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Guanglu Sun
Jianhou Gan
Shuai Liu
Fei Lang
Zeguang Lu (Eds.)

299

e-Learning, e-Education,
and Online Training
5th EAI International Conference, eLEOT 2019
Kunming, China, August 18–19, 2019
Proceedings

123
Lecture Notes of the Institute
for Computer Sciences, Social Informatics
and Telecommunications Engineering 299

Editorial Board Members

Ozgur Akan
Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey
Paolo Bellavista
University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
Jiannong Cao
Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China
Geoffrey Coulson
Lancaster University, Lancaster, UK
Falko Dressler
University of Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany
Domenico Ferrari
Università Cattolica Piacenza, Piacenza, Italy
Mario Gerla
UCLA, Los Angeles, USA
Hisashi Kobayashi
Princeton University, Princeton, USA
Sergio Palazzo
University of Catania, Catania, Italy
Sartaj Sahni
University of Florida, Gainesville, USA
Xuemin (Sherman) Shen
University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Canada
Mircea Stan
University of Virginia, Charlottesville, USA
Xiaohua Jia
City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong
Albert Y. Zomaya
University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8197
Guanglu Sun Jianhou Gan Shuai Liu
• • •

Fei Lang Zeguang Lu (Eds.)

•

e-Learning, e-Education,
and Online Training
5th EAI International Conference, eLEOT 2019
Kunming, China, August 18–19, 2019
Proceedings

123
Editors
Guanglu Sun Jianhou Gan
Harbin University of Science Yunnan Normal University
and Technology Kunming, China
Harbin, China
Fei Lang
Shuai Liu Harbin University
Hunan Normal University Harbin, China
Hunan, China
Zeguang Lu
Institute of Data Science
National Academy of Guo Ding
Harbin, China

ISSN 1867-8211 ISSN 1867-822X (electronic)

Lecture Notes of the Institute for Computer Sciences, Social Informatics
and Telecommunications Engineering
ISBN 978-3-030-35094-9 ISBN 978-3-030-35095-6 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-35095-6

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 Preface

We are delighted to introduce the proceedings of the 5th edition of the 2019 European
Alliance for Innovation (EAI) International Conference on e-Learning, e-Education,
and Online Training (eLEOT 2019), held in the city of perpetual spring: Kunming,
China. This conference has brought together researchers, developers, and practitioners
from around the world who are leveraging and developing the research and applica-
tions of e-Learning, e-Education, and online training among the international scientific
community. The main purpose of this conference series is to address the most recent
and innovative trends in this broad area, ranging from distance education to collabo-
rative learning, from interactive learning environments to the modeling of STEM
(science, technology, mathematics, engineering) curricula. The program of this year’s
edition of eLEOT was especially interesting, as it covered the advancements in the ICT
sector, the most effective educational paradigms, the most prominent learning strate-
gies, and several other related topics, which were brought to the attention of our
community by engaged authors who sent their contributions from all around the world.
This year, the technical program of eLEOT 2019 consisted of 99 full papers,
including 5 invited papers in oral presentation sessions at the main conference tracks.
At least three Technical Program Committee (TPC) members were assigned for each
submitted paper during the rigorous, peer-review phase. At the end of the reviewing
process, 46 papers (acceptance rate: 47%) were accepted as they met the requirements
of scientific quality, novelty, and relevance set by the conference. The conference
tracks were: Track 1 – Blended Learning and Social Network; Track 2 – Best Practices
and Teaching/Educational Models; Track 3 – Assessment and Learning Analytics;
Track 4 – Massive Open Online Course; and Track 5 – New Technology Applied in
Education. Aside from the high-quality technical paper presentations, the technical
program also featured two keynote speeches. The two keynote speeches were Prof.
Zhijun Yang from Yunnan Institute of Educational Sciences, China, and Prof. Fei Lang
from Harbin University of Science and Technology, China.
The coordination with the Steering Committee chairs, Prof. Imrich Chlamtac and
Prof. Giovanni Vincenti, proved to be key to the success of this event, as well as the
precious contribution of the general chair, Prof. Guanglu Sun, the general co-chair,
Prof. Jian Liu, and the local chair, Prof. Tianwei Xu. We also wish to thank the
publications chairs, Prof. Fei Lang, Prof. Suxia Zhu, and Zeguang Lu, the TPC chairs,
Prof. Shuai Liu and Prof. Jianhou Gan, and all the other conference chairs for their
valuable support during all phases leading to the hosting of this conference. Special
thanks also to our EAI conference manager, Karolina Marcinova, and to our EAI
proceedings editor, Lucia Sedlarova, for their constant dedication and help during all
these months. We would also like to thank the city of Kunming for hosting the
conference and all the authors who attended the event for their participation. We hope
vi Preface

that the readers find several interesting research themes and insights into the topics in
this volume and that they are encouraged to participate in the future editions of eLEOT!

Guanglu Sun
Jian Liu
Shuai Liu
Jianhou Gan
 Organization

Steering Committee
Imrich Chlamtac University of Trento, Italy

Organizing Committee
General Chair
Guanglu Sun Harbin University of Science and Technology

General Co-chair
Jian Liu Yunnan Normal University

TPC Chair and Co-chair

Shuai Liu Inner Mogolia University
Jianhou Gan Yunnan Normal University

Sponsorship and Exhibit Chair

Wei Zhong Yunnan Normal University

Local Chairs
Tianwei Xu Yunnan Normal University
Juxiang Zhou Yunnan Normal University

Workshops Chair
Zhijun Yang Scientific Research Institute of Education

Publicity and Social Media Chair

Ao Li Harbin University of Science and Technology

Publications Chairs
Fei Lang Harbin University of Science and Technology
Suxia Zhu Harbin University of Science and Technology
Zeguang Lu National Academy of Guo Ding Institute of Data
Science
viii Organization

Web Chair
Jing Qiu Harbin University of Science and Technology

Posters and PhD Track Chair

Bin Wen Yunnan Normal University
Juxiang Zhou Yunnan Normal University

Panels Chairs
Wenxing Hong Xia Men University
Shuren Li Chinese Academy of Sciences

Demos Chair
Lin Tang Yunnan Normal University

Tutorials Chair
Mingjing Tang Yunnan Normal University

Technical Program Committee

Guanglu Sun Harbin University of Science and Technology
Juxiang Zhou Yunnan Normal University
Mingjing Tang Kunming University of Science and Technology
Nan Zhang Yunnan Normal University
Suxia Zhu Harbin University of Science and Technology
Wei Zhong Yunnan University
Songling Tian Tianjin University
Lingyun Yuan Yunnan Normal University
Min Xie Kunming University of Science and Technology
Fei Lang Harbin University of Science and Technology
Hui Yao Kunming University of Science and Technology
Hongyan Shi Inner Mongolia University for the Nationalities
Wei Yan Hebei University of Technology
Jing Qiu Harbin University of Science and Technology
Xianming Yao Yunnan Normal University
Chao Yang Yunnan University
Jun Wang Kunming University of Science and Technology
Deqiang Yang Yunnan Normal University
Chengyan Li Harbin University of Science and Technology
Lin Tang Yunnan University
Xiaoqiang Wu Inner Mongolia University for the Nationalities
Jianhou Gan Yunnan Normal University
Yaming Zhang Yunnan University
Zhiyong Luo Harbin University of Science and Technology
Bo Zhao Yunnan Normal University
 Organization ix

Lihua Wang Inner Mongolia University for the Nationalities

Wei Zou Yunnan Normal University
Hongna Zhang Inner Mongolia University for the Nationalities
Bin Wen Yunnan Normal University
Chunyou Zhang Beihang University
Min Wang Yunnan Normal University
Lei Zhang Tianjin University of Commerce
Shaoming Sun Yunnan Normal University
Yanling Liao Yunnan Normal University
 Contents

Blended Learning and Social Network

Design and Implementation of Adaptive Push APP Based on Android

for Fragmented English Reading Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Jianmin Zhang, Min Xie, Bo Yuan, and Min Wang

Research on Blended Teaching Mode Based on Internet Plus . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Xiaofeng Li and Qiushi Wang

Engineering Ability Construction in Flipped Classroom

Teaching Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Chengyan Li, Jun Gao, Song Li, and Guanglu Sun

Research on Gamification Teaching of “Network Security Technology”

Under Improved Flipping Classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Zhi-yong Luo, Jing-yuan Wang, Guang-lu Sun, and Yi-dong Chen

Discussion on the Application of WeChat Mini Program in the Lifelong

Education of Basic Computer Knowledge in the Age of Mobile Learning . . . 48
Fang Wan, Bo Xu, and Na Chang

Research and Design of College Courses Resources Sharing Platform

Based on WeChat Mini Program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Na Chang, Qilang Liang, and Fang Wan

Design of PLC Technology Courses Based on Blended Learning

in Colleges and Universities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Wei Yan

Exploration on the Application of Blended Learning Model in Practical

Training Teaching—Taking “Data Communication in Wireless Sensor
Networks” as an Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Heng Tang and Hongfang Cheng

Research and Thinking on Diversified Teaching Methods

of Mechanical Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Rui-can Hao, Zhi-xin Feng, Xue-lei Wang, and Hui Yu

Massive Open Online Course

Design and Evaluation of Micro-class Based on WeChat Public Platform. . . . 85

Nan Zhang, Tianwei Xu, Juxiang Zhou, and Min Xie
xii Contents

Research on the Construction of Teaching Evaluation System

of Mathematics Courses at Applied Undergraduate Colleges in the Context
of New Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Yanxia Lu, Dongli Liu, and Zeguang Lu

Research on College Teaching Management Reform Under the Background

of MOOC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Lei Li, Jinlong Liu, Shu Lin, Siyang Yuan, and Yanyuan Fu

MOOC-Based Mixed Teaching Research on Microcomputer Principle

Courses in Colleges and Universities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Wei Yan

Discussion on the Reform of the Course “Data Structure” of Higher

Vocational Education Based on MOOC Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Tingting Wang, Xiang Wu, and Wanshun Chen

The Research of Combining MOOC and Classroom Teaching in Virtual

Instruments Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Xian-fei Zhou

The Reform of Data Structure Course of MOOC + SPOC Diversified

Practice Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Wan-shun Chen, Hong-fang Cheng, and Fei Hu

An Empirical Study on the Integration of MOOCs Resources and College

English Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Yuanbing Duan, Jingzheng Wang, and Wei Zhong

New Technology Applied in Education

Self-correction’s Effects on EFL Writing on Web-Based Automatic Writing

Evaluation Platform. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Fei Lang and Xinfei Yan

Exploration of Mechanical Principle Combined Curriculum Reform Based

on Network Assisted Platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Hongyan Shi, Xiaoqiang Wu, and Lihua Wang

A Design for Experimental Program of Artificial Intelligence and Machine

Vision Based on Online Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Sihan Gao, Wanshun Chen, and Shuxiang Ma

Construction of Online Platform Based on the Model of Honesty

and Morality Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Xu Zhang, Yunan Wang, Jinlong Liu, and Xinyu Yang
 Contents xiii

Research on Digital Teaching Materials Under the Mode

of “Educational Cloud Service + Cloud Terminal” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Jinlong Liu, Zhutian Yang, Zhilu Wu, Zhendong Yin, and Yanyuan Fu

A Study on the Application of EDA Technology in the Design of Virtual

Digital Electronic Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Jinlong Liu, Zhendong Yin, Zhilu Wu, Zhutian Yang, and Yi Hui

Thinking on the C Language Teaching Method for the Major

of Agricultural Mechanization Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Xiaoqiang Wu and Ruican Hao

Application of Artificial Intelligence in Wireless Sensor Network

Training Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Fei Hu, Heng Tang, Wanshun Chen, and Jian Cheng

Best Practices and Teaching/Educational Models

Scientific Interpretation of the Connotative Development of Higher

Vocational Colleges in Yunnan in the New Era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Aihua Wen, Chao Ye, and Jingjing Li

The Combination of the Downward Shift of the Teaching Focus

and the Sublimation of the Teaching Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Wen Wang and Danyang Li

Toward a Virtual Vocational Guidance Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

Gustavo Santana, Karina Mendoza, Michellc Zambrano,
Carlos Chancay, and Jaime Meza

Teaching Practice Exploration of Economic Mathematics Course

of Economic Management Major Under the Background
of “New Engineering” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Fengxia Li and Zeguang Lu

An Empirical Research on English Learning Strategies of Li Nationality

College Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Dan Ren, Wei Wang, and Yuan Yao

Higher Vocational Computer Course Reformation Based on Integration

of Industry and Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Yi-Nan Chen, Yuan Yao, Xia Liu, and Ming-Rui Chen

An Empirical Analysis of Public English Teachers in Higher

Vocational Colleges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Wei Wang, Yuan Yao, and Dan Ren
xiv Contents

An Empirical Research on the Status Quo of Ideological and Political

Teachers in Higher Vocational Colleges in Hainan Province. . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Zhipeng Ou, Dan Ren, and Yuan-hui Li

The Application of Heuristic Teaching Method in Explaining the Asterisk

Triangles Pattern in C Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Xiaoqiang Wu, Ruican Hao, and Hongfang Cheng

An Empirical Study on the Correlation Among Language Attitude, Ethnic

Identity, Learning Burnout and English Achievements of Achang Ethnic
Minority Students in Trilingual Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Yi-Chuan Yuan, Jing-jing He, and Yuan Yuan

A Study of Correlation Between Self-efficacy, Language Anxiety,

Metacognitive Strategies and English Achievements of Achang Ethnic
Minority Junior High School Students in the Trilingual Background . . . . . . . 316
Yuan Yuan, Xiao Xie, and Yi-chuan Yuan

Assessment and Learning Analytics

Construction of Scientific Evaluation System for Connotative Development

of Higher Vocational Colleges in Yunnan in the New Era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Chao Ye, Aihua Wen, and Liusheng Liu

A Study on the Ways to Improve the Quality of Talent Cultivation

in Higher Vocational Colleges-Take Sanya Aviation and Tourism
College as an Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
Xiaoli Wang, Chunting Ma, and Xia Liu

The Strength and the Correlation Between English Learning Attitudes

and Professional Development Needs of Secondary-School English
Teachers in Multilingual Areas of China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Wei Zhong, Danyang Li, and Yuanbing Duan

The Practice of Content-Based Academic English Instruction Among

Graduate Students of Non-English Major . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
Qingling Wang, Hong Duan, and Xiangxing Wan

A Study of Intercategorial Polysemy Teaching Based on Conceptual

Blending Theory in Senior High Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Hong Duan, Qingling Wang, and Lihua Xia

Study on Open Educational Resources Construction in Colleges

and Universities in the Information Age. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Liming Zhang and Zeguang Lu
 Contents xv

A Survey on the Internship Status of Students Majoring

in Civil Aviation-Take Sanya Aviation and Tourism College
as an Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Xiao-li Wang, Chao Li, Wei-wei Fan, and Xia Liu

Application of SPOC Model in Training Craftsman Spirit

of High-Skilled Talents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
Yong Wang, Wanshun Chen, and Hongfang Cheng

An Empirical Study on the Effect of Information-Based Teaching

of Ideological and Political Courses in Higher Vocational Colleges
Based on Moso Teach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
Min Li, Jie Yang, and Yuan-hui Li

Application and Practice of APT Teaching Model in Teaching Metals

and Heat Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Huayang Zhao, Li Li, and Guangyu Liu

Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439

Blended Learning and Social Network
 Design and Implementation of Adaptive
Push APP Based on Android for Fragmented
English Reading Resources

Jianmin Zhang1,2, Min Xie1,2(&), Bo Yuan1,2, and Min Wang1,2

1
Yunnan Normal University, Kunming 650500, China
294611018@qq.com
2
Key Laboratory of Educational Information for Nationalities,
Ministry of Education, Kunming 650500, China

Abstract. In the situation of mobile fragmentation learning, learning methods

are becoming more and more mobile, and learning resources for English reading
are becoming more and more abundant. It is difficult for learner to find the
resources needed for his personalized learning quickly. This paper designs the
five-dimensional characteristics of learner and the three-dimensional features of
English reading resources in the fragmented learning environment. Combined
with the ID3 algorithm, an auto-adaptive recommendation model for fragmented
English reading resources is constructed. Based on this, and then according on
the principles and methods of software engineering, an auto-adaptive recom-
mendation APP for fragmented English reading resources based on Android is
designed and implemented from three aspects: system analysis, system design
and key technology implementation, to improve learner’s English reading
ability by pushing English reading resources that meet learner’s individualized
needs.

Keywords: Fragmentation learning
Adaptive push
Mobile learning APP

English reading
Design and implementation

1 Introduction

The revised edition of the College English Syllabus states: “The purpose of college
English teaching is to train students to have a strong reading ability and a certain ability
to listen, speak, read, write and translate, so that they can communicate in English.” [1]
Under the requirements, the reading comprehension in CET-4 (abbreviate for College
English Test Band 4) test always has a high rating. This not only puts higher
requirements on the reading ability of candidates, but also brings severe challenges to
college English teaching of reading. It can be seen that English reading plays a central
role in English learning and is the main goal of English learning. English reading is
also a necessary content for various examinations or daily applications.
Fragmented English learning in mobile context has become more and more
important. Whether in public or in school libraries, many college students choose
mobile devices for English learning. Fragmented learning is based on digital learning
and is effectively combined with mobile computing technology to enable students to
© ICST Institute for Computer Sciences, Social Informatics and Telecommunications Engineering 2019
Published by Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019. All Rights Reserved
G. Sun et al. (Eds.): eLEOT 2019, LNICST 299, pp. 3–18, 2019.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-35095-6_1
4 J. Zhang et al.

learn English at any time and any place. On the one hand, it can be a reasonable use of
fragmentation time, which is a trend of learning at present; on the other hand, many
English learning APPs have been designed some very good functions, such as
punching sign, which can promote learner to develop good study habits.
English reading resources are rich, diverse in form, and highly shared. While
bringing convenience to people, it also brings about the problem of information
overload. In the face of massive information, learner cannot quickly get the information
that is truly valuable to him. Reading is a complex cognitive process, but the existing
English reading APPs only do the plans based on learning objectives and learning
needs when resources are pushed, or push English reading resources to learner
according to his learning preferences, but not fully considering the change of the
learner in the dynamic learning process. So it is difficult to constantly adjust the
resources of the next push according to the change of the learner. When the APP-based
learning method is adopted by more and more people, the problem in learning
adaptability of learner in this environment is becoming more and more prominent. It is
difficult for learner to achieve real online self-learning, and it is more difficult to obtain
adaptive learning resources [2]. How to help student find the learning resources quickly
and accurately which are suitable for his needs in the process of mobile learning? So
there is personalized recommendation. It enables information consumers to get infor-
mation they need quickly, moreover it can also provide predicted information to users
in a targeted manner, and strive to push the information that the target users want most.
The e-commerce APP and the English word APP have made a good exploration in this
respect, but there are almost few English reading APPs for auto-adaptive pushing in
English reading resources. Therefore, how to combine fragmented English reading with
auto-adaptive push in the fragmented learning of mobile context, construct an auto-
adaptive resources push model based on Android, and develop an auto-adaptive
resources push APP with fragmentation features? It has become one of the research
topics in the mobilization of English reading.
According to the learner’s learning model in the learning process (English reading
ability, cognitive style, learning target, learning situation and learning result) and the
characteristics of English reading resource model (question type, theme and difficulty),
Jianmin, Min and Bin [3] used machine-learning algorithms, also known as ID3
algorithm to construct a learning recommendation model for learning resources in
fragmented reading. In order to test the feasibility and results of auto-adaptive
resources recommendation model in fragmented English reading, this paper uses the
principles of software engineering to determine the learning needs of target learners.
Through functional analysis, the relationship between the functional modules included
in the platform and the relationships between modules were determined. After that, a
database of fragmented English reading resources was built. Finally, using the C/S
architecture system, Android studio, Visual Studio, and SQL Server development tools,
the learning resource adaptive recommendation APP for fragmented English reading is
designed and implemented.
 Design and Implementation of Adaptive Push APP Based on Android 5

2 Overview of Adaptive Recommendation of Mobile

Learning Resources
2.1 Fragmented English Reading
Compared to “integrated” reading, incomplete, intermittent reading patterns through
new media such as mobile phones and mobile networks are referred to as fragmented
reading [4]. With the help of mobile terminals such as smart phones and mobile
networks, learner can receive huge amounts of information anytime and anywhere. The
information and knowledge in the learning process seem to be at your fingertips, and
reading is easy and easy [5]. Fragmented English reading is to learn English by means
of Fragmentation Reading in a mobile fragmented environment.

2.2 Adaptive Learning System

The Adaptive Learning System (ALS) is an active learning system that is based on the
“learner-centered” educational philosophy and proposes individual differences for
current learner, (such as age, professional background, interest preferences, cognitive
level, etc.), and dynamically provide a system for personalized learning support ser-
vices. The adaptive learning system was first introduced in the field of foreign intel-
ligent teaching systems and adaptive hypermedia systems. In recent years, it has
become a hot spot in the field of E-Learning distance education [6, 7]. With the help of
the adaptive learning system, learner can monitor his own learning process and choose
the learning content and learning strategy that suits him best according to their actual
needs [8].
At present, the English learning APP on the mobile phone is becoming more and
more popular in young people. It is more common to use the fragmented learning
method for English reading and learning. The goal of these APPs is to provide learner
with personalized learning, that is, according to learner’s learning interests, behaviors
in the learning process, learning history and learning level, and other characteristics, to
push adaptive learning resources for learner through a certain algorithm. This provides
a learning path that meets the learner’s individual needs.

2.3 Adaptive Push Model of Learning Resources in English Fragmented

Reading
Referring to Jianmin Zhang, Min Xie and Bin Wen, an adaptive recommendation
model for learning resources in fragmented English Reading [3] was constructed in the
article Adaptive Pushing of Learning Resources in Fragmented English Reading, as
shown in Fig. 1.
6 J. Zhang et al.

Learner model

Cogni ve style
Resource model
*Reading ability
Ques on type
*Learning target
Difficulty
**Learning situa on
Theme
**Learning result

Update Resource
Learner portrait library
Learning scene data

Learn Reso
er urce
ID3 Push strategy

**Sequence of
knowledge points
to be learned
Data collec on

Fragmente TOP-N Target learning

d learning Resource push resources

Fig. 1. Adaptive learning resources pushing model in English fragmented reading

Note: (1) In the learning scene, the white circle represents learners, and the gray
circle represents the learning resources fragmented.
(2) “*” represents the relative stability of data. Items without “*” are more stable,
items with “*” take a longer time to update, and items with “**” update the fastest.
On the basis of literature review, it is found that in fragmented learning environ-
ment, learner models can be established according to learner’s reading ability, cogni-
tive style, learning target, learning situations, learning result and other information in
the four-level English reading. Then extract the feature information of English reading
 Design and Implementation of Adaptive Push APP Based on Android 7

resources, and establish the connection between learner model and learning resources.
Thereafter, based on the feature information of the learner, the sequence of knowledge
points to be learned is generated. Based on this sequence, the push strategy is deter-
mined, the learning path is planned, and the learning resources are pushed.
The learner model shows that in order to realize the self-adaptive push of resources,
the system needs to understand 4 aspects, that are what level the learner is at, what
goals he want to achieve, where and how to learn, and how the effect is based on
resource push learning. Among them, the assessment of learner’s reading ability is
based on CET-4 syllabus. It is mainly based on the Chinese English Reading Ability
Rating Scale [10] and the seven factors mentioned in the article A Study on the
Structure and Development of College Students’ English Reading Ability [11]. And an
assessment scale for English reading ability is developed. Cognitive styles are mainly
field-dependent and field-independent. Students with different cognitive styles also
have different interests in reading, thinking patterns, learning strategies and the impact
of environment on them [9]. The vocabulary size and the accuracy of CET-4 are the
main learning target. Learning situation mainly considers the decibels of the noise level
of the current learner’s geographical location in mobile debris learning environment.
Learning result is mainly feedback through the correct rate of the problem of the learner
in the complex learning situation.
The question types, theme, and difficulty of reading materials have a greater impact
on learner. Different types of questions essentially examine different ways of thinking.
Based on different growth environment, learners have different familiarity with reading
materials on different subjects, and the results of the questions vary greatly. However,
subjects with different degrees of difficulty require learners to be at different levels of
learning. Understanding these differences in reading materials, the system can push
resources more specifically for learner. This study extracts the feature information of
English reading resources from the three-dimensional degree of topic type, subject
matter and difficulty level of reading resources, and establishes a three-dimensional
reading resource feature model. Question types are mainly considered from factual
details, inference problem, semantic comprehension problem, main idea and the atti-
tude of view problem. Theme is mainly considered from the humanities and social
sciences and natural sciences. The difficulty mainly lies in people’s experience of
careful reading of Level 4 to decide which is difficult or easy.
On this basis, by collecting learner characteristics and resource characteristics
information, the decision tree ID3 algorithm is used to establish the decision tree of
resource push, from which the rules of resource push can be found. ID3 will be used to
achieve the push of CET-4 careful reading resources in mobile fragmentation learning
situation and meet the individual learning needs of learner.
8 J. Zhang et al.

3 Systems Analysis
3.1 Requirement Analysis
Faced with the rapid expansion and rapid renewal of knowledge, people are always
eager to learn more knowledge to cope the rapidly changing times. Some developers
have caught people’s changes in this demand and developed a lot of learning APPs, but
most of them lack in theory of teaching design, and just concentrate a large amount of
resources. Seemingly very human, but it forced people to face with more multiple
choices when using these APPs. It making them even more confused and do not
knowing where to start. As a result, learning is like finding a needle in a haystack, and
nothing is achieved.
Therefore, in the fragmented learning situation, it is urgent to solve the problem of
auto-adaptive push of English reading resources. By collecting the learner’s charac-
teristics, resource characteristics, and the degree of influence of the environment
(volume) on the learner in the process of the using of the APP, we can determine the
learning demand based on the learning history data and adapt to push resources to help
learner get the information he need quickly when the learner log in again [12]. On the
other hand, the APP should also aim at the module of “Careful Reading” of CET-4,
with the guide of relevant theories of fragmented learning in mobile context, and
learner-centered, providing learner’s needs for autonomous learning, and provides the
possibility for learner to learn fragmented English reading in mobile environment.
Therefore, the APP should include five core modules: login registration, context
acquisition, learning resources recommendation, independent practice and learning
process.
In addition to functional requirements, the APP should also have non-functional
requirements. The APP should also be secure, simple to operate, and with appropriate
openness to meet the future needs of users.

3.2 Target User Analysis

The main target users of App are undergraduates preparing for CET-4 and students
who are willing to use App to improve their English read. Young students can quickly
adapt to the popular new learning style of mobile fragmentation learning. This kind of
learner has the following characteristics:
1. The frequency of using mobile devices and the willingness of mobile learning is
higher. Mobile devices have become a necessity in people’s daily life, and “carry-
on” has become a habit of the youth. Because the purpose of this kind of learner is
to obtain CET-4 certificate, most of them attach great importance to it. They often
use the learning software in the intelligent terminal to study English. Therefore, they
need a lot of mobile and fragmented English learning.
2. Limited learning time and easy to be interrupted. Most of these learners will make
full and reasonable use of the fragmented and scattered time in their spare time for
mobile fragmentation learning. Because of the short learning time and the complex
 Design and Implementation of Adaptive Push APP Based on Android 9

and diverse learning scenarios, it is easy to lead to the distraction of learner’s

learning attention. Therefore, in space-time of mobile fragmentation learning,
English reading resources should be segmented reasonably and effectively.
3. Personalized demand is highly, and focuses on using experience. In the era of
information explosion, it is difficult for the youth to find content that meets their
personalized needs from mass information in a short time. Choosing an APP, the
younger generation pays more attention to whether it can provide personalized
learning services to help learner acquire learning resources quickly and accurately.
In addition, there are so many learning APPs in the market, and the youth pays more
attention to the UI design and user experience of APP.

3.3 Feasibility Analysis

Economic viability includes pre-investment, mid-maintenance and post-application and
improvement. The pre-investment mainly includes the design, feasibility evaluation
and cost of system development. In terms of software, based on the Windows operating
system, with the client running on Android Studio 3.2.0, the server is deployed on IIS,
and use ASP.NET WebAPI of Visual Studio 2013 to build framework. The database
uses SQL Server 2008 R2. Therefore, these development tools can be easily obtained
on the network. In terms of hardware, the server is deployed on personal computer
through the network operation environment of the campus network (local area net-
work), so there is no need to spend a lot of money to purchase server.
Mid-term maintenance requires only a simple back up the system regularly.
In terms of later application and harvest, for students, they only need to connect to
the campus network WIFI to use this APP without logging in the account, thus saving
the learning cost. Therefore, the system can bring great benefits in terms of economic
feasibility.
In terms of technical feasibility, Android Studio is currently popular Android front-
end development tool. Development based on Android is easier. ASP.NET has been
recognized by many software manufacturers, and a large number of enterprises are
using this technology for development. In addition, the SQL Server database uses the
SQL language to manipulate data, which is easy to understand. ASP.NET+SQL Server
as development platform on network has been quite mature, so it is feasible to use to
build a Web Server. Combined with Android Studio front-end development, it is
technically feasible to realize the development of an adaptive learning resource push
APP for fragmented English reading.
In terms of application, more and more colleges and universities have used digital
learning platforms to carry out education and teaching activities for many years, and
mobile terminals are more favored by the younger generation. However, with the rapid
growth of information, people’s demand for personalization is getting higher and
higher. At present, it is almost impossible to find resource recommendation function in
mobile learning APP, in particular, there are few mobile terminals that push CET4
“carefully read” resources in the form of fragmented learning. Therefore, there is a great
demand for the learning resource auto-adaptive push platform in fragmented
English reading.
10 J. Zhang et al.

4 System Design
4.1 System Architecture Design
The purpose of system construction is to better help decision makers to formulate
future recommendation strategies through effective data collection, so that the weak
links in learning can be targeted and intensively trained. The general architecture of the
adaptive push APP of English fragmented reading resources is shown in Fig. 2. The
general framework of the system is divided into five levels, including the base layer,
data layer, service layer, application layer and user layer.

Fig. 2. General framework of system

1. Base layer
The base layer is the lowest layer of the system architecture, mainly based on the
campus network (local area network) to support the network service of the auto-
auto-adaptive learning resource recommendation system to meet the requirements
of network service of the system.
 Design and Implementation of Adaptive Push APP Based on Android 11

2. Data layer
The data layer is the second layer of the system framework, which is mainly for
operating and managing system data, including resource data, management data and
behavioral data. The resource data includes English reading resources, cognitive
style test resources and English reading ability scale test resources. Management
data includes student personal information, software information, etc. Behavioral
data includes learner’s behavior data, self-designed learning plan and the semester
test, etc. The evaluation data includes exercise results. The data layer is mainly for
collecting, processing, exchanging and storing the above data.
3. Service layer
The service layer is the middle layer of the general architecture of the system, which
is used to connect the data layer and the service layer. The service layer is mainly
used to support the system to provide application services for users at the appli-
cation layer. The ASP.NET WebAPI framework is mainly used to quickly provide
API for HTTP clients to create Web services.
4. Application layer
The application layer presents an adaptive learning service that the auto-adaptive
learning resource recommendation system ultimately provides for learner. It mainly
embodies the functions of login and registration, learning resources recommenda-
tion, independent practice, situation acquisition, and learning record provided by the
system. Among them, login and registration are used for authentication and reading
ability, and cognitive style test. Learning resource recommendation is mainly used
for the system to recommend learning resources for learner. Autonomous exercises
are mainly used for learner to learn according to their own learning needs, selecting
the learning module and autonomous setting plans to learn. The situational acqui-
sition is mainly to obtain the environmental volume of the current user’s geo-
graphical location, thereby judging the influence of the annoyance of the
geographical volume on the learning. The learning record mainly records the cur-
rent learner’s basic information and learning behavior.
5. User layer
The user layer is the mainly layer which the system directly contacts the users, and
is the outermost layer of the system architecture. In the fragmented English reading,
most of the user of the learning resources auto-adaptive push system is learners who
are preparing for CET-4, and this system aims to provide learning services for them.

4.2 Function Module Design

The fragmented English reading resource auto-adaptive push APP has five main
functional modules, including user center module (which include two modules of login
registration and learning record), autonomous practice module, context acquisition
module and auto-adaptive resource recommendation module, as shown in Fig. 3.
12 J. Zhang et al.

Fig. 3. System function model

The fragmented learning resource library is consisting with “carefully read” of

CET-4, which is a fragmented reading resource that is reasonably segmented. In order
to meet the characteristics of the fragmented learning situation, the reading materials
are segmented according to the title and the dry information to meet the needs of
fragmented learning when determines the length of reading resources.
The user center module includes user’s registration (cognitive style test and reading
ability test), learning record (viewing the wrong title set, reading history, reading
progress, and setting the learning plan), managing the basic information that the current
learner learns in the APP and records of learning behaviors.
The situation acquisition module dynamically acquires the volume decibel of the
current environment during the learning process of the learner, so that the system can
monitor the learning dynamics of the learner in real time, which is beneficial to the
system to obtain the learner’s learning data, and the recommendation strategy is more
accurate and targeted.
The autonomous practice module is that the current learner chooses the learning
content to train according to his needs. The APP has a selection of English reading
learning resources classified according to different types, including five classification
methods: test time, question type, subject matter, and by difficulty.
The auto-adaptive resource recommendation module is based on the learner model
and resource model of the learner in the learning process, and comprehensively analysis
the learning resources that conform to its personalized characteristics provide the pos-
sibility for learner to learn English reading in the mobile fragmentation situation [13].

5 Key Technology

In the fragmented English reading resources auto-adaptive push application, the

Android-based C/S architecture system is adopted. Android Studio is used to implement
the client’s functional part. Written in java language, the server is deployed on IIS.
 Design and Implementation of Adaptive Push APP Based on Android 13

The framework is built by ASP.NET WebAPI of Visual Studio. SQL Server is used to
store the database. The server and the database are connected through the corresponding
interface. And the server is deployed on the computer through the specific IP address
and port number in the campus network by using the convenience of the campus
network. Communication principle: after the client sends a http request to the server, the
server parses the data, and then indirectly accesses the database and returns the data from
the server to the client. After the client obtains the data in the JSON format from the
server, the program will parse these data quickly. After the analysis is completed, the
results will be displayed to users through the interface of the mobile intelligent terminal,
as shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4. Some of the system interface

5.1 Resource Push

In the process of mobile learning, it is difficult for learner to find the learning resources
that are suitable for individual from massive resources quickly and accurately. This is
the core problem that the auto-adaptive learning resource recommendation APP needs
to solve in this paper, and is also the key technical point. By collecting the charac-
teristic data of the learner in the learning process, and combining with the three-
dimensional characteristics of the reading resources, the machine learning algorithm-
ID3 decision tree algorithm is used to comprehensive analysis for auto-adaptive
resource recommendation.
After the learner successfully logs in, the userId of the current learner is obtained,
and the server API is accessed by GET() mode; the user information is obtained by the
UserId. If the user is logged in for the first time, it is recommend based on the user’s
14 J. Zhang et al.

cognitive style test and English reading ability test during the registration process. If he
is an old user, it will through the ID3 decision tree algorithm for comprehensive
recommendation based on the learner’s characteristics and learning behavior (cognitive
style, reading ability, learning goal, learning plan, and learning result) to find matching
questions in the database. Then encapsulate the relevant information of the title,
options, corresponding articles, answers, etc. into an object PractisePackage, and use
the JSON format to transfer to the front-end APP. The client uses the WebView control
to display the returned data, which is equivalent to a browser is embedded in the client
to load and display the web page. And the sliding answer effect answers of the selected
questions, options, related articles which parsed by client, is achieved by ViewPager
+fragment. The learning resources recommendation interface is shown in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5. Learning resource recommendation interface

The ID3 algorithm first acquires learner’s characteristics, resources features and
classification properties. Then stores them in a two-dimensional array, and preprocesses
the discrete data to normalize it. According to ID3 algorithm, the information gain of
each attribute is calculated by the formula. Compare the information gain of these
attributes, and use the attribute with the largest information gain as the test attribute of
the S set, that is, the root node of the decision tree [14]. The flow chart of the algorithm
design is shown in Fig. 6.
 Design and Implementation of Adaptive Push APP Based on Android 15

Fig. 6. Flow chart of decision tree algorithm

The algorithm is described in pseudocode as follows:

Input: training sample set; candidate attribute_list
Output: Decision Tree
Method:
Function ID3_Decision_Tree (samples attribute-list)
{
Create a node: Node;
IF samples is in the same category C then
return Node is a node with class C tags;
IF attribute-list is Null then
return Node is the leaf node and is labelled as the most common class
in samples;
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 CHAPTER IX
THE SHELL, ITS FORM, COMPOSITION AND GROWTH—DESIGNATION OF
ITS VARIOUS PARTS

The popular names of ‘shells,’ ‘shell-fish,’ and the like, as

commonly applied to the Mollusca, the intrinsic beauty and grace of
the shells themselves, resulting in the passion for their collection,
their durability and ease of preservation, as compared with the non-
testaceous portion,—all these considerations tend to unduly exalt the
value of the shell as part of the organism as a whole, and to obscure
the truth that the shell is by no means the most important of the
organs.
At the same time it must not be forgotten that the old systems of
classification, which were based almost entirely on indications drawn
from the shell alone, have been strangely little disturbed by the new
principles of arrangement, which depend mainly on structural points
in the animal. This fact only tends to emphasise the truth that the
shell and animal are in the closest possible connexion, and that the
shell is a living part of the organism, and is equally sensitive to
external influences.
A striking instance of the comparative valuelessness of the shell
alone as a primary basis of classification is furnished by the large
number of cases in which a limpet-shaped shell is assumed by
genera widely removed from one another in cardinal points of
organisation. This form of shell occurs in the common limpet
(Patellidae), in Ancylus (Limnaeidae), Hemitoma (Fissurellidae),
Cocculina (close to Trochidae), Umbrella and Siphonaria
(Opisthobranchiata), while in many other cases the limpet form is
nearly approached.
Roughly speaking, about three-quarters of the known Mollusca,
recent and fossil, possess a univalve, and about one-fifth a bivalve
shell. In Pholas, and in some species of Thracia, there is a small
accessory hinge plate; in the Polyplacophora, or Chitons, the shell
consists of eight plates (see Fig. 2, p. 8), usually overlapping. A
certain proportion of the Mollusca have no shell at all. In many of
these cases the shell has been present in the larva, but is lost in the
adult.
The shell may be
(1) External, as in the great majority of both univalves and
bivalves.
(2) Partly external, partly internal; e.g. Homalonyx, Hemphillia,
some of the Naticidae, Scutum, Acera, Aplustrum (Figs. 148 and
149).

Fig. 148.—Aplustrum
aplustre L. Mauritius,
showing the partly
internal shell (S); F,
foot; LL, cephalic
lappets; TT, double
set of tentacles. (After
Quoy and Gaimard.)
 Fig. 149.—Sigaretus
laevigatus Lam.,
showing shell partially
immersed in the foot;
F, anterior
prolongation of the
foot. (After Souleyet.)
(3) Internal; e.g. Philine, Gastropteron, Pleurobranchus, Aplysia,
Limax, Arion, Hyalimax, Parmacella, Lamellaria, Cryptochiton, and,
among bivalves, Chlamydoconcha.
(4) Absent; e.g. all Nudibranchiata and Aplacophora, many
Cephalopoda, a few land Mollusca, e.g. all Onchidiidae, Philomycus,
and Vaginula.
The Univalve Shell.—In univalve Mollusca the normal form of the
shell is an elongated cone twisted into a spiral form round an axis,
the spiral ascending to the left. Probably the original form of the shell
was a simple cone, which covered the vital parts like a tent. As these
parts tended to increase in size, their position on the dorsal side of
the animal caused them gradually to fall over, drawing the shell with
them. The result of these two forces combined, the increasing size of
the visceral hump, and its tendency to pull the shell over with it,
probably resulted in the conversion of the conical into the spiral shell,
which gradually came to envelop the whole animal. Where the
visceral hump, instead of increasing in size, became flattened, the
conical shape of the shell may have been modified into a simple
elliptical plate (e.g. Limax), the nucleus representing the apex of the
cone. In extreme cases even this plate dwindles to a few calcareous
granules, or disappears altogether (Arion, Vaginula).
 Varieties of the Spiral.—Almost every conceivable modification
of the spiral occurs, from the type represented by Gena, Haliotis,
Sigaretus, and Lamellaria, in which the spire is practically confined to
the few apical whorls, with the body-whorl inordinately large in
proportion, to a multispiral form like Terebra, with about twenty
whorls, very gradually increasing in size.

Fig. 150.—Examples of shells with A, a flattened

spire (Polygyratia); B, a globose spire (Natica);
C, a greatly produced spire (Terebra).
As a rule, the spire is more or less obliquely coiled round the axis,
each whorl being partially covered, and therefore hidden by, its
immediate successor, while the size of the whorls, and therefore the
diameter of the spire as a whole, increases somewhat rapidly. The
effect of this is to produce the elevated spire, the shell of six to ten
whorls, and the wide aperture, of the normal type of mollusc, the
whelk, snail, periwinkle, etc.
Sometimes, however, the coil of the whorls, instead of being
oblique, tends to become horizontal to the axis, and thus we have
another series of gradations of form, from the excessively produced
spire of Terebra to the flattened disc of Planorbis, Polygyratia,
Euomphalus, and Ammonites. The shell of many species of Conus
practically belongs to the latter type, each whorl folding so closely
over its predecessor that the spiral nature of the shell is not
perceived until it is looked at at right angles to the spire.

Fig. 151.—Examples of
shells with
disconnected whorls;
A, Cyathopoma cornu
Mf., Philippines; B,
Cylindrella hystrix
Wright, Cuba. (Both ×
4.)
 Fig. 152.—Example of a
shell whose apical
whorls alone are
coiled, and the
remainder produced in
a regular curve.
(Cyclosurus Mariei
Morel., Mayotte.)
In some cases the regularly spiral form is kept, but the whorls are
completely disconnected; e.g. some Scalaria, Spirula; among fossil
Cephalopoda, Gyroceras, Crioceras, and Ancyloceras; and, among
recent land Mollusca, Cylindrella hystrix and Cyathopoma cornu (Fig.
151). Sometimes only the last whorl becomes disconnected from the
others, as in Rhiostoma (see Fig. 180, p. 266), Teinostoma, and in
the fossil Ophidioceras and Macroscaphites. Sometimes, again, not
more than one or two whorls at the apex are spirally coiled, and the
rest of the shell is simply produced or coiled in an exceedingly
irregular manner, e.g. Cyclosurus, Lituites, Orygoceras, Siliquaria
(Fig. 153), Vermetus. In Coecum (Fig. 170, p. 260) the spiral part is
entirely lost, and the shell becomes simply a cylinder. In a few cases
the last whorl is coiled irregularly backwards, and is brought up to
the apex, so that the animal in crawling must carry the shell with the
spire downwards, as in Anostoma (Fig. 154), Opisthostoma (Fig.
208, p. 309), Strophostoma, and Hypselostoma (Fig. 202 A, p. 302).
Fig. 153.—Siliquaria anguina Lam.,
showing scalariform coil of upper
whorls and irregular extension of
the lower.

Fig. 154.—Anostoma globulosum Lam.,

Brazil. (After P. Fischer.)
 Fig. 155.—Various forms of the internal plate in
Capulidae: A, Calyptraea (Mitrularia) equestris
Lam., E. Indies; B, Crucibulum scutellatum Gray,
Panama; C, Ergaea plana Ad., and Reeve,
Japan; D, Galerus chinensis L., Britain; E,
Crepipatella dilatata Lam., Callao; F, Trochita
maculata Quoy, N. Zealand; G, Crepidula
fornicata Lam., N. America.
Some genera of the Capulidae, in which the shell is of a broadly
conical form or with scarcely any spire, develop an internal plate or
process which serves the purpose of keeping the animal within the
shell, and does the work of a strong attachment muscle. In Mitrularia
this process takes the form of a raised horse-shoe; in Crucibulum it
is cup-shaped, with the edge free all round; in Galerus, Ergaea,
Crepipatella, and Trochita we get a series of changes, in which the
edge of the cup adheres to the interior of the shell, and then
gradually flattens into a plate. In Crepidula proper this plate becomes
a regular partition, covering a considerable portion of the interior
(Fig. 155 G). Hipponyx secretes a thin calcareous plate on the
ventral surface of the foot, which intervenes like an operculum
between the animal and the substance to which it adheres.
Sinistral, or Left-handed Shells.—The vast majority of univalve
spiral shells are normally dextral, i.e. when held spire uppermost,
with the aperture towards the observer, the aperture is to the right of
the axis of the spire. If we imagine such a shell to be a spiral
staircase, as we ascended it we should always have the axis of the
spire to our left.
 Sinistral or ‘reversed’ forms are not altogether uncommon, and
may be grouped under four classes:—
(1) Cases in which the genus is normally sinistral; (2) cases in
which the genus is normally dextral, but certain species are normally
sinistral; (3) cases in which the shell is indifferently dextral or
sinistral; (4) cases in which both genus and species are normally
dextral, and a sinistral form is an abnormal monstrosity.

Fig. 156.—Fulgur
perversum L., Florida. ½.

Fig. 157.—Illustration of the gradation of forms in Ampullaria between a dextral (A)

and an ultra-dextral species (F).

In all cases of sinistral monstrosity, and all in which a sinistral and

dextral form are interchangeable (sections 3 and 4 above), the
position of the apertures of the internal organs appears to be
relatively affected, i.e. the body is sinistral, as well as the shell. This
has been proved to be the case in all specimens hitherto examined,
and may therefore be assumed for the rest. The same uniformity,
however, does not hold good in all cases for genera and species
normally sinistral (sections 1 and 2). As a rule, the anal and genital
apertures are, in these instances also, to the left, but not always. In
Spirialis, Limacina, Meladomus, and Lanistes the shell is sinistral,
but the animal is dextral. This apparent anomaly has been most
ingeniously explained by Simroth, Von Ihering, and Pelseneer. The
shell, in all these cases, is not really sinistral, but ultra-dextral.
Imagine the whorls of a dextral species capable of being flattened,
as in a Planorbis, and continue the process, still pushing, as it were,
the spire downwards until it occupies the place of the original
umbilicus, becoming turned completely ‘inside out,’ and we have the
whole explanation of these puzzling forms. The animal remains
dextral, the shell has become sinistral. A convincing proof of the truth
of this is furnished by the operculum. It is well known that the twist of
the operculum varies with that of the shell; when the shell is dextral,
the operculum is sinistral, with its nucleus near the columella, and
vice versâ. In these ultra-dextral shells, however, where it is simply
the method of the enrolment of the spire that comes in question, and
not the formation of the whorls themselves, the operculum remains
sinistral on the apparently sinistral shell.
The reverse case to this, when the shell is dextral but the orifices
sinistral, is instanced by the two fresh-water genera Pompholyx
(from N. America), and Choanomphalus (L. Baikal). A similar
transition in the enrolment of the whorls may be confidently assumed
to have taken place, and the shells are styled ultra-sinistral.
Yet another variation remains, in which the embryonic form is
sinistral, but the adult shell dextral, the former remaining across the
nucleus of the spire. This is the case with Odostomia, Eulimella,
Turbonilla, and Mathilda, all belonging to the Prosobranchiata, with
Actaeon, Tornatina, and Actaeonina among the Opisthobranchs, and
Melampus alone among Pulmonates.
Monstrosities of the Shell.—Abnormal growths of the shell
constantly occur, some of them being scarcely noticeable, except by
a practised eye, others of a more serious nature, involving an entire
change in the normal aspect of the creature. Scalariform
monstrosities are occasionally met with, especially in Helix and
Planorbis, when the whorls become unnaturally elevated, and
sometimes quite disjoined from one another; carinated monstrosities
develop a keel on a whorl usually smooth; acuminated monstrosities
have the spire produced to an extreme length (Fig. 158); sinistral
monstrosities (see above) have the spire reversed: dwarfs and
giants, as in our own race, are occasionally noticed among a crowd
of individuals.
More serious forms of monstrosity are those which occur in
individual cases. Mr. S. P. Woodward once observed[332] a specimen
of an adult Helix aspersa with a second, half-grown individual fixed
to its spire, and partly embedded in the suture of the body whorl. The
younger snail had died during its first hibernation, as was shown by
the epiphragm remaining in the aperture, and its neighbour, not
being able to get free of the incubus, partially enveloped it in the
course of its growth. In the British Museum two Littorina littorea have
become entangled in a somewhat similar way (Fig. 160 B), possibly
as a result of embryonic fusion. Double apertures are not
uncommon[333] in the more produced land-shells, such as Cylindrella
and Clausilia (Fig. 160 A). In the Pickering collection was a Helix
hortensis which had crawled into a nutshell when young, and,
growing too large to escape, had to carry about this decidedly extra
shell to the end of its days. A monstrosity of the cornucopia form, in
which the whorls are uncoiled almost throughout, is of exceedingly
rare occurrence (Fig. 161).
 Fig. 158.—Monstrosities of
Neptunea antiqua L., and
Buccinum undatum L., with a
greatly produced spire (from
specimens in the Brit. Mus.).

Fig. 159.—Monstrosities of Littorina

rudis Mat, The Fleet, Weymouth.
(After Sykes.)
Some decades ago ingenious Frenchmen amused themselves by
creating artificial monstrosities. H. aspersa was taken from its shell,
by carefully breaking it away, and then introduced into another shell
of similar size (H. nemoralis, vermiculata, or pisana). At the end of
several days attachment to the columella took place, and then
growth began, the new shell becoming soldered to the old, and the
spiral part of the animal being protected by a thin calcareous
envelope. A growth of from one to two whorls took place under these
conditions. The individuals so treated were always sordid and
lethargic, but they bred, and naturally produced a normal aspersa
offspring.[334] In the British Museum there is a specimen of one of
these artificial unions of a Helix with the shell of a Limnaea stagnalis.

Fig. 160.—Monstrosities with two

apertures: A, Cylindrella
agnesiana C. B. Ad.,
Jamaica; B, Littorina littorea
(from specimens in the
British Museum).

Fig. 161.—Cornucopia-
shaped monstrosity of
Helix aspersa, from
Ilfracombe. (British
Museum.)
Composition of the Shell.—The shell is mainly composed of
pure carbonate of lime, with a very slight proportion of phosphate of
lime, and an organic base allied to chitin, known as conchiolin. The
proportion of carbonate of lime is known to vary from about 99 p.c. in
Strombus to about 89 p.c. in Turritella. Nearly 1 p.c. of phosphate of
lime has been obtained from the shell of Helix nemoralis, and nearly
2 p.c. from that of Ostrea virginica. The conchiolin forms a sort of
membranous framework for the shell; it soon disappears in dead
specimens, leaving the shell much more brittle than it was when
alive. Carbonate of magnesia has also been detected, to the extent
of ·12 p.c. in Telescopium and ·48 p.c. in Neptunea antiqua. A trace
of silica has also occasionally been found.
When the shell exhibits a crystalline formation, the carbonate of
lime may take the form either of calcite or aragonite. The calcite
crystals are rhombohedral, optically uniaxal, and cleave easily, while
the aragonite cleave badly, belong to the rhombic system, and are
harder and denser, and optically biaxal. Both classes of crystal may
occur in the same shell.
Two main views have been held with regard to the formation and
structure of the shell—(1) that of Bowerbank and Carpenter, that the
shell is an organic formation, growing by interstitial deposit, in the
same manner as the teeth and bones of the higher animals; (2) that
of Réaumur, Eisig, and most modern writers, that the shell is of the
nature of an excretion, deposited like a cuticle on the outside of the
skin, being formed simply of a number of calcareous particles held
together by a kind of ‘animal glue.’ Leydig’s view is that the shell of
the Monotocardia is a secretion of the epithelium, but that in the
Pulmonata it originates within the skin itself, and afterwards
becomes free.[335]
According to Carpenter, when a fragment of any recent shell is
decalcified by being placed in dilute acid, a definite animal basis
remains, often so fine as to be no more than a membranous film, but
sometimes consisting of an aggregation of ‘cells’ with perfectly
definite forms. He accordingly divides all shell structure into cellular
and membranous, according to the characteristics of the animal
basis. Cellular structure is comparatively rare; it occurs most notably
in Pinna, where the shell is composed of a vast multitude of tolerably
regular hexagonal prisms (Fig. 162 B). Membranous structure
comprises all forms of shell which do not present a cellular tissue.
Carpenter held that the membrane itself was at one time a
constituent part of the mantle of the mollusc, the carbonate of lime
being secreted in minute ‘cells’ on its surface, and afterwards
spreading over the subjacent membrane through the bursting of the
cells.
The iridescence of nacreous shells is due to a peculiar lineation of
their surface, which can be readily detected by a lens. According to
Brewster, the iridescence is due to the alternation of layers of
granular carbonate of lime and of a very thin organic membrane, the
layers very slightly undulating. Carpenter, on the other hand, holds
that it depends upon the disposition of a single membranous layer in
folds or plaits, which lie more or less obliquely to the general surface,
so that their edges show as lines. The nacreous type of shell occurs
largely among those Mollusca which, from other details in their
organisation, are known to represent very ancient forms (e.g.
Nucula, Avicula, Trigonia, Nautilus). It is also the least permanent,
and thus in some strata we find that only casts of the nacreous shells
remain, while those of different constitution are preserved entire.
Porcellanous shells (of which the great majority of Gasteropoda
are instances) usually consist of three layers, each of which is
composed of a number of adjacent plates, like cards on edge. The
inclination of the plates in the different layers varies, but that of the
plates in the inner and outer layer is frequently the same, thus if the
plates are transverse in the middle stratum, they are longitudinal in
the inner and outer strata, and, if longitudinal in the middle, they are
transverse in the other two. Not uncommonly (Fig. 163 B) other
layers occur. In bivalves the disposition and nature of the layers is
much more varied.
Fig. 162.—A, Section of shell of Unio: a, periostracal layer; b, prismatic layer; c,
nacreous layer. B, Horizontal section of shell of Pinna, showing the hexagonal
prisms.

In Unio the periostracal or uppermost layer is very thin; beneath

this is a prismatic layer of no great depth, while the whole remainder
of the shell is nacreous (Fig. 162 A). Many bivalves show traces of
tubular structure, while in the Veneridae the formation and character
of the layers approaches closely to that of the Gasteropoda. Further
details may be gathered from Carpenter’s researches.[336]
Formation of Shell.[337]—The mantle margin is the principal
agent in the deposition of shell. It is true that if the shell be fractured
at any point, the hole will be repaired, thus showing that every part of
the mantle is furnished with shell-depositing cells, but such new
deposits are devoid of colour and of periostracum, and no
observation seems to have been made with regard to the layers of
which they are composed. As a rule the mantle, except at its margin,
only serves to thicken the innermost layer of shell.
It is probable that the carbonate of lime, of which the shell is
mainly composed, is separated from the blood by the epithelial cells
of the mantle margin, and takes the crystalline or granular form as it
hardens on exposure after deposition. The three layers of a
porcellanous shell are deposited successively, and the extreme edge
of the mouth, when shell is forming, will contain only one layer, the
outermost; a little further in, two layers appear, and further still, three.
The pigment cells which colour the surface are situated at the front
edge of the mantle margin.

Fig. 163.—Sections of shells. A, Conus: a, outer layer; b, middle prismatic layer,

with obliquely intersecting laminae above and below; c, inner layer. B, Oliva:
a, outer layer; b, layer of crossed and curved laminae; c, prismatic layer,
succeeded by layer of laminae at right angles to one another; d, inner layer. C,
Cypraea: a, outer layer; b, middle layer; c, inner layer.
Shelly matter is deposited, and probably secreted, not only by the
mantle, but also in some genera by the foot. This is certainly the
case in Cymbium, Oliva, Ancillaria, Cassis, Distortio, and others, in
several of which the foot is so large that the shell appears to be quite
immersed in it.[338]
The deposition of shell is not continuous. Rest periods occur,
during which the function is dormant; these periods are marked off
on the edge of the shell, and are known as lines of growth. In some
cases (Murex, Triton, Ranella), the rest period is marked by a
decisive thickening of the lip, which persists on the surface of the
shell as what is called a varix (see p. 263).
 Fig. 164.—Murex
tenuispina L.,
Ceylon. × ⅔.

Fig. 165.—Neritina
longispina Récl., Mauritius.
(Operculum removed.)
The various details of sculpture on the exterior surface of the
shell, the striae, ribs, nodules, imbrications, spines, and other forms
of ornamentation are all the product of similar and corresponding
irregularities in the mantle margin, and have all been originally
situated at the edge of the lip. Spines, e.g. those of Murex and
Pteroceras, are first formed as a hollow thorn, cleft down its lower
side, and are afterwards filled in with solid matter as the mantle edge
withdraws. What purpose is served by the extreme elaboration of
these spiny processes in some cases, can hardly be considered as
satisfactorily ascertained. Possibly they are a form of sculptural
development which is, in the main, protective, and secures to its
owners immunity from the attacks of predatory fishes.
‘Attached’ genera (e.g. Chama, Spondylus) when living on smooth
surfaces have a flat shell, but when affixed to coral and other uneven
surfaces they become very irregular in shape. The sculpture of the
base on which they rest is often reproduced in these ‘attached’
shells, not only on the lower, but also on the upper valve, the
growing edge of which rests on the uneven surface of the base.
Oysters attached to the branches of the mangrove frequently display
a central convex rib, modelled on the shape of the branch, from
which the plaits of sculpture radiate, while specimens fixed to the
smooth trunk have no such rib. Crepidula, a genus which is in the
habit of attaching itself to other shells, varies in sculpture according
to that of its host. Sometimes the fact may be detected that a
specimen has lived on a ribbed shell when young, and on a smooth
one when old, or vice versâ. A new genus was actually founded by
Brown for a Capulus which had acquired ribs through adhesion to a
Pecten. A specimen of Hinnites giganteus in the British Museum
must at one period of its growth have adhered to a surface on which
was a Serpula, the impression of which is plainly reproduced on the
upper valve of the Hinnites.[339]
 Fig. 166.—A specimen of Anomia
ephippium L., Weymouth,
taken upon Pecten maximus,
the sculpture of which is
reproduced on the upper
valve of the Anomia, and
even on a young Anomia
attached to the larger
specimen.
Growth of the Shell.—Nothing very definite is known with regard
to the rate of growth of the shell in marine Mollusca. Under
favourable conditions, however, certain species are known to
increase very rapidly, especially if the food supply be abundant, and
if there is no inconvenient crowding of individuals. Petit de la
Saussaye mentions[340] the case of a ship which sailed from
Marseilles for the west coast of Africa, after being fitted with an
entirely new bottom. On arriving at its destination, the vessel spent
68 days in the Gambia River, and took 86 days on its homeward
voyage. On being cleaned immediately on its return to Marseilles, an
Avicula 78 mm. and an Ostrea 95 mm. long (both being species
peculiar to W. Africa) were taken from its keel. These specimens had
therefore attained this growth in at most 154 days, for at the period
of their first attachment they are known to be exceedingly minute. P.
Fischer relates[341] that in 1862 a buoy, newly cleaned and painted,
was placed in the basin at Arcachon. In less than a year after, it was
found to be covered with thousands of very large Mytilus edulis, 100