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Programming with

C++ KYLA McMULLEN


Elizabeth matthews
June Jamrich Parsons

Australia • Brazil • Canada • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States

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Readings from Programming with C++ © 2022 Cengage Learning, Inc.
Kyla McMullen, Elizabeth Matthews, WCN: 02-300
June Jamrich Parsons
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Brief Contents

prefacexiii Module 17
Polymorphism 309
Module 1
Computational Thinking 1 Module 18
Templates 319
Module 2
Programming Tools 15 Module 19
Linked List Data Structures 333
Module 3
Literals, Variables, and Constants 35 Module 20
Stacks and Queues 353
Module 4
Numeric Data Types and Expressions 49 Module 21
Trees and Graphs 371
Module 5
Character and String Data Types 63 Module 22
Algorithm Complexity and Big-O Notation 395
Module 6
Decision Control Structures 83 Module 23
Search Algorithms 411
Module 7
Repetition Control Structures 103 Module 24
Sorting Algorithms 427
Module 8
Arrays 125 Module 25
Processor Architecture 455
Module 9
Functions 145 Module 26
Data Representation 469
Module 10
Recursion 165 Module 27
Programming Paradigms 491
Module 11
Exceptions 185 Module 28
User Interfaces 507
Module 12
File Operations 205 Module 29
Software Development Methodologies 525
Module 13
Classes and Objects 231 Module 30
Pseudocode, Flowcharts, and Decision Tables 541
Module 14
Methods 245 Module 31
Unified Modeling Language 557
Module 15
Encapsulation 271
GLOSSARY 569
Module 16 Index 583
Inheritance 291

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Table of Contents

prefacexiii Build Tools 22


The Toolset 22
Module 1 Compilers 23
COMPUTATIONAL THINKING 1 Preprocessors and Linkers 24
Virtual Machines 25
Algorithms2 Interpreters 26
Algorithm Basics 2 Debugging Tools 27
Programming Algorithms 2 Programming Errors 27
“Good” Algorithms 3 Syntax Errors 28
Selecting and Creating Algorithms 4 Runtime Errors 29
Decomposition4 Semantic Errors 29
Decomposition Basics 4 Debugging Utilities 30
Structural Decomposition 5 IDEs and SDKs 32
Functional Decomposition 6 Integrated Development Environments 32
Object-Oriented Decomposition 7 Software Development Kits 32
Dependencies and Cohesion 7
Summary 33
Pattern Identification 8
Key Terms  34
Pattern Identification Basics 8
Repetitive Patterns 8
Module 3
Classification Patterns 9
Abstraction9 LITERALS, VARIABLES, AND
Abstraction Basics 9 CONSTANTS35
Classes and Objects 10
Literals36
Black Boxes 11
Numeric Literals 36
Levels of Abstraction 12
Character and String Literals 37
Summary12 Tricky Literals 38
Key Terms  13 Variables and Constants 38
Variables 38
Module 2 Constants 40
PROGRAMMING TOOLS 15 The Memory Connection 41
Assignment Statements 41
Programming Languages 16 Declaring Variables  41
Hello World! 16 Initializing Variables 42
Programming Language Basics 16 Assigning Variables 43
Syntax and Semantics 17
Input and Output 44
Core Elements 19
Your Toolbox 19 Input to a Variable  44
Output from a Variable 46
Coding Tools 20
Program Editors 20 Summary 46
Basic Structure 21 Key Terms  47

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Table of Contents v

Module 4 Module 6
Numeric Data Types and Decision Control
Expressions 49 Structures 83
Primitive Data Types 50 If-Then Control Structures 84
Data Types 50 Control Structures 84
Primitive Data Types 50 Decision Logic 85
Composite Data Types 51 If-Then Structures 85
Numeric Data Types 52 Relational Operators 87
Integer Data Types 52 The Equal Operator 87
Floating-Point Data Types 53 Using Relational Operators 88
Mathematical Expressions 54 Boolean Expressions and Data Types 89
Arithmetic Operators 54 Multiple Conditions 91
Order of Operations 56 If-Then-Else Structures 91
Compound Operators 56 Nested-If Structures 93
Numeric Data Type Conversion 58 Else If Structures 96
Convert Integers and Floating-Point Numbers 58 Fall Through 97
Rounding Quirks 59 Conditional Logical Operators 100
Formatting Output 60 The AND Operator 100
Formatted Output 60 The OR Operator 101
Formatting Parameters 60 Summary 102
Summary 62 Key Terms 102
Key Terms 62

Module 7
Module 5 Repetition Control
CHARACTER AND STRING DATA TYPES 63 Structures 103
Character Data Types 64 Count-Controlled Loops 104
Working with Character Data 64 Loop Basics 104
Character Memory Allocation 65 Control Statements 105
Digits 66 For-Loops 105
Character Output Format 67 User-Controlled Loops 108
Character Manipulation 68
Counters and Accumulators 109
String Data Types 69 Loops That Count 109
Working with String Data 69 Loops That Accumulate 111
Escape Characters 70
String Indexes 71
Nested Loops 112
Loops Within Loops 112
String Functions 72
Inner and Outer Loops 113
String Manipulation 72
String Length 72 Pre-Test Loops 116
Change Case 73 While-Loops 116
Find the Location of a Character 74 Infinite Loops 117
Retrieve a Substring 75 Breaking Out of Loops 118
Concatenation and Typecasting 76 Post-Test Loops 120
Concatenated Output 76 Do-Loops 120
Concatenated Variables 77 Test Conditions and Terminating
Coercion and Typecasting 78 Conditions 123
Summary 80 Summary 124
Key Terms 81 Key Terms 124

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vi Programming with C++

Module 8 Pass by Reference 161


Namespaces 162
Arrays 125
Summary 163
Array Basics 126
Key Terms 163
Magic Rectangles 126
Array Characteristics 127
Array Use Cases 128 Module 10
One-Dimensional Arrays 128 Recursion 165
Initialize Numeric Arrays 128
Key Components of Recursion 165
Initialize String Arrays 130
The Recursive Mindset 165
Array Input and Output 130 Recursion Basics 167
Output an Array Element 130 When to Use Recursion 171
Index Errors 131
Using Recursion to Solve Complex
Traverse an Array 132
Problems 171
Input Array Elements 133
Designing Recursive Structures 171
Array Operations 135 Linear Recursion 174
Change an Array Element 135 Branching Recursion 175
Find an Array Element 135
Managing Memory during Recursion 179
Sum Array Elements 137
Memory Management 179
Two-Dimensional Arrays 137 Stable Recursion 182
Two-Dimensional Array Basics 137
Summary 183
Initialize a Two-Dimensional Array 138
Output a Two-Dimensional Array 139 Key Terms 183
Sum Array Columns and Rows 141
Summary 143 Module 11
Key Terms 144 Exceptions 185
Defining Exceptions 185
Module 9 Errors in Code 185
Functions 145 Exception Types 187

Function Basics 146 Dealing with Exceptions 189


Function Classifications 146 Handling Others’ Exceptions 189
Programmer-Defined Functions 146 Try and Catch Blocks 189
Flow of Execution 147 Using Exceptions 198
Function Advantages 147 Throwing Exceptions 198
Void Functions 148 When to Bail 202
Void Function Basics 148 Summary 203
Function Pseudocode 149
Key Terms 203
Functions with Parameters 150
Function Parameters 150
Module 12
Function Arguments 150
The Handoff 152 File Operations 205
Return Values 153 File Input and Output 206
Return Values 153 The Purpose of Files 206
Return Type 156 Anatomy of a File 210
Function Signature 157 File Usage 212
Scope 157 Processing a File 214
Scope Basics 157 Accessing Files 214
Pass by Value 160 Streaming and Buffering 214

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Table of Contents vii

Reading from a File 216 Method Cascading and Method Chaining 263
Opening a File for Reading 216 Calling Multiple Methods on the Same Object 263
Reading from a File 218 Using Constructors 266
Closing a File 222 Specifying How to Construct an Object 266
Closing Files after Use 222 Constructing an Object from Another Object 268
Trying to Close a File 222 Summary 269
Creating and Writing New Files 222
Key Terms 269
Creating a File 222
Opening a File for Writing 223 Module 15
Writing to and Appending a File 224
Anticipating Exceptions 228 Encapsulation 271
Summary 229 Components of Class Structure 271
Key Terms 230 Data Hiding 271
Designing Objects 273
Self-Reference Scope 276
Module 13 Accessor and Mutator Context 277
Classes and Objects 231 Viewing Data from an Object 277
Classes in Object-Oriented Programming 232 Changing Data in an Object 278
Representing the Real World with Code 232 Using Constructors 280
Using Classes 232 Parameters and Arguments 280
Class Components 233 Default Parameters and Constructor
Using Objects 236 Overloading 281
Creating Objects 236 Encapsulation Enforcement
Objects as Variables 238 with Access Modifiers 283
Object-Oriented Features and Principles 238 Access Modifiers 283
Using Static Elements in a Class 239 Public Variables and Methods 283
Private Variables and Methods 284
Static Member Variables 239
Static Methods 240 Interfaces and Headers 286
Static Classes 241 Interfaces 286
Characteristics of Objects Programming an Interface 287
in Object-Oriented Programs 242 Summary 290
Object Identity 242 Key Terms 290
Object State 242
Object Behavior 243 Module 16
Summary 244 Inheritance 291
Key Terms 244 Using Inheritance 291
Creating Classes from Other Classes 291
Module 14 Family Trees in OOP 292
Methods 245 Levels of Access 295
Necessary Components for Inheritance 296
Using Methods 245
Defining a Parent Class 296
Why Use Methods? 245 Defining a Child Class 297
Anatomy of a Method 251
Creating a Child Class That Inherits
Using Methods 251
from a Parent Class 298
Changing the Default Behavior
Inheritance Syntax 298
of an Object 255 Customizing Behavior 301
Using Objects as Regular Variables 255
Overloading Methods 258 Summary 307
Setting One Object to Equal Another 262 Key Terms 307

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viii Programming with C++

Module 17 The Find Method 346


The Insert Method 347
Polymorphism 309
Summary 350
The Purpose of Polymorphism 309
Key Terms 351
Flexibility While Coding 309
Dynamic Binding Under the Hood 314
Polymorphism Basics 314 Module 20
Classes Within Classes 314 Stacks and Queues 353
Objects as Other Objects 315 Stacks 353
Virtual Functions 316 Stack Basics 353
Anticipating Customization 316 Stack Use Cases 355
Abstract Classes 317 Built-in Stacks 356
Summary 318 Code a Stack 357

Key Terms 318


Queues 362
Queue Basics 362
Module 18 Queue Use Cases 363
Code a Queue 364
Templates 319
Summary 369
Template Basics 319
Key Terms 369
Data Abstraction 319
Template Structure and Use 322
Module 21
Tricky Templating 328
Advanced Templating 328
Trees and Graphs 371
Templated Objects as Arguments 330 Nonlinear Data Structures 371
Templates as a Problem-Solving Linear versus Nonlinear Structures 371
Approach 331 Nonlinear Building Blocks 373
Designing a Template 331 Tree Structures 373
When to Use Templates 331 Tree Basics 373
Summary 331 Tree Properties 376
Trees as Recursive Structures 376
Key Terms 332
Solving Problems Using Trees 379
Module 19 Tree Applications 379
Linked List Data Data Storage in Trees 380
Graph Structures 387
Structures 333
Graph Basics 387
Linked List Structures 334 Directed and Undirected Graphs 388
Data Structure Selection 334 Solving Problems with Graphs 388
Data Structure Implementation 335 Graph Applications 388
Linked List Basics 336 Computing Paths 389
Types of Linked Lists 337
Summary 394
Singly Linked Lists 337
Doubly Linked Lists 338 Key Terms 394
Circular Linked Lists 339
Linked List Characteristics 339 Module 22
Code a Linked List 342 Algorithm Complexity
The Node Class 342 and Big-O Notation 395
The LinkedList Class 343
The Append Method 343 Big-O Notation 396
Linked List Traversal 345 Algorithm Complexity 396

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Table of Contents ix

Asymptotic Analysis 397 Quicksort 438


Asymptotic Notation 398 Defining the Quicksort Algorithm 438
Time Complexity 398 Quicksort Properties 446
Big-O Metrics 398 Merge Sort 447
Constant Time 399 Defining the Merge Sort Algorithm 447
Linear Time 399 Merge Sort Properties 453
Quadratic Time 400
Summary 454
Logarithmic Time 401
Key Terms 454
Space Complexity 403
Memory Space 403 Module 25
Constant Space Complexity 404
Linear Space Complexity 404 Processor Architecture 455
Complexity Calculations 405 Processor Organization 456
Line-by-Line Time Complexity 405 Integrated Circuits 456
Combine and Simplify 406 Moore’s Law 458
A Mystery Algorithm 407 CPUs 458
Low-Level Instruction Sets 459
Summary 409
Microprocessor Instruction Sets 459
Key Terms 409 RISC and CISC 460
Machine Language 460
Module 23 Assembly Language 461

Search Algorithms 411 Microprocessor Operations 462


Processing an Instruction 462
Using Search Algorithms 412 The Instruction Cycle 462
Search Basics 412 High-Level Programming Languages 464
Performing a Linear Search 413 Evolution 464
Looking for a Needle in a Haystack 413 Teaching Languages 465
Evaluating Search Time 416 The C Family 465
Web Programming Languages 466
Performing a Binary Search 416 Characteristics 466
Shrinking the Search Space 416 Advantages and Disadvantages 467
Implementing Binary Search 418
Summary 467
Using Regular Expressions
Key Terms 468
in Search Algorithms 423
Specifying a Search Pattern 423 Module 26
Regular Expression Search Operators 423
Data Representation 469
Summary 426
Bits and Bytes 470
Key Terms 426
Digital Data 470
Bits 471
Module 24 Bytes 472
Sorting Algorithms 427 Binary 474
Binary Numbers 474
Qualities of Sorting Algorithms 428 Binary to Decimal 475
Ordering Items 428 Decimal to Binary 476
Time Complexity in Sorting Algorithms 428 Binary Addition 477
Sorting Properties 430 Negative Numbers 478
Bubble Sort 431 Hexadecimal 480
Defining the Bubble Sort Algorithm 431 Colors 480
Bubble Sort Properties 437 Hexadecimal Numbers 481

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x Programming with C++

Binary-Hex-Binary Conversions 481 Speech Synthesis 516


Hex-Decimal Conversion 482 Designing Programs for Voice User Interfaces 517
Information Density 483 Virtual Environment Interfaces 517
ASCII and Unicode 483 Virtual Environments 517
ASCII 483 Virtual Environment Interface Components 518
Extended ASCII 484 Programming the Virtual Interface 519
Unicode 485 Accessibility and Inclusion 520
Memory Allocation 486 Accessibility Guidelines 520
Memory and Storage 486 Inclusive Design 521
Storage Devices 487 Summary 524
Memory 487
Key Terms 524
Summary 489
Key Terms 489
Module 29
Software Development
Module 27
Methodologies 525
Programming Paradigms 491
Software Development 526
Imperative and Declarative Paradigms 492
The Software Development Life Cycle 526
Think Outside the Box 492
Efficiency, Quality, and Security 527
The Procedural Paradigm 493 The Waterfall Model 528
Procedural Basics 493
Structured Analysis and Design 528
Characteristics of Procedural Programs 494
Waterfall Advantages and Disadvantages 529
Procedural Paradigm Applications 496
The Agile Model 530
The Object-Oriented Paradigm 497
Incremental Development 530
Objects, Classes, and Methods 497
Agile Methodologies 530
Characteristics of Object-Oriented Programs 499
Agile Advantages and Disadvantages 531
Object-Oriented Applications 501
Coding Principles 532
Declarative Paradigms 501
Efficient Coding 532
Declarative Basics 501
Modularized Code 533
Characteristics of the Declarative
Clean Coding 534
Paradigm 504
Secure Coding 534
Applications for Declarative Paradigms 504
Success Factors 536
Summary 505 Testing 536
Key Terms 505 Levels of Testing 536
Unit Testing 537
Module 28 Integration Testing 538
System Testing 539
User Interfaces 507 Acceptance Testing 539
User Interface Basics 508 Regression Testing 539
UI and UX 508 Summary 540
UI Components 508
Key Terms 540
Selecting a UI 510
Command-Line User Interfaces 510
Module 30
Command-Line Basics 510
Command-Line Program Design 510 Pseudocode, Flowcharts,
Graphical User Interfaces 512 and Decision Tables 541
GUI Basics 512 Pseudocode 542
GUI Program Design 514
From Algorithms to Pseudocode 542
Voice User Interfaces 515 Pseudocode Basics 544
Voice Interface Basics 515 Pseudocode Guidelines 545
Speech Recognition 515 Writing Pseudocode 547

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Table of Contents xi

Flowcharts 548 UML Diagram Parts 558


Flowchart Basics 548 Class Diagram Basics 558
Drawing Flowcharts 548 Use Case Diagram Basics 559
Flowchart Tools 549 Sequence Diagrams 561
Decision Tables 551 Using UML to Structure Programs 562
Decision Table Basics 551 UML Associations 562
List the Conditions 551 Translating UML to Code 564
List All Possible Alternatives 552 Summary 568
Specify Results and Rules 552
Interpret Rules 553 Key Terms 568
Optimize the Rules 554
Check for Completeness and Accuracy 555
GLOSSARY 569
Summary 555
index 583
Key Terms 556

Module 31
Unified Modeling Language 557
Purpose of Unified Modeling
Language (UML) 557
Communicating Ideas to Other Programmers 557

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Preface

Welcome to Readings from Programming with C11.


This text includes the stand-alone lessons and read-
C11 Version
ings from MindTap for Programming with C11 and is We recommend downloading the latest version of
intended to be used in conjunction with the MindTap C11 before beginning this text. C1114 was used to
Reader for a complete learning experience. test all C11 code presented in the module figures.

MindTap Overview MindTap Features


Programming with C 11 presents conceptual, lan- In addition to the readings included within this text,
guage-agnostic narrative with language-specific assets, the MindTap includes the following:
ungraded C11 coding Snippets, language-agnostic test Course Orientation: Custom videos and readings pre-
banks, and additional instructor resources. The goal of pare students for the material and coding experiences
this digital product is to develop content around the they will encounter in their course.
concepts that are essential for understanding Com-
Videos: Animated videos demonstrate new program-
puter Science from a language-agnostic perspective.
ming terms and concepts in an easy-to-understand for-
Learners will gain a foundational understanding of
mat, increasing student confidence and learning.
procedural programming, computer science concepts,
and object-oriented programming. Instructors have Coding Snippets: These short, ungraded coding activities
identified the need for language-agnostic, conceptual are embedded within the MindTap Reader and provide
content that can be paired with hands-on practice in students an opportunity to practice new programming
a specific language. This 31-module text is designed to concepts “in-the-moment.” Additional language-specific
provide that conceptual content paired with language- “bridge content” helps transition the student from con-
specific examples and hands-on learning activities in ceptual understanding to application of C11 code.
C11. Language-specific Examples: Figures within the nar-
rative illustrate the application of general concepts in
C11 code.
Course Objectives:
• Develop a foundational knowledge of
coding principles, vocabulary, and core Instructor & Student Resources
concepts. Additional instructor and student resources for
• Use new foundational knowledge to this product are available online. Instructor assets
learn C11 programming skills. include an Instructor’s Manual, Teaching Online
• Practice emerging coding skills in a low- Guide, ­PowerPoint® slides, and a test bank powered
risk environment. by ­Cognero®. Student assets include source code
• Apply learned concepts and skills to files and coding Snippets ReadMe. Sign up or sign in
assignments/activities that mimic real- at www.cengage.com to search for and access this
world experiences and environments. product and its online resources.

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
About the Authors

Dr. Kyla McMullen is a tenure-track faculty member published research in the areas of procedural genera-
in the University of Florida’s Computer & Information tion, video game enjoyment factors, and freshwater
Sciences & Engineering Department, specializing in algae identification with HCI.
Human-Centered Computing. Her research interests June Jamrich Parsons is an educator, digital book
are in the perception, applications, and development pioneer, and co-author of Texty and McGuffey Award-
of 3D audio technologies. Dr. McMullen has authored winning textbooks. She co-developed the first com-
over 30 manuscripts in this line of research and is the mercially successful multimedia, interactive digital
primary investigator for over 2 million dollars’ worth textbook; one that set the bar for platforms now
of sponsored research projects. being developed by educational publishers. Her
Dr. Elizabeth A. Matthews is an Assistant Professor of career includes extensive classroom teaching, prod-
Computer Science at Washington and Lee University. uct design for eCourseware, textbook authoring for
She has taught computer science since 2013 and has Course Technology and Cengage, Creative Strategist
been an active researcher in human–computer inter- for MediaTechnics Corporation, and Director of Con-
action and human-centered computing. Matthews has tent for Veative Virtual Reality Labs.

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Acknowledgments

The unique approach for this book required a ­seasoned friends who help me to remain sane, remind me of who
team. Our thanks to Maria Garguilo who ushered the I am, and never let me forget whose I am.
manuscripts through every iteration and kept tight Elizabeth Matthews: I want to thank my parents,
rein on the schedule; to Mary E. Convertino who sup- Drs. Geoff and Robin Matthews, for their support and
plied her expertise in learning design; to Lisa R
­ uffolo understanding in my journey. I would also like to thank
for her excellent developmental edit; to Courtney my advisor, Dr. Juan Gilbert, for seeing my dream to
Cozzy who coordinated the project; to Kristin McNary the end. Finally, I would like to thank my cats, Oreo
for her leadership in Cengage’s computing materials; and Laptop, who made sure that writing this book was
to Rajiv Malkan (Lone Star College) for his instruc- interrupted as often as possible.
tional input; to Wade Schofield (Liberty University) June Jamrich Parsons: Computer programming can
for his reviewing expertise; and to John Freitas for his be a truly satisfying experience. The reward when a
meticulous code review. It was a pleasure to be part program runs flawlessly has to bring a smile even
of this professional and talented team. We hope that to the most seasoned programmers. Working with
instructors and students will appreciate our efforts three programming languages for this project at the
to provide this unique approach to computer science same time was certainly challenging but provided
and programming. insights that can help students understand com-
Kyla McMullen: Above all things, I would like to thank putational thinking. I’ve thoroughly enjoyed work-
God for giving me the gifts and talents that were uti- ing with the team to create these versatile learning
lized to write this book. I would like to thank my amaz- resources and would like to dedicate my efforts to
ing husband Ade Kumuyi for always being my rock, my mom, who has been a steadfast cheerleader for
sounding board, and biggest cheerleader. I thank my me throughout my career. To the instructors and stu-
parents, Rita and James McMullen for all of their sacri- dents who use this book, my hope is that you enjoy
fices to raise me. Last but not least, I thank my spirited programming as much as I do.

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
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MODULE

1
COMPUTATIONAL
THINKING
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1.1 ALGORITHMS 1.2.3 Differentiate the concepts of algorithms and
decomposition.
1.1.1 Define the term “algorithm” as a series of steps for
solving a problem or carrying out a task. 1.2.4 Identify examples of structural decomposition.
1.1.2 State that algorithms are the underlying logic for 1.2.5 Identify examples of functional decomposition.
computer programs. 1.2.6 Identify examples of object-oriented decomposition.
1.1.3 Define the term “computer program.” 1.2.7 Provide examples of decomposition in technology
1.1.4 Provide examples of algorithms used in everyday applications.
technology applications. 1.2.8 Explain how dependencies and cohesion relate to
1.1.5 Confirm that there can be more than one algorithm decomposition.
for a task or problem and that some algorithms 1.3 PATTERN IDENTIFICATION
may be more efficient than others.
1.3.1 Define the term “pattern identification” as a technique
1.1.6 Explain why computer scientists are interested in for recognizing similarities or characteristics among
algorithm efficiency. the elements of a task or problem.
1.1.7 List the characteristics of an effective algorithm. 1.3.2 Identify examples of fill-in-the-blank patterns.
1.1.8 Write an algorithm for accomplishing a simple, 1.3.3 Identify examples of repetitive patterns.
everyday technology application.
1.3.4 Identify examples of classification patterns.
1.1.9 Write an alternate algorithm for an everyday
technology task. 1.3.5 Provide examples of pattern identification in the real
world and in technology applications.
1.1.10 Select the more efficient of the two algorithms you
have written. 1.4 ABSTRACTION
1.2 DECOMPOSITION 1.4.1 Define the term “abstraction” as a technique for
generalization and for simplifying levels of complexity.
1.2.1 Define the term “decomposition” as a technique for
dividing a complex problem or solution into smaller 1.4.2 Explain why abstraction is an important computer
parts. science concept.
1.2.2 Explain why decomposition is an important tool for 1.4.3 Provide an example illustrating how abstraction can
computer scientists. help identify variables.

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2 PROGRAMMING WITH C++

1.4.4 Provide examples of technology applications that 1.4.6 Explain how the black box concept is an
have abstracted or hidden details. implementation of abstraction.
1.4.5 Provide an example illustrating the use of a class as 1.4.7 Identify appropriate levels of abstraction.
an abstraction of a set of objects.

1.1 ALGORITHMS
Algorithm Basics (1.1.1, 1.1.4)
A password might not be enough to protect your online accounts. Two-factor authentication adds an extra layer
of protection. A common form of two-factor authentication sends a personal identification number (PIN) to your
cell phone. To log in, you perform the series of steps shown in Figure 1-1.

Connect to the site’s login page.


Enter your user ID.
Enter your password.
Wait for a text message containing a PIN
to arrive on your smartphone.
On the site’s the login page, enter the PIN.

Figure 1-1 Steps for two-factor authentication

The procedure for two-factor authentication is an example of an algorithm. In a general sense, an algorithm
is a series of steps for solving a problem or carrying out a task.
Algorithms exist for everyday tasks and tasks that involve technology. Here are some examples:

• A recipe for baking brownies


• The steps for changing a tire
• The instructions for pairing a smart watch with your phone
• The payment process at an online store
• The procedure for posting a tweet

Programming Algorithms (1.1.2, 1.1.3, 1.1.5)


Algorithms are also an important tool for programmers. A programming algorithm is a set of steps that speci-
fies the underlying logic and structure for the statements in a computer program. You can think of programming
algorithms as the blueprints for computer programs.
A computer program is a set of instructions, written in a programming language such as C++, Python, or
Java, that performs a specific task when executed by a digital device. A computer program is an implementation
of an algorithm.

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Module 1 Computational Thinking 3

Q Programming algorithms tell the computer what to do. Can you tell which of these algorithms
is a programming algorithm?
Algorithm 1: Algorithm 2:
Connect to the website’s login page. Prompt the user to enter a user ID.
Enter your user ID. Prompt the user to enter a password.
Enter your password. Make sure that the user ID and password match.
Wait for a text message containing a PIN to If the user ID and password match:
arrive on your smartphone. Generate a random PIN.
On the website’s login page, enter the PIN. Send the PIN to user’s phone.
Prompt the user to enter the PIN.
If the PIN is correct:
Allow access.

A Algorithm 1 is not a programming algorithm because it outlines instructions for the user.
Algorithm 2 is a programming algorithm because it specifies what the computer is supposed
to do. When you formulate a programming algorithm, the instructions should be for the
computer, not the user.

There can be more than one programming algorithm for solving a problem or performing a task, but some
algorithms are more efficient than others.

Q Here are two algorithms for summing the numbers from 1 to 10. Which algorithm is more
efficient?
Algorithm 1: Algorithm 2:
Add 1 1 2 to get a total. Get the last number in the series (10).
Repeat these steps nine times: Divide 10 by 2 to get a result.
Get the next number. Add 10 1 1 to get a sum.
Add this number to the total. Multiply the result by the sum.

A Both algorithms contain four instructions, but Algorithm 2 is more efficient. You can use it to
amaze your friends by quickly calculating the total in only four steps. Algorithm 1 is also four
lines long, but two of the instructions are repeated nine times. Counting the first step, that’s
19 steps to complete this task!

“Good” Algorithms (1.1.6, 1.1.7)


Computer scientists are interested in designing what they call “good” algorithms. A good algorithm tends
to produce a computer program that operates efficiently, quickly, and reliably. Good algorithms have these
characteristics:
Input: The algorithm applies to a set of specified inputs.
Output: The algorithm produces one or more outputs.
Finite: The algorithm terminates after a finite number of steps.
Precise: Each step of the algorithm is clear and unambiguous.
Effective: The algorithm successfully produces the correct output.

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4 PROGRAMMING WITH C++

When formulating an algorithm, you can easily check to make sure it satisfies all the criteria for a good algo-
rithm. You can see how these criteria apply to an algorithm in Figure 1-2.

Is there input? Yes.

Get the last number in the series (10).


Divide 10 by 2 to get a RESULT. Are the steps precise and
Add 10 + 1 to get a SUM. unambiguous? Yes.
Multiply the RESULT by the SUM to
Does the algorithm terminate? Does the algorithm produce
produce a total.
Yes, after the fourth step. the correct output?
Yes, it is 55.
Is there output? Yes.

Figure 1-2 Is this a good algorithm?

Selecting and Creating Algorithms (1.1.8, 1.1.9, 1.1.10)


Before coding, programmers consider various algorithms that might apply to a problem. You can come up with
an algorithm in three ways:
Use a standard algorithm. Programmers have created effective algorithms for many computing
tasks, such as sorting, searching, manipulating text, encrypting data, and finding the shortest path.
When you are familiar with these standard algorithms, you can easily incorporate them in programs.
Perform the task manually. When you can’t find a standard algorithm, you can formulate an
algorithm by stepping through a process manually, recording those steps, and then analyzing their
effectiveness.
Apply computational thinking techniques. Computational thinking is a set of techniques designed
to formulate problems and their solutions. You can use computational thinking techniques such as
decomposition, pattern identification, and abstraction to devise efficient algorithms. Let’s take a look
at these techniques in more detail.

1.2 DECOMPOSITION
Decomposition Basics (1.2.1)
A mobile banking app contains many components. It has to provide a secure login procedure, allow users to
manage preferences, display account balances, push out alerts, read checks for deposit, and perform other tasks
shown in Figure 1-3.
The algorithm for such an extensive app would be difficult to formulate without dividing it into smaller parts,
a process called decomposition. When devising an algorithm for a complex problem or task, decomposition can
help you deal with smaller, more manageable pieces of the puzzle.

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Module 1 Computational Thinking 5

Fraud alerts

Change user
Secure login
preferences

Account balance Deposits

iStock.com/vector.S
Pay bills Withdrawals

Transfer money

Figure 1-3 A mobile banking app handles many


interacting tasks

Structural Decomposition (1.2.2, 1.2.3, 1.2.4, 1.2.7)


The first step in decomposition is to identify structural units that perform distinct tasks. Figure 1-4 illustrates
how you might divide a mobile banking app into structural units, called modules.

Mobile banking

Passcode/challenge Account Payments and


Secure login
question changes management transfers

Two-factor
Balances Bill pay
authentication

Fingerprint Mobile check


Alerts
sign-in deposits

Direct Money
deposits transfers

Figure 1-4 Structural decomposition diagram

Structural decomposition is a process that identifies a hierarchy of structural units. At the lowest levels
of the hierarchy are modules, indicated in yellow in Figure 1-4, that have a manageable scope for creating
algorithms.

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6 PROGRAMMING WITH C++

Q Which module of the hierarchy chart is not fully decomposed?


A The module for modifying passwords and challenge questions could be further decomposed
into two modules: one module that allows users to change their passwords and one for
changing their challenge questions.

Here are some tips for creating a structural decomposition diagram:

• Use a top-down approach. The nodes at the top break down into component parts in the nodes below them.
• Label nodes with nouns and adjectives, rather than verbs. For example, “Account management” is the
correct noun phrase, rather than a verb phrase, such as “Manage accounts.”
• Don’t worry about sequencing. Except for the actual login process, the components in a mobile bank-
ing system could be accessed in any order. This is a key difference between an algorithm and decom-
position. An algorithm specifies an order of activities, whereas decomposition specifies the parts of
a task.

Functional Decomposition (1.2.5)


Functional decomposition breaks down modules into smaller actions, processes, or steps. Figure 1-5 illustrates
a functional decomposition of the two-factor authentication module.

Verify login attempts

Verify password Verify PIN

Validate Compare
Generate Send PIN
Prompt for Prompt for user ID and Prompt user user-entered Handle
one-time to
user ID password password for PIN PIN to mismatches
PIN mobile
match generated PIN

Look up Compare Look up Generate


stored entered Handle user text Nodes in green are
user ID and date with mismatches mobile message specific enough to
password stored data number with PIN become steps in an
algorithm.

Nodes in yellow
require further
decomposition.

Figure 1-5 Functional decomposition diagram

Notice how the levels of the functional decomposition diagram get more specific until the nodes in the lowest
levels begin to reveal instructions that should be incorporated in an algorithm.
Here are some tips for constructing functional decomposition diagrams and deriving algorithms from them:

• Label nodes with verb phrases. In contrast to the nodes of a structural decomposition diagram, the
nodes of a functional decomposition are labeled with verb phrases that indicate “what” is to be done.
• Sequence from left to right. Reading left to right on the diagram should correspond to the sequence in
which steps in the algorithm are performed.

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Module 1 Computational Thinking 7

Object-Oriented Decomposition (1.2.6)


Another way to apply decomposition to a module is to look for logical and physical objects that a computer
program will manipulate. Figure 1-6 illustrates an object-oriented decomposition of the two-factor authentica-
tion module.

Each node
represents an
object.
PIN generator
Methods
Login screen Attribute: One-time PIN describe what an
object can do.
Attribute: Entered user ID Method: Generate random PIN
Attribute: Entered password Method: Send PIN to mobile
number
Method: Display login boxes
Method: Verify entered user ID
and password
Method: Verify PIN
Method: Handle mismatches

Valid user

Attribute: Valid user ID


Attribute: Valid password Attributes
Attribute: Mobile number describe an
object.

Figure 1-6 Object-oriented decomposition diagram

An object-oriented decomposition does not produce a hierarchy. Instead it produces a collection of objects
that can represent people, places, or things.
Tips for object-oriented decomposition:

• Node titles are nouns. Each node in the object-oriented decomposition diagram is labeled with a noun.
• Attributes are nouns. A node can contain a list of attributes, which relate to the characteristics of an object.
• Methods are verb phrases. An object can also contain methods, which are actions that an object can
perform. You may need to devise an algorithm for each method.
• Sketch in connection arrows. Connection arrows help you visualize how objects share data.

Dependencies and Cohesion (1.2.8)


You might wonder if there is a correct way to decompose a problem or task. In practice, there may be several
viable ways to apply decomposition, but an effective breakdown minimizes dependencies and maximizes cohe-
sion among the various parts.
The principles of decomposition are:

• Minimize dependencies. Although input and output may flow between nodes, changing the instructions
in one module or object should not require changes to others.
• Maximize cohesion. Each object or module contains attributes, methods, or instructions that perform a
single logical task or represent a single entity.

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8 PROGRAMMING WITH C++

1.3 PATTERN IDENTIFICATION


Pattern Identification Basics (1.3.1, 1.3.2)
The Amaze-Your-Friends math trick for quickly adding numbers from 1 to 10 is very simple:
Get the last number in the series (10).
Divide 10 by 2 to get a result.
Add 10 1 1 to get a sum.
Multiply the result by the sum.

Q Try the algorithm yourself. What is your answer?


A If your math is correct, your answer should be 55.

Now, what if the challenge is to add the numbers from 1 to 200? That algorithm looks like this:
Get the last number in the series (200).
Divide 200 by 2 to get a result.
Add 200 1 1 to get a sum.
Multiply the result by the sum.
Notice a pattern? This fill-in-the-blank algorithm works for any number:
Get the last number in the series (____________________).
Divide ____________________ by 2 to get a result.
Add ____________________ 1 1 to get a sum.
Multiply the result by the sum.
The process of finding similarities in procedures and tasks is called pattern identification. It is a useful com-
putational thinking technique for creating algorithms that can be used and reused on different data sets. By recog-
nizing the pattern in the Amaze-Your-Friends math trick, you can use the algorithm to find the total of any series
of numbers.

Repetitive Patterns (1.3.3)


In addition to fill-in-the-blank patterns, you might also find repetitive patterns as you analyze tasks and problems.
Think about this algorithm, which handles logins to a social media site:
Get a user ID.
Get a password.
If the password is correct, allow access.
If the password is not correct, get the password again.
If the password is correct, allow access.
If the password is not correct, get the password again.
If the password is correct, allow access.
If the password is not correct, get the password again.
If the password is correct, allow access.
If the password is not correct, lock the account.

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Module 1 Computational Thinking 9

Q How many repetition patterns do you recognize?


A Two lines are repeated three times:
If the password is not correct, get the password again.
If the password is correct, allow access.

Recognizing this repetition, you can streamline the algorithm like this:
Get a password.
Repeat three times:
If the password is correct, allow access.
If the password is not correct, get the password again.
If the password is correct, allow access.
If the password is not correct, lock the account.

Classification Patterns (1.3.4, 1.3.5)


Everyone who subscribes to a social media site has a set of login credentials. Here are Lee’s and Priya’s:
Lee’s login credentials: Priya’s login credentials:
Lee’s user ID: LeezyBranson@gmail.com Priya’s user ID: PriyaMontell@gmail.com
Lee’s password: MyCat411 Priya’s password: ouY52311v
Lee’s mobile number: 415-999-1234 Priya’s mobile number: 906-222-0987
The series of attributes that define each user’s login credentials have a pattern of similarities. Each user
has three attributes: a user ID, a password, and a mobile number. By recognizing this pattern, you can create a
template for any user’s login credentials like this:
User ID: ____________________
Password: ____________________
Mobile number: ____________________
You can often discover classification patterns in the attributes that describe any person or object. Identify-
ing classification patterns can help you design programs that involve databases because the template identifies
fields, such as User ID, that contain data.
Classification patterns also come in handy if you want to design programs based on the interactions among
a variety of objects, rather than a step-by-step algorithm. In some programming circles, templates are called
classes because they specify the attributes for a classification of objects. For example, people classified as social
media subscribers have attributes for login credentials. Vehicles classified as cars have attributes such as color,
make, model, and VIN number. Businesses classified as restaurants have a name, hours of operation, and a menu.

1.4 ABSTRACTION
Abstraction Basics (1.4.1, 1.4.2, 1.4.3)
Think back to the Amaze-Your-Friends math trick. By identifying a pattern, you formulated a general algorithm
that works for a sequence of any length, whether it is a sequence of 1 to 10 or 1 to 200.
Get the last number in the series (____________________).
Divide ____________________ by 2 to get a result.

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10 PROGRAMMING WITH C++

Add ____________________ 1 1 to get a sum.


Multiply the result by the sum.
In this algorithm, the blank line is an abstraction that represents the last number in the sequence. An abstraction
hides details, simplifies complexity, substitutes a generalization for something specific, and allows an algorithm to
work for multiple inputs.
Abstraction is a key element of computational thinking and helps programmers in a multitude of ways.
If you’ve programmed before, you’ll recognize that in the Amaze-Your-Friends algorithm, the blanks could
become a variable with a name such as last_number. Result and sum are also variables because they represent
values that change depending on the numbers in the sequence
Get the last_number
Divide last_number by 2 to get a result.
Add last_number 1 1 to get a sum.
Multiply the result by the sum.
A variable is an abstraction because rather than representing a specific number, it can be used to represent
many different numbers.

Classes and Objects (1.4.4, 1.4.5)


Abstraction has uses other than identifying variables. It is important for understanding how to represent real-
world and conceptual objects. Remember the pattern you discovered for social media login credentials? With a
little modification, it becomes a template that can be applied to any subscriber:
Class: LoginCredentials
Attribute: user_ID
Attribute: user_password
Attribute: mobile_number
The LoginCredentials class is an abstraction that contains a set of attributes. The class was formed by
abstracting away, or removing, details for any specific subscriber.
Abstractions are handy for any programs that deal with real-world objects in addition to technology objects,
such as login credentials.

Q Can you envision a class that’s an abstraction of the collection of objects shown in Figure 1-7?
Budnyi/Shutterstock.com

12 oz water glass 5 oz martini glass 8 oz wine glass 10 oz water goblet

Figure 1-7 Abstract the details from this collection of glassware

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Module 1 Computational Thinking 11

A The glassware class could have these attributes:


Class: Glassware
Attribute: Color
Attribute: Capacity
Attribute: Style

Black Boxes (1.4.6)


To drive a car, you don’t have to know exactly what goes on under the hood. The engine is essentially a “black
box” that you control using a few simple inputs such as the gas pedal, brake, and steering wheel. The details of the
engine are hidden. In computer science terminology, these details have been “abstracted away.” See Figure 1-8.

You can drive a car without


knowing the details of what’s
under the hood.

Figure 1-8 The controls for a car are an abstraction of


its detailed mechanics

In concept, a black box is anything that accepts some type of input and performs a specific process to
­produce output without requiring an understanding of its internal workings. See Figure 1-9.

Something goes on inside.

Something goes in.

Something comes out.

Black box

Figure 1-9 Black box abstraction

The black-box concept of abstraction is a fundamental aspect of computer science. Think about it. C
­ omputer
programs are abstractions. For example, you can use a social media app without knowing anything about the
programming that makes it work. The icons that you touch on the screen abstract away the details of the under-
lying programming.
Programmers make extensive use of abstraction within programs by creating a set of instructions that func-
tions like a black box. For example, you could bundle the instructions that handle login attempts into a black
box like the one in Figure 1-10.
Programming languages also have built-in abstractions that perform standard tasks. For example, the built-in
random function generates a random number when given a range, such as 1–100. You can incorporate the random
function in a program without knowing how it works internally.

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12 PROGRAMMING WITH C++

Look up stored user ID and


User ID
password.
password
Compare stored user ID and
password to entered user ID Allow or deny access
and password.
If they match, allow access.

Black box

Figure 1-10 A login abstraction

Levels of Abstraction (1.4.7)


After you get the hang of abstraction, you’ll see examples of this computational thinking concept everywhere.
Applying the correct level of abstraction to your programs may take a little practice.
A level of abstraction relates to the amount of detail that is hidden. Abstracting out too much detail can
make a program too generalized. Neglecting abstraction can produce programs that are too specific to work with
a wide variety of data. See Figure 1-11.

Too specific Just right Too abstract

Figure 1-11 Levels of abstraction

With experience, you’ll be able to identify useful abstractions and gauge the correct level of abstraction
to use.

SUMMARY
• Computational thinking techniques help programmers define problems, find solutions, delineate tasks,
and devise algorithms.
• An algorithm is a series of steps for solving a problem or carrying out a task. Programming algorithms
are the blueprints for computer programs.
• Standard algorithms exist for many computing tasks. When an algorithm does not exist, you can step
through a process manually and record the steps, or apply computational thinking techniques, such as
decomposition, pattern identification, and abstraction.
• Decomposition divides a complex problem or task into manageable units.
• Pattern identification reveals sequences and repetitive tasks that can lead to algorithm efficiencies.
• Abstraction is a key computer science concept that suppresses details, substitutes a generalization for
something specific, and allows an algorithm to work for multiple inputs.

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Module 1 Computational Thinking 13

Key Terms
abstraction computer program objects
algorithm decomposition object-oriented decomposition
attributes Functional decomposition pattern identification
classes level of abstraction programming algorithm
classification patterns methods Structural decomposition
Computational thinking modules

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MODULE

2
PROGRAMMING TOOLS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
2.1 PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES 2.3.5 Explain the purpose of a linker.
2.1.1 Explain the significance of the Hello World! program. 2.3.6 Associate virtual machines with Java and
bytecode.
2.1.2 Reiterate that programming languages are used to
create software. 2.3.7 Explain how an interpreter works.
2.1.3 Name some popular programming languages. 2.3.8 Differentiate between source code, bytecode,
object code, and executable code.
2.1.4 Distinguish between syntax and semantics in the
context of programming languages.
2.4 DEBUGGING TOOLS
2.1.5 Identify the key characteristics common to
2.4.1 Explain the purpose of debugging.
programming languages.
2.4.2 List common syntax errors.
2.1.6 Explain options for accessing programming
language implementations. 2.4.3 List common runtime errors.
2.1.7 Identify programming tools. 2.4.4 List common logic errors.
2.4.5 Classify program errors as syntax errors, logic
2.2 CODING TOOLS
errors, or runtime errors.
2.2.1 Define a program editor as the tool used to enter
2.4.6 Classify a debugger as utility software that allows
program code.
programmers to walk through the code of a target
2.2.2 List the types of editors that can be used for program to find errors.
coding.
2.4.7 List handy features provided by a debugger.
2.2.3 List some handy features of code editors and
explain how they help programmers create 2.5 IDEs AND SDKs
clean code.
2.5.1 List the purpose and typical features of an
2.2.4 Identify the basic structure and syntactical integrated development environment (IDE).
elements for a program written in the
2.5.2 Explain how IDEs support visual programming.
programming language you use.
2.5.3 Confirm that some IDEs are installed locally, while
2.3 BUILD TOOLS other IDEs are accessed online.
2.3.1 Explain the purpose of build tools. 2.5.4 Identify popular IDEs.
2.3.2 Explain the difference between source code and 2.5.5 List the purpose and typical features of a software
object code. development kit (SDK).
2.3.3 Describe how a compiler works. 2.5.6 Provide examples of SDK functionality.
2.3.4 Explain the purpose of a preprocessor. 2.5.7 Identify popular SDKs.

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16 PROGRAMMING WITH C++

2.1 PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES


Hello World! (2.1.1)
Hola! Bonjour! Hi! Ciao! Namaste! Salaam! Nihau! Greetings like these are the first thing you learn when studying
a spoken language. Programmers have a similar starting point. It is the Hello World! program.
Hello World! is without doubt the most famous computer program of all time. It has been written in every one
of the 7001 programming languages. It is typically the first program written by aspiring programmers.

Q Take a look at the Hello World! programs in Figure 2-1. They are written in three popular
programming languages, C11, Java, and Python. What differences can you identify?

Hello World! in C++ Hello World! in Java Hello World! in Python

#include <iostream> class HelloWorld { print("Hello World!")


using namespace std; public static void main(String[] args) {
int main() System.out.println("Hello World!");
{ }
cout <<"Hello World!"; }
return 0;
}

Figure 2-1 Hello World in C11, Java, and Python

A You probably noticed the following differences:


Length: Some Hello World! programs required more instructions than others.
Punctuation: Some programs used lots of curly brackets and semicolons.
Wording: One program used the word cout where the other programs used System.out.
println and print.
Complexity: Some programs seemed easier to interpret than others.

A lot of backstory is bundled into the Hello World! program that can be applied to learning a programming
language. Let’s unbundle this famous program to discover the basics about your programming language.

Programming Language Basics (2.1.2, 2.1.3)


A programming language is a notation for specifying the steps in an algorithm that are supposed to be per-
formed by a digital device. Programming languages such as C11, Java, and Python are classified as high-level
programming languages because they provide a way for you as a programmer to compose human-readable
instructions that direct the operations performed by a computing device.
How does your programming language stack up to other popular languages and where does it shine? Check
out the list in Figure 2-2.
Using a high-level programming language, you can specify a set of instructions that correspond to the steps
in an algorithm. Each instruction is referred to as a statement. The set of statements you generate using a pro-
gramming language is called program code, or simply code. Your code can become a computer program, which
can be distributed as computer software, desktop applications, web apps, and mobile apps.

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Module 2 Programming Tools 17

Logo Programming Where It Shines


Language

Consumer-facing web development, server-side web


JavaScript
development

Server-side web development, scripting, machine learning,


Python
data science, desktop applications, robotics

Server-side web development, desktop applications, mobile


Java
development, Internet of Things

Systems programming, embedded applications, Internet of


C
Things

Systems programming, game development, desktop


C++
applications embedded applications, robotics

PHP Server-side web development

Swift Desktop and mobile applications for Apple devices

Desktop applications, game development, virtual reality,


C#
mobile development

Ruby Server-side web development

Server-side web development, systems programming,


Go
Internet of Things

Figure 2-2 Popular programming languages

Syntax and Semantics (2.1.4)


When learning a programming language, where do you start? Programming languages have two key elements:
semantics and syntax.
Semantics refers to the meaning and validity of program statements. In a natural language, such as English,
it is perfectly fine to say, “Let’s start the game” or “Let’s start the car,” but “Let’s start the pen” doesn’t make any
sense. It is not semantically valid.
Programming languages include keywords, such as print and cout. These words are a subset of a program-
ming language’s reserved words, which are reserved for special purposes. You cannot use reserved words when
you create names for variables, functions, or classes in your programs.
One aspect of learning a programming language is to become familiar with its keywords and their use. When
learning C11, for example, you’ll need to remember that cout sends output to a display device. But if you’re
learning Java, the keyword is System.out.println. In Python the keyword is print. Figure 2-3 lists keywords
that are common to many programming languages.

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18 PROGRAMMING WITH C++

Keyword Purpose
int Define a value as an integer.
float Define a value as a floating-point number.
char Define something as a letter, numeral, punctuation mark, or symbol.
class Define the characteristics of a person, place, or thing.
new Create an object based on the characteristics of a class.
if Execute program statements when a condition is true.
then
else
case Specify several alternative conditions or decisions.
switch
for Begin a section of code that repeats one or more times.
while
do
return Bring a value back from a function.
import Incorporate a prewritten code module in a program.
try Catch errors and handle them gracefully.

Figure 2-3 Keywords common to programming languages

Q Suppose you want to code a program to output “Hello World!” 10 times. What keyword could
you use?

A Figure 2-3 lists the for, while, and do keywords for specifying code that repeats one or
more times.

You’ll acquire a vocabulary of keywords for your programming language gradually. Language references
provide a list of keywords and examples of their use. You can find language references online. In fact, it is often
helpful to create or find a “cheat sheet” of keywords to keep beside your computer as you learn a new language.
The syntax of a programming language is equivalent to the grammar rules of a written language, such as
English or Cyrillic. Syntax defines the order of words and the punctuation you are required to use when compos-
ing statements.
Various programming languages use different punctuation syntax. One of the early steps in learning a
programming language is to get a handle on its syntax.
Remember the different use of punctuation in the C11, Java, and Python Hello World! programs? Take a closer
look in Figure 2-4 and notice how punctuation helps to separate and structure the statements in a C11 program.

C++ Program
Statements end with a
#include <iostream>
semicolon.
using namespace std;
int main()
{
Curly braces for (int i = 1; i <= 10, i++)
separate blocks of {
statements. These cout << "Hello World!" << endl;
braces set off the cout << "Hola Mundo!" << endl;
statements in the }
return 0; Statements between
main() function.
} braces are indented.

Figure 2-4 C++ syntax style

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Module 2 Programming Tools 19

Like C11, Java also uses lots of punctuation. Figure 2-5 points out how the commonly used style for placing
curly braces in Java is slightly different from C11. However, either style works equally well as long as the braces
are paired. The key is consistency in the project you are working on.

Curly braces separate


blocks of statements.
Java Program Notice how the opening
class HelloWorld { brace is at the end of
public static void main(String[ ] args) { the line. This is an
System.out.println("Hello World!"); alternative style for the
System.out.println("Hola Mundo!"); placement of braces.
}
}
Statements end with a
semicolon.
Statements in a block
are indented.

Figure 2-5 Java syntax style

Python uses quite a different approach to punctuation. See if you can spot the differences in Figure 2-6.

Python Program
The colon indicates
for count in range(0, 10): the beginning of a
print("Hello World!") block of statements.
print("Hola Mundo!") Python does not use
Statements
braces.
in a block
are indented.
Pressing Enter or
Return marks the end
of a statement.

Figure 2-6 Python syntax style

In C11 and Java, statements are enclosed in a structure of curly braces and each statement ends with a semi-
colon. In contrast, Python uses indents to structure statements, and the linefeed that is generated when you press
the Enter key marks the end of a statement. Remember the punctuation style for the language that you are using.

Core Elements (2.1.5)


Although programming languages have differing syntax and semantics, they have common elements. If you look
for the ways that your programming language implements the elements in the following list, you will be well on
your way through the initial learning curve.
Variables that can be assigned values and structures
Arithmetic operators that can be used to perform calculations
Keywords that perform operations such as print or append
Data types that define values and text
Branching controls that change the sequence in which statements are executed
Repetition controls that repeat a series of statements
Syntax rules for constructing valid statements
Terminology for describing the components of a language and their functions

Your Toolbox (2.1.6, 2.1.7)


Before you can write your Hello World! program, you need access to tools for coding instructions and executing
them on a digital device. These tools are sometimes referred to as software development platforms, programming
platforms, or development environments.

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20 PROGRAMMING WITH C++

Programming tools are available as system utility software that can be installed on your computer. Another
option is to use an online programming app.
Your programming toolbox includes the following essentials:
Coding tools provide a way for you to codify an algorithm.
Build tools transform your code into a binary format that a computer can execute.
Debugging tools help you test programs and track down errors.
You can acquire these programming tools as individual components, or you can look for a comprehensive
development environment. Let’s explore these tools in more detail to find out how they can help you develop
brilliant programs.

2.2 CODING TOOLS


Program Editors (2.2.1, 2.2.2, 2.2.3)
Coding tools provide you with a way to express an algorithm using the vocabulary of a programming language.
Just how much of the code you have to manually type depends on your development platform. Here are the
options:
Visual platform: You might have the option of arranging visual elements that represent various
statements, as shown in Figure 2-7.

This column contains


your program. It consists
of visual components,
each representing a
statement.

You can drag Here is the statement


Source: scratch.mit.edu

components from the left that displays “Hello


column into your World!”
program. After dragging,
you can customize the
component, like changing
“Hello!” to “Hello World!”

Figure 2-7 Visual programming

Word processor: Despite the attraction of visual programming tools, you will likely end up typing
some if not all of the statements for your programs. For that task, you could use a word processor, but
it embeds all kinds of codes for formatting and font effects which can’t be included in your high-level
code.

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Module 2 Programming Tools 21

Text editor: A text editor such as Windows Notepad can produce plain ASCII text, but offers no
features designed to help programmers. Using a generic text editor is a bare-bones approach. There
are much better coding tools.
Code editor: A code editor is a type of text editor specially designed for entering high-level
programming code. It can help you correctly use punctuation and indents, as well as remember
variable names and ensure that you use valid keywords. Some handy features of code editors are
highlighted in Figure 2-8.

Color coding helps you


recognize keywords,
directives, and
punctuation.

Punctuation monitoring
ensures that the braces
are paired. Autocomplete displays a
list of keywords as you
begin to type.

Source: Visual Studio


Figure 2-8 Visual Studio code editor

When using a code editor, you can simply type your commands. As you type, pay attention to color coding,
autocomplete, and other helpful cues that the editor offers.

Basic Structure (2.2.4)


A programming language has structural and syntax conventions for writing code. When you become familiar with
these conventions, they will be the underlying foundation for most of the programs you create. Browse through
the following list before you try to identify the conventions in the next figure.
Comments: A comment provides an explanation of your code. At the beginning of a program, you can rou-
tinely include a comment with the program title and your name. Comments can be included anywhere in your
code to annotate aspects of the program that might not be clear to other programmers who test or modify your
code. Computers ignore comments as they are intended for documentation only.
Directives: A directive tells the computer how to handle the program rather than how to perform an algo-
rithm. For example, a directive might specify the name of an external file that is supposed to be incorporated
with the rest of your program code. Directives may begin with keywords such as #include, import, or using.
main() function: Many programming languages use main() to denote the entry point for program execution.
The line of code following main() corresponds to the first step in the algorithm you designed for a problem or
task.

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22 PROGRAMMING WITH C++

Statements: Just as human-readable text is divided into sentences and paragraphs, your code should be
divided into statements and blocks. A program statement is similar to a sentence; it contains one instruction. In
languages such as C11 and Java, statements end with a semicolon. In Python, you end a statement by pressing
the Enter or Return key.
Code blocks: A code block is similar to a paragraph; it contains multiple statements that have a specific
purpose. In C++ and Java, you use braces (also known as curly brackets) to enclose code blocks. In Python, code
blocks are indented.

Q Take a look at Figure 2-9 and see if you can identify comments, directives, the main()
function, statements, and code blocks.

//Hello World! in English and Spanish


#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
for (int i = 1; i <= 10, i++)
{
cout << "Hello World!" << endl;
cout << "Hola Mundo!" << endl;
}
return 0;
}

Figure 2-9 Find the structural and syntax


conventions in this code

A The comment is //Hello World! in English and Spanish.


There are two directives: #include <iostream> and using namespace std.
The main() function is labeled int main().
Every line of the program is a statement.
The for..return statement is one block. The two cout statements form a block within the
for..return block.

2.3 BUILD TOOLS


The Toolset (2.3.1)
The high-level code that you produce using an editor cannot be directly executed by a computer’s micropro-
cessor. Microprocessors have a machine language instruction set based on binary codes. There is no print
instruction in the microprocessor’s instruction set, for example.

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Module 2 Programming Tools 23

Before a program can run, your code has to be converted into machine code consisting of machine language
instructions. This executable code is stored in an executable file that can be run, processed, and executed by
the microprocessor. Build tools convert your code into a program that a computer can execute.
As a programmer, you’ll eventually want to package your programs and distribute them so that they can be
installed on a digital device and run with a click, just like the Hola Mundo! program in Figure 2-10.

Hola Mundo!

Source: Microsoft Corporation


program

Figure 2-10 Hola Mundo! installed on a Windows computer

A little background about build tools can help you understand some of the weird statements, such as
#include<iostream>, that you have to include in programs. Also, a passing knowledge of build tools such as
compilers, preprocessors, linkers, virtual machines, and interpreters will help you hold your own at late-night
parties in Silicon Valley.

Compilers (2.3.2, 2.3.3)


A compiler translates code written in one programming language into another language. The original code is
called source code, and the code a compiler produces is called object code. Object code is stored in a standalone
file that is separate from the file that holds your source code. See Figure 2-11.

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24 PROGRAMMING WITH C++

Your source code Object code

Hello.cpp Hello.o

#include <iostream> 00010010 10100010


using namespace std; 10100101 11110000
int main() 01010100 10101010
Compiler conversion
{ 00101010 11010101
cout << "Hello World!"; 10101010 10001010
return 0; 10101010 10101011
} 00010101 10101011
00000001 10101010
10001010 10101010

Figure 2-11 When the compiler creates machine code, the resulting file is
executable

Q If a compiler is converting C11 code into machine code, what is the source code and what is
the object code?

A The C11 code is the source code. The machine code is the object code.

Preprocessors and Linkers (2.3.4, 2.3.5)


The journey from source code to an executable program doesn’t usually happen in one magical step. Your source
code may be analyzed by a preprocessor and combined with other code by a linker.
A preprocessor is a software utility that performs housekeeping tasks before the compiler gets to work.
Experienced programmers can creatively use preprocessors to make source programs easy to compile for vari-
ous software platforms.
For languages such as C11, even basic programs require preprocessing and preprocessor directives such
as #include<iostream> to be routinely included in the program code. After these directives are carried out
by the preprocessor, they can be ignored by the compiler.
A linker is a software utility that converts one or more object files into a binary executable file. Linking takes
place after compiling. Your source code is the main object file for linking, but you can specify additional object
files that you’ve created or that are available from third parties. When you see the keyword import, it is a clue
that an external file needs to be linked in.
Figure 2-12 can help you visualize the build process when a preprocessor and linker are involved.
Preprocessing and linking are not consistent for all programming languages. Your takeaways are:

• Several steps are required to convert your code into a file containing an executable program.
• You may have to include preprocessor directives in your code.

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Module 2 Programming Tools 25

The preprocessor executes


directives, such as
#include<iostream>

Hola.cpp

The compiler
converts the source
code to object code
Your source
code
Hola.cpp

The linker combines


modules and generates
machine code
Source code
plus iostream
Hola.o

Hola.exe

Figure 2-12 Preprocessing, compiling, and linking the Hola Mundo! program

Virtual Machines (2.3.6)


The product of a compiler is not necessarily machine code. Some compilers convert source code into semi-
compiled code called bytecode. Software called a virtual machine converts the bytecode into machine code
as the program executes.
What’s the point of a virtual machine? The Java Virtual Machine (JVM) offers some insight. The backstory is
that an executable file designed to run on a computer with the Microsoft Windows operating system won’t work
on a computer running macOS. You could develop one version of a program for Microsoft Windows and one for
macOS. Or, you can use the Java programming language to create one version of the program and compile it to
bytecode.
You can distribute the same bytecode to Windows and Mac users. Windows users have the Windows version
of the JVM. Mac users have another version. The virtual machine software converts the bytecode into code that
works on the host platform. Figure 2-13 can help you understand how the JVM works and the value of bytecode.

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Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
which the wind and rain put out; the saint merely called for the
candle, and as soon as she took it in her hand it was lighted again,
“without any fire of this world.”
Other stories of her lighting candles in this way, call to mind a
candle, greatly venerated by E. Worsley, in a “Discourse of Miracles
wrought in the Roman Catholic Church, or, a full refutation of Dr.
Stillingfleet’s unjust Exceptions against Miracles,” octavo, 1676. At p.
64, he says, “that the miraculous wax candle, yet seen at Arras, the
chief city of Artois, may give the reader entertainment, being most
certain, and never doubted of by any. In 1105, that is, much above
720 years ago, (of so great antiquity the candle is,) a merciless plague
reigned in Arras. The whole city, ever devout to the Mother of God,
experienced her, in this their necessity, to be a true mother of mercy;
the manner was thus: The Virgin Mary appeared to two men, and
enjoined them to tell the bishop of Arras, that on the next Saturday
towards morning she would appear in the great church, and put into
his hands a wax candle burning; from whence drops of wax should
fall into a vessel of water prepared by the bishop. She said, moreover,
that all the diseased that drank of this water, should forthwith be
cured. This truly promised, truly happened. Our blessed Lady
appeared all beautiful, having in her hands a wax candle burning,
which diffused light over the whole church; this she presented to the
bishop; he blessing it with the sign of the cross, set it in the urn of
water; when drops of wax plentifully fell down into the vessel. The
diseased drank of it; all were cured; the contagion ceased; and the
candle to this day, preserved with great veneration, spends itself, yet
loses nothing; and therefore remains still of the same length and
greatness it did 720 years ago. A vast quantity of wax, made up of the
many drops which fall into the water upon those festival days, when
the candle burns, may be justly called a standing indeficient
miracle.”
This candle story, though gravely related by a catholic writer, as
“not doubted of by any,” and as therefore not to be doubted,
miraculously failed in convincing the protestant Stillingfleet, that
“miracles wrought in the Roman catholic church,” ought to be
believed.
MONKS AND FRIARS.—SAINTS AND
HERMITS.

The early monks attracted the notice of the people by the rigid
exercise of their devotions. The greater part of them passed their
time in deserted places, in divine contemplation, and in the
acquisition of useful knowledge; in consequence of which, they began
to be venerated and considered as heavenly-minded men,
approaching to the perfection of angels; but in the course of time,
and on this very account, their reclusion, and the regard in which
they were held, soon induced multitudes to betake themselves to the
same courses of life, though not with the same views; as being more
profitable than the remuneration resulting from their own homely
and industrious avocations. The numbers that embraced this
profession became at length so overwhelming and intolerant, that
factions burst out amongst them, to which the spirit of the people
soon became subject, and to cause grievous disturbances thereby,
both to church and state. Many of the wandering hordes, under the
denomination of monks, are represented by Gregory Nazianzen, as
crews of ruffians and banditti, rather than as sober-minded men,
professing a scrupulous morality, with a view to the amelioration of
society and the welfare of mankind in general. They were cruel,
rapacious, insinuating, cunning, and not unfrequently malignant in
the extreme, indulging in the vilest propensities that shock and
disgust human nature; and if we may believe their contemporaries,
no species of vice was unknown to, or left unpractised by them.
The first dawn of monkish influence and power in the western
world, was ushered in by St. Jerome, who, though represented as a
very pious and good man, but having some passions the world had
not yet gratified, grew wroth with and retired into the east, where he
turned monk; and, as if to be revenged of the ungrateful world, he
openly professed, that it were hardly possible to receive salvation in
it without adopting the same course as he had done, that was, to
become a monk. And although thus far monkery had its way paved in
the west by the resolutions of Jerome, it was many years after his
death, before any order of monkhood was instituted in that quarter.
Benedict, who lived about an hundred years after St. Jerome,
being reckoned the father of the order in the western parts, and
although it does not appear that he formed any order of monks, with
the three vows, yet since the oldest monkish order in the Roman
church is called by his name, we shall give first a short sketch of him
and his order; leaving the reader to take, as well in this instance as in
those that follow, as much for granted as he can well swallow,
without danger of being choked.
Of the birth, parentage, and education of the Blessed Benedict, all
we can state is, that his holiness drew his first pious and miraculous
breath in Rome, about the year 480; and that having, whilst a boy,
become weary of a wicked world, he retired to the Desert of Sabulea
in Italy, where he was kindly received and hospitably entertained by
a monk, whose name was Roman, who lived retired from man, in the
cleft of an immense high rock, of difficult and hazardous access. The
generous and christianlike Roman supplied his young guest with a
portion of all he begged, borrowed, or stole, or could possibly spare
out of his own all devouring paunch. But it would appear, that
getting tired of his protegé, whose appetite, perhaps, might be too
great a drawback upon his fortuitous resources, or whether in the
midst of an accidental and unexpected blow out that he met with,
somewhere or other, on an Easter-eve, he forgot to supply his guest
in the cranny with his usual fare; be this as it may, all protecting
Providence, that “feeds the young ravens,” and who “tempers the
wind to the shorn lamb,” was not on this occasion unmindful of
young Benedict; for it turned out that a certain priest, whose name
we are not favoured with, and who it appears had been on a similar
foraging expedition as Roman, against Eastertide, was hailed by a
voice from heaven, and bid “not to take so much care of his own gut,
but to carry that he had provided to the place where Benedict was.”
The priest obeyed; gave Benedict the contents of his market basket,
and also told him that it was Easter-day, an event that was unknown
to him previous to this unexpected visit. Having, however, been
subsequently forced out of his den to procure food, for it does not
appear that either Roman or the priest ever returned, some
shepherds discovered him crawling among the bushes covered with
“beasts’ hair;” at which they became so terrified, that taking him for
some savage monster, they were about to depart, when they had a
glimpse of his physog, which certainly formed an encouraging
contrast when compared with the preter human developement of his
body; the result was, the shepherds took courage and approached
him; and having, as the story goes, been much edified with his
discourse, they informed the neighbourhood of the affair, which was
the means of young Benedict being well supplied with every thing he
stood in need of; in return for which, they were as well repaid with
godly exhortations. But the devil, who, no doubt, is always on the que
vive when any of his opponents are getting a-head of him, was
resolved to put young ’Dict’s chastity to the test, appeared to him in
the shape of a blackbird, and approached so near to his mouth that
’dict might, had he thought proper, have grabbed him; but, instead of
availing himself of this opportunity to crush old Beelzebub, he
heroically suffered him to escape, although he, the devil, left behind
him “so terrible a dishonest carnal temptation,” that Benedict never
before nor after this time, felt such queer and indescribable
sensations; in short, he was in such a quandary, that he hesitated and
doubted whether it would not be better for him to return once more
to the world, the flesh, sin and the devil; yet, having recovered
himself a little from the paroxysm with which the devil had contrived
to possess him, he threw off his clothes and rolled among thorns. But
whereas Benedict, for sundry causes and reasons moving him
thereunto, did keep a raven, which said raven the aforesaid Benedict
did constantly every day feed with his own hand, which raven,
Benedict, whether from similarity of appetite or other latent and
peculiar passion, always addressed by the familiar and
consanguineous appellation of brother; on this occasion, having
offered him a part of the poisoned loaf, the sagacious raven rejected
it with indignation, and commenced flying and croaking about his
master, pointing out to him, in the most ravenous manner, the evil
intended him. Alarmed at such conduct, Benedict said, Brother, I did
not offer you this loaf that you should eat it, but that you might carry
it and hide it somewhere, that it may never do any hurt. This was
done, the raven disposed of the poisoned loaf, returned, and had his
dinner as usual[80].
Notwithstanding this disappointment, Florentino did not cease to
persecute Benedict. He got together, for this purpose, a number of
common strumpets, whom he sent to dance naked before the holy
Friar; this ordinance, to the great joy of Florentino, they correctly
performed to the letter, which compelled Benedict to leave the place,
lest peradventure he might be tempted di novo to sin against the
flesh, as he was in the wilderness, by the Devil in the shape of a
blackbird. But that joy was not of long duration, for soon after
Florentino’s house fell down upon him and killed him. When
Benedict heard of his death, he was exceedingly troubled, not
because he died during his wicked courses, but because he had, he
said, lost an enemy, who, if he had lived, would have increased his
merits much. After this great loss, Benedict was informed, that
Apollo still had a temple on the mountain of Callino, and was
worshipped in it with sacrifices; he accordingly mustered together
some of his brethren, and went and pulled it down to the ground, set
fire to all the groves that surrounded it, and having built a monastery
on the same spot, he converted the whole country round to
christianity.
The Devil, as may easily be supposed, got very angry with Benedict
for having deprived him of that mountain, called out Benedict,
Benedict, for the purpose of speaking to him, but Benedict, it
appears, did not vouchsafe to answer him; in consequence of which,
the Devil left him, ejaculating, as he fled away, Maledict, Maledict,
what hast thou to do with me? Why do you persecute me so much?
And, in the height of his diabolical passion and despair, threw down
a wall that was building, which unfortunately fell upon a boy and
killed him; but Benedict, to be revenged of the Devil, soon brought
him to life again. Brother Plaudo had been drowned, if brother
Mauro had not been sent by Benedict to draw him out of the water.
There was a great fuss made to know who was the author of that
miracle; Benedict conferring the merit on Mauro, and Mauro, equally
courteous and condescending, attributing it to Benedict.
The order styled the Benedictine, was not only the oldest but the
richest in the Roman church. The costume was black, in compliment,
no doubt, to the Raven, who had the honour of being Benedict’s first
brother; and the leather belt which they wore, was believed to
possess so much virtue, that it was kissed kneeling by all who visited
them, if they wished to be well received.
The second order of monks, and which, similar to the others, arose
out of the relaxations of the Benedictines, was that of Cluny in
France, instituted about the year 900, by Abbot Odo.
This order differed very little from the Benedictine. When Odo was
a boy he was much delighted with Virgil: “he was cured of that
dangerous appetite by a vessel, which was very curious, being shewn
to him, but which was within full of deadly serpents; and lest Odo
should, by his great fondness for Virgil, have been hindered from
applying that vision right, the application was made by a voice from
Heaven; and which Odo having heard, he flung away his Virgil and
all his serpents with it. And having been after that much devoted to
St. Martin, though he met with no serpents in his way, as he went by
night to St. Martin’s church to pray to him, he met with herds of
foxes, which so pestered him, that he scarcely knew what to do; this
plague continued until a kind wolf came, and did offer Odo his
assistance, and of which Odo having accepted, that wolf, when he
travelled, was such a guard to him, and when he was within doors
such a porter, that the foxes never molested him any more.”
The third order of monks in the Roman church was the
Camalduman in Italy, instituted by Romualdus about the year 970.
He was born at Ravenna, and had been sentenced to live 40 days in a
monastery, for having been concerned in a duel, in which his father,
who was a duke, had killed his adversary; and it was from this
circumstance that he was miraculously converted into a monk, an
honour which he had previously frequently refused, at the
solicitation of a brother of the order with whom he had contracted an
acquaintance. The monk at length asked whether he would consent
to be one of them, if St. Apolonar appeared to him, to which he
replied he would. It was therefore contrived that St. Apolonar, or his
representative, should actually appear; and in order to receive this
visit, his friend, the monk and himself, spent the night in prayer
before an altar. Just as the cock crowed, St. Apolonar emerged from
under the identical altar, where, no doubt, his proxy had previously
been concealed, “clothed with light and having a golden censor in his
hand: he went about in his pontificalibus, and incensed all the altars
in the church, and after he had done that, went back by the same way
that he came. And though it is not said that Apolonar did speak a
word to Romualdus of turning monk, he did nevertheless, upon that
vision, take the habit upon him; and not having learnt to read and
sing his psalter, he was taught it by a monk whose name was
Marinus, and who switched him so severely on the left-side of his
head, that his left ear lost its hearing; and which was borne with that
cheerfulness, that he spoke to Marinus to switch him on the other
side of the head, when he deserved to be corrected.”
Never was monk so kicked and cuffed about, persecuted and
tormented by the Devil, as poor Romualdus. At first the Devil
knocked such a dust at the door of his cell whenever he went to bed,
that he could not get a wink of sleep for the noise. Being at length so
much exhausted for want of a nap, he began, notwithstanding the
horrid noise, to snooze a little, when the Devil turned himself into
some heavy body and laid so heavy upon his thighs and legs, that he
severely bruised them, and broke some of the bones. And though
monk Romualdus often made his tormentor slink out of his cell,
ashamed of his evil doings, he would, nevertheless, not cease to
molest him. So frequently, in fact, was he visited by Armadeus, and
so numerous were their conflicts, that a brother monk could not
approach the cell of Romualdus without being mistaken for the Devil
by him: and believing this to be the case, he would cry out as loud as
his lungs would permit—“Accursed, what would’st thou have? Bold
dog, I forbid thee to come here; thou poisonous serpent, that was
thrown down from Heaven, I do forbid thee!” These were the
weapons with which this miraculously converted monk had always
ready to meet the Devil whenever he made his appearance. One
evening, however, as he was muttering over his Completus, a whole
squadron of Devils rushed in upon him, knocked him down, kicked
him for falling, and inflicted several very severe wounds upon his
precious body; and although he was weary and faint with loss of
blood, he continued saying all the while his Completus till he
completed, when by a short prayer he dispersed the whole battalion.
After this great and glorious victory, the Devil would never grapple
with him again; but would, sometimes, in the shape of a Raven, a
Bustard, an Ethiopian, or some savage beast, stand at a distance, loll
out his tongue, and make wry faces at him. And although Romualdus
was a bit of a duellist, as we have already shewn, would challenge
and dare the Devil to come up to the mark, his devilship was too
good a judge to venture near him; and finding at length that he was
no match for Romualdus, he stirred up divers monks to persecute
him, which, in fact, they did with great fury, but with as ill success as
he who prompted them.
The fourth order of monks is that of the Valle Umbrosa, instituted
by one Gilbert, from whom his fraternity assumed the name of
Gilbertines. The reader will at once know enough of this Mr. Gilbert
when we inform him, at once, that he was the pupil of Romualdus,
and that he was called to be a monk by a crucifix, which, when he
was in the act of worshipping it, nodded its head and smiled at him.
The fifth order is the Carthusian, instituted towards the end of the
eleventh century; it is governed by institutions of its own making,
and is the strictest order in the Roman church. This monastery was
generally the last refuge of the discontented, rather than the retreat
of unfeigned piety and devotion, who threw themselves into this
solitary state of life, to which they fettered themselves, by
indissoluble vows, for the remainder of their days. They were allowed
enough of good bread and wine, and although they abstained from
flesh, and every thing that had touched it, they had a plentiful supply
of good fish and fruit.
This inhuman order was instituted by one Bruno, a German, but
who was a canon of the church of Rheims; of whom the reader will
learn enough, when we inform him that he was driven to this
determination by a Parisian doctor, with whom he had been
intimately acquainted, and of whose piety as well as learning, he
entertained a very high opinion, and who for three days following
after his death, when he was on the point of being committed to the
grave, sate up, and loudly declared, that by the just judgment of God
he was damned; which, as soon as he had pronounced, he lay down
again.[81]
There is another story that the bishop of Grenoble, the night before
Bruno and his six companions came to him, in quest of a solitary
place to live in, had a vision, in which he saw Christ come down from
Heaven, and in a desert place of his diocese, called the Chartreuse,
built a palace. He likewise beheld seven stars of the colour of gold,
which having joined themselves together, they made a crown, which
by degrees raised itself from the earth, and ascended up into heaven.
The bishop at first sight knew Bruno and his companions to be the
seven stars he had seen; and in consequence of this recognition, he
bestowed upon them all the lands called the Chartreuse. In order,
also, that Bruno should be as little remiss in his duty and gratitude,
he erected the monastery as conformable to the vision of the bishop
as means and materials would allow.
The sixth order of monks in the Roman church is the Cistertian,
said to have been instituted by Abbot Robert; but whether it was so
or otherwise, Bernard has always been named as the founder.
Bernard was born in France in the 12th century; and to do him
justice, he seems to have had the best natural parts, and the most
learning of any of the monastic founders; and had it not been for the
tragical fraud he adopted to promote a very unfortunate cruzado,
and the other frauds he used in favour of the Pope, to whom he
adhered during the time of a schism, his sincerity and piety might
have been judged equal to his other talents.
His mother, during the time she was pregnant with him, dreamed
she had a white dog in her womb, which in all probability was the
reason the Cistertian monks dressed in white, in the same manner as
Benedict’s raven might have suggested the colour to the vestments of
the Benedictines.
During his infancy Bernard was much troubled with head-ach; and
an old woman having been sent for to cure him, he would not suffer
her to come near him, from the belief that she made use of charms.
One Christmas-day, when he was at church, during his boyhood, he
prayed that the very hour in which Christ was born might be revealed
to him; and when that hour came, he saw a new-born infant. What a
pity it is that Bernard, who has written so much, did not record that
hour, the day, the month, and the year, about which chronologers are
still so much divided.
During a hard frosty night, Bernard was seized with a violent
paroxysm of satyriasis, or strong carnal inclination: he precipitated
himself into a pond of water, and remained there until he was almost
frozen to death.
On another occasion, during the time he was preaching to a very
numerous congregation, who were listening to him, a temptation of
vain glory invaded him, and he heard a voice within him saying, see,
how all the people do attend unto your words. He was just going to
leave off preaching to mortify this temptation, but perceiving it was
the Devil who had addressed him, for the purpose of interrupting his
sermon, he turned about his head to the tempter, and thus coolly
spoke to him—As I did not begin this sermon for thee, so neither will
I end it for thee, and so went on preaching as before. He was always
very sickly, and not only rejoiced that he was so himself, but he
judged it fit that all monks ought to be so: for which reason he built
Claraval, and all his other monasteries, in low damp places.
Bernard laboured hard to bring all his monks to an uninterrupted
attention to their devotions; and having one day, as he was riding,
been told by a peasant, “that he found that to be an easy thing;” he
promised him the mule he rode upon, if he would but say the Lord’s
prayer without any distraction of thought. The peasant began the
prayer, but before he got half through it, he confessed that “it came
into his mind, whether with the mule he was to have the saddle and
bridle also.”
Being at Pavia, a woman possessed of a devil was brought before
him; but before Bernard had time to utter a word to the woman, the
devil cried out, “do you think that such an onion and leek carrier as
this, is able to throw me out of possession?” Upon which Bernard
ordered the woman to be carried to St. Sirus’ church, in which,
though Sirus had previously dispossessed all that had ever come
before him, he would not do it at this time, that Bernard might have
the honour of it himself. The devil, however, set them both at
defiance, and in a scoffing manner told them, that neither little Siry
nor little Barny should turn him out. But the devil was mistaken for
once in his life; little Barny, as he styled him, soon served an
ejectment upon him. To another woman in the same city, on whom
the devil had lain in a very dishonest manner, he gave a stick, with
which she so belaboured him, that he never troubled her any more.
After Bernard had persuaded the kings of England and France to
submit to the Pope; but not being able to prevail upon the Duke of
Aquitaine, he went one day to him with the sacrament in his hand,
when the Duke threw himself down at his feet; on which Bernard
gave him a lusty kick, and bade him rise and acknowledge the true
Pope. The Duke rose immediately, and being thus kicked into it,
made his submission, and acknowledged the Vicegerent of Heaven.
The seventh order of monks is the Cælestine, instituted by Petrus
Moronus, who having afterwards become Pope, took the name of
Cælestine. This poor monk was persuaded by Cardinal Cagestan,
who took the name of Boniface the 8th, to abdicate the Roman chair,
that he might spend his whole time in devotion. But his successor,
Boniface, fearing that were he at liberty in his monastery, it might
come into his head to return to the pontifical chair, kept him a close
prisoner as long as he lived.
The eighth order of monks is the Williamite, called also the order
of Montes Virginis, and of Montis Oliveti, instituted by one William,
a noble Italian, which at one time possessed 47 monasteries. There
were Hermits who were likewise called Williamites, from William,
Duke of Aquitaine, but they were amalgamated with the mendicant
order of the monks of St. Austin.
The ninth order was the Sylvestern. There was also another
instituted by the nobles of Milan, called the Humiliate, who having
quarrelled with Cardinal Borromeus, Archbishop of Milan, dissolved
the order and seized all their revenues, which were immense.
All the preceding orders, besides the Carthusians, were all under
the Benedictine rule, whose monks were both the oldest and richest
pertaining to the Roman church, in which the monastic rules are four
in number—namely, the rule of St. Bazil, St. Austin, and St. Benedict.
The order of monks under St. Austin’s rule, as it was called, were
the canons regular, the Premonstratenses; the Dominicans; the
Hieronomites, in various shapes; the Servites; the Jesuits; the
Crucigeri; the Boni Jesu; the Trinitarians; the Eremites of St.
Augustin; the Theatines; the Pautestæ; the military orders of St.
John of Jerusalem, of St. James of Compostella, of the Teutonick
order, of St. Lazarus, and of St. Mauritius.
The Dominican order, of which only we shall here allude, is the
third under the rule of St. Austin, was instituted about the beginning
of the 13th century, and is both the first mendicant order and the
first order that had a solemn confirmation from the Pope. They are
very numerous, and have still many convents in Spain and Portugal.
Dominick, the founder of this order, was born in Spain, in 1170.
His mother, when she was with child with him, dreamed that she was
delivered of a hog, with a flaming torch in his mouth, an emblem
appropriate enough for an inquisitor; and when he was baptized, his
god mother, although it was visible to no one else, saw a star that
illuminated all the world; and as he lay in his cradle, a swarm of bees
pitched upon his lips. And, although from the day of his baptism to
the day of his death, he is said never to have committed one mortal
sin, he would, nevertheless, before he was seven years old, rise out of
his costly bed, for his parents were said to have been very rich, and
lie upon the ground. When he was a boy he would never play or use
any pastimes; and when he arrived at man’s estate, he gave all that
had been left him by his father, with the exception of his books,
among the poor; and having nothing else left to give, he gave them
his books also.
Seeing a woman one day weeping bitterly for the loss of her
brother, who had been taken captive by the Moors, he begged her to
take him, and to sell him to those infidels, and with the money he
should fetch, redeem her brother; but, to his extreme mortification,
the woman refused to comply with his desire.
One day, when Dominick was in his study, the devil so pestered
him in the shape of a flea, leaping and frisking about on the leaves of
his book, that he found it impossible to continue his reading:
irritated at length by such unhandsome treatment, he fixed him on
the very spot where he finished reading, and in this shape made use
of him to find the place again. Having at last, however, released old
nick from this demonological dilemma, he appeared to him again in
his study in the guise of a monkey, and grinned so “horribly a ghastly
grin,” and skipped about so, that he was more annoyed now than
before. To put a stop to these monkey tricks, Dominick forthwith
commanded him, the said monkey, to take the candlestick and hold
it for him; this the monkey did, and Dominick made him continue
holding it, until it was burnt down to the bottom of the wick, and
although the monkey made a horrid noise at burning his fingers, he
was forced to hold it until it was burnt out, which it did until it had
burnt the devil’s monkey fingers to the bone.
Having gone into France with the bishop of Osma, of whose church
Dominick was a canon, though by preaching and working miracles
he converted the Albigenses about Toulouse by thousands in a day,
he, nevertheless, so roused Simon de Montford, who was general of
the Pope’s cruzado against those christians, by which Montfort, and
his cruzado, to which Dominick was the chief chaplain, that many
thousands of those poor christians were butchered.
That part of France must necessarily, at that time, have been very
populous, otherwise there could not have been so many of those
christians left for Montfort to murder, after Dominick had made such
extensive conversions among them, for assuredly Montfort would
not lay violent hands on any of his proselytes. The greatest
conversion ever made by Dominick was after he had the rosary given
him by the blessed virgin, whose virtues Dominick successfully
eulogized with all the eloquence he was master of. There was one,
however, desperate enough to ridicule both the rosary and the
mountebank oratory upon its virtues; but he was soon punished for
his audacity, by a great number of devils getting into him; but
Dominick relenting at the sufferings of the demoniac, although he
did not deserve such commiseration at his hands, called the devils to
an account for the uproarious noise they made; when the following
colloquy passed between them.
Dominick.—How came you to enter this man, and how many are
you in number?
Devils.—(After tremendous howlings.) We came into him for
having spoken disrespectfully of the rosary; and for his having
laughed and made “merry game” of your sermons. We are 15,000 in
number, and have been forced much against our inclination to enter
one who might have done us infinite services.
Dom.—Why did so many as 15,000 of you enter him?
Dev.—Because there are 15 decads in the rosary which he derided.
Dom.—Why did you suffer this man to be brought to me?
Dev.—(All together roaring out.) It was done to our great
confusion: we could not prevent it.
Dom.—Is not all true I have said of the virtues of the rosary?
Dev.—(After the most hideous bellowing.) Cursed be the hour in
which we entered into this statue? Woe be unto us for ever! Why did
we not suffocate him before he was brought hither? But it is now too
late and we cannot do it, for thou holdest us in burning flames and
chains of fire, so that we are forced to declare the truth to thee, to our
great prejudice. O yes! O yes! Know all christian men and women,
that this cruel Dominick, this implacable enemy of ours, has never
said one word concerning the virtues of the rosary that is not most
true; and know ye further, that if you do not believe him, great
calamities will befall you.
Dom.—Who was the man in the world the devil hated the most?
Dev. (All of them.) Thou art the very man, who, by thy prayers, and
by thy severe ways of penance, and by thy sermons, hast shown the
way to Paradise to every one, and hast snatched our prey. But know
thou, that our dark congregation and infernal troop are so enraged
against thee, that a brigade of the strongest and most mischievous
spirits have a commission to fall upon thee and them.
Dom. (turning to the people.) God forbid, O Christians! that you
should believe all that is said by the devils, who are liars, and
inventors of lies. Not but that the Almighty is able to communicate so
much strength to the vilest and most miserable sinner, as will
overcome all infernal hosts, as you see I do at this time, who am the
greatest of sinners.
Dev.—Cursed be so great humility as this, which tears and
torments us so much.
Dom. (Throwing his stole, for he had not his scapulary yet, which
has much more virtue, about the neck of the Demoniac.) Of which
state of men among Christians are there the most damned?
Here an extraordinary circumstance took place, for no sooner had
Dominick’s stole touched the neck of the demoniac than a great
quantity of thick gory blood burst out at his nose, and a poisonous
clay from his ears. At this sight, Dominick commanded the rebellious
devils to desist from tormenting the poor sinner.
Dev. We will with all our heart, if ye will suffer us to depart.
Dom. Ye shall not stir until ye have answered the question put you.
Dev. In hell there are a great many bishops and princes, but not
many country people, who, though not perfect, are not very great
sinners. There are also a great many merchants, and townspeople,
such as pawnbrokers, fraudulent bakers, grocers, Jews, apothecaries,
gamblers, rakes, &c. who were sent there for covetousness, cheating,
voluptuousness, &c.
Dom. Are there any priests or monks in Hell?
Dev. There are a great number of priests, but no monks, with the
exception of such as had transgressed the rule of their order.
Dom. How are you off for Franciscans?
Dev. Alas! alas! we have not one yet, but we expect a great number
of them after their devotion is a little cooled.
Dom. What saint in heaven does the devil fear most?
Instead of returning any answer to this question, the devils begged
Dominick by all that was sacred to be satisfied with the torments he
had already inflicted upon them, and with those to which they were
condemned in hell, begging he would not insist upon a true answer
to that question before so great a congregation, to the ruin of their
kingdom; telling him, that if he would ask the angels they would tell
him who it was. This, however, would not satisfy Dominick, who,
whatever virtues he might have, had little mercy in his composition,
especially, it would appear, towards devils. He persisted upon their
telling; and, perceiving how reluctant the demons were to comply
with his wishes, he threw himself upon the ground, and went to
work, hammer and tongs, with his rosary; upon which sulphureous
flames of fire burst forth from his nose, mouth, eyes and ears; after
this above an hundred angels, clad in golden armour, appeared with
the blessed virgin in the midst of them, holding a golden rod in her
hand, with which she gave the demoniac a switch on the back,
commanding, at the same time, the devils to return true answers to
Dominick’s questions; at this they all roared out lustily, O our
enemy! O our damner! O our confusion! Why didst thou come down
from heaven to torment us here? Why art thou so powerful an
intercessor for sinners? O thou most certain and secure way to
heaven; but since thou commandest it, we must tell the truth,
though it will confound us, and bring woe and misery on our
princes of darkness for ever. Hear, O Christians, continued the
devils, this mother of Christ is too powerful in preserving all her
servants from hell; it is she that, as a sun, dissipates all our darkness,
and enervates and brings to nought all our machinations. We are
forced to confess that nobody is damned who perseveres in her holy
worship, and is devoted to her. One sigh from her has more power
than the prayers of all the saints; and we fear her more than all the
citizens of Paradise; and you must all know, that vast numbers of
Christians are, contrary to right, saved by calling upon her at the
time of their death; and that we should long ago have destroyed the
church, if it had not been for this little Mary; and being now forced
to it, we must own, that none who persevere in the exercise of the
rosary, can undergo the eternal torments of hell, for she obtains
contrition for all her devout servants.
Here the confab ended between 15,000 cowardly devils, and
Dominick, who exhorted the congregation to join with him in
reciting the rosary: and behold a great miracle: at every angelical
salutation, a multitude of devils rushed out of the demoniac in the
shape of burning coals, and the blessed virgin having given the
congregation her benediction, disappeared, leaving Dominick in
quest of fresh enterprises against the devil and his horde.
Dominick was a proud designing man, and of a very ferocious
disposition. The stories related of the St. Franciscan order, are
equally absurd and ridiculous.
Similar stories are too numerous: we shall therefore close this
subject with
The Hermit of the Pillar.
(St. Simeon Stylites, St. Telesephorus, St.
Syncletia.)
We are informed by Alban Butler, that St. Simeon Stylites, the
ycleped hermit of the pillar, astonished the whole Roman Empire by
his mortifications. In the monastery of Heliodorus, a man 65 years of
age, who had spent 62 years so abstracted from the world that he was
ignorant of the most obvious things in it; the monks ate but once a
day; Simeon joined the communities, and ate but once a week.
Heliodorus required Simeon to be more private in his mortifications:
“with this view,” says Butler, “judging the rough rope of the well,
made of twisted palm tree leaves, a proper instrument of penance;
Simeon tied it close about his naked body, where it remained
unknown both to the community and his superior, till such time as it
having ate into his flesh, what he had privately done was discovered
by the effluvia proceeding from the wound.” Butler says, that it took
three days to disengage the saint’s clothes, and that “the incisions of
the physician, to cut the cord out of his body, were attended with
such anguish and pain, that he lay for some time as dead.” After this
he determined to pass the whole forty days of Lent in total
abstinence, and retired to a hermitage for that purpose. Bassus, an
abbot, left with him ten loaves and water, and coming to visit him at
the end of the forty days, found both loaves and water untouched,
and the saint stretched on the ground without signs of life. Bassus
dipped a sponge in water, moistened his lips, gave him the eucharist,
and Simeon by degrees swallowed a few lettuce leaves and other
herbs. He passed twenty-six Lents in the same manner. In the first
part of a Lent he prayed standing: growing weaker, he prayed sitting;
and towards the end, being almost exhausted, he prayed lying on the
ground. At the end of three years he left his hermitage for the top of a
mountain, made an inclosure of loose stones, without a roof, and
having resolved to live exposed to the inclemencies of the weather,
he fixed his resolution by fastening his right leg to a rock with a great
iron chain. Multitudes thronged to the mountain to receive his
benediction, and many of the sick recovered their health. But as
some were not satisfied unless they touched him in his enclosure,
and Simeon desired retirement from the daily concourse, he
projected a new and unprecedented manner of life. He erected a
pillar six cubits high, (each cubit being eighteen inches,) and dwelt
on it four years; on a second of twelve cubits high, he lived three
years; on a third of twenty-two cubits high, ten years; and on a
fourth, of forty cubits, or sixty feet high, which the people built for
him, he spent the last twenty years of his life. This occasioned him to
be called Stylites, from the Greek word stylos, a pillar. This pillar did
not exceed three feet in diameter at the top, so that he could not lie
extended on it; he had no seat with him; he only stooped or leaned to
take a little rest, and bowed his body in prayer so often, that a certain
person who counted these positions, found that he made one
thousand two hundred and forty-four reverences in one day, which if
he began at four o’clock in the morning, and finished at eight o’clock
at night, gives a bow to every three quarters of a minute; besides
which, he exhorted the people twice a day. His garments were the
skins of beasts; he wore an iron collar round his neck, and had a
horrible ulcer in his foot. During his forty days’ abstinence
throughout Lent, he tied himself to a pole. He treated himself as the
outcast of the world and the worst of sinners, worked miracles,
delivered prophecies, had the sacrament delivered to him on the
pillar, and died bowing upon it, in the sixty-ninth of his age, after
having lived upon pillars for six and thirty years. His corpse was
carried to Antioch attended by the bishops and the whole country,
and worked miracles on its way. So far this account is from Alban
Butler.
Without mentioning circumstances and miracles in the Golden
Legend, which are too numerous, and some not fit to be related; it
may be observed, that it is there affirmed of him, that after his
residence on the pillars, one of his thighs rotted a whole year, during
which time he stood on one leg only. Near Simeon’s pillar was the
dwelling of a dragon, so very venemous that nothing grew near his
cave. This dragon met with an accident; he had a stake in his eye, and
coming all blind to the saint’s pillar, and placing his eye upon it for
three days, without doing harm to any one, Simeon ordered earth
and water to be placed on the dragon’s eye, which being done, out
came the stake, a cubit in length; when the people saw this miracle,
they glorified God, and ran away for fear of the dragon, who arose
and adored for two hours, and returned to his cave. A woman
swallowed a little serpent, which tormented her for many years, till
she came to Simeon, who causing earth and water to be laid on her
mouth, the little serpent came out four feet and a half long. It is
affirmed by the Golden Legend, that when Simeon died, Anthony
smelt a precious odour proceeding from his body; that the birds cried
so much, that both men and beasts cried; that an angel came down in
a cloud; that the Patriarch of Antioch, taking Simeon’s beard to put
among his relics, his hand withered, and remained so, till multitudes
of prayers were said for him, and it was healed; and that more
miracles were worked at and after Simeon’s sepulture, than he had
wrought all his life.
HOLY RELIQUE-MANIA.

On the first introduction of the relics of saints, the mania became


universal; they were bought and sold, and, like other collectors, made
no scruple to steal them. It is not a little amusing to remark the
singular ardour and grasping avidity of some to enrich themselves
with religious morsels; their little discernment, the curious
impositions and resources of the vender to impose on the good faith
and sincerity of the purchaser. It was not uncommon for the prelate
of the place to ordain a fast, in order to implore God that they might
not be cheated with the relics of saints, which he sometimes
purchased for the holy benefit of the village or town. Guibert de
Nogen wrote a treatise on the relics of saints: acknowledging that
there were many false ones, as well as false legends, he reprobates
the inventors of those lying miracles. It was on the occasion of one of
our Saviour’s teeth, that De Nogen took up his pen on this subject, by
which the monks of St. Medard de Soissons pretended to work
miracles; a pretension which he asserted to be as chimerical as that
of several persons who believed they possessed the navel, and other
parts less comely, of the body of Christ.
There is a history of the translation of Saint Lewin, a virgin and a
martyr, by a monk of Bergavinck; her relics were brought from
England to Bergs. The facts were collected from her brethren with
religious care, especially from the conductor of these relics from
England. After the history of the translation, and a panegyric on the
saint, he relates the miracles performed in Flanders since the arrival
of her relics. The prevailing passion of the times to possess fragments
of saints is well marked, when the author particularises, with a
certain complacency, all the knavish modes they resorted to, to carry
off those in question. None then objected to this sort of robbery,

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