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Nostalgia Marketing.
Rekindling the
Past to Influence Consumer Choices
Marco Pichierri
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Nostalgia Marketing
Rekindling the Past to
Influence Consumer
Choices
Marco Pichierri
Nostalgia Marketing
Marco Pichierri
Nostalgia Marketing
Rekindling the Past to Influence Consumer Choices
Marco Pichierri
University of Bari “Aldo Moro”
Bari, Italy
ISBN 978-3-031-21545-2 ISBN 978-3-031-20914-7 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-20914-7
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Foreword and Reverse
I was tempted to title this brief foreword as “In Search of Lost Time,” but
the phrase is over-used. It is noteworthy that the English translation of
Proust’s À la recherche du temps perdu was previously given the title
Remembrance of Things Past. The two titles highlight two different ways
of looking at the past. The earlier title, Remembrance, suggests that we
invoke a remembered autobiographical past that we need to only get in
touch with through clues like the taste of Proust’s petite madeleines and
lime blossom tea. It envisions nostalgia as a melancholy longing for past
days tinged with a bittersweetness. This is the nostalgia of Susan Stewart’s
book, On Longing:
Nostalgia is a sadness without an object, a sadness which creates a longing

that of necessity is inauthentic because it does not take part in lived experi-
ence. … the past it seeks has never existed. (23)
In this definition nostalgia is misremembrance. It is a search for a fictive

past rather than an accurate memory. The past remembered in this view is
a false narrative that is unconsciously perpetuated and reshaped in order to
valorize an otherwise tenuous present self.
This earlier title, Remembrance of Things Past, is taken from
Shakespeare’s sonnet 30, which begins:
When to the sessions of sweet silent thought

I summon up remembrance of things past,
v
vi FOREWORD AND REVERSE
I sigh the lack of many a thing I sought,

And with old woes new wail my dear time’s waste.
Wasted time, loves lost, goals unfulfilled, and sights never to be seen
again, all give this sonnet about nostalgia a somber and sad tone focusing
on loss. But several stanzas later in its final couplet, there is a reversal in
which the sonnet offers a more positive take on nostalgia:
But if the while I think on thee, dear friend,

All losses are restor’d, and sorrows end.
In other words, there are likely selective sweet parts of our past that
redeem any bitter regrets it might evoke. These are the memories we are
more apt to cling to in reimagining our past.
The current title of Proust’s seven-volume work, In Search of Lost Time,
evokes a more positive take on nostalgia. The search is a quest of discov-
ery. The past may be past, but it is also a record of our joys and sorrows
that make us who we are. Nostalgia in this view is a search for one’s self.
This positive view is something that becomes clearer in the book you are
about to read.
My own professional connection with nostalgia has focused on indi-
vidual nostalgia through personal possessions. For example, I have studied
how people help construct their identity through things we see as not only
ours but as expressing and defining us. I call this concept the extended self
or extended sense of self. I stipulate that it includes all the things, pets,
people, and places that make us who we are. I claim that there is also a
subset of these things that define our sense of past that helps make us who
we are in the present. We define our self, in part, through possessions that
remind us of our past self and past experiences with family, friends, and
significant others. This is where individual nostalgia becomes interper-
sonal rather than merely personal.
In further contrast to the individual nostalgia, the emphasis in Marco
Pichierri’s Nostalgia Marketing is on collective nostalgia stirred through
music, movies, celebrities, fashions, and events from our shared past. This
is not the same as nationalism because, in marketing terms, we fall into
different segments and we connect with different objects of nostalgia
depending on our age cohort and subcultures. In secondary school (high
school) together with our group or clique of friends we may even have
sought to define ourselves collectively through the music, fashions,
FOREWORD AND REVERSE vii
grooming, heroes, films, and hangouts that we chose to define “us” as

opposed to “them”—the others who did not share our collective tastes.
That is, we expressed our identities not only through the things we liked
but also by the things we didn’t like—our distastes.
The 2019–2021 COVID pandemic was shared with most of the world
and will someday be an item of nostalgia cued by facemasks, reminders of
our ingenuity of overcoming shortages, and the bravery of frontline work-
ers. We will not be nostalgic for the policies that barred us from saying
goodbye to dying loved ones, that confined us to home, and that forced
restrictions on our travel and group activities. Thus, both positive and
negative shared experiences can become cues for collective nostalgia.
In the Chapters that follow Pichierri reports the results of a series of
clever experiments with various aspects of the past that can make us more
or less inclined to patronize certain brands, make certain monetary dona-
tions, eat more sustainably, or buy tickets to certain sports events. Our
collective nostalgia is filtered through the lenses of variables such as our
degree of fandom, our sports teams’ strong or weak performance, the
degree to which we see tradition as important, our tendency to be pru-
dent, our proneness to nostalgia, our success in achieving flow, and our
embrace of environmentalism. These factors are found to affect our food
preferences (sustainable vs. non-sustainable), sports tourism (nostalgic vs.
heritage motivations), and charitable donations (amounts).
Other nostalgia marketing is assessed by Pichierri from a systematic
literature review (SLR) and synthesis, including some interesting phenom-
ena impacted by nostalgia. They include moving a sports franchise to
another city, pond hockey in Canada, French-speaking Swiss and authen-
tic heritage goods, West Indies diaspora and cricket fandom exhibited by
Caribbean Canadians, Tour de France followers, visits to a sports museum,
retro sports apparel, the Persian Gulf Pro football League, South Korean
baseball, European football, fans of foreign sports teams in Singapore, and
visits to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in Canton, Ohio.
In most of these cases, the book reports positive results from advertis-
ing cueing nostalgia. But Pichierri also reports some negative findings uti-
lizing nostalgic advertising appeals. For instance, in Chap. 4 he cautions
against using nostalgic appeals in food advertising. But there may also be
some deeper and more subtle effects of utilizing nostalgia in advertising
appeals. A focus on using the past as a balm and buffer against dealing with
the present and future may handicap a person from going forward with
their life.
viii FOREWORD AND REVERSE
At the end of Chap. 2 there is a note that “nostalgic feelings may differ
based on gender and age.” This is fundamental. Teenagers don’t want to be
pre-teens again; they long to be 20. But 70-year-olds would rather be 50-
or 60-year-olds. There is some systematicity to such patterns as
Csikszentmihalyi & Rochberg-Halton found in The Meaning of Things
(1981). By studying the favorite possessions of three generations in the
same families, they found that the favorite possessions of those of the
youngest generation were more forward-looking, while those of the oldest
generation were objects that inclined them to look more in reverse at
things that connect them to their earlier lives and families. This suggests
that nostalgia likely increases with age. Something that has been found in
studies by Turner and Stanley (2021, Emotion, 21(5)).
In Nostalgia Marketing, although some pro-social behaviors are found
in reviewing past studies of nostalgia-prone consumers, it is also found by
Pichierri that those influenced by these appeals are less likely to be green
consumers because nostalgia discourages people from adopting innovative
products. He reports (p. 110), “As this advertising type leads the audience
to dwell on the past, it may temporarily hinder their ability to focus on the
future (e.g., sustainable food consumption choices).”
Pichierri (p. 2) also observes, “The idea of harkening to a simpler, reas-
suring past offers consumers an anchor of stability in turbulent times.” But
simpler times may unfortunately also invoke nostalgia for a past that was
more racist, segregated, homophobic, patriarchal, and intolerant. Not that
we are free of these prejudices now, but they were more open and blatant
in the past. Listening to a familiar old tune or watching clips from an old
movie or old sporting event may seem innocent enough, but it may also
cue a return of such problematic attitudes. So, when we tie our brand to
cues from the past, we may also be tying it to some troublesome past values.
Discomfort with present times is a major condition increasing suscepti-
bility to nostalgia. It even was found after the fall of communism in Eastern
Europe that there were many who believed that life was better under com-
munism (Todorova and Gille 2010, Post-Communist Nostalgia). This can
also operate at an individual level. Nostalgia may reflect a desire for a
younger self, my glory days, earlier successes, and high points in life. And
it may lead to pursuing vicarious satisfaction from non-participant activi-
ties that replace what were once participant activities. Perhaps this is like
collecting where I have found that a lack of control in everyday life is
sometimes compensated by achieving feelings of control in the collection,
FOREWORD AND REVERSE ix
a “little world” of nostalgic revelries where we have a greater chance of

competitive success (Belk 1995).
In focusing on nostalgia, Pichierri deals with a fascinating topic. He has
made great inroads into marketing opportunities and dangers in exploit-
ing the past. He also does a great service in systematically reviewing and
synthesizing the relevant literature. In these comments I’ve tried to widen
the field of view even farther by pointing out several connections to adja-
cent concerns. The book is an excellent invitation to go forward by look-
ing in reverse. And the rear-view mirror of our re-imagined past is a key
means for formulating who we are and consolidating a sense of self.
Schulich School of Business Russell W. Belk

York University, Toronto, ON, Canada
Contents
1 Nostalgia
Marketing and Consumer Behavior 1
1 An Introduction to Nostalgia Marketing 1
2 Nostalgia in the Academic Literature 3
3 The Effects of Nostalgia on Consumers 5
4 On the Mechanisms Behind Nostalgia 6
5 The Structure of the Book 6
6 A Detailed Overview of the Extant Research on Nostalgia in
the Marketing Literature 48
References 49
2 Nostalgic
Advertising Usage in Sports Season Tickets
Campaigns 59
1 Introduction 59
2 Theoretical Background 60
3 The Experimental Study 63
3.1 Method 63
3.2 Results 64
4 General Discussion 68
Appendix 1: Fictitious Advertisements Used as Experimental
Stimuli in the Study 70
Appendix 2: Measures and Items Used in the Questionnaire 70
References 71
xi
xii Contents
3 The
Impact of Nostalgic Advertising on Consumer
Willingness to Donate During a Crisis 77
1 Introduction 77
3 Methodology 83
4 Results 84
5 Discussion 86
Appendix: Sketches of the Experimental Stimuli Used in the Study 89
References 90
4 Examining
Nostalgic Advertising Effectiveness in
Sustainable Food Consumption Behavior 95
1 Introduction 95
3 Study 1100
3.1 Methodology100
3.2 Results101
4 Study 2103
4.1 Methodology103
4.2 Results104
5 Study 3106
5.1 Methodology106
5.2 Results107
6 General Discussion108
Appendix: Experimental Stimuli Used in the Studies111
Studies 1–2 111
Study 3 112
References112
5 A
Systematic Review of Nostalgia-Based Marketing
Strategies in Sport Tourism117
1 Introduction117
2 Method118
3 Measuring and Assessing Nostalgia in the Sport Tourism
Domain128
4 Theoretical Contributions and Reflections on Nostalgia
in the Sport Tourism129
5 Cases in Point and Analysis of Real Events132
Contents xiii
6 Navigating among the Nostalgic: Exploring Fans’ Inner

Motives in Choosing an Experience134
7 Quantitative Approaches to Examine Sport Tourism
Nostalgia136
8 Discussion141
References143
6 Conclusions147
1 In Summary147
2 Final Considerations149
References150
Index153
About the Author
Marco Pichierri (Ph.D. in Business Economics) is Assistant Professor of

Marketing and Business Management at the University of Bari “Aldo
Moro,” Bari, Italy. His main research focus is on consumer behavior and
advertising effectiveness. His works have been published in several inter-
national peer-reviewed journals such as the Journal of Advertising Research,
Journal of Business Research, Journal of Interactive Marketing, Marketing
Letters, Computers in Human Behavior, Journal of Services Marketing, and
Current Issues in Tourism.
xv
List of Figures
Fig. 1.1 Temporal distribution of the research documents on nostalgia

marketing listed by Scopus in the period 1993-2021 3
Fig. 2.1 Purchase Intention (A) and Word-of-Mouth Intention (B) as a
function of Advertising Type and Attitude Toward the Team 66
Fig. 2.2 Purchase Intention (A) and Word-of-Mouth Intention (B) as a
function of Advertising Type and Fandom Level 67
Fig. 3.1 The conceptual model of the research 83
Fig. 4.1 Purchase intention (mean values and standard errors) as a
function of advertising type and product type 102
Fig. 4.2 The conceptual framework (S2) 104
Fig. 4.3 The conceptual framework (S3) 107
Fig. 5.1 Distribution of the articles by year of publication 127
Fig. 5.2 Distribution of the articles by author 127
Fig. 5.3 Distribution of the articles by country 128
xvii
List of Tables
Table 1.1 Some relevant studies related to the use of nostalgia in the
marketing, consumer, advertising, and management domains 9
Table 2.1 Mean scores and standard deviations for measures of Purchase
Intention and Word-of-Mouth Intention as a function of
Advertising Type and Attitude Toward the Team 67
Table 2.2 Mean scores and standard deviations for measures of Purchase
Intention and Word-of-Mouth Intention as a function of
Advertising Type and Fandom levels 68
Table 3.1 Coefficient estimates for the moderated mediation model for
willingness to donate 86
Table 3.2 Bootstrap results for the conditional indirect effects 87
Table 4.1 Summary table for the two-way ANOVA of the effects of
advertising type and product type on purchase intention 102
Table 4.2 Summary of Study 2’s main results 105
Table 4.3 Summary of Study 3’s main results 109
Table 5.1 Synoptic table related to the academic studies included in
the analysis 119
xix
CHAPTER 1
Nostalgia Marketing and Consumer Behavior
1 An Introduction to Nostalgia Marketing

In an era characterized by an unprecedented uncertainty, seeking refuge in
the past is a common ploy for consumers. Therefore, it should come as no
surprise that companies are extensively utilizing nostalgia marketing, i.e.,
a marketing strategy aimed at deliberately evoking nostalgic feelings in the
target audience. Indeed, recent years have shown that marketers resort to
nostalgia in the aftermath of crises (e.g., after 9/11 and the financial crisis
of 2008; Dan, 2020). Recently, a study by MRC (2020), investigating the
impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on entertainment choices, found that
a majority of consumers sought comfort in past-related content (e.g., TV
shows, movies, and songs from their youth).
Various sectors are awash in real-world examples of nostalgic market-
ing. In the entertainment industry, the successful TV series Stranger
Things is imbued with nostalgic references; Netflix specifically marketed
the show by partnering with several brands that appeal to fans of 1980s
media (CNN, 2019). Likewise, the award-winning TV series Mad Men
was built on the aesthetic and style associated with the sixties (Kessous
et al., 2015). Meanwhile, The Last Dance sport docuseries increased the
nostalgia for the epic achievements of Micheal Jordan, which inclined
more players of the NBA 2K20 videogame to play with the classic Bulls
team (Mazique, 2020). In the food industry, Burger King pursued a
rebranding strategy in January 2021 wherein they applied a classic style to
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 1

Switzerland AG 2023
M. Pichierri, Nostalgia Marketing,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-20914-7_1
2 M. PICHIERRI
their logo (basically resembling the logo they used 30 years prior) to lever-
age the power of nostalgia (Beausoleil, 2021; Meisenzahl, 2021). In this
vein, an Ad Age-Harris Poll survey (The Harris Poll, 2021) revealed that
some companies (e.g., fast-food ones) fully embrace nostalgic stimuli in
their marketing strategies, adapting some of their product features (e.g.,
packaging) to influence consumers’ attitudes and purchases (e.g., Pepsi’s
throwback versions of Pepsi and Mountain Dew that imitated the original
iterations with retro packages and taste; Horovitz, 2011).
Brands may also decide to revive products from the past in order to
evoke nostalgia: Following persistent urging on social media, Coca-Cola
restarted production on its Surge soda after a 12-year hiatus. The beverage
sold out within hours (CNBC, 2014).
Examples of nostalgia-based marketing strategies abound in other
industries: Nokia rebooted its historical 3310 model 17 years after its
debut (BBC, 2017); Fisher-Price pursued a nostalgic-tinged campaign fea-
turing the famous American actor John Goodman immersed in classic
children toys (Dan, 2020); Nintendo, Sega and Sony introduced mini-
versions of their famous gaming consoles (Hill, 2022); and the National
Basketball Association and other sports leagues launched their nostalgic
throwback uniforms (Spaid, 2013). Some companies, meanwhile, utilize
nostalgia as a positioning strategy: Moleskine, for instance, claims that its
notebooks are the successors to those used by famous creative personali-
ties such as Hemingway and Picasso (Heinberg & Katsikeas, 2019). Lastly,
social media are awash in nostalgic content: Throwback Thursdays and a
plethora of past-based memes represent just a sample of the content posted
by companies and users in these virtual arenas to evoke nostalgic feelings
(Muehling et al., 2014).
The proliferation of this trend begs a simple question: Why has nostal-
gia marketing become so popular? The idea of harkening to a simpler,
reassuring past offers consumers an anchor of stability in turbulent times
(Tannock, 1995). As customers become more dissatisfied, this tactic may
become more persuasive (Merchant & Ford, 2008). Indeed, nostalgia
represents a romantic glance to the past, often for the purpose of preserv-
ing individuals’ identities (Kessous et al., 2015) and satisfying the need for
interpersonal belongingness (Zhou et al., 2012). Furthermore, for many
consumers, the attractiveness of nostalgia lies in its implied authenticity
(Belk, 1990; Spaid, 2013)—its presentation of the past as a genuine refuge
from the artificiality of the present. Practitioners are increasingly leverag-
ing nostalgia in their appeals to Millennials (Friedman, 2016), i.e.,
1 NOSTALGIA MARKETING AND CONSUMER BEHAVIOR 3
30
28
26
24
Number of documents
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Year of publication
Note: Author’s elaboration on Scopus data.
Fig. 1.1 Temporal distribution of the research documents on nostalgia market-

ing listed by Scopus in the period 1993-2021
consumers born between 1981 and 1999 (Liu et al., 2019), given that this
aging consumer segment has overtaken Baby Boomers in terms of popula-
tion size and per-capita spending (Bona et al., 2020).
According to some authors (e.g., Demirbag-Kaplan et al., 2015), nostal-
gia remains a largely under-researched area in the field of consumer behav-
ior. However, interest has been growing: A cursory review of Scopus (www.
scopus.com)—using the keywords ‘nostalgia’ and ‘marketing’ in the article
title, abstract and keywords fields—returned 254 documents in the period
1993-2021 (see Fig. 1.1), with the bulk being published in the last decade.
2 Nostalgia in the Academic Literature

Scholars usually refer to nostalgia as individuals’ yearning for the past
(Holbrook, 1993) or romanticization of former time periods (Stern,
1992). This orientation arises from feeling unintentionally detached from
a preceding period of time that they value or are fond of (Davis, 1979;
Holbrook, 1993; Zhou et al., 2012). This perception fosters affections for
tangible or intangible objects and actions connected with the past (Davis,
1979; Holbrook, 1993). However, while the first recorded references to
nostalgia may be traced in Homer’s Ulysses and some Biblical psalms
(Shields & Johnson, 2016), our current conception has its roots in the
4 M. PICHIERRI
medical field—where it initially described a pathological condition associ-

ated with homesickness (Kessous & Roux, 2008) and characterized by
psychological negatives and symptoms (Sedikides et al., 2004). Indeed,
the term ‘nostalgias’—a merge of the Greek words ‘nosos’ (i.e., return to
the native land) and ‘algos’ (i.e., pain, suffering)—was coined in the mid-
seventeenth century by Johannes Hofer (1688) in his medical dissertation
about the psychological underpinnings of missing home. This origin
explains why nostalgia was treated as a sort of medical illness until the late
19th century, when it was relegated to a psychosomatic disorder (Batcho,
1998; Shields & Johnson, 2016).
Scholars have since extended the notion of nostalgia to depict a socio-
logical phenomenon (Davis, 1979) about the contemporaneous interest
toward elements belonging to the past (Hamilton & Wagner, 2014). For
instance, scholars started to refer to nostalgia as a mixed emotion related
to the longing for the past (Baumgartner, 1992) or as individuals’ ten-
dency to look back to and desire an idealized past (Lowenthal, 1985).
This yearning for yesteryear, observed in sociology and anthropology
(Davis, 1979; McCracken, 1988), was soon connected to individuals’
attempt to restructure some elements of the past in their present life
through consumption (Holbrook, 1993). Thus, the bittersweet longing
for home (Holak & Havlena, 1992), delineated in the psychological litera-
ture, soon became a lens for interpreting individuals’ behavior in the mar-
keting domain. As a consequence, nostalgia conceptually evolved into a
convincing promotional appeal (Muehling & Pascal, 2012; Naughton,
1998), giving rise to studies on consumer nostalgia in the early 1990s
(Kazlauske & Gineikiene, 2017). Scholars’ efforts in the consumer domain
resulted in definitions of the phenomenon that directly apply to the mar-
keting field. Thus, in the consumer behavior domain, nostalgia has been
conceptualized as a time-related preference for experiences associated with
items or elements that were more widespread or popular in one’s youth
(Holbrook & Schindler, 2003). Consumers develop this preference
toward past-related objects through some combination of socialization
and the media (Fairley, 2003), which allows past-related thoughts to trig-
ger a certain mood or emotion (Muehling, Sprott, & Sultan, 2014).
Nostalgic individuals experience an amplified focus on past things, reflected
in a partial detachment from everyday life (Brown & Humphreys, 2002)—
and this phenomenon may affect individuals regardless of age, gender and
social class (Greenberg et al., 2004).
3 The Effects of Nostalgia on Consumers

Consumers may be attracted by elements that positively evoke the past,
especially in the presence of some negative attitudes toward the present
(Davis, 1979). As scholars have found in the last few decades (Spaid,
2013), nostalgia may be cued by marketers in a number of ways and by a
number of sources (e.g., music, photographs, movies, family members,
events, jingles, e.g., Havlena & Holak, 1991; Marchegiani & Phau, 2010).
Indeed, the nostalgic feelings produced through relevant stimuli have the
ability to influence consumers’ preferences and decision-making process
(e.g., Holak & Havlena, 1998). Specifically, nostalgia has been found to
affect consumers’ attitudes toward products and brands (e.g., Muehling &
Pascal, 2012; Muehling & Sprott, 2004) and influence a wide range of
consumer responses, including brand loyalty (Muehling & Sprott, 2004;
Olsen, 1995), brand meaning (Brown et al., 2003), and purchase inten-
tions (e.g., Muehling et al., 2014; Sierra & McQuitty, 2007).
In the advertising domain, research has confirmed that nostalgia is
effective in communication strategies (e.g., Havlena & Holak, 1991;
Muehling & Sprott, 2004; Rindfleisch & Sprott, 2000) and has been
widely adopted (Khoshghadam et al., 2019) due to its advantages over
similar, but non-nostalgic advertising (Muehling & Pascal, 2012).
Notably, nostalgia represents a perspective through which scholars can
explore the role of individuals’ identity in consumption behavior (Belk,
1990). Indeed, consumers may extend their identity beyond the physical
confines of the body and along the time dimension (Belk, 1988), purpose-
fully buying and collecting objects that allow them to relive previous and
cherished time periods. Owning nostalgic objects may offer a “buffer”
against existential threats stemming from the passage of time (Sedikides &
Wildschut, 2018), and can therefore serve as a tool for managing one’s
identity and feelings (Belk, 1991). In this view, purchasing nostalgic items
serves to recall one’s past and support a sense of self-continuity (Sierra &
McQuitty, 2007). Additionally, feeling nostalgic seems to decrease
people’s desire for money and thereby facilitates a willingness to spend
money (Lasaleta et al., 2014). These effects appear to extend across several
industries (e.g., hospitality and entertainment; see Li et al., 2019) and
domains, with recent research connecting nostalgia to pro-social behaviors
(i.e., intention to volunteer and donate; Zhou et al., 2012) and psycho-
logical benefits (e.g., improving individuals’ identity and social attach-
ments; Brown & Humphreys, 2002; Sedikides et al., 2008). Notably, the
first applications of neuroscience to this topic have found that recalling
6 M. PICHIERRI
information from the past activates emotion-regulation brain regions such

as the hippocampus (Oba et al., 2016).
4 On the Mechanisms Behind Nostalgia

According to Davis (1979) and Holak and Havlena (1992), the basic con-
cept of nostalgia is the unchallenged opinion that things were better in the
past than they are in the present. However, the past that is reified through
nostalgia is usually an idealized version where individuals have filtered out
negative elements (Hirsch, 1992; Stern, 1992). This tendency to base
nostalgic memory around selective positive aspects has led some scholars
(e.g., Holak & Havlena, 1992) to suggest that nostalgia can “filter” past
times through “rose-colored glasses”. Therefore, nostalgia not only helps
to alleviate existential threat and satisfy the needs for meaning and belong-
ing (Sedikides et al., 2008), but it also represents a sort of “redemption
sequence” (Muehling & Pascal, 2012) whereby negative life events from
the past can be molded into a positive narrative (Wildschut et al., 2006).
Importantly, a nostalgic feeling may arise from both a personally remem-
bered past (i.e., personal nostalgia) or a socially conveyed past that pre-
ceded the individual’s life (i.e., historical nostalgia). Both appeals are
already being employed by marketers (Phau & Marchegiani, 2011).
Granted, nostalgia is not exempt from downsides: While it aims to acti-
vate a positive orientation and favorable response toward the past (e.g.,
Havlena & Holak, 1991; Holbrook & Schindler, 1996), it can simultane-
ously entail negative feelings toward the present and future (e.g., Berntsen
& Rubin, 2002). This is because nostalgia implies a disconnect from the
past, which can trigger sadness and a sense of loss (Holak & Havlena, 1998).
5 The Structure of the Book

This book is conceived as a brief collection of studies on nostalgia market-
ing. Thus, it features five separate, but related Chapters, each of which
investigates the possible effects of nostalgia in different domains. In this
way, the book hopes to clarify the advantages and disadvantages of adopt-
ing nostalgic stimuli for marketing purposes.
Following this first introductory Chapter, the first study (Chap. 2)
investigates the effects of nostalgic appeals in sports season ticket advertis-
ing (i.e., advertising communication aimed at promoting the sales of sea-
sonal tickets for a sports team). Interestingly, the realm of sports advertising
has scarcely investigated nostalgia as a communication tool, despite the
recent proliferation of nostalgia in companies’ communication strategies

and several scholars’ suggestion that nostalgia could be used to maintain a
competitive advantage (e.g., Fairley, 2003; Pajoutan & Seifried, 2014).
Building on the nostalgia literature, the study advances that nostalgic
advertising may exert a different effect on sport consumers’ choices (i.e.,
intention to purchase a season ticket and share positive word-of-mouth for
the advertised campaign) depending on individuals’ current attitude
toward the sports team (as determined by recent sporting performances).
The results show that recalling a glorious sporting past may be the most
effective strategy for persuading fans with a current negative attitude
toward their favorite team. Further, individuals who describe themselves
as ardent fans, due to attaching extreme importance to their team’s per-
formance, may find a nostalgic ad more appealing. The Chapter concludes
with a discussion of its findings and implications for marketers.
The second study (Chap. 3) focuses on the prosocial effects of nostal-
gia. Research in the advertising and consumer behavior domains recently
related nostalgia to prosocial behaviors like charitable giving (i.e., con-
sumers’ intention to donate money to non-profit organizations that prin-
cipally benefit society or social causes). The study attempts to verify the
direct and indirect relationship between nostalgia-based appeals and con-
sumers’ intention to donate to social or charitable organizations. Using
the case of charitable organizations involved in fighting COVID-19, the
study proposes a moderated moderated mediation model through which
the effect of a nostalgic advertisement on individuals’ donating intention
is mediated via advertising believability, and this mediation path is moder-
ated in two stages by consumers’ prudence and the importance they attri-
bute to tradition. The results shed light on the role of some consumer
traits in regulating the mechanism through which nostalgia affects chari-
table giving. The resulting insights may help social marketers and charities
looking to leverage nostalgia to bolster their campaigns.
Chapter 4 focuses on the possible downsides arising from pushing con-
sumers to focus on the past. More specifically, it evaluates the possible
effectiveness of nostalgic advertising in the consumption of sustainable
food. While some scholars have started to explore the possible benefits of
nostalgia for individuals and society, there have been few studies looking
at nostalgic advertising in relation to sustainable consumption—and those
that exist have produced mixed results. Therefore, this Chapter contains
three studies that consider the effects of nostalgic advertising on consum-
ers’ sustainable food consumption behavior. First, this research reveals
that a nostalgic (vs. non-nostalgic) advertisement may encourage the
8 M. PICHIERRI
purchase of non-sustainable (vs. sustainable) products. Furthermore, this

interplay does not seem to differ according to individuals’ general time
orientation – that is, whether individuals view time in an holistic manner
(valuing both past and future) or emphasize the here-and-now. Second,
this research shows that a nostalgic advertisement heightens consumers’
focus on the past, thus lowering their intention to purchase a sustainable
food product. Notably, this indirect effect of the nostalgic advertisement
on consumers’ intention does not depend on the type of food product
(i.e., utilitarian vs. hedonic). The Chapter concludes with a discussion of
the findings’ theoretical and practical implications for utilizing nostalgia in
sustainable marketing.
Chapter 5 presents a literature review on the use of nostalgia for mar-
keting in the leisure sector—specifically, the realm of sports tourism. The
goal is to provide scholars and practitioners with a comprehensive frame-
work of nostalgia’s effects in this fast-growing tourism sector. Through a
systematic review approach, the Chapter synthesizes and discusses the rel-
evant literature on nostalgia and sports tourism. First, the Chapter thor-
oughly describes the methodology used to identify and selects the relevant
literature on the argument. Second, the Chapter details the sample of
selected articles, which were grouped according to the different method-
ological approach adopted. Third, the Chapter highlights each work’s
objectives, relevant variables, and main findings. The Chapter also includes
a synoptic table—providing detailed information about the scholarly arti-
cles reviewed—as a companion tool for the reader. Finally, the Chapter
recaps the main evidence and outlines some remaining discussion points in
order to prompt debate on the use of nostalgia in the sports tour-
ism domain.
6 A Detailed Overview of the Extant Research

on Nostalgia in the Marketing Literature
Table 1.1 presents a non-exhaustive list of academic articles whose titles

include the terms ‘nostalgia’ or ‘nostalgic’, and that have been published
until 2021 in peer-reviewed academic journals that had the words “mar-
keting”, “consumer”, “advertising”, or “management“ in their titles. For
each article, the Table reports the research method adopted, the indepen-
dent and dependent variables considered, and the main findings. Overall,
the Table is an ambitious attempt to outline the extant research on nostal-
gia in the marketing literature.
Table 1.1 Some relevant studies related to the use of nostalgia in the marketing, consumer, advertising, and management domains
Reference Research Independent Dependent variable(s) Sample(s) Main findings
method variable(s)
Autio et al. Interviews Food locality, Authenticity of local 22 finnish consumers Consumers perceived self-produced
(2013) self-made production food, individuals’ (72.7% women) ranging items as the food type most associated
relationship with local from 24 to 56 years with authentic locality and artisan
food, nostalgia production. Consumers tended to
historicize their relationship to local
food, which is seen as nostalgic
(e.g., agrarian nostalgia refers to the
appreciation of food consumed that
was produced nationally).
Braun-LaTour Commentary Use of consumers’ Development of – Advertisers should overcome the
(2007) childhood memories emotional bonds traditional consideration of nostalgic
in advertising between companies advertising, using consumers’ childhood
campaigns and consumers memories to develop an emotional
bond with companies.
Cartwright Online survey Technology Attraction to retro 190 French respondents People’s interest in retro music seems
et al. (2013) innovation, nostalgia music (54.5% females, mean to be associated with nostalgia and
age: 31.2 yrs.) recruited technology innovation.
through social media,
email, and face-to-face
(continued)
Table 1.1 (continued)

method variable(s)
Cattaneo and Online survey Exposure to retro Consumers’ relative 264 participants Consumers seem to prefer existing
Guerini brands, retro brands’ preferences for retro (dominant age group: brands that have been updated with
(2012) re-launch strategies brands (compared to 18–24) nostalgic associations rather than
new brands) exclusively retro brands. Some clearly
communicated features in the retro
branding strategy (e.g., tangible and
updated product features) may drive
preferences.
Chang and Survey Consumption context Effectiveness of Study 1: 300 participants In private consumption contexts,
Feng (2016) (public vs. private), personal and historical (54% females), aged advertisements are more effective when
consumer self- nostalgia between 24 and 65 years they are based on personal, rather than
construal (independent (mean age: 38.7); Study historical, nostalgia. The opposite
vs. interdependent) 2: 262 participants (54% occurs in public consumption contexts.
females) aged from 21 to These findings only hold for those with
60 years (mean age 35.6) an interdependent self-construal.
Chou and Experimental Song popularity, lyrics’ Nostalgia-related 276 Taiwanese Previously heard (popular) old songs
Lien (2010) relevance, nostalgia- thoughts, positive undergraduates (51.5% positively affect advertising evaluation,
related thoughts, mood, ad execution- females) with an age altering consumers’ moods or
positive mood, ad related thoughts, range of 17–23 (mean producing favorable nostalgia-related
execution-related attitude toward the age: 19.7 yrs) thoughts. Lyrics that are more relevant
thoughts, attitude advertisement, attitude foster positive ad execution-related
toward the toward the brand thoughts, which increase ad attitude
advertisement and, by extension, affect brand attitude.
method variable(s)
Chou and Experimental Use of popular song Nostalgia in response Experiment 1: 89 Advertisements that use older songs
Lien (2014) in advertising, song to TV commercials, Taiwanese galvanize nostalgic feelings and more
familiarity, lyrics’ consumers’ emotional undergraduates (36% positive nostalgia-related thoughts.
relevance response, attitude females), aged between Old songs are also associated with
toward the ad, attitude 18 and 26 years (mean positive emotions and higher
toward the product, age: 20.4); Experiment advertising effectiveness when they
purchase intention 2: 93 undergraduates are more familiar and their lyrics are
(45.2% females) aged more relevant.
from 17 to 23 years
(mean age: 19.6)
Chou and Experimental Use of songs from Nostalgia, effectiveness 135 Indian young adults While old songs generally evoke
Singhal old movies, nostalgia of different nostalgia (30.4% females) aged nostalgic feelings, those based on
(2017) type (historical vs. type, ad-induced from 20 to 34 years historical nostalgia generate higher
personal), product positive emotions, (mean age: 25.1) advertising effects (female singers and
involvement, singer attitude toward the ad, gender mismatch generate higher
gender, gender product attitudes, attitudes and intentions); those based
match-up purchase likelihood on personal nostalgia lead to better ad
effects for low-involvement products.
(continued)
method variable(s)
Christou et al. In-depth Ambiance design of Creation of a nostalgic 25 rural tourism The authors suggest several sensory
(2018) semi-structured a rural place (exterior atmosphere, evoked stakeholders (e.g., elements in the rural setting that may
interviews and interior design), nostalgic feelings owners/managers of trigger a nostalgic state to rural tourism
presence of tangible public and private rural visitors. The interviews also showed that
nostalgia triggers tourism establishments while stakeholders regard nostalgia as a
(e.g., objects and and organizations) positive notion with several benefits,
memorabilia), presence they are probably not fully aware of its
of traditional food and potentiality.
beverages, social
interaction with
guests, odors, sounds
Demirbag- Semi- Presence of alternative Loyalty for disliked 14 interviewees (57% Nostalgia may be important to salvaging
Kaplan et al. structured products, economic brands, repurchase females) aged 19–47 a brand-consumer relationship, ensuring
(2015) interviews costs, inertia, nostalgia behavior repurchase behavior.
Errajaa et al. Netnographic/ Nostalgia Value co-creation Netnographic study: 9 Consumers display high sensitivity for
(2013) semi-directed process in an innovative web sources among nostalgia and appreciate past
interviews marketing project websites, forums and experiences being integrated into new
blogs; Interviews: 12 products and services. Companies
participants (58.3% derive inspiration from consumers’
females) aged 20–59 nostalgic experiences.
method variable(s)
Ford and Experimental Charity appeal type Emotion levels, Study 1: 103 participants Nostalgic charity appeals generate
Merchant (nostalgic vs. donation intentions (51.5% females, mean higher levels of emotions and donation
(2010) non-nostalgic), age 49 yrs.) from an intentions than their non-nostalgic
nostalgia proclivity, online consumer panel; counterparts. The tendency to
importance of the Study 2: 457 participants experience nostalgia moderates this
evoked memory (58% females, mean age: effect, with nostalgic appeals being
66 yrs.) recruited among more effective among low nostalgia-
donors of a regional prone individuals. Notably, the
public television station importance of the memory evoked by
in the United States; the nostalgic appeal moderates the
Study 3: 186 participants impact of nostalgia on emotions and
from an online consumer intentions (i.e., nostalgic charity appeals
panel are more effective when they evoke
memories that are relevant for
consumers).
Gilal et al. Survey Use of personally Consumers’ intention 644 participants (64.9% Historically nostalgic advertisements
(2020) nostalgic (vs. to engage in brand males; mean age: 29.7 strongly affected customers’
historically/culturally resurrection yrs.) recruited in public engagement in BRM (followed by
nostalgic or non- movements (BRM) places in Pakistan culturally nostalgic and personally
nostalgic) nostalgic ads). Personally (vs.
advertisement historically) nostalgic ads have a
featuring a deleted stronger effect on BRM for males
brand, gender, age (vs. females). Both personally and
historically ads work better for older
consumers.
(continued)

method variable(s)
Goulding Qualitative Age, alienation Tendency to experience 20 semistructured, Nostalgia is a situationally specific
(2001) (interviews, experienced in the simple or vicarious in-depth interviews experiential factor. Two main types of
observations, present, search for nostalgia (informants aged 18–80) nostalgic behavior can be defined
focus groups) meaning and control, with visitors to Blists Hill (existential and aesthetic) based on
sense of loss in Museum (Ironbridge, individuals’ role in society, on their
contemporary society, UK) + 2 weeks of experience of alienation in the present,
need for social observations of visitors + and their degree of social contact.
belonging, 4 focus group discussions
acknowledgment of with a total of 33
the role of history in participants (held in
securing identity, private houses)
idealization of
previous eras, desire
for authenticity,
individuals’ role in
society
Hallegatte Experimental List of songs (retro vs. Intention to attend a 181 participants (82.2% Nostalgia proneness moderates the
et al. (2018) contemporary), band concert, willingness to males; 63.2% aged 25–54 effect of a retro brand on consumers’
lineup (retro vs. pay, and word-of- yrs.) recruited from the intentions (i.e., consumers who are
contemporary), mouth for a concert discussion forum of Led more prone to feel nostalgia will
nostalgia proneness Zeppelin fans experience a higher intention to
patronize and willingness to pay in
response to a retro brand).
method variable(s)
Hamilton and Qualitative Aesthetic Evocation of personal Observations based on Small businesses can effectively convert
Wagner (observations, configuration of the and collective 14 afternoon tea venues regular activities into experiential events
(2014) interviews, retail space, exposure memories, sense of in two UK cities; through the application of nostalgic
open-ended to nostalgic references, belonging and sharing, interviews with 10 tea cues related to product, ritual and
questions) product presentation satisfaction room owner-managers; aesthetics, which galvanize feelings of
and rituals four open-ended belonging and sharing.
questions about their
experiences of taking
afternoon tea sent to
ten tea club members
(via email)
Heinberg Survey Nostalgic brand Emotional attachment, 2303 consumers (1253 In emerging markets, emotional
et al. (2020) positioning, emotional brand local iconness, from China and 1050 attachment and brand local iconness are
attachment, brand brand authenticity, from Japan), aged 18–55 less capable of mediating the
local iconness, brand brand equity relationship between nostalgic brand
authenticity, market positioning and brand equity. (This
type (emerging vs. disadvantage in brand equity creation is
developed), brand reduced at higher levels of brand
innovativeness innovativeness).
Holbrook Survey Age, gender, nostalgia Nostalgia proneness, Study 1: 167 US Nostalgia affects consumers’ preference
(1993) proneness cinematic tastes and participants (43% patterns based on their nostalgia
preferences women) from marketing proneness (i.e., consumers higher in
strategy classes (age nostalgia proneness tend to prefer
range: 21–34 yrs., mean tenderhearted or musical movies); the
age: 26.4); Study 2: 156 effects of age and nostalgia proneness
US participants (60% seem to act independently on
women), aged 21–85 consumers’ preferences.
years (mean age: 41.7)
(continued)
method variable(s)
Holbrook and Qualitative Sensory experience, Nostalgic memories 51 informants recruited Several key types of nostalgic
Schindler (Subjective bond with homeland, evocation, fondness for from MBA classes (age experiences may explain the meanings
(2003) personal rites of passage, objects from the past range: 20 to 90 years; that consumers attach to nostalgia in
introspection) friendships and loved mean age: 39.9) the consumption experience.
ones, gifts of love,
feelings of security,
feelings of freedom,
performance- and
competence-related
bond, artistic creativity
method variable(s)
Huang et al. Experimental Recall of a nostalgic Nostalgic feeling, Study 1: 80 When recalling a nostalgic experience,
(2016) experience, consumer savoring of nostalgic undergraduate students individuals are motivated to extend
patience, salience of memories, prolonging at Nanyang their recollections and relish their
the temporal nature the reminiscence of Technological University memory. Participants generalize the
of benefits, motivation nostalgic memories, (51.3% males, mean age: activated disposition to prolonged
to savor the past, consumer patience, 20.8); Study 2: 124 experiences to later situations,
intensity of the affective reactions, participants* (52.4% increasing their tolerance for having to
experience recall temporal distance of males, mean age: 36.3); wait for the occurrence of events.
the recalled event, Study 3: 122
self-esteem, self-efficacy participants* (49.2%
males, mean age: 37.7);
Study 4: 149
participants* (49.7 males,
mean age: 39); Study 5:
212 participants* (62.3%
Study 6: 186
participants* (53.2%
Study 7: 153 participants
(45% males, mean age:
39.5); Study 8: 90
patrons who had been
waiting to be seated at a
restaurant in Singapore
(* = recruited on
Amazon MTurk)
(continued)
method variable(s)
Ju et al. Experimental Message focus Sense of self-continuity, Study 1a: 199 Nostalgic advertisements elicited higher
(2016) (nostalgic vs. attitude toward the participants (66% males; perceived self-continuity than present-
present-focused), advertising, attitude age range: 20–40 yrs., focused ones, which bolstered attitude
product type (hedonic toward the brands, mean age: 28.6) toward the brand and purchase
vs. utilitarian) purchase intention recruited on Amazon intention (regardless of product type).
MTurk; Study 1b: 149 Sense of self-continuity mediated the
participants recruited relationship between ad-evoked
from Amazon MTurk nostalgia and brand attitude.
(58% males; age range
18–40, mean age: 28.2):
100 carried over from
Study 1a alongside 49
new participants
Ju et al. Experimental Life satisfaction, Ad-evoked nostalgia, 313 participants (59% Life satisfaction appears to be positively
(2017) nostalgic feeling, emotional response males, age range: 19–78, related to ad-evoked nostalgia. There is
attitude toward the toward the advertised mean age: 33.2 yrs.) also a positive relationship between life
advertisement, brand, attitude toward recruited from Amazon satisfaction, the emotional response to
emotional response the advertisement, MTurk the advertised brand, and the attitude
toward the advertised purchase intention toward the advertisement, which are
brand predictors of consumers’ purchase
intent.
Kazlauske and Survey Nostalgia, age identity Nostalgic product 313 consumers in A higher disparity between one’s
Gineikiene judgment, purchase of Lithuania, (39% men), chronological and cognitive age inclines
(2017) nostalgic products aged 20–75 (mean people to purchase nostalgic products.
age: 36) Age identity (how one perceives
himself/herself in terms of age) is a
better predictor of people purchasing
nostalgic products than nostalgia itself.
method variable(s)
Kessous Qualitative/ The cultural Consequences on First series of interviews: The effectiveness of nostalgic brand
(2015) longitudinal dimension of nostalgic consumers’ 20 respondents (50% relationships depends on a culture that
brands, nostalgia, relationships with females), aged 22–66; is more sweet than bitter. The study
approaches to brands (sweet or bitter Second series: 16 out of identifies four cases (the corrupted
nostalgia (time-, connections), nostalgic the 20 original brand, the immoral brand, the
space- or social-based) brand rejection interviewees; Third precarious brand and the stereotypical
series: 13 participants brand) wherein consumers may reject
the nostalgic brand based on their
cultural environment.
Kessous and Survey Brand type (nostalgic Consumer attachment 613 participants Brands considered as nostalgic are
Roux (2010) vs. non-nostalgic) to a brand, self-concept recruited in three public associated with higher levels of
connections, consumer spaces in France attachment and self-concept
preference, purchase connections. Additionally, consumers
intention, buying a prefer brands considered as nostalgic
brand as a gift, (compared to non-nostalgic), and these
word-of-mouth brands are also linked with higher levels
of purchase intention, the propensity to
give as a gift, and word-of-mouth.
Kessous et al. Survey Brand type (nostalgic Consumer attachment 606 participants A brand’s nostalgic quality has positive
(2015) vs. non-nostalgic) to a brand, self-brand recruited in three public effects on attachment, self-brand
connections, spaces in France connections, and storytelling.
storytelling, propensity Additionally, a nostalgic brand positively
to buy a brand as a gift, impacts the intention to purchase the
propensity to collect brand as a gift and acquire brand-
brand-related item/ related products.
products
(continued)

method variable(s)
Khoshghadam Experimental Life satisfaction, use Attitude toward the Study 1: 208 participants Nostalgic music appears to be more
et al. (2019) of nostalgic music in brand, purchase (53% females; mean age: effective than non-nostalgic music (in
advertising, product intention 32.7) recruited from terms of attitude toward the brand and
category involvement Amazon MTurk; Study purchase intention) for consumers with
2: 67 participants (52% high life satisfaction, but only in
females; mean age: 32.6) product categories marked as low
recruited from Amazon involvement.
MTurk
Kim and Kim Survey Film nostalgia, Familiarity with the film 610 Korean participants Film nostalgia appears to be a relevant
(2018) clustering based on destination, intention (51.3% males) aged 40 segmentation variable. Given the
film nostalgia to participate in a years or more, who had multidimensional nature of nostalgia in
nostalgia film tourism not visited Hong Kong the context of film tourism, the concept
tour to the film and watched at least two covers five identified domains (yearning
destination, intention of a list of 30 Hong for advanced society; memory of
to travel to the film Kong films released movies’ content and stars; reminiscence
destination, preferred between 1970 and 1990, of mimicry; memory of film backdrops;
film tourism programs, recognizing at least one memory of Hong Kong culture and
involvement, perceived of 11 film stars from history).
cultural proximity, that time
perceived image of the
destination
method variable(s)
Kim et al. Survey Sociodemographic Prevalence of film 737 participants who had The article identifies five domains of
(2019) characteristics of nostalgia, familiarity been exposed to Hong film nostalgia (memories of backdrops,
prospective nostalgia with a film destination, Kong films between stories and movie stars, mimicking,
film tourists, intention to participate 1970 and 1990, aged 40 envy, and culture and history).
psychological in film tourism years or more, and that Memories of backdrops and mimicking
characteristics of activities, intention to had never visited Hong are best able to predict people’s
prospective nostalgia visit film backdrops, Kong, that had seen at perceived familiarity with the movies’
film tourists, intention to taste food least two of 28 films origin territory and their future travel
behavioral featured in the films, released in that period intentions.
characteristics of intention to visit film and capable of
prospective nostalgia sets, intention to buy recognizing at least one
film tourists, film products featured in the of the 11 popular Hong
nostalgia films, intention to meet Kong movie stars of this
the films’ stars, period
intention to visit film
museums
(continued)

method variable(s)
Langaro et al. Experimental Exposure to nostalgia- Brand attitude, 575 participants (81% Nostalgia-themed advertising correlates
(2020) themed purchase intention between 18 and 26 yrs.) with positive effects on brand attitude
advertisements, obtained from 2000 and purchase intentions for consumers
product involvement, mailings sent to who expressed high past brand
past brand attachment, university students attachment. The presence of probability
presence and type aged 18–35 markers did not exert effects (at least in
(hedges vs. pledges) of incremental terms) on nostalgia-themed
probability markers, advertising.
product type (hedonic
vs. utilitarian),
consumer tolerance to
ambiguity
Lasaleta and Experimental Nostalgia, self- Perceived authenticity, Study 1: 120 participants Nostalgic feelings lead to heightened
Loveland continuity, trait self-continuity, (43.3% females, mean authenticity perception via self-
(2019) authenticity, product preference for age: 38.2 yrs.) recruited continuity. Trait inauthenticity is
personal relevance, retro-styled objects from Amazon MTurk; positively associated with a preference
state inauthenticity Study 2: 220 participants for retro-styled objects, with this effect
(36.4% females, mean mediated by nostalgia. When their state
age: 35) recruited from authenticity is threatened, participants
Amazon MTurk; Study revealed a higher desire for retro-styled
3: 72 undergraduates objects that are personally relevant.
(69.4% females, mean
age: 21.1) at a
management school;
Study 4: 183 participants
(41.5% females; mean
age: 33) recruited from
Amazon MTurk
method variable(s)
Lasaleta et al. Experimental Nostalgia Willingness to pay, Experiment 1: 69 Participants who feel nostalgic become
(2014) social connectedness, undergraduates (55% more willing to spend more money on
propensity to give away females, mean age: 21.6 products, to give away more money,
money, money yrs.); Exp. 2: 129 and to report that money is relatively
importance, money participants (49.6% less desirable compared to control
value, willingness to females, mean age: 24.4); participants. Additionally, participants
exert effort to obtain Exp. 3: 83 participants drew a smaller amount of coins as a
money, smaller coins (69.8% females, mean reflection of their lessened desire for
drawing (proxy of a age: 35.5) recruited from money. Social connectedness mediates
weaker desire for Amazon MTurk; Exp. 4: the relationship between nostalgia and
money) 100 participants (54% money.
females, mean age: 35.5)
recruited from Amazon
MTurk; Exp. 5: 105
participants (62.8%
recruited from Amazon
MTurk; Exp. 6: 55
undergraduates (43.6%
(continued)

method variable(s)
Li et al. Mixed-method Personal nostalgia, Upbeat/elation, Experimental study: 281 Both personal and historical nostalgia
(2019) (experimental historical nostalgia, serenity/calm, warm/ participants aged 18–70 produce positive emotions, but those
study and nostalgic emotions of tender emotions, hotel (mean age: 36.9 yrs.) elicited by personal nostalgia are less
structured upbeat/elation, brand prominence, recruited via Amazon intense. Positive emotions are predictors
interviews) serenity/calm, and hotel brand self- MTurk among US of brand prominence (which is
warm/tender, hotel connection, willingness registered users; positively associated with consumers’
brand prominence, to pay to stay with a Structured interviews: 10 willingness-to-pay) and brand-self
hotel brand hotel brand MTurk consumers (aged connection.
self-connection 23–42, mean age: 30
yrs.) who had stayed at a
hotel in the previous
three months
Loh et al. Survey Emotional loneliness, Nostalgia, materialism, 456 participants (56.4% Consumers’ sense of loneliness is
(2021) nostalgia, materialism, self-brand connections, females; 57.7% aged positively associated with nostalgia and
self-brand connections, emotional brand 30–49) recruited from a materialism, both of which mediate the
emotional brand attachment, brand sample of working adults positive relationship between loneliness
attachment loyalty in Malaysia and self-brand connections. Self-brand
connections mediate the positive
relationships that nostalgia and
materialism have with emotional brand
attachment. The latter variable is
positively associated with brand loyalty
(thus mediating the relationship
between self-brand connections and
brand loyalty).
method variable(s)
Loveland et al. Experimental Need to belong, social Preference for nostalgic Study 1a: 136 Consumers who treat the need to
(2010) exclusion, activation of (vs. contemporary) undergraduates (54.4% belong as a relevant goal are associated
an independent (vs. products, need to females, mean age: 21.7 with a stronger preference for nostalgic
interdependent) self, belong yrs.) of a Dutch products, with this preference holding
consumption of university; Study 1b: 63 both when being socially excluded or
nostalgic products participants aged 35–47 when an interdependent self is primed.
(52.3% females, mean Consuming nostalgic products (rather
age: 42.6) selected from a than the mere exposure to them) fulfills
Dutch web-based the need to belong.
population; Study 2: 43
females, mean age: 24.1
yrs.) of a Dutch
university; Study 3: 94
yrs.) of a Dutch
university; Study 4: 72
yrs.) of a Dutch university
(continued)

method variable(s)
Marchegiani Review Use of personal or Consumers’ cognition, – The type of nostalgic appeal used
and Phau historical nostalgia consumers’ emotions, (personal vs. historical) facilitates
(2010a) consumers’ attitudes, different effects on consumers’
purchase intention reactions. Therefore, treating nostalgia
as a unified concept may produce
inaccurate predictions of consumers’
responses.
Marchegiani Survey Level of personal Number of thoughts, 514 participants (53% An increase in the level of elicited
and Phau nostalgia number of personal females) aged 18–26, personal nostalgia positively impacts a
(2010b) nostalgia-related recruited from students consumer’s total number of thoughts,
thoughts, ratio of of a large Australian the number of personal nostalgia-
personal nostalgic- university related thoughts, and the proportion of
related thoughts to personal nostalgic thoughts to total
total thoughts, number thoughts. The same factor has no effect
of historical nostalgia- on the number of historical nostalgic
related thoughts, thoughts or the number of brand/
number of brand/ message-related thoughts, but decreases
message-related the number of ad execution-related
thoughts, number of thoughts. Finally, an increase in levels of
ad-execution-related personal nostalgia is associated with a
thoughts, attitude rise in attitudes toward the ad and the
toward the brand, as well as purchase intention.
advertisement, attitude
toward the brand,
intention to purchase
the brand
method variable(s)
Marchegiani Experimental Inclusion of music Personal (or historical) 244 participants (aged In both the personal and historical
and Phau in nostalgic nostalgic thoughts, 18–25), recruited from nostalgia conditions, participants
(2012) advertisement, proportion of personal undergraduate students developed a more partial attitude
nostalgic type (or historical) nostalgic of a large Australian toward the advertisement when music
(personal vs. thoughts to total university was included. When considering a
historical) thoughts, positively non-nostalgic advertisement, the
valenced nostalgic inclusion of a musical theme produced a
thoughts, brand/ higher number of personal nostalgia
message-related thoughts, a higher proportion of
thoughts, attitude personal nostalgic thoughts to total
toward the thoughts, more positively valenced
advertisement, attitude personal nostalgic thoughts, and a more
toward the brand positive attitude toward the brand.
Marchegiani Scale Personal nostalgia Reactions to advertising Study 1: 235 The authors developed and validated a
and Phau development participants; Study 2: six-item, seven-point Likert scale that
(2013a) and validation 211 participants; Study can be used to assess consumers’
3: 101 participants; personal nostalgia response to an
Study 4: 410 advertisement.
participants; Study 5:
228 participants
Marchegiani Experimental Experiencing historical Intensity of the 806 participants from a Participants experiencing personal
and Phau (vs. personal) nostalgia emotions experienced student sample nostalgia reported higher intensity of
(2013b) some emotions (upbeat/elation
emotion, warm/tender emotion) than
those experiencing historical nostalgia.
(continued)

method variable(s)
Merchant and Review Nostalgia, vicarious Emotional utility, – The authors proposed a conceptual
Ford (2008) nostalgia, personal familial utility, model to explain the effect of nostalgia
nostalgia, emotional commitment, giving on charitable giving. They found that
utility, familial utility, behavior the nostalgia evoked by non-profit
commitment organizations may affect the emotional
and familial utility derived by the donor,
which then drives the donor’s
dedication to the organization.
Merchant Scale Personal memories, Attitude toward the ad, Study 1: 36 participants Nostalgic advertising awakens personal
et al. (2016) development cultural nostalgia, perceptions of brand (50% females) aged memories and cultural mythos: the
and validation attitude toward the ad, heritage, brand bonds, 20–71 divided into eight former are positively associated with
perceptions of brand purchase intentions, focus groups; Study 2: attitude toward the ad and to
heritage brand choice 210 undergraduate consumers’ perceptions of brand
students in a large French heritage. These two factors are
university (51% males, positively associated with attitude
mean age: 19 yrs.); Study toward the brand and brand bonds
3: 135 consumers (antecedents of purchase intentions
(non-student, 50% males, that are positively associated with
mean age: 45 yrs.); Study brand choice).
4: 118 students aged
18–25 (mean age: 20
yrs.) enrolled in a
marketing course at a
large French university;
Study 5: 200 subjects
(non-students) aged
18–82 (mean age: 46
yrs.) from a French
online consumer panel
method variable(s)
Merchant Scale Past imagery, positive Advertising-evoked Study 1: 58 consumers The authors proposed a scale to
et al. (2013) development emotions, negative personal nostalgia, past (56.8% females) aged measure advertising-evoked personal
emotions, imagery, positive 19–60; Study 2: 200 nostalgia, which encompasses four
physiological reactions, emotions, negative participants from an dimensions: past imagery, positive
nostalgia proneness, emotions, physiological online consumer panel; emotions, negative emotions, and
loneliness, brand reactions, social Study 3: 145 consumers physiological reactions. The measure is
loyalty support, brand bonds from an online consumer capable of affecting the attitude toward
panel; Study 4: a total the ad as well as brand choice, and the
sample of 262 authors also found that the personal
consumers from an nostalgia evoked by ads may strengthen
online consumer panel bonds with the focal brand and enhance
perceptions of social support.
Muehling Experimental Exposure to personal Personal nostalgia, 178 participants (51% Regardless of whether individuals are
(2013) vs. historical nostalgic historical nostalgia, males) aged 19–60 exposed to a personally or historically
advertisement, attitude toward the (mean age: 24.8) nostalgic advertisement, personal
personal nostalgia, advertisement, brand recruited from a major nostalgic responses have a higher
historical nostalgia, attitude college campus in the positive influence on individuals’
attitude toward the western USA attitude toward both the ad and the
advertisement brand. Finally, attitude toward the ad
mediates the influence of nostalgia on
brand attitudes.
(continued)

method variable(s)
Muehling and Experimental Exposure to personal Self-directed thoughts, 249 undergraduate Exposure to a personal nostalgic ad
Pascal (2011) nostalgic (vs. historical positive affect, attitude students aged 19–60 produced better consumer responses
nostalgic or non- toward the (52.4% males, mean age: (than a historical nostalgic or non-
nostalgic) advertisement, attitude 25.6 yrs.) recruited from nostalgic ad) when considering
advertisements, toward the brand, a major university measures of self-directed thoughts,
self-directed thoughts, brand-/message-related positive affect and attitude toward the
general nostalgic thoughts, ad message ad. When examining cognitive measures
thoughts, ad points recalled, ad (brand/message-related thoughts and
execution-related execution-related message recall), a personally nostalgic
thoughts, brand-/ thoughts ad has a comparable effectiveness to a
message-related historically nostalgic ad, but less impact
thoughts than a non-nostalgic ad. For
participants exposed to the personal
nostalgic ad, brand attitudes were
shaped by valenced self-directed and ad
execution-related thoughts. For
participants exposed to the historical
nostalgic ad, both general nostalgic
thoughts and ad execution-related
thoughts influenced their brand
attitudes.
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as many inventions of real novelty and magnitude as ever, though
we doubt if there is; and yet there would be circumstances which
prevented a legislator regarding them as most important. One of
these circumstances is certainly the exaggerated importance of
minor improvements, in consequence of the great development of
machinery and manufacturing. A single improvement to save 10 per
cent, in fuel for the steam engine would probably add more
absolutely to the real wealth of this generation than the invention of
the steam-engine itself added to the real wealth of the generation in
which it was invented. A recent invention just spoken of—the
feathering of the blades of screws, increasing the facilities of using
auxiliary steam-power in ships—might compare on the same footing
with the most substantial invention of a poorer age. Just as the
refinement of the machinery of credit, and the extent of its
development, cause the least disturbance to be widely felt, so the
least improvement in mechanical or chemical knowledge, applied to
manufactures, may have great results. A revolutionary invention—
owing to the difficulty of introduction—might not tell so quickly even
as a minor improvement in an existing groove; but, in any case its
effects will now be matched at the first start by these minor
improvements.
These improvements again, as well as the great inventions
themselves, are usually come at in recent times in a different way
from that of the old inventor. Formerly the inventor had almost
nothing, before him—every department of industry had to be built up
from the foundation. Now a man must build upon extensive
knowledge of what has been accomplished, and must have great
means at his command. What Mr. Mill has just been explaining in his
new book in regard to original authorship in the present day is
equally true of invention: “Nearly all the thoughts which can be
reached by mere strength of original faculties have long since been
arrived at; and originality, in any high sense of the word, is now
scarcely ever attained but by minds which have undergone elaborate
discipline, and are deeply versed in the results of previous thinking. It
is Mr. Maurice, I think, who has remarked, on the present age, that
its most original thinkers are those who have known most thoroughly
what had been thought by their predecessors; and this will
henceforth be the case. Every fresh stone in the edifice has now to
be placed on the top of so many others, that a long process of
climbing, and of carrying up materials, has to be gone through by
whoever aspires to take a share in the present stage of the work.”
That is—when we speak of invention—the inventor must be a man
who is closely associated with capitalists, or be a capitalist himself.
In no other way can he have the means of knowing the thousand
improvements of machinery and processes which have culminated in
the present factories and machines; and in no other way can he find
means for experiments on the necessary scale. “Poor men,” says Sir
William Armstrong, “very often come to me imagining that they have
made some great discovery. It is generally all moonshine, or if it
looks feasible, it is impossible to pronounce upon its value until it has
passed through that stage of preliminary investigation which involves
all the labour, and all the difficulty, and all the trouble.” How is a poor
man to get this preliminary investigation undertaken, when the
subject is an amendment of a complicated manufacturing process?
The complaint, in fact, was made before the Select Committee on
Technical Instruction, that English manufacturing was suffering from
foreign competition, because there is less room now than formerly
for the play of “untaught invention.” The machine is too perfect for
the workman to meddle with; and thus the foreigner, supposed to be
more technically instructed, has room to excel us—our peculiar
power having been “untaught invention.”
Such having been the change in the character of invention, it is
easy to see why the Patent-Laws are not only not needed, but are
obstructive. The inventor, in the first place, is not in the position of an
old inventor. To give him scope he must be employed by a
manufacturer or capitalist—that is, his skill must be already highly
valued, the manufacturer naturally employing those who can
introduce amendments and improvements, and keep him abreast or
ahead of competitors. “I believe,” says Sir William Armstrong, again,
“that if you let the whole thing alone, the position which a man
attains, the introduction and the prestige, and the natural advantages
which result from a successful invention and from the reputation
which he gains as a clever and able man, will almost always bring
with them a sufficient reward.” And again: “I think that absolute
discoveries are very rare things; nearly all inventions are the result of
an improvement built up upon a preceding one. A poor man who has
the ability to make really practical improvements is almost sure to
rise in the world without the aid of Patents.” And if the inventor may
be thus indifferent to a Patent-Law, the question as to the
inducement to capitalists to take up inventions may be settled by
their general objection to Patents. Though there are one or two
manufacturers who have monopolised a number of Patents in their
trade, and so turned the law to account, it is from them that the
greatest complaints come—men like Mr. Platt, or Mr. Scott Russell,
or Mr. Macfie, who has just moved the abolition of the laws. The truth
is, capitalists are now in a position to obtain a profit without a Patent
—just as they can sometimes disregard a Patent for a long time till
competition forces it upon them. Patents, then, are not required as
an inducement either to inventors or capitalists, and the reason of
the law fails.
But this is not all. The complaint of manufacturers at the
obstruction of the present law would not be enough by itself, but it is
a very serious matter when invention is part of the business of
manufacturing. The law of Patents, in short, interferes with what has
become the normal process of invention. Mr. Platt states: “I think that
there is scarcely a week, certainly not a month, that passes but what
we have a notice of some kind or other of things that we have never
heard of in any way, and do not know of in the least that we are
infringing upon them.” Sir William Armstrong complains of a personal
grievance: “The necessity which I am under of taking out Patents,
not for the purpose of obtaining for myself a monopoly, but simply for
the purpose of preventing other persons from excluding me from my
own inventions.” And much similar evidence was given before the
Royal Commission, of which Lord Stanley was chairman. Thus the
present law is not wanted to promote invention, and it is injurious to
a kind of invention which would go on luxuriantly without it. The
gradual nature of most inventions is a sufficient security that it will
proceed under the law of competition. Perhaps the practice of
Government is the best indication of the necessity for the abolition of
Patents. A few years ago the manufacturing departments of
Government found themselves so hampered by Patents that they
resolved to try whether they were bound or not, the result being a
legal opinion that they were not bound. But Government is only a
great manufacturer, its work in some departments being less than in
many private businesses. Is there any reason why Government
should be released, and individuals bound to patentees? As to the
supposition that invention will cease, the mere interest of the
Government in paying for anything worth having is found a sufficient
stimulus to invention in the things which it requires; and so it is
assumed will be the interest of competing manufacturers.
There is a universal agreement, moreover, that no Patent-Law
should cover all the inventions which are now covered. It happens
that the strongest condemnation of things as they are before the
Royal Commission came from witnesses who wished a change,
though none suggested anything which commended itself to the
Commission. The idea seemed to be that a separation could be
made between substantial inventions and the improvements or
amendments which are now so important, but are admitted to be
unsuitable for Patents. It was thought that Patents, instead of being
granted indiscriminately, should only be granted in cases of proved
novelty and utility. But no working plan of a court to do this could be
devised, or one which would not probably discourage inventors as
much as the abolition of Patents altogether.
We come, then, to the conclusion that it is for the general interest
that Patent-Laws should be abolished, and that their abolition will do
no great harm to any one—least of all, to the great mass of inventors
or improvers. Perhaps we may point out that, if the circumstances
are as described, this country has a special interest in abolishing
such laws. As the leading manufacturing country in the world, a
Patent here is likely to be worth more to its holder than anywhere
else; consequently our manufacturers are more exposed than any
others to the interruption and worry of Patents. It may well be that
other countries which are less tempting to patentees will find the
balance of competition weighted in their favour in consequence.
Looked at another way, the more that invention falls into the hands of
great capitalists, the more likely is it to strengthen the manufacturing
of a country which is already most powerful. The normal condition of
things is all in our favour, and we should do nothing to thwart it.
Leading Article from the “Spectator,” June 5,

1869.
Those who doubt whether there are subjects upon which no
conclusion is possible, which baffle the ablest and most judicial
minds possessing the best attainable information, should read the
debate which has just taken place on the proposed abolition of the
Patent Laws. The most remarkable fact of the debate was the
uncompromising attack upon these laws by Sir Roundell Palmer, his
eager advocacy of the opinion that they should be at once abolished;
but the most significant speech was made by Lord Stanley, who
exhibited perfectly the incapacity of reasonable men to come to a
wholly satisfactory judgment upon them. In fact, there is a real
balance of considerations which were almost exhaustively stated by
Lord Stanley. If you look at one set of facts, you see good reason for
conceding Patent rights; if you look at another set, you find
innumerable mischiefs arising from the concession; and there is
hardly any means of measuring which set of arguments
preponderates. The motive of granting Patents is primâ facie very
simple and unobjectionable. You wish to encourage inventions, by
which the wealth of the world is so much increased, and you
therefore promise inventors a temporary monopoly of their use, on
the single condition that the inventions shall be made public. But for
some such guarantee, it is said, many inventors would have no
temptation to rack their brains, and capitalists would be afraid to help
them in putting their ideas into a complete shape. That invention, as
a matter of fact, is to some extent encouraged, is certain, though
Lord Stanley hardly touched upon the point. On the other hand,
hardly any Patent-Law can do what it professes, while it is certain to
do much harm; and this is, at least, the character of our own law.
The rewards with which it tempts inventors are too often delusive,
and they at least would have small real cause to complain of its
abolition. No Patent brings its holder any immediate pecuniary right.
He can only sue people who infringe his Patent, and the costliness of
Patent suits is such that he is seldom able to protect himself. To
make the property worth anything, a capitalist must take it up; but the
capitalist, in doing so, stipulates for the lion’s share of the profit.
Probably in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred the reward was
obtained by such speculators, and not by inventors. This, of itself, we
believe, would not be a sufficient argument against conceding
Patent-rights; but it would certainly be sufficient, if inventors could be
induced in some less costly way to surrender their ideas to the
public. Another reason against Patents, stated by Lord Stanley—that
the reward is usually but of all proportion to the service rendered—is
also a strong one, if a better plan can be thought of; but the main
reason, the injury to third parties, is most serious. There is a great
mass of well-founded complaints as to Patents being traps for
manufacturers. Improvements and amendments in the details of
machinery and manufacturing processes, which would inevitably be
come at by the manufacturers themselves, are appropriated
beforehand by inventors who do not possess in reality any particular
merit. Manufacturers, are afraid to make slight alterations, for fear an
inventor comes down upon them; but they never know but what they
may have to encounter an action for “something they have always
done.” Even inventors themselves suffer in this way. It commonly
happened that half-a-dozen men competing in the same line of
business would come almost simultaneously upon the same
discovery; but if A was a week or a fortnight before B, the latter was
excluded from his own discovery. The Patent-Law, then, not only
does little real good to patentees themselves, but a great deal of
mischief to other people. Who is to decide whether the balance of
advantage to the public, through encouraging invention by offering a
rather delusive reward, exceeds the disadvantage of impeding
manufacture and preventing people from using what they
themselves discover?
Lord Stanley, though only recommending the matter for the
“particular handling” of the Government, inclines, on the whole, to
the view that the Patent-Laws do more harm than good; and we are
quite disposed to agree with him. The decisive consideration
appears to be the unavoidable abuse of Patents for inconsiderable
inventions, or inventions of simultaneous discovery. The hardship of
excluding B from a discovery of his own because A had patented it a
week before, is such as to demand the clearest proof of the
expediency of the general law which deprives him of the fruit of his
labours. Where B is a manufacturer, led up to the discovery by the
necessities of competition and suddenly laid under contribution by a
stranger or a rival, the hardship is especially severe. We are not sure
but that to make any Patent-Law tolerably just, special provision
should be made for proof of simultaneous discovery, and either
compensation to all the discoverers by the patentees, or full liberty to
them to make use of their discovery. It is of equal importance,
however, that the amendment of manufacturing processes in detail
should not be checked; and perhaps the fact that the great majority
of Patents now only apply to what may be termed details is a main
reason for abolishing them. It is a simple monstrosity, to quote the
case given by Mr. Scott Russell, that every conceivable shape of a
boiler should be patented, so that the most obvious change of form,
which some particular exigency obviously suggests when it arises,
should not be permissible to a manufacturer unless he pays black
mail to somebody else. If it is said that details are often important,
the answer is that manufacturers and inventors have a sufficient
stimulus with regard to them without a Patent-Law. The pressure of
competition and the large scale of manufacturing, which make
details important, are sufficient inducements to those interested to
find out something new, or encourage others to find out something
for them. Just because invention must usually come in the way of
great manufacturers, who can recoup themselves without Patents,
Patents are no longer necessary. Men like Sir William Armstrong and
Mr. Scott Russell, who are themselves considerable inventors, do
not care for Patents, except to guard themselves against the
interference of others who might take advantage of the present law
to reap where they have not sowed. They are quite content to let
others alone, if they are let alone themselves, deriving their profit
from general excellence of manufacture, of which any single process
which might be the subject of a Patent is only one out of many
details, and perhaps not the most important. Nor do such inventors
conceal their detailed improvements, so that they are in no way
tempted to do anything for the advantage of the public by the present
law. It was observable in the debate that the defence of the present
law rested exclusively with representatives of probably the least
important inventors. Mr. Mundella’s assurance that working men are
attached to the present law, and that inventors of the working class
would either not be tempted to invent, or would be deprived of the
reward of their industry, was, in truth, the only argument in its favour.
But it was plainly insufficient. It would be necessary also to show that
such inventions are overwhelmingly valuable, so as to compensate
for all the injury a Patent-Law must do; but this was not, and we
believe could not be, attempted. The special case of poor inventors
might be met by an organised system of voting rewards to those
whose inventions had been largely adopted and used; but we should
not frame an entire law, which the public do not require, and which
would work a deal of harm, in order to suit their peculiar
circumstances.
Such being the nature of the discussion, it is, of course, not worth
while saying much on the particular defects of the present law. But
there is hardly a single point where some alteration is not called for.
In particular, the Courts for trying Patent cases could be very much
improved; and additional obstacles might be interposed to frivolous
or entrapping Patents. One of the main reasons for total abolition,
nevertheless, must always be the impossibility of suggesting an
amendment for some defect which is not itself open to equivalent
objections. Nothing, for instance, seems so obvious at first sight than
that the present law might be amended by compelling patentees to
grant licences. Yet the Royal Commission which reported in 1865
was decidedly opposed to this suggestion, after hearing all that could
be said for it. There is no means of saying beforehand what should
be the maximum charge for licences, while the moment this principle
is introduced the special use of a Patent as a stimulus to inventors is
tampered with—the prospect of a complete monopoly of which they
are to make as much as they can. Similar objections apply to any
suggestion for cancelling Patents which are not used in a year or two
to some material extent. The best inventions, requiring the greatest
changes in manufacturing machinery, are often the slowest to come
into operation. For the same reason, it would also be impracticable
to compel patentees to grant licences at fixed maximum rates after
their Patent had been two or three years old. It might be just as
impossible then, as at first, to say what the licence fee should be. If
we are to have a Patent-Law, then we can have no substantial
improvement upon the present one; and it is so bad that it can hardly
last. Perhaps there is at present a deficiency of evidence on the
subject—the workmen not having been heard before the last
Commission, and the information presented as to the Patent-Laws of
other countries and their working being very deficient; but though this
may be a good reason for having another inquiry, we anticipate that
it will only confirm the verdict of impartial judges against the present
system.
Extract from the “Saturday Review,” June 5,

1869.
If the interesting debate on Mr. Macfie’s motion proved, what
scarcely needed proving, that our existing Patent-Law is extremely
unsatisfactory in its working, it equally proved that the arguments
against having any Patent-Law at all are not less unsatisfactory. If it
were practicable to discriminate between true and sham discoverers,
and to ascertain with accuracy to whom the merit of every new
invention really belonged, and if it were at the same time easy to
secure to the man who increased the common stock of useful
knowledge the fruit of his own brain, no one would dream of
questioning the moral claim of an inventor to this peculiar kind of
property, any more than we now question the justice of giving to an
author a copyright in his own work. But when it is found, or
supposed, to be extremely difficult to do justice to one man without
causing much inconvenience and some occasional injustice to a
thousand others, there is a strong temptation to sacrifice individual
rights to public expediency. The advocates of a total repeal of the
Patent-Laws generally insist (as Sir Roundell Palmer did in his
ingenious speech), not only that they do a great deal of indirect
mischief, but that the discoverer of the most invaluable invention has
no claim to any reward except the consciousness of having enabled
a number of other men to make colossal fortunes. That such
arguments should be used at all proves little more than an uneasy
consciousness that the proposed repeal would work a certain
amount of real injustice. Men who are strongly impressed with the
expediency of ignoring the claims of inventors struggle to escape the
reproach of injustice by stoutly denying the rights which they desire
to disregard. We would rather see the subject discussed with more
courage and frankness. There are undoubtedly instances in which
private claims must yield to public expediency, and any persons who
think the case of inventors to be one to which this rule is applicable
would do better to say so openly than to try to persuade themselves
and others that those who have created the means of making wealth
have no claim to share in the fruits of their discovery. Sir Roundell
Palmer affected to dispose of the whole difficulty by saying that there
were essential differences between Copyright and invention; but a
principle is not the less sound because you may illustrate it by a
case which is not on all-fours with that to which you apply it. And the
distinctions between Copyright and invention are by no means so
radical as is sometimes assumed. The Copyright-Laws give an
author a special monopoly because it is conceived that the
production of a new work entitles him to a return proportioned to its
merit, as tested by the demand for it in the market. The Patent-Laws
give an analogous monopoly to an inventor on precisely the same
moral grounds. To say, as Sir Roundell did, that a book was a new
creation, whereas an invention was merely the application of the
facts and the laws of nature, which are common property, was to
speak like a lawyer rather than like a philosopher or a man of
science. Whatever other distinctions may be insisted on between
Copyright and invention, this, at any rate, will not bear a moment’s
examination. It may have a colour of plausibility in the case of a
poem, a play, or a novel, though even there it is not altogether
sound. But literature includes history, science, philosophy,
mathematics, and the like; and every book on these and most other
subjects, so far as it has any value, is based entirely upon facts and
laws which are no more the creation of the author than are the facts
and laws on which an invention may be founded. In each case there
is creation in the same qualified sense. Say that a man creates what
he reveals, or what he proves, and the author and the inventor are
equally entitled to be called creators. Say, on the other hand, with
perhaps more accuracy, that to proclaim a previously unnoticed truth
is only to announce what has all along existed in nature and nature’s
laws, and some more modest title than creator must be assumed by
author and inventor alike. The difference between the two cases is
not a difference of principle, but of convenience. The thing created,
either in the book or the machine, is the thought or the method; but
property in a thought or a method is not what the law allows in either
case, simply because it would be impossible to give an effect to such
an enactment. What the law does is to lay hold of the most profitable
mode of using the idea, and say that for a limited time no one but the
originator shall be at liberty, in the one case, to print the book or a
colourable imitation of it; or, in the other, to manufacture or use the
machine or any colourable imitation of that. It is impossible, we think,
to deny the abstract right of a real author or inventor, and more
palpably impossible to deny it in the one case while you admit it in
the other.
Apart from his abstract reasoning, there is much in Sir Roundell
Palmer’s argument to show wide differences in practice between the
cases of authors and inventors. It is undoubtedly true that in a vast
majority of instances the patentee of an invention is not the person to
whom the largest share of the merit belongs. The rule, equally in
scientific discovery and in practical invention, has almost always
been found to be that, when a great step in advance is completed,
no one man can claim the entire merit. If one wins the race, there are
mostly several competitors who get a place. Even Newton had rivals
treading on his heels, and his great discoveries would not have been
lost, though they would certainly have been delayed, if his
marvellous intellect had never been directed to science. The thought
of the world, as represented by a little cluster of inquiring minds, was
fast ripening for the harvest which Newton was the first to reap. But
no one on this account seeks to deprive Newton of his glory. And we
do not see why the pioneers of practical invention should be
deprived of the reward for which they work merely because what
they have done is but to forestall what would have been
accomplished, sooner or later, without them. The real vice of the
Patent-Laws is that they give a full fourteen years’ monopoly to the
first inventor who proclaims himself, even though it may be clear that
he has not a week’s start of a host of competitors. In order to make
sure of adequately rewarding a very few real benefactors of
mankind, you give an inordinate privilege to a great many who have
done nothing at all in proportion to what they receive; and not only
do you prohibit every one from borrowing the patentee’s ideas, but
you actually forbid a second inventor, who has arrived at the same
result without ever having heard of the first, to make any use for
fourteen years of the conclusions which he has worked out by his
own unassisted thought and labour. This, of course, is a gross
injustice, and the opponents of the Patent-Laws say that no
machinery can be devised by which it can be escaped. Another
serious objection to the system, as worked in this country, is the
indiscriminate grant of a Patent to any one who claims it, leaving it to
future litigation to determine whether the Patent is good or bad. The
Law Officers of the Crown receive an enormous amount of fees for
Patent business, and it is their function to determine in the first
instance whether a primâ facie title to the privilege is made out. It
might be supposed that, if the identical invention has been patented
or publicly used before, or if, on the face of it, it is no invention at all,
the application would be refused. Nothing of the sort happens. No
examination of the records at the Patent-office takes place to
ascertain the existence or non-existence of earlier Patents for the
alleged discovery; and even when there is an opposition, and it is
clearly proved (as in the case of the bullet which Mr. Metford devised
and Mr. Whitworth afterwards patented) that there is nothing new in
the invention, the Patent is allowed to go, in order that the claimant
may have the privilege of a jury to try an imaginary right. This is the
way in which the crop of litigation is raised which is so often pointed
to as a reproach to the law. The present Attorney-General, it seems,
has introduced the innovation of rejecting the claims of patentees
where the alleged inventions are palpably frivolous, but something
much more decided than this is needed to make the preliminary
investigation of any real value. The vast number of worthless and
catching Patents taken out merely as traps for manufacturers is
perhaps the greatest nuisance incidental to the system, but it is by
no means the most difficult to suppress.
All these evils must be cured, or sensibly abated, if the Patent-
Laws are to survive; and if this is to be done at all, it can only be by
an effective preliminary inquiry. That there are difficulties to be
encountered in such a scheme cannot be denied, but it is not yet
shown to be so complete an impossibility as Sir Roundell Palmer
assumed it to be. With the best machinery a few Patents would slip
through which, on closer investigation, would be held to be bad; but
even the clumsiest methods of bonâ fide inquiry would have sufficed
to weed out some ninety per cent. at least of the existing Patents. A
mere search by proper officials at the Patent-office, with the aid of
the excellent indexes which they possess, would settle the fate of the
great majority of applications, and the opposition of rival inventors or
manufacturers would expose a great many more if it were not
understood, as it is now, that any opposition before the Law Officers
is a mere waste of time. Under the existing system we have a
tribunal which is not, as a rule, competent for the work, and which
makes no real effort to do it. The Law Officers give up the
investigation in despair; but it by no means follows that a scientific
tribunal, with all the aids which the Patent-office could supply, might
not be found extremely useful. The experiment, at any rate, has not
been tried; and it is scarcely fair to inventors to deprive them of all
protection merely because a perfunctory inquiry by an unscientific
and busy lawyer may have failed to exclude from the list of
patentees a formidable body of mere impostors.
We take it to be quite clear that the attempt to do justice ought not
to be given up until the impossibility of putting the law on a
satisfactory footing is clearly made out. Mr. Mundella is probably as
ingenious as most manufacturers, but he says that all the inventions
in which he is interested came out of the brains of his workmen, and
that they are sharing with him and the public the benefit of their
discoveries. Apart from the serious inconveniences caused by the
law as it is now administered, no one could desire to confiscate the
ingenuity of artisans for the benefit of master manufacturers. As
matters stand now, a poor patentee is generally helpless to turn his
invention into money without the assistance of a capitalist; but to
allow a master, because he is rich enough to use an invention, to
pick the brains of a clever artisan without making him any
acknowledgment, would be to aggravate the plutocratic tendencies
of the age, which most serious thinkers would gladly mitigate as far
as possible. The product of invention and thought is a very difficult
kind of property to protect, but it is not on that account the less
deserving of protection, if any means can be devised for granting it
without too grave an interference with the commercial freedom which
public expediency demands. The subject requires a more searching
investigation than it has yet received. Lord Stanley’s Commission
scarcely touched the root of the matter, and no attempt has even
been made to test the feasibility of such suggestions as the report
contained. It is for those who attack the law to make out a conclusive
case, not merely against the particular system in force, but against
every possible scheme for securing to inventors the benefit of their
own work. And this has certainly not yet been done.
EXTRACTS FROM RECENT CLASS
PERIODICALS.
Along with some true light and sound sense, the shifts to which
advocates of Patent restrictions are put when they venture upon
argument, and the boldness with which advances are being made on
the path of monopoly in the face of attack, may be deduced from the
following extracts picked up at a glance in current periodical class
literature:—
A Good Illustration and Bad Argument.

However absurd it may appear, a valid Patent has been for
fourteen years granted, which gave a monopoly to one person to
make all the pins for all our railways. I should have thought that the
use of wooden trenails to fasten materials together, to have been of
ancient date, but for this Patent. That existing Patent-rights are, to
some extent, obstructive to the “right of way,” is just as true as that
the right to enclose common land is so. The natural remedy, in both
instances, is to reserve “a right of way” to the public, not necessarily
a free right, but one open to all, on payment of a reasonable toll in
the latter, and of a reasonable royalty in the former case. With more
show of justice, might the enclosure of common lands be prohibited
than Patent-rights for inventions be refused, for the common lands
were not only discovered, but in human use before enclosure, which
is more than can be said of any true invention.—Extract from
“English Mechanic,” July 2, 1869.
Growth of Strange Views among Surgeons.

A change in the views of English medical men is perceptible on
the question of the propriety of a surgeon taking out a Patent for an
instrument he has invented. Although we have always felt it the duty
of a physician who subscribed to a fixed code of ethics to abide by
its regulations, and therefore have always opposed, on technical
grounds, the taking Letters Patent on improvements in surgical
appliances, we freely grant that there is no à priori immorality in the
act.... If we read Dr. Chapman’s letter to the British Medical Journal,
we find that he there says: “I have been informed that soon after Dr.
Richardson invented his ether-spray instrument, Her Majesty’s
physician, Dr. Jenner, said, if he were Dr. Richardson, he would
patent the instrument.” And further on we read, “Before I patented
the spine bags, I consulted the President of the College of
Physicians, Sir Thomas Watson, and the head of the Privy Council,
Mr. Simon; and both these gentlemen expressed the opinion that I
was justified in doing so.” Such quotations, in our humble opinion,
show that Dr. Chapman is, in all probability, right, and the majority of
the profession wrong, in objecting to his patenting an instrument
which is by no means mysterious or secret. We shall not be sorry to
see this frank admission gain ground with the profession in this
country, and the prohibition of patenting instruments reconsidered.—
Medical and Surgical Reporter.
What Preliminary Investigation Requires.

... To diminish the period for which he shall be allowed to retain his
exclusive right.... If a gratuitous privilege of five years’ duration be a
sufficient price for John Bull to pay inventors for inducing them to
make their inventions Patent, I know no just reason why he should
pay more in the form of monopoly price for that which he can
purchase for the shorter term.... To enable an efficient preliminary
investigation to be made with facility, either by individuals, or by the
official examiners, I propose to compile a history of inventions,
discoveries, and processes, for one rather more full and modern
than Beckman’s would be required. I have long advocated the
compilation and official publication of this great work, for it is not
nearly enough for this purpose to have only a classified abridgment
of the specifications of English or British Patents. In addition to this,
besides all foreign Patents, a brief classified description of the million
things formerly and now being done and suggested is almost
absolutely necessary to enable either official or private investigators
to arrive at anything like a probable resolution of the question, if a
given thing it is proposed to Patent is new.—Extract from “English
Mechanic,” July 9, 1869.
Hard Pushed for a Defence of Patents.

(Extract from Leading Article in “Engineer” of July 9, 1869.)
In a civilised state, we say, everything is property that is the fruit of
a man’s own intellect, and if the law does not make it property, then
the law, not the principle, is to blame. Advocates for the abolition of
Patent-Laws consider the following as one of their most powerful
arguments: They say that if inventors would restrict themselves to
the initiation of inventions great and good, there might be some plea
for the concession of reward through monopoly or otherwise; but the
fact is otherwise. It suffices to take the most cursory glance at Patent
records, they say, to be made aware that processes great and good
constitute but a very small minority of those on behalf of which
Patent fees are paid and the rights of monopoly claimed.
We readily grant the second clause of the statement. The number
of great and good inventions, by comparison with the obviously trivial
claims, is very small indeed; but we altogether fail to perceive what
legitimate source of grievance this can be to the public. On the
contrary, it seems to us demonstrable that under a competent
system of Patent-Law organisation the fees accruing from these
claims of trivial intrinsic import might be utilised and made to fructify.
The surplus thus accruing might be used in diminution of existing
Patent fees, in establishing a museum of inventions creditable to the
nation and the epoch, and in other ways conducive to the
development of invention in general.... Our own experience points to
many cases like this; wherefore we are assured a proposition of
some not wholly averse to Patents, whereby they would establish
courts of preliminary investigation to determine whether any given
process should be deemed worthy of patenting or not, would be
altogether futile.
According to our way of viewing the case, the registration of
inventive novelties should be encouraged on other grounds than that
already specified. We hold the record of failures to be of, at least,
equal importance to the record of successes. Anybody who has
given much time to promote invention will, we are sure, coincide in
our opinion, that the knowledge of what others have been unable to
accomplish in some particular line of invention is one of the most
likely conditions of his own success. This collateral value of failures
does not seem to have been heeded by those who are most
prominent amongst the advocates of Patent abolition. From matters
of undisputed non-success, we pass now to the consideration of
others confessedly of some value, but the importance of which is
trivial. In respect to such it is argued by Mr. Macfie that they much
embarrass the manufacturer by needlessly stopping the way until
terms can be come to with the inventor. The plausibility of this
reasoning we fail to see. Does not the assumed worthlessness of an
invention of the series contemplated bar the need of coming to terms
with the inventor at all? What manufacturer in his senses would treat
for the use of an invention that he knows to be worthless—such
foreknowledge being a postulate on which the argument is raised,
and on which the objection turns? The national value of a readily-
accessible and classified record of invention must be obvious to all.
Those who would desire to uphold the Patent-Laws, and those who
would wish to abolish them, must alike coincide in this point. We
insist upon this part of the subject all the more strenuously from the
conviction that the upholding the abrogation or modification of the
Patent-Laws will turn, after all, on considerations of public
expediency, not on considerations of right and wrong to individual
inventors. This being so, the collateral value of Patent-Laws, in
establishing a record of inventive progress, cannot be too
prominently kept in view.
PATENT RIGHTS AND PATENT WRONGS.

Sir,—On page 279, in speaking of steel rails, you say: “Could a
better result than that achieved by Mr. Bessemer, and by those who
hold licences under him, have been arrived at under the ‘No-Patent’
system?” Decidedly not, for it has landed them in wealth; but I will
suppose a by no means improbable case. Suppose Belgian
manufacturers had secured Patent-rights in England, and demanded
a royalty preventing English manufacturers from selling their steel
rails, as you state, under 12l. per ton, when without such royalty they
could be sold at 9l. per ton. Now, the case would stand thus: the
Belgian manufacturers could be supplying the world with steel rails
at 9l. per ton, while the English manufacturers were prevented by
their own laws for fourteen years from manufacturing them under
12l. per ton, although all the materials were lying at their doors, and
both masters and men wanting the work. If England wishes to
maintain her position in the trading and manufacturing world,
monopolies and prejudice must be things of the past....
You will say the inventor has a right to the invention. Granted;
there were no laws to prevent him from finding it out, and getting all
the advantage he could out of it, and there ought not then to have
been a law made to prevent any one else finding out the process or
improving upon it. I cannot see the right of giving anyone the power
to block the public highway of thought and enterprise. Necessity is
the mother of all useful inventions, and if steel rails were required,
English manufacturers would have soon found out how to make
them, without a Patent Law to help them.
R. R. S.
—From the English Mechanic.
REPORT OF THE CHAMBER OF
COMMERCE OF COLOGNE ON THE
PATENT QUESTION.
For the following translation I am indebted to the Hon. J. C.
Heustler, of the Legislative Council of Queensland:—
The resolution to abolish Patents on inventions, arrived at by the
Chamber of Commerce of Cologne, at their sitting of the 15th Sept.,
1863, has been confirmed in a report to the Ministry of Commerce,
as follows:—
The Patent is a monopoly, and if it has been said in its favour that
it is justifiable and only temporary, it is, notwithstanding, subject to all
the disadvantages in its consequences which are common to all
monopolies.
Endeavours to compete in the sphere of inventions are suddenly
checked by Patents, while, on the other hand, many a patentee,
instead of continuing to work with zeal, and to advance in the
direction commenced, simply occupies himself to watch with
jealousy possible infringements of others on his monopoly during the
currency of his Patent.
Consumers pay exorbitant prices during a number of years for the
manufacture so patented, or receive the same in a less perfect
condition than would be the case if competition had exercised its
wholesome influence on the manufacture of the article in question. It
may be rejoined, that nobody is forced to buy the patented article, or
to make use of the patented invention; also that the common weal
would profit more by the utilisation of an invention, even if burthened
for a period of from five to fifteen years, than not have it in use at all.
To this it could be replied, with good reason, that with the constant
activity which working minds develop upon all fields of industry, the

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Nostalgia Marketing.

ISBN 978-3-031-21545-2 ISBN 978-3-031-20914-7 (eBook)

Cover pattern © John Rawsterne/patternhead.com

Nostalgia is a sadness without an object, a sadness which creates a longing

In this definition nostalgia is misremembrance. It is a search for a fictive

When to the sessions of sweet silent thought

I sigh the lack of many a thing I sought,

But if the while I think on thee, dear friend,

grooming, heroes, films, and hangouts that we chose to define “us” as

a “little world” of nostalgic revelries where we have a greater chance of

Schulich School of Business Russell W. Belk

6 Navigating among the Nostalgic: Exploring Fans’ Inner

Marco Pichierri (Ph.D. in Business Economics) is Assistant Professor of

Fig. 1.1 Temporal distribution of the research documents on nostalgia

Nostalgia Marketing and Consumer Behavior

1 An Introduction to Nostalgia Marketing

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 1

Note: Author’s elaboration on Scopus data.

Fig. 1.1 Temporal distribution of the research documents on nostalgia market-

2 Nostalgia in the Academic Literature

medical field—where it initially described a pathological condition associ-

3 The Effects of Nostalgia on Consumers

information from the past activates emotion-regulation brain regions such

4 On the Mechanisms Behind Nostalgia

5 The Structure of the Book

recent proliferation of nostalgia in companies’ communication strategies

purchase of non-sustainable (vs. sustainable) products. Furthermore, this

6 A Detailed Overview of the Extant Research

Table 1.1 presents a non-exhaustive list of academic articles whose titles

Reference Research Independent Dependent variable(s) Sample(s) Main findings

Reference Research Independent Dependent variable(s) Sample(s) Main findings

Reference Research Independent Dependent variable(s) Sample(s) Main findings

Reference Research Independent Dependent variable(s) Sample(s) Main findings

Reference Research Independent Dependent variable(s) Sample(s) Main findings

Reference Research Independent Dependent variable(s) Sample(s) Main findings

Reference Research Independent Dependent variable(s) Sample(s) Main findings

Reference Research Independent Dependent variable(s) Sample(s) Main findings

Leading Article from the “Spectator,” June 5,

Extract from the “Saturday Review,” June 5,

A Good Illustration and Bad Argument.

Growth of Strange Views among Surgeons.

What Preliminary Investigation Requires.

Hard Pushed for a Defence of Patents.

PATENT RIGHTS AND PATENT WRONGS.

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6 Navigating among the Nostalgic: Exploring Fans’ Inner