. In the radical form √
n
a, the number n is the ________ of the radical and the number a is the ________.
3. When is an expression involving radicals in simplest form?

4. Is 64 a perfect square, a perfect cube, or both?

Evaluating an Exponential Expression In Exercises Scientific Notation In Exercises 37 and 38, write the
5–16, evaluate the expression. number in scientific notation.
6. (23 ∙ 32)2
5. 5 ∙ 53 37. 10,250.4 38. −0.000125
7. (3 )
3 2 8. (−2)0
Decimal Form In Exercises 39 and 40, write the
52
( )( )
3 2
3 5 number in decimal form.
9. 10. −
54 5 3
39. 3.14 × 10−4 40. −2.058 × 106
11. −32 12. (−4)−3
4 ∙ 3−2 3 Using Scientific Notation In Exercises 41–44,
13. −2 14. evaluate the expression without using a calculator.
2 ∙ 3−1 3−4
15. 32 + 23 16. (3−2)2 41. (2.0 × 109)(3.4 × 10−4)
42. (1.2 × 107)(5.0 × 10−3)
Evaluating an Algebraic Expression In Exercises
17–20, evaluate the expression for the given value of x. 6.0 × 108
43.
3.0 × 10−3
17. −3x 3, x = 2 18. 7x−2, x = 4 2.5 × 10−3
44.
19. 6x2, x = 0.1 20. 12(−x)3, x = − 13 5.0 × 102
Using Properties of Exponents In Exercises 21–30, Evaluating Radical Expressions In Exercises 45 and
simplify the expression. 46, evaluate each expression without using a calculator.
45. (a) √9 (b) √
3 27
8 46. (a) √ ( )
3 27 (b) √36 3
21. (5z) 3 22. ( ) 4x 3 0

Using Properties of Radicals In Exercises 47 and 48,
23. 6y 2(2y0)2 24. (−z)3(3z4)
use the properties of radicals to simplify each expression.
7x 2 12(x + y)3
25. 3
x
26.
9(x + y) 47. (a) (√ )
5 2 5 5 32x5
(b) √
48. (a) √12 ∙ √3 4 (3x2)4
(b) √
( )( ) (ba )(ba)
4 3 3 4 −2 2
27. 28. −2
y y Simplifying a Radical Expression In Exercises
29. [(x2y−2)−1]−1 30. (5x2z6)3(5x2z6)−3 49–62, simplify the radical expression.
Rewriting with Positive Exponents In Exercises 49. √20 50. √

3 128
31–36, rewrite the expression with positive exponents. 51. √

3 16
27 52. √754
Simplify, if possible. 53. √72x3 54. √54xy4
31. (2x 2)−2 32. (4y−2)(8y−4)
x−3y 4 −3 a−2 b −3 55. √
182
56. √
32a4
33. ( 5 ) 34. ( )( )
b−2 a
z4
57. √75x2y−4 58. √
b2
4 3x 4 y 2
3n ∙ 32n x 2 ∙ xn 59. 2√20x2 + 5√125x2 60. 8√147x − 3√48x

35. 36. 3 n
33n ∙ 32 x ∙x 3 54x3 + √ 3 64x − √
61. 3√ 3 16x3 62. √ 3 27x 4

R ationalizing a Denominator In Exercises Exploring the Concepts
63–66, rationalize the denominator of the expression.
True or False? In Exercises 87 and 88, determine
Then simplify your answer.
whether the statement is true or false. Justify your
1 8 answer.
63. 64. 3
√3 √2 x k+1 a a2 a2
5 3 87. = x k
88. = =
65. 66. x √b (√b)2 b
√14 − 2 √5 + √6
89. Error Analysis Describe the error.
Rationalizing a Numerator In Exercises 67 and 68, −3 −3
−1
(a ) (a )
a4 1
rationalize the numerator of the expression. Then
simplify your answer.
6
= (a−2)−3 = 2
=
a−6
= −a6 ✗
√5 + √3 √7 − 3
67. 68.
3 4 90. OW DO YOU SEE IT?
H
Package A is a cube with x
Writing Exponential and Radical Forms In
a volume of 500 cubic
Exercises 69– 72, fill in the missing form of the expression.
inches. Package B is a
Radical Form Rational Exponent Form cube with a volume of x
x
69. 3 64
√ ■ 250 cubic inches. Is the
length x of a side of package A greater than,
70. x2√x ■ less than, or equal to twice the length of a
71.■ 3x−23 side of package B? Explain.
72.■ a0.4
Simplifying an Expression In Exercises 73–84, 91. Think About It Verify that a0 = 1, a ≠ 0. (Hint:
simplify the expression. Use the property of exponents a ma n = a m−n.)
92. Exploration List all possible digits that occur in the
74. (16
81 )
−34
73. 32−35
units place of the square of a positive integer. Use that
75. (94 )
−12
76. 100−32 list to determine whether √5233 is an integer.
4 (3x2)4
77. √4 32 78. √
Video solutions at
Review & Refresh
79. √√32 80. √√
4 2x LarsonPrecalculus.com
81. (x − 1)13(x − 1)23 Finding Surface Area and Volume In Exercises

93–96, find the (a) surface area and (b) volume of the
82. (x − 1)13(x − 1)−43
rectangular solid.
83. (4x + 3)52(4x + 3)−53
93. 94.

84. (4x + 3)−52(4x + 3)23
4 cm 7 in.
Mathematical Modeling
In Exercises 85 and 86, use the following 3 cm 6 in.
information. A funnel is filled with water 5 cm 8 in.
to a height of h centimeters. The formula
95. 96.

t = 0.03 [1252 − (12 − h)52], 0 ≤ h ≤ 12,
represents the amount 7.1 ft 4.6 mm
of time t (in seconds)
that it will take for 6.2 ft 3.5 mm
the funnel to empty. 8.3 ft 6.4 mm
85. Use a graphing Evaluating an Algebraic Expression In Exercises
utility to find the 97 and 98, evaluate the algebraic expression when (a)
times required for x = 2 and (b) x = −3.
the funnel to
empty for integer-valued water heights from 97. (x + 4)(x − 4) 98. (9x + 5)(3x − 1)
0 to 12 centimeters.
Identifying Terms and Coefficients In Exercises 99
86. Use the graphing utility to find the water height and 100, identify the terms. Then identify the coefficients
corresponding to an emptying time of 10 seconds. of the variable terms of the expression.
© iStockPhoto.com/micropic
99. 2x − 3 100. 4x 3 − x2 + 5x + 1
P.3 Polynomials and Special Products

Write polynomials in standard form.
Add, subtract, and multiply polynomials, and use special products.
Use polynomials to solve real-life problems.
Polynomials
One of the most common types of algebraic expressions is the polynomial. Some
examples are 2x + 5, 3x 4 − 7x 2 + 2x + 4, and 5x 2y 2 − xy + 3. The first two are
polynomials in x and the third is a polynomial in x and y. The terms of a polynomial in
x have the form ax k, where a is the coefficient and k is the degree of the term. For
example, the polynomial 2x 3 − 5x 2 + 1 = 2x 3 + (−5) x 2 + (0) x + 1 has coefficients
2, −5, 0, and 1.
Polynomials have many real-life
applications. For example, in Definition of a Polynomial in x
Exercise 75 on page 32, you
will work with polynomials that Let a0, a1, a2, . . . , an be real numbers and let n be a nonnegative integer.
model uniformly distributed safe A polynomial in x is an expression of the form
loads for steel beams.
a x n + a x n−1 + . . . + a x + a
n n−1 1 0
where an ≠ 0. The polynomial is of degree n, an is the leading coefficient,

and a0 is the constant term.
In standard form, a polynomial in x is written with descending powers of x.

Polynomials with one, two, and three terms are monomials, binomials, and trinomials,
respectively.
EXAMPLE 1 Writing Polynomials in Standard Form

Leading
Polynomial Standard Form Degree Coefficient
a. 4x 2 − 5x 7 − 2 + 3x −5x 7 + 4x 2 + 3x − 2 7 −5
b. 4 − 9x 2 −9x 2 + 4 2 −9
c. 8 8 or 8x 0 0 8
Write the polynomial 6 − 7x3 + 2x in standard form. Then identify the degree and
leading coefficient of the polynomial.
A polynomial that has all zero coefficients is called the zero polynomial, denoted
by 0. No degree is assigned to the zero polynomial. For polynomials in more than one
variable, the degree of a term is the sum of the exponents of the variables in the term.
The degree of the polynomial is the highest degree of its terms. For example, the degree
of the polynomial −2x 3y6 + 4xy − x7y 4 is 11 because the sum of the exponents in the
last term is the greatest. The leading coefficient of the polynomial is the coefficient of
the highest-degree term. Expressions are not polynomials when a variable is underneath
a radical or when a polynomial expression (with degree greater than 0) is in the
denominator of a term. For example, the expressions x 3 − √3x = x 3 − (3x)12 and
x2 + (5x) = x 2 + 5x−1 are not polynomials.
GO DIGITAL
© James Steidl/Shutterstock.com
Operations with Polynomials and Special Products

You can add and subtract polynomials in much the same way you add and subtract real
numbers. Add or subtract the like terms (terms having the same variables to the same
powers) by adding or subtracting their coefficients. For example, −3xy 2 and 5xy 2 are
like terms and their sum is
−3xy 2 + 5xy 2 = (−3 + 5) xy 2 = 2xy2.
EXAMPLE 2 Adding or Subtracting Polynomials

a. (5x 3 − 7x 2 − 3) + (x 3 + 2x 2 − x + 8)
= (5x 3 + x 3) + (−7x2 + 2x2) + (−x) + (−3 + 8) Group like terms.
= 6x 3 − 5x 2 − x + 5 Combine like terms.
b. ( 7x4 − x2 − 4x + 2) − ( 3x4 − 4x 2 + 3x)

= 7x 4 − x 2 − 4x + 2 − 3x 4 + 4x 2 − 3x Distributive Property
ALGEBRA HELP =( 7x 4 − 3x 4 )+( −x2 + 4x2 ) + (−4x − 3x) + 2 Group like terms.
When a negative sign
precedes an expression inside = 4x 4 + 3x 2 − 7x + 2 Combine like terms.
parentheses, remember to Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com

distribute the negative sign
to each term inside the Find the difference (2x3 − x + 3) − (x2 − 2x − 3) and write the resulting polynomial
parentheses. In other words, in standard form.
multiply each term by −1.
− (3x4 − 4x 2 + 3x) To find the product of two polynomials, use the right and left Distributive
= −3x4 + 4x 2 − 3x Properties. For example, you can find the product of 3x − 2 and 5x + 7 by first treating
5x + 7 as a single quantity.
(3x − 2)(5x + 7) = 3x(5x + 7) − 2(5x + 7)
= (3x)(5x) + (3x)(7) − (2)(5x) − (2)(7)
= 15x 2 + 21x − 10x − 14
Product of Product of Product of Product of

First terms Outer terms Inner terms Last terms
= 15x 2 + 11x − 14
Note that when using the FOIL Method to multiply two binomials, some of the
terms in the product may be like terms that can be combined into one term.
EXAMPLE 3 Finding a Product by the FOIL Method

Use the FOIL Method to find the product of 2x − 4 and x + 5.
Solution
F O I L
(2x − 4)(x + 5) = 2x2 + 10x − 4x − 20 = 2x2 + 6x − 20
Use the FOIL Method to find the product of 3x − 1 and x − 5.
GO DIGITAL
When multiplying two polynomials, be sure to multiply each term of one

polynomial by each term of the other. A vertical arrangement can be helpful, as shown
in the next example.
EXAMPLE 4 A Vertical Arrangement for Multiplication

Multiply −2x + 2 + x2 by x 2 + 2x + 2 using a vertical arrangement.
Solution First, write −2x + 2 + x2 in standard form, x2 − 2x + 2.
x2 − 2x + 2 Write in standard form.
ALGEBRA HELP × x2 + 2x + 2 Write in standard form.
When multiplying two
polynomials, it is best to write 2x2 − 4x + 4 2(x2 − 2x + 2)
each in standard form before 2x3 − 4x2 + 4x 2x(x2 − 2x + 2)

using either the horizontal or
the vertical format. x 4 − 2x3 + 2x2 x2(x2 − 2x + 2)
x 4 + 0x 3 + 0x 2 + 0x + 4 = x 4 + 4 Combine like terms.
So, (x 2 − 2x + 2)(x 2 + 2x + 2) = x 4 + 4.
Multiply x2 + 2x + 3 by x2 − 2x + 3 using a vertical arrangement.
Some binomial products have special forms that occur frequently in algebra. You
do not need to memorize these formulas because you can use the Distributive Property
to multiply. However, becoming familiar with these formulas will enable you to
manipulate the algebra more quickly.
Special Products
Let u and v be real numbers, variables, or algebraic expressions.

Special Product Example
Sum and Difference of Same Terms
(u + v)(u − v) = u 2 − v 2 (x + 4)(x − 4) = x 2 − 42
ALGEBRA HELP = x 2 − 16
Note that u + v and u − v Square of a Binomial
are conjugates. In words, you
can say that the product of (u + v) 2 = u 2 + 2uv + v 2 (x + 3) 2 = x 2 + 2(x)(3) + 32
conjugates equals the square of = x 2 + 6x + 9
the first term minus the square
of the second term. (u − v) 2 = u 2 − 2uv + v 2 (3x − 2)2 = (3x)2 − 2(3x)(2) + 22
= 9x 2 − 12x + 4
Cube of a Binomial
(u + v)3 = u 3 + 3u 2v + 3uv 2 + v 3 (x + 2)3 = x 3 + 3x 2(2) + 3x(22) +23

= x 3 + 6x 2 + 12x + 8
(u − v)3 = u 3 − 3u 2v + 3uv 2 − v 3 (x −1)3 = x 3 −3x 2(1) +3x(12) −13

= x 3 − 3x 2 + 3x − 1
GO DIGITAL
EXAMPLE 5 Sum and Difference of Same Terms

Find the product of 5x + 9 and 5x − 9.
Solution
The product of a sum and a difference of the same two terms has no middle term and
takes the form (u + v)(u − v) = u 2 − v 2.
(5x + 9)(5x − 9) = (5x)2 − 9 2 = 25x 2 − 81
Find the product of 3x − 2 and 3x + 2.
ALGEBRA HELP
When squaring a binomial, note EXAMPLE 6 Square of a Binomial
that the resulting middle term is Find (6x − 5)2.
always twice the product of the
two terms of the binomial. Solution
The square of the binomial u − v is (u − v)2 = u 2 − 2uv + v 2.
(6x − 5) 2 = (6x) 2 − 2(6x)(5) + 52 = 36x 2 − 60x + 25
Find (x + 10)2.
EXAMPLE 7 Cube of a Binomial

Find (3x + 2) 3.
Solution
The cube of the binomial u + v is (u + v)3 = u 3 + 3u 2v + 3uv 2 + v 3. Note the
decreasing powers of u and the increasing powers of v. Letting u = 3x and v = 2,
(3x + 2)3 = (3x)3 + 3(3x) 2(2) + 3(3x)(22) + 23 = 27x 3 + 54x 2 + 36x + 8.
Find (4x − 1)3.
EXAMPLE 8 Multiplying Two Trinomials

Find the product of x + y − 2 and x + y + 2.
Solution
One way to find this product is to group x + y and form a special product.
Difference Sum
(x + y − 2)(x + y + 2) = [(x + y) − 2][(x + y) + 2]

= (x + y) 2 − 22 Sum and difference of same terms
= x2 + 2xy + y2 −4 Square of a binomial
GO DIGITAL Find the product of x − 2 + 3y and x − 2 − 3y.
Application
EXAMPLE 9 Finding the Volume of a Box

An open box is made by cutting squares
x
from the corners of a piece of metal that is
20 inches by 16 inches, as shown in the figure.
The edge of each cut-out square is x inches.
16 − 2x
16 in.
Find the volume of the box in terms of x.
Then find the volume of the box when x = 1,
x = 2, and x = 3. x 20 − 2x x
Solution x
The volume of a rectangular box is equal to 20 in.

the product of its length, width, and height.
From the figure, the length is 20 − 2x, the
width is 16 − 2x, and the height is x. So, the
volume of the box is x
16 − 2x
Volume = (20 − 2x)(16 − 2x)(x) 20 − 2x
= (320 − 72x + 4x 2)(x)
= 320x − 72x 2 + 4x 3.
When x = 1 inch, the volume of the box is
Volume = 320(1) − 72(1)2 + 4(1)3
= 252 cubic inches.
When x = 2 inches, the volume of the box is
Volume = 320(2) − 72(2)2 + 4(2)3
= 384 cubic inches.
When x = 3 inches, the volume of the box is
Volume = 320(3) − 72(3)2 + 4(3)3
= 420 cubic inches.
In Example 9, find the volume of the box in terms of x when the piece of metal is
12 inches by 10 inches. Then find the volume when x = 2 and x = 3.

1. State the definition of a polynomial in x and explain what is meant by the
standard form of a polynomial (page 26). For an example of writing
polynomials in standard form, see Example 1.
2. Explain how to add and subtract polynomials (page 27). For an example of
adding and subtracting polynomials, see Example 2.
3. Explain the FOIL Method (page 27). For an example of finding a product
using the FOIL Method, see Example 3.
4. Explain how to find binomial products that have special forms (page 28). For
examples of binomial products that have special forms, see Examples 5–8.
5. Describe an example of how to use polynomials to model and solve a
real-life problem (page 30, Example 9).
GO DIGITAL
GO DIGITAL

In Exercises 1 and 2, fill in the blanks.
1. For the polynomial an x n + an−1xn−1 + . . . + a1x + a0, an ≠ 0, the degree is ________, the leading
coefficient is ________, and the constant term is ________.
2. The letters in “FOIL” stand for F ________, O ________, I ________, and L ________.
3. Is it possible for a binomial and a trinomial to have the same degree? If so, give examples. If not, explain why.
4. Match each special product with its equivalent form.
(a) (u + v)(u − v) (i) u3 − 3u2v + 3uv2 − v3
(b) (u + v)2 (ii) u3 + 3u2v + 3uv2 + v3
(c) (u − v)2 (iii) u2 + 2uv + v2
(d) (u + v)3 (iv) u2 − v2
(e) (u − v) 3 (v) u2 − 2uv + v2

Writing a Polynomial in Standard Form Multiplying Polynomials In Exercises 25–36,
In Exercises 5–10, (a) write the polynomial in standard multiply the polynomials.
form, (b) identify the degree and leading coefficient of
25. 3x(x 2 − 2x + 1) 26. y 2(4y 2 + 2y − 3)
the polynomial, and (c) state whether the polynomial is a
monomial, a binomial, or a trinomial. 27. −5z(3z − 1) 28. −3x(5x + 2)
29. (1.5t + 5)(−3t)
2 30. (2 − 3.5y)(2y 3)
5. 7x 6. 3
31. (3x − 5)(2x + 1) 32. (7x − 2)(4x − 3)
7. 14x − 12 x 5 8. 3 + 2x
33. (x + 7)(x + 2x + 5) 34.
2 (x − 8)(2x2 + x + 4)
9. 1 + 6x − 4x
4 5 10. −y + 25y2 + 1
35. (x 2 − x + 2)(x 2 + x + 1)
Identifying Polynomials In Exercises 11–16, 36. (2x2 − x + 4)(x2 + 3x + 2)
determine whether the expression is a polynomial. If so,
write the polynomial in standard form. Finding Special Products In Exercises 37–60, find
the special product.
11. 2x − 3x 3 + 8
12. 5x4 − 2x2 + x−2 37. (x + 10)(x − 10) 38. (2x + 3)(2x − 3)
3x + 4 x 2 + 2x − 3 39. (x + 2y)(x − 2y) 40. (4a + 5b)(4a − 5b)
13. 14.
x 2 41. (2x + 3) 2 42. (5 − 8x) 2
15. y 2 − y 4 + y 3 43. (4x − 3)
3 2 44. (8x + 3)2
16. y4 − √y 45. (x + 3)3 46. (x − 2) 3
47. (2x − y) 3 48. (3x + 2y) 3
dding or Subtracting Polynomials In Exercises
A
17–24, add or subtract and write the result in standard 49. (5 x − 3)(5 x + 3)
1 1
50. (1.5x − 4)(1.5x + 4)
form. 51. (4 x − 5)
1 2
52. (2.4x + 3)2
17. (6x + 5) − (8x + 15) 53. [(x − 3) + y]2
18. (t3 − 1) + (6t3 − 5t) 54. [(x + 1) − y]2
19. (4y2 − 3) + (−7y2 + 9) 55. (3y − 6x)(−3y − 6x)
20. (2x 2 + 1) − (x 2 − 2x + 1) 56. (3a 3 − 4b2)(3a 3 + 4b2)
21. (15x 2 − 6) + (−8.3x 3 − 14.7x 2 − 17) 57. [(m − 3) + n][(m − 3) − n]
22. (15.6w4 − 14w − 17.4) + (16.9w 4 − 9.2w + 13) 58. [(x − 3y) + z][(x − 3y) − z]
23. 5z − [3z − (10z + 8)] 59. (u + 2)(u − 2)(u 2 + 4)
24. ( y 3 + 1) − [( y 2 + 1) + (3y − 7)] 60. (x + y)(x − y)(x 2 + y 2)
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honor. The offence which provoked this assault is not even hinted at,
though it may have arisen from the troubled state of public affairs.
Captain Praa was a man of influence and dignity in the community,
an exiled Huguenot, of remarkable skill in horsemanship and arms.
In spite of all this, it appears probable that the sentiment of the
community was in sympathy with the two turbulent assaulters and
batterers, for they were fined only six shillings and three pounds
respectively. They threw themselves on the mercy of the Court, and
certainly were treated with mercy.
There are, however, few women-criminals named in the old Dutch
and early English records, and these few were not prosecuted for
any very great crimes or viciousness; the chief number were brought
up for defamation of character and slander, though men-slanderers
were more plentiful than women. The close intimacy, the ideal
neighborliness of the Dutch communities of New York made the
settlers deeply abhor all violations of the law of social kindness. To
preserve this state of amity, they believed with Chaucer “the first
vertue is to restraine and kepen wel thine tonge.”
The magistrates knew how vast a flame might be kindled by a
petty spark; and therefore promptly quenched the odious slander in
its beginning; petty quarrels were adjusted by arbitration ere they
grew to great breaches. As sung the chorus of Batavian women in
Van der Vondel’s great poem:—
“If e’er dispute or discord dared intrude,

’Twas soon by wisdom’s voice subdued.”
In spite, however, of all wariness and watchfulness and patience,

the inevitable fretfulness engendered in petty natures by a narrow
and confined life showed in neighborhood disputes and suits for
defamation of character, few of them of great seriousness and most
of them easily adjusted by the phlegmatic and somewhat dictatorial
Dutch magistrates. In a community so given to nicknaming it seems
strange to find such extreme touchiness about being called names.
Suits for defamation were frequent, through opprobrious name-
calling, and on very slight though irritating grounds. It would certainly
seem a rather disproportionate amount of trouble to bring a lawsuit
simply because you were called a “black pudding,” or a verklickker,
or tale-bearer, or even a “Turk;” though, of course, no one would
stand being called a “horned beast” or a “hay thief.” Nor was “Thou
swine” an offensive term too petty to be passed over in silence. The
terrible epithets, spitter-baard and “Dutch dough-face,” seem to
make a climax of opprobriousness; but the word moff was worse, for
it was the despised term applied in Holland to the Germans, and it
led to a quarrel with knives.
I wish to note in passing that though the Dutch called each other
these disagreeable and even degrading names, they did not swear
at each other. Profanity was seldom punished in New Amsterdam,
for practically it did not exist, as was remarked by travellers.
Chaplain Wolley told of “the usual oath” of one Dutch colonist,—the
word “sacrament.”
The colonists were impatient of insulting actions as well as words.
Sampson said in “Romeo and Juliet,” “I will bite my thumb at them,
which is a disgrace to them if they bear it;” so “finger-sticking” was a
disgrace in colonial times if unresented, and it was actionable in the
courts. The man or woman who pointed the finger of scorn at a
neighbor was pretty sure to have the finger of the law pointed at him.
The curious practice of the Dutch settlers alluded to—the giving of
nicknames—may be partly explained by the fact that in some cases
the persons named had no surname, and the nickname was really a
distinguishing name. These nicknames appear not only in the
records of criminal cases, but in official documents such as the
patents for towns, transfers of estates, civil contracts, etc. In Albany,
in 1655 and 1657, we find Jan the Jester, Huybert the Rogue,
Jacobus or Cobus the Looper, squint-eyed Harmen, the wicked
Domine. On Long Island were John the Swede, Hans the Boor,
Tunis the Fisher. In Harlem was Jan Archer the Koop-all (or buy-all).
In New York, in English days, in 1691, we find Long Mary, Old Bush,
Top-knot Betty, Scarebouch. These names conveyed no offence,
and seem to have been universally adopted and responded to.
It would appear to a casual observer glancing over the court-
records of those early years of New York life under Dutch
supremacy, that the greater number of the cases brought before the
magistrates were these slander and libel cases. We could believe
that no other court-room ever rang with such petty personal suits; to
use Tennyson’s words, “it bubbled o’er with gossip and scandal and
spite.” But in truth slander was severely punished in all the colonies,
in New England, Virginia, Pennsylvania; and it is not to the detriment
of the citizens of New Netherland that they were more sharp in the
punishment of such offences, for it is well known, as Swift says, that
the worthiest people are those most injured by slander.
The slander cases of colonial times seem most trivial and even
absurd when seen through the mist of years. They could scarce
reach the dignity of Piers Plowman’s definition of slanders:—
“To bakbyten, and to bosten, and to bere fals witnesse

To scornie and to scolde, sclaundres to make.”
To show their character, let me give those recorded in which

Thomas Applegate of Gravesend, Long Island, took an accused part.
In 1650, he was brought up before the Gravesend court for saying of
a fellow-towns-man that “he thought if his debts were paid he would
have little left.” For this incautious but not very heinous speech he
paid a fine of forty guilders. The next year we find him prosecuted for
saying of a neighbor that “he had not half a wife.” Though he at first
denied this speech, he was ordered “to make publick
acknowledgement of error; to stand at the publick post with a paper
on his breast mentioning the reason, that he is a notorious,
scandalous person.” This brought him to his senses, and he
confessed his guilt, desired the slandered “half a wife” to “pass it by
and remit it, which she freely did and he gave her thanks.” Next
Mistress Applegate was brought up for saying that a neighbor’s wife
milked the Applegate cows. She escaped punishment by proving
that Penelope Prince told her so. As a climax, Thomas Applegate
said to a friend that he believed that the Governor took bribes. The
schout in his decision on this grave offence said Applegate “did
deserve to have his tongue bored through with a hot iron;” but this
fierce punishment was not awarded him, nor was he banished.
When the tailor of New Amsterdam said disrespectful words of the
Governor, his sentence was that he “stand before the Governor’s
door with uncovered head, after the ringing of the bell, and to declare
that he falsely and scandalously issued such words and then to ask
God’s pardon.”
The magistrates were very touchy of their dignity. Poor Widow
Piertje Jans had her house sold on an execution; and, exasperated
by the proceeding, and apparently also at the price obtained, she
said bitterly to the officers, “Ye despoilers, ye bloodsuckers, ye have
not sold but given away my house.” Instead of treating these as the
heated words of a disappointed and unhappy woman, the officers
promptly ran tattling to the Stadt Huys and whiningly complained to
the Court that her words were “a sting which could not be endured.”
Piertje was in turn called shameful; her words were termed “foul,
villanous, injurious, nay, infamous words,” and also called a
blasphemy, insult, affront, and reproach. She was accused of
insulting, defaming, affronting, and reproaching the Court, and that
she was in the highest degree reprimanded, particularly corrected,
and severely punished; and after being forbidden to indulge in any
more such blasphemies, she was released,—“bethumped with
words,” as Shakespeare said,—doubtless well scared at the
enormity of her offence, as well as at the enormity of the magistrate’s
phraseology.
The notary Walewyn van der Veen was frequently in trouble,
usually for contempt of court. And I doubt not “the little bench of
justices” was sometimes rather trying in its ways to a notary who
knew anything about law. On one occasion, when a case relating to
a bill of exchange had been decided against him, Van der Veen
spoke of their High Mightinesses the magistrates as “simpletons and
blockheads.” This was the scathing sentence of his punishment:—
“That Walewyn Van der Veen, for his committed insult, shall
here beg forgiveness, with uncovered head, of God, Justice,
and the Worshipful Court, and moreover pay as a fine 190
guilders.”
This fine must have consumed all his fees for many a weary
month thereafter, if we can judge by the meagre lawyers’ bills which
have come down to us.
Another time the contumacious Van der Veen called the Secretary
a rascal. Thereat, the latter, much aggrieved, demanded “honorable
and profitable reparation” for the insult. The schout judged this
epithet to be a slander and an affront to the Secretary, which
“affected his honor, being tender,” and the honor of the Court as well,
since it was to a member of the Court, and he demanded that the
notary should pay a fine of fifty guilders as an example to other
slanderers, “who for trifles have constantly in their mouths curses
and abuses of other honorable people.”
Another well-known notary and practitioner and pleader in the
busy little Court held in the Stadt Huys was Solomon La Chair. His
manuscript volume of nearly three hundred pages, containing
detailed accounts of all the business he transacted in Manhattan, is
now in the County Clerk’s Office in New York, and proves valuable
material for the historiographer. He had much business, for he could
speak and write both English and Dutch; and he was a faithful,
painstaking, intelligent worker. He not only conducted lawsuits for
others, but he seems to have been in constant legal hot water
himself on his own account. He was sued for drinking and not paying
for a can of sugared wine; and also for a half-aam of costly French
wine; and he was sued for the balance of payment for a house he
had purchased; he pleaded for more time, and with the ingenuous
guilelessness peculiar to the law said in explanation that he had had
the money gathered at one time for payment, but it had somehow
dropped through his fingers. “The Court condemned to pay at
once,”—not being taken in by any such simplicity as that. He had to
pay a fine of twelve guilders for affronting both fire inspector and
court messenger. He first insulted the brandt-meester who came to
inspect his chimney, and was fined, then he called the bode who
came to collect the fine “a little cock booted and spurred.” The Court
in sentence said with dignity, “It is not meet that men should mock
and scoff at persons appointed to any office, yea a necessary office.”
He won one important suit for the town of Gravesend, by which the
right of that town to the entire region of Coney Island was
established; and he received in payment for his legal services
therein, the munificent sum of twenty-four florins (ten dollars) paid in
gray pease. He kept a tavern and was complained of for tapping
after nine o’clock; and he was sued by his landlord for rent; and he
had a yacht, “The Pear Tree,” which ran on trading trips to Albany,
and there were two or three lawsuits in regard to that. He was also a
farmer of the excise on slaughtered cattle; but, in spite of all his
energy and variety of employment, he died insolvent in 1664. The
last lawsuit in which Lawyer Solomon had any share was through a
posthumous connection,—the burgher who furnished an anker of
French wine for the notary’s funeral claimed a position as preferred
creditor to the estate.
A very aggravated case of scorn and resistance of authority was
that of Abel Hardenbrock against the schout de Mill. And this case
shows equally the popular horror of violations of the law and the
confiding trust of the justices that the word of the law was enough
without any visible restraining force. Hardenbrock, who was a
troublesome fellow, had behaved most vilely, shoving the schout on
the breast, and wickedly “wishing the devil might break his neck,”
simply because the schout went to Hardenbrock’s house to warn his
wife not to annoy further Burgomaster De Peyster by unwelcome
visits. Hardenbrock was accordingly seized and made a prisoner at
the Stadt Huys “in the chamber of Pieter Schaefbanck, where he
carried on and made a racket like one possessed and mad,
notwithstanding the efforts of Heer Burgomaster Van Brught, running
up to the Court room and going away next morning as if he had not
been imprisoned.” It was said with amusing simplicity that this cool
walking out of prison was “contrary to the customs of the law,” and a
fine of twenty-five florins was imposed.
For serious words against the government, which could be
regarded as treasonable, the decreed punishment was death. One
Claerbout van ter Goes used such words (unfortunately they are not
given in the indictment), and a judgment was recorded from each
burgomaster and schepen as to what punishment would be proper.
He was branded, whipped on a half-gallows, and banished, and
escaped hanging only by one vote.
All classes in the community were parties in these petty slander
suits; schoolmasters and parsons appear to have been specially
active. Domine Bogardus and Domine Schaets had many a slander
suit. The most famous and amusing of all these clerical suits is the
one brought by Domine Bogardus and his wife, the posthumously
famous Anneke Jans, against Grietje von Salee, a woman of very
dingy reputation, who told in New Amsterdam that the domine’s wife,
Mistress Anneke, had lifted her petticoats in unseemly and extreme
fashion when crossing a muddy street. This was proved to be false,
and the evidence adduced was so destructive of Grietje’s character
that she stands disgraced forever in history as the worst woman in
New Netherland.
Not only were slanderers punished, but they were disgraced with
terrible names. William Bakker was called “a blasphemer, a street
schold, a murderer as far as his intentions are concerned, a defamer,
a disturber of public peace,”—the concentration of which must have
made William Bakker hang his head in the place of his banishment.
They were also rebuked from the pulpit, and admonished in private.
Perhaps the best rebuke given, as well as a unique one, was the
one adopted by Domine Frelinghuysen, who had suffered somewhat
from slander himself. He had this rhyme painted in large letters on
the back of his sleigh, that he who followed might read:—
“Niemands tong; nog neimands pen,

Maakt my anders dan ik ben.
Spreek quaad-spreekers: spreek vonder end,
Niemand en word van u geschend.”
Which, translated into English, reads:—

“No one’s tongue, and no one’s pen
Makes me other than I am.
Speak, evil-speakers, speak without end,
No one heeds a word you say.”
The original Court of the colony was composed of a Director and

his Council. In 1656, in answer to complaints from the colonists, the
States-General ordered the election of a board of magistrates, in
name and function like those of the Fatherland; namely, a schout,
two burgomasters, and five schepens. The duties of the
burgomasters and schepens were twofold: they regulated municipal
affairs like a board of aldermen, and they sat as a court of justice
both in civil and criminal cases. The annual salary of a burgomaster
was fixed at one hundred and forty dollars, and of a schepen at one
hundred dollars; but as these salaries were to come out of the
municipal chest, which was chronically empty, they never were paid.
When funds did come in from the excise on taverns, on slaughtered
cattle, the tax on land, the fees on transfers, etc., it always had to be
paid out in other ways,—for repairs for the school-room, the Graft,
the watch-room, the Stadt Huys. It never entered the minds of those
guileless civic rulers, two centuries ago, to pay themselves and let
the other creditors go without. The early city schout was also schout-
fiskaal till 1660; but the proper duties of this functionary were really a
combination of those pertaining now to the mayor, sheriff, and
district-attorney. In the little town one man could readily perform all
these duties. He also presided in Court. An offender could thus be
arrested, prosecuted, and judged, by one and the same person,
which seems to us scarcely judicious; but the bench of magistrates
had one useful power, that of mitigating and altering the sentence
demanded by the schout. Often a fine of one hundred guilders would
be reduced to twenty-five; often the order for whipping would be set
aside, and the command of branding as well.
Sometimes justice in New York was tempered with mercy, and
sorely it needed it when fierce English rule and law came in force.
Felons were few, but these few were severely punished. A record of
a trial in 1676 reveals a curious scene in Court, as well as an
astonishing celerity in the execution of the law under English rule
and in the English army. Three soldiers stole a couple of iron pots,
two hoes, a pair of shears, and half a firkin of soap. They were tried
in the morning, confessed, cast into “the Hole” in the afternoon, and
in the evening “the Governor ordered some persons to go to the
prisoners and advise them to prepare for another world, for that one
of them should dye the next day.” On the gloomy morrow, on
Saturday, the three terror-stricken souls drew lots, and the fatal lot
fell to one Thomas Weale. The court of aldermen interceded for him
and finally secured his reprieve till Monday. The peaceful Dutch
Sunday, darkened and shocked by this impending death, saw a
strange and touching sight.
“In the evening a company of the chiefe women of the City,
both English and Dutch, made earnest suite to the Governor
for the Condemned man’s life. Monday in the morning the
same women who came the last night with many others of the
better sort, and a greater number of the ordinary Dutch
women, did again very much importune the Governor to spare
him.”
These tender-hearted colonists were indorsed and supplemented
by the petition of Weale’s fellow-soldiers in the garrison, who
pleaded the prisoner’s youth and his past usefulness, and who
promised if he were pardoned never to steal nor to conceal theft. As
a result of all this intercession, the Governor “graciously” granted
pardon.
This promise and pardon seem to have accomplished much in
army discipline, for thereafter arrests for crime among the soldiery
were rare. Five years later a soldier was accused of pilfering.
“The Court Marshall doth adjudge that the said Melchoir
Classen shall run the Gantlope once, the length of the fort:
where according to the custome of that punishment, the
souldiers shall have switches delivered to them, with which
they shall strike him as he passes between them stript to the
waist, and at the Fort-gate the Marshall is to receive him, and
there to kick him out of the Garrison as a cashiered person,
when he is no more to returne, and if any pay is due him it is
to be forfeited.”
And that was the end of Melchoir Classen.
Gantlope was the earlier and more correct form of the word now
commonly called gantlet. Running the gantlope was a military
punishment in universal use.
Another common punishment for soldiers (usually for rioting or
drinking) was riding the wooden horse. In New Amsterdam the
wooden horse stood between Paerel Street and the Fort, and was
twelve feet high. Garret Segersen, for stealing chickens, rode the
wooden horse for three days from two o’clock to close of parade with
a fifty-pound weight tied to each foot. At other times a musket was
tied to each foot of the disgraced man. One culprit rode with an
empty scabbard in one hand and a pitcher in the other to show his
inordinate love for John Barleycorn. Jan Alleman, a Dutch officer,
challenged Jan de Fries, who was bedridden; for this cruel and
meaningless insult he too rode the wooden horse. In Revolutionary
days we still find the soldiers of the Continental Army punished by
riding the wooden horse, or, as it was sometimes called, “the timber
mare;” but it was probably a modification of the cruel punishment of
the seventeenth century.
A sailor, for drawing a knife on a companion, was dropped three
times from the yard-arm and received a kick from every sailor on the
ship,—a form of running the gantlope. And we read of a woman who
enlisted as a seaman, and whose sex was detected, being dropped
three times from the yard-arm and tarred and feathered.
These women petitioners for Soldier Weale of whom I have told,
were not the only tender-hearted New Yorkers to petition for “mercy,
that herb of grace, to flower.” During Stuyvesant’s rule his sister,
Madam Bayard, successfully interceded for the release, and thereby
saved the life, of an imprisoned Quaker; and in September, 1713,
two counterfeiters were saved from the death penalty by the
intervention of New York dames. We read, “Most of the gentlewomen
of the city waited on the Governor, and addressed him earnestly with
prayers and tears for the lives of the culprits, who were accordingly
pardoned.” When two sailors rioted through the town demanding
food and drink, and used Carel Van Brugh so roughly that his face
was cut, they were sentenced to be fastened to the whipping-post,
and scourged, and have gashes cut in their faces; the wife of Van
Brugh and her friends petitioned that the sentence should not be
carried out, or at any rate executed within a room. Doubtless other
examples could be found.
The laws of New Netherland were naturally based upon the laws
and customs of the Fatherland, which in turn were formed by the
rules of the College of XIX. from the Imperial Statutes of Charles V.
and the Roman civil law.
The punishments were the ordinary ones of the times, neither
more nor less severe than those of the Fatherland or the other
colonies. In 1691 it was ordered that a ducking-stool be erected in
New York on the wharf in front of the City Hall. The following year an
order was passed that a pillory, cage, and ducking-stool be built.
Though scolds were punished, I have never seen any sentence to
show that this ducking-stool was ever built, or that one was ever
used in New York; while instances of the use of a ducking-stool are
comparatively plentiful in the Southern colonies. The ducking-stool
was an English “engine” of punishment, not a Dutch.
The colonists were astonishingly honest. Thieves were surprisingly
few; they were punished under Dutch rule by scourging with rods,
and usually by banishment,—a very convenient way of shifting
responsibility. Assaults were punished by imprisonment and
subjection to prison fare, consisting only of bread and water or small
beer; and sometimes temporary banishment. There was at first no
prison, so men were often imprisoned in their own houses, which
does not seem very disgraceful. In the case of François de Bruyn,
tried for insulting and striking the court messenger, he was fined two
hundred guilders, and answered that he would rot in prison before he
would pay. He was then ordered to be imprisoned in a respectable
tavern, which sentence seems to have some possibility of mitigating
accompaniments.
In 1692 it was ordered in Kings County that a good pair of stocks
and a pound be made in every bound within Kings County, and kept
in sufficient repair. In repair and in use were they kept till this century.
Pillories too were employed in punishment till within the memory of
persons now living. The whipping-post was really a public blessing,
—in constant use, and apparently of constant benefit, though the
publicity of its employment seems shocking to us to-day. The public
whipper received a large salary. In 1751, we learn from an
advertisement, it was twenty pounds annually.
Some of the punishments were really almost picturesque in their
ingenious inventions of mortification and degradation. Truly it was a
striking sight when “Jan of Leyden”—a foul-mouthed rogue, a true
blather-schuyten—was fastened to a stake in front of the townhouse,
with a bridle in his mouth and a bundle of rods tied under each arm,
and a placard on his breast bearing the inscription, “Lampoon-riter,
false accuser, defamer of magistrates.” Though he was banished, I
am sure he never was forgotten by the children who saw him
standing thus garnished and branded on that spring day in 1664. In
the same place a thief was punished by being forced to stand all day
under a gallows, a gallows-rope around his neck and empty sword-
scabbard in his hand, a memorable figure.
And could any who saw it ever forget the punishment of Mesaack
Martens, who stole six cabbages from his neighbor, and confessed
and stood for days in the pillory with cabbages on his head, that “the
punishment might fit the crime;” to us also memorable because the
prisoner was bootlessly examined by torture to force confession of
stealing fowls, butter, turkeys, etc.
He was not the only poor creature who suffered torture in New
Amsterdam. It was frequently threatened and several times
executed. The mate of a ship was accused of assaulting a sheriff’s
officer, who could not identify positively his assailant. The poor mate
was put to torture, and he was innocent of the offence. The assailant
was proved to be another man from whom the officer had seized a
keg of brandy. Still none in New Amsterdam were tortured or pressed
to death. The blood of no Giles Corey stains the honor of New
Netherland.
Sometimes the execution of justice seemed to “set a thief to catch
a thief.” A letter written by an English officer from Fort James on
Manhattan Island to Captain Silvester Salisbury in Fort Albany in
1672 contains this sentence:—
“We had like to have lost our Hang-man Ben Johnson, for
he being taken in Divers Thefts and Robbings convicted and
found guilty, escaped his neck through want of another
Hangman to truss him up, soe that all the punishment that he
received for his Three Years’ Roguery in thieving and stealing
(which was never found out till now) was only 39 stripes at the
Whipping Post, loss of an Ear and Banishment.”
We have the records of an attempt at capital punishment in 1641;
and Mr. Gerard’s account of it in his paper “The Old Stadt-Huys” is
so graphic, I wish to give it in full:—
“The court proceedings before the Council, urged by the
Fiscal, were against Jan of Fort Orange, Manuel Gerrit the
Giant, Anthony Portugese, Simon Congo, and five others, all
negroes belonging to the Company, for killing Jan Premero,
another negro. The prisoners having pleaded guilty, and it
being rather a costly operation to hang nine able-bodied
negroes belonging to the Company, the sentence was that
they were to draw lots to determine ‘who should be punished
with the cord until death, praying the Almighty God, the
Creator of Heaven and Earth, to direct that the lot may fall on
the guiltiest, whereupon’ the record reads, ‘the lot fell by
God’s Providence on Manuel Gerrit, the Giant, who was
accordingly sentenced to be hanged by the neck until dead as
an example to all such malefactors.’ Four days after the trial,
and on the day of the sentence, all Nieuw Amsterdam left its
accustomed work to gaze on the unwonted spectacle. Various
Indians also gathered, wondering, to the scene. The giant
negro is brought out by the black hangman, and placed on the
ladder against the fort with two strong halters around his
neck. After an exhortation from Domine Bogardus during
which the negro chaunts barbaric invocations to his favorite
Fetich, he is duly turned off the ladder into the air. Under the
violent struggles and weight of the giant, however, both
halters break. He falls to the ground. He utters piteous cries.
Now on his knees, now twisting and groveling on the earth.
The women shriek. The men join in his prayers for mercy to
the stern Director. He is no trifler and the law must have its
course. The hangman prepares a stronger rope. Finally the
cry for mercy is so general that the Director relents, and the
fortunate giant is led off the ground by his swarthy friends,
somewhat disturbed in his intellect by his near view of the
grim King of Terrors.”
Up to February 21, 1788, benefit of clergy existed; that is, the plea
in capital felonies of being able to read. This was a monkish privilege
first extended only to priestly persons. In England it was not
abolished till 1827. The minutes of the Court of General Quarter
Sessions in New York bear records of criminals who pleaded “the
benefit” and were branded on the brawn of the left thumb with “T” in
open court and then discharged.
As the punishments accorded for crimes were not severe for the
notions of the times, it is almost amusing to read some fierce
ordinances,—though there is no record of any executions in
accordance with them. For instance, in January, 1659, by the
Director-General and Council with the advice of the burgomasters
and schepens it was enacted that “No person shall strip the fences
of posts or rails under penalty for the first offence of being whipped
and branded, and for the second, of punishment with the cord until
death ensues.” It is really astonishing to think of these kindly Dutch
gentlemen calmly ordering hanging for stealing fence-rails, though of
course the matter reached further than at first appeared: there was
danger of a scarcity of grain; and if the fences were stolen, the cattle
would trample down and destroy the grain. Later orders as to fences
were given which appear eminently calculated to be mischief-
making. “Persons thinking their neighbors’ fences not good, first to
request them to repair; failing which to report to the overseers.” In
1674 all persons were forbidden to leave the city except by city-gate,
under penalty of death; this was of course when war threatened.
The crime of suicide was not without punishment. Suicides were
denied ordinary burial rites. In Dutch days when one Smitt of New
York committed suicide, the schout asked that his body be drawn on
a hurdle and buried with a stake in his heart. This order was not
executed; he was buried at night and his estates confiscated. When
Sir Danvers Osborne—the Governor for a day—was found dead by
his own act, he was “decently interred in Trinity churchyard.”
Women in New York sometimes made their appearance in New
York courts, as in those of other colonies, in another rôle than that of
witness or criminal; they sometimes sat on juries. In the year 1701,
six good Albany wives served on a jury: Tryntje Roseboom, Catheren
Gysbertse, Angeneutt Jacobse, Marritje Dirkse, Elsje Lansing, and
Susanna Bratt. They were, of course, empanelled for a special duty,
not to serve on the entire evidence of the case for which they were
engaged.
Many old records are found which employ quaint metaphors or
legal expressions; I give one which refers to a custom which seems
at one time to have been literally performed. It occurs in a
commission granted to the trustees of an estate of which the debts
exceeded the assets. Any widow in Holland or New Netherland could
be relieved of all demands or claims of her husband’s creditors by
relinquishing all right of inheritance. This widow took this privilege; it
is recorded thus:—
“Whereas, Harman Jacobsen Bamboes has been lately
shot dead, murdered by the Indians, and whereas the estate
left by him has been kicked away with the foot by his wife who
has laid the key on the coffin, it is therefore necessary to
authorize and qualify some persons to regulate the same.”
There was a well-known Dutch saying which referred to this
privilege, Den Sleutel op het graf leggen, and simply meant not to
pay the debts of the deceased.
This legal term and custom is of ancient origin. In Davies’ “History
of Holland” we read of a similar form being gone through with in
Holland in 1404, according to the law of Rhynland. The widow of a
great nobleman immediately after his death desired to renounce all
claim on his estate and responsibility for his debts. She chose a
guardian, and, advancing with him to the door of the Court (where
the body of the dead Count had been placed on a bier), announced
that she was dressed wholly in borrowed clothing; she then formally
gave a straw to her guardian, who threw it on the dead body, saying
he renounced for her all right of dower, and abjured all debts. This
was derived from a still more ancient custom of the Franks, who
renounced all alliances by the symbolic breaking and throwing away
a straw.
In other states of the Netherlands the widow gave up dower and
debts by laying a key and purse on the coffin. This immunity was
claimed by persons in high rank, one being the widow of the Count
of Flanders.
In New England (as I have told at length in my book, “Customs
and Fashions in Old New England,”) the widow who wished to
renounce her husband’s debts was married in her shift, often at the
cross-roads, at midnight. These shift-marriages took place in
Massachusetts as late as 1836; I have a copy of a court record of
that date.
I know of but one instance of the odious and degrading English
custom of wife-trading taking place in New York. Laurens Duyts, an
agent for Anneke Jans in some of her business transactions, was in
the year 1663 sentenced to be flogged and have his right ear cut off
for selling his wife, Mistress Duyts, to one Jansen. Possibly the
severity of the punishment may have prevented the recurrence of the
crime.
After a somewhat extended study and comparison of the early
court and church records of New England with those of New York, I
cannot fail to draw the conclusion—if it is just to judge from such
comparisons—that the state of social morals was higher in the Dutch
colonies than in the English. Perhaps the settlers of Boston and
Plymouth were more severe towards suspicion of immorality, as they
were infinitely more severe towards suspicion of irreligion, than were
their Dutch neighbors. And they may have given more publicity and
punishment to deviations from the path of rectitude and uprightness;
but certainly from their own records no fair-minded person can fail to
deem them more frail, more erring, more wicked, than the Dutch.
The circumstances of immigration and the tendencies of
temperament were diverse, and perhaps it was natural that a
reaction tending to sin and vice should come to the intense and
overwrought religionist rather than to the phlegmatic and prosperous
trader. In Virginia and Maryland the presence of many convict-
emigrants would form a reasonable basis for the existence of the
crime and law-breaking which certainly was in those colonies far in
excess of the crime in New Netherland and New York.
I know that Rev. Mr. Miller, the English clergyman, did not give the
settlement a very good name at the last of the seventeenth century;
but even his strictures cannot force me to believe the colonists so
unbearably wicked.
It should also be emphasized that New Netherland was far more
tolerant, more generous than New England to all of differing religious
faiths. Under Stuyvesant, however, Quakers were interdicted from
preaching, were banished, and one Friend was treated with great
cruelty. The Dutch clergymen opposed the establishment of a
Lutheran church, and were rebuked by the Directors in Holland, who
said that in the future they would send out clergymen “not tainted
with any needless preciseness;” and Stuyvesant was also rebuked
for issuing an ordinance imposing a penalty for holding conventicles
not in accordance with the Synod of Dort. Many Christians not in
accordance in belief with that synod settled in New Netherland.
Quakers, Lutherans, Church of England folk, Anabaptists,
Huguenots, Waldenses, Walloons. The Jews were protected and
admitted to the rights of citizenship. Director Kieft, with heavy
ransoms, rescued the captive Jesuits, Father Jogues and Father
Bressani, from the Indians and tenderly cared for them. No witches
suffered death in New York, and no statute law existed against
witchcraft. There is record of but one witchcraft trial under the
English governor, Nicholls, who speedily joined with the Dutch in
setting aside all that nonsense.
CHAPTER XIII
CHURCH AND SUNDAY IN OLD NEW YORK
Sunday was not observed in New Netherland with any such rigidity
as in New England. The followers of Cocceius would not willingly
include Saturday night, and not even all of the Sabbath day, in their
holy time. Madam Knight, writing in 1704 of a visit to New York,
noted: “The Dutch aren’t strict in keeping the Sabbath as in Boston
and other places where I have been.” This was, of course, in times of
English rule in New York. Still, much respect to the day was required,
especially under the governing hand of the rigid Calvinist
Stuyvesant. He specially enjoined and enforced strict regard for
seemly quiet during service time. The records of Stuyvesant’s
government are full of injunctions and laws prohibiting “tavern-
tapping” during the hours of church service. He would not tolerate
fishing, gathering of berries or nuts, playing in the street, nor gaming
at ball or bowls during church time. At a little later date the time of
prohibition of noise and tapping and gaming was extended to include
the entire Sabbath day, and the schout was ordered to be active in
searching out and punishing such offenders.
Occasionally his vigilance did discover some Sabbath disorders.
He found the first Jew trader who came to the island of Manhattan
serenely keeping open shop on Sunday, and selling during sermon
time, knowing naught of any Sunday laws of New Amsterdam.
And Albert the Trumpeter was seen on the Sabbath in suspicious
guise, with an axe on his shoulder,—but he was only going to cut a
bat for his little son; and as for his neighbor who did cut wood, it was
only kindling, since his children were cold.
And one Sunday evening in 1660 the schout triumphantly found
three sailors round a tap-house table with a lighted candle and a
backgammon-board thereon; and he surely had a right to draw an
inference of gaming therefrom.
And in another public-house ninepins were visible, and a can and
glass, during preaching-time. The landlady had her excuse,—some
came to her house and said church was out, and one chanced to
have a bowl in his hand and another a pin, but there was no playing
at bowls.
Still, though he snooped and fined, in 1656 the burgomasters
learned “by daily and painful experience” that the profanation of “the
Lord’s day of Rest by the dangerous, Yes, damnable Sale or Dealing
out of Wines Beers and Brandy-Waters” still went on; and fresh
Sunday Laws were issued forbidding “the ordinary and customary
Labors of callings, such as Sowing, Mowing, Building, Sawing wood,
Smithing, Bleeching, Hunting, Fishing.” All idle sports were banned
and named: “Dancing, Card-playing, Tick-tacking, Playing at ball, at
bowls, at ninepins; taking Jaunts in Boats, Wagons, or Carriages.”
In 1673, again, the magistrates “experienced to our great grief”
that rolling ninepins was more in vogue on Sunday than on any other
day. And we learn that there were social clubs that “Set on the
Sabbath,” which must speedily be put an end to. Thirty men were
found by the schout in one tap-huys; but as they were playing
ninepins and backgammon two hours after the church-doors had
closed, prosecution was most reluctantly abandoned.
Of course scores of “tappers” were prosecuted, both in taverns
and private houses. Piety and regard for an orderly Sabbath were
not the only guiding thoughts in the burgomasters’ minds in framing
these Sunday liquor laws and enforcing them; for some tapsters had
“tapped beer during divine service and used a small kind of measure
which is in contempt of our religion and must ruin our state,”—and
the state was sacred. In the country, as for instance on Long Island,
the carting of grain, travelling for pleasure, and shooting of wild-fowl
on Sunday were duly punished in the local courts.
I do not think that children were as rigid church attendants in New
York as in New England. In 1696, in Albany, we find this injunction:
“ye Constables in eache warde to take thought in attending at ye
church to hender such children as Profane ye Sabbath;” and we
know that Albany boys and girls were complained of for coasting
down hill on Sunday,—which enormity would have been simply
impossible in New England, except in an isolated outburst of Adamic
depravity. In another New York town the “Athoatys” complained of
the violation of the Sabbath by “the Younger Sort of people in
Discourssing of Vane things and Running of Raesses.” As for the city
of New York, even at Revolutionary times a cage was set up on City
Hall Park in which to confine wicked New York boys who profaned
the Sabbath. I do not find so full provisions made for seating children
in Dutch Reformed churches as in Puritan meeting-houses. A wise
saying of Martin Luther’s was “Public sermons do very little edify
children”—perhaps the Dutch agreed with him. As the children were
taught the Bible and the catechism every day in the week, their
spiritual and religious schooling was sufficient without the Sunday
sermon,—but, of course, if they were not in the church during
services, they would “talk of vane Things and run Raesses.”
Before the arrival of any Dutch preacher in the new settlement in
the new world, the spiritual care of the little company was provided
for by men appointed to a benign and beautiful old Dutch office, and
called krankebesoeckers or zeikentroosters,—“comforters of the
Sick,”—who not only tenderly comforted the sick and weary of heart,
but “read to the Commonalty on Sundays from texts of Scripture with
the Comments.” These pious men were assigned to this godly work
in Fort Orange and in New Amsterdam and Breuckelen. In Esopus
they had meetings every Sunday, “and one among us read
something for a postille.” Often special books of sermons were read
to the congregations.
In Fort Orange they had a domine before they had a church. The
patroon instructed Van Curler to build a church in 1642; but it was
not until 1646 that the little wooden edifice was really put up. It was
furnished at a cost of about thirty-two dollars by carpenter
Fredricksen, with a predickstoel, or pulpit, a seat for the magistrates,
—de Heerebanke,—one for the deacons, nine benches and several
corner-seats.

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Equations, Inequalities, and

2 Functions and Their Graphs 159

3 Polynomial Functions 241

4 Rational Functions and Conics 309

5 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 359

6 Systems of Equations and Inequalities 421

7 Matrices and Determinants 493

8 Sequences, Series, and Probability 561

Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises and Tests A9

*Available at the text companion website LarsonPrecalculus.com

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Complete Solutions Manual

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Student Study Guide and Solutions Manual

Reviewers of the Eleventh Edition

Reviewers of the Previous Editions

My thanks to Robert Hostetler, The Behrend College, The Pennsylvania State

 Ron Larson, Ph.D.

P.2 Exponents and Radicals

Chapter P Section 6 Exercise 39

P.1 Review of Real Numbers and Their Properties

example, in Exercises 47–50 3

{ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . } Set of whole numbers

{ . . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . } Set of integers

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com

Scan the to access digital content available for this page.

As illustrated in Figure P.3, there is a one-to-one correspondence between real numbers

EXAMPLE 2 Plotting Points on the Real Number Line

a. The point representing the real number

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com

Plot the real numbers on the real number line.

Ordering Real Numbers

EXAMPLE 3 Ordering Real Numbers

EXAMPLE 4 Interpreting Inequalities

Checkpoint Audio-video solution in English & Spanish at LarsonPrecalculus.com

Describe the subset of real numbers that the inequality represents.

Bounded Intervals on the Real Number Line

Let a and b be real numbers such that a < b.

(a, b) Open a < x < b x

Unbounded Intervals on the Real Number Line

(− ∞, ∞) Entire real line −∞ < x < ∞ x

Absolute Value and Distance

Definition of Absolute Value

If a is a real number, then the absolute value of a is

EXAMPLE 6 Finding Absolute Values

c. ∣−4.3∣ = 4.3 d. − ∣−6∣ = − (6) = −6

Evaluate each expression.

EXAMPLE 7 Evaluating an Absolute Value Expression

Ron Larson, Ph.D.

Identify the terms and coefficients of −2x + 4.

Evaluate 4x − 5 when x = 0.