sustainability-15-12683

sustainability
Article
Classification of 3D Casting Models for Product Lifecycle
Management and Corporate Sustainability
Tzung-Ming Chen * , Jia-Qi Wu and Jian-Ting Lin
Department of Industrial Education and Technology, Bao-Shan Campus, National Changhua University of
Education, No. 2, Shi-Da Road, Changhua 500, Taiwan
* Correspondence: tmchen@cc.ncue.edu.tw
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to combine simulations and experiments in order to present
the first stage of construction in product lifecycle management. Based on the simplification of
casting models, the relationship between the filling and solidification characteristics, casting methods,
and geometrical classifications of aluminum alloy precision casting products was investigated. By
rearranging and summarizing the data, the casting models could be digitally managed; moreover,
the digitized data could be used as the basis for intelligent processes in further developments. The
simulations calculated and analyzed the casting speeds, defect locations, material densities, and
critical fraction of a solid A356 aluminum–silicon alloy; the actual casting was carried out and samples
were taken for metallographic observation to confirm the simulation results. The part model was
simplified with four basic geometric shapes: solid cylinder, tubular, block rectangle, and thin-shell
rectangle. The 150 casting models were summarized using 37 combinations, which were further
classified into five main categories to match the casting method: solid cylindrical, tubular, and
thin-shell rectangular for side casting, and discoidal and plate rectangular for bottom casting. File-
compression rates of up to 75% were achieved after classification and archiving, and data integrity
was maintained. Finally, model training using random forest classification resulted in an 88.8%
accuracy when predicting the casting method. This research is based on the practical issues raised by
business owners and R&D engineers, and a solution was obtained. From the perspective of product
lifecycle management, the results of this study show the consistency and uniformity of product
Citation: Chen, T.-M.; Wu, J.-Q.; Lin,
design rules, as well as the reusability of product process planning, which can be integrated with
J.-T. Classification of 3D Casting
carbon emissions trading and carbon taxes to save energy and achieve corporate sustainability.
Models for Product Lifecycle
Management and Corporate
Keywords: energy saving; precision casting; geometric simplification; PLM; mold flow analysis;
Sustainability. Sustainability 2023, 15,
12683. https://doi.org/10.3390/
process automation
su151712683
Academic Editor: Claudio

Sassanelli
1. Introduction
Received: 15 June 2023 Product lifecycle management (PLM) integrates product characteristics, derivative
Revised: 18 July 2023 information, design solutions, process planning, and professional knowledge and applies
Accepted: 3 August 2023 these factors to product business competition, functionality enhancement, stability analysis,
Published: 22 August 2023 customer opinion analysis, marketing forecasts, etc. After completing a product cycle, it
can return to cost estimation for new products, which can assist business owners in making
decisions [1–3]. Similarly to Industry 4.0, the digitization of all data related to product
lifecycle management will allow for a variety of analyses and restructuring, which will
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
benefit traditional industries through the introduction of process automation and increased
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
process intelligence. However, the concepts and technologies mentioned above still require
distributed under the terms and
promotion in small and medium enterprises, and their actual implementation requires time
conditions of the Creative Commons and manpower, which is a burden for business owners. Conversely, from the perspective
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// of corporate sustainability, it is an appropriate time to carry out the digitization of product
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ lifecycle management at the stage when smart manufacturing is not yet common and the
4.0/). second generation of an enterprise has not yet dominated a company. Most importantly, a
Sustainability 2023, 15, 12683. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151712683 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2023, 15, 12683 2 of 15
digital system built on the existing experience of the company can maintain the level of
process capability and achieve flexibility in sustainable development [4,5].
The energy-intensive processes and repetitive cost depletion in the trial production
stage of the traditional foundry industry are environmental and governance issues, re-
spectively, with respect to corporate sustainability [6]. If product development, design
changes, or process planning can be predicted at each stage, the repeated consumption of
energy and costs can be reduced. In order to achieve this goal, computer-assisted design
(CAD) and computer-assisted process planning (CAPP) are the main practices used to
retrieve product information, such as materials, geometries, design changes, and process
parameters, to facilitate communication with parts’ library features during the design
phase [7,8]. Process planning for digital casting and process parameter selection in the form
of database control can predict the flow, heat transfer, solidification, and defect formation
of metal flow under different casting conditions in advance [9], which can save the cost
incurred by the actual trial and confirm the applicability of the pouring system in advance,
thus improving the success of castings. In the foundry industry, digital construction is
not only a necessary procedure for saving energy [10] but is also the basis for achieving
sustainable development.
During the solidification of castings, isolated molten metal zones are easily generated
that cannot be compensated by the surrounding metal liquid, and the formed shrinkage
holes directly affect the mechanical properties of the castings. Most of these incomplete
fillings are related to poor pouring systems with incorrect filling temperatures. To solve
this problem, using mold flow software to simulate and determine suitable parameters
is an efficient method. In 2019, A. R. Pradhan et al. [11] simulated a modified pouring
system using mold flow software and found that optimizing the flow rate could make
the metal liquid without fluctuation and reduce defects due to turbulence. In 2017, Y. W.
Dong et al. [12] predicted the deformation and shrinkage distribution of castings during the
solidification of investment casting through modeling. It is necessary to take the structural
characteristics and the inhomogeneous shrinkage distribution into account during the
casting process. L. Patnaik et al. [13] conducted an Al-Si-Cu mold flow simulation using
MAGMASOFT in 2020 to predict the filling temperature, filling time, solidification, pressure,
and slagging and finally evaluated the cooling position and made minor modifications to
accommodate a shorter filling time and lower pressure in the mold.
Simplification of the geometry of casting 3D models is a typical method used to reduce
the complexity of mold flow analysis and shorten the development time and cost. The
purpose of retaining the main features and removing the features with smaller influence
factors [14,15] is to maintain the similarity between the original model and the simplified
model in the process of data size reduction. There are many ways to simplify 3D models,
such as maintaining their polygonal shape to reduce the number of vertices and the space
required [16], the boundary representation’s model data to connect geometrical entities
with a topology [17], and rule-based methods with learning-based feature recognition [18].
The ultimate goal of simplification is to automate production. In 2023, C. Li et al. [19]
proposed a unified tool for the design/analysis/virtual evaluation of ship structures based
on multi-domain feature mapping. The design changes are always reflected in CAD and
computer-assisted engineering (CAE) models through data regeneration and analysis
iterations. Automated manufacturing systems are the most efficient methods of finishing a
product from the design to the manufacturing stage, and feature recognition is one of the
most important keys to integrating the two stages.
About 60% of the product design process is spent searching for correct information,
and 80% of the parts can be changed from the existing design. If the new parts can be
reconstructed using the data from the database and then linked with the new process, the
overall efficiency of the design can be greatly improved [20]. In 2021, S. Bickel et al. [21]
applied the geometric similarity from the verified old parts to the new parts to reduce the
development cost and shorten the production startup time. H. Besharati-Foumani et al. [22]
mentioned in 2020 that the development of an ontological approach to feature databases
and further standardization of feature-based modeling frameworks is imperative to avoid

the continuation of current interoperability issues. In 2023, B. Ji et al. [23] constructed a CAD
model that can choose a subpart with arbitrary boundaries to successfully describe it for
retrieval by combining local features. In 2023, S. Bickel et al. [24] presented a method that
focuses on the needs of product development to retrieve similar components by comparing
the geometrical similarity of existing parts. Therefore, feature similarity and simplification
are important elements in digital manufacturing.
One of the main purposes of CAPP is to integrate CAD/CAE with computer-assisted
manufacturing (CAM) and to determine the processing characteristics through automatic
facial recognition. Y. Yang et al. [25] developed a system in 2021 that has been successfully
tested on representative parts containing features ranging from simple bends to composite
features, in which feature recognition plays an important role in digital manufacturing
as it supports activities such as automated process planning and part redesign. In 2018,
P. Yepez et al. [26] proposed a system that automatically recognizes products and links
with a knowledge base without human intervention. In 2021, C. Favi et al. [27] identified
geometrical features and parameters that cause problems during the manufacturing process
in order to define numerical thresholds for the characteristic parameters and ensure the
feasibility of the casting process. S. Ren et al. [28] mentioned in 2019 that big data analytics
is one of the most important technologies for smart manufacturing, as it can uncover
hidden useful information, such as lifecycle decisions and relationships between process
parameters, to help industrial leaders make more informed business decisions in a complex
management environment. From our literature review, it can be confirmed that simulation
analysis, model simplification, and experimental validation can be used to optimize the
filling parameters and design parameters of a pouring system in advance of the design
stage to improve the casting yield. At the same time, digital pouring system classification
is also helpful for process planning and reuse, which is in line with the importance of
sustainability and resource reuse in product lifecycle management.
2. Research Method and Procedure

Based on the practical problems raised by business owners and R&D engineers, this
study investigated the digital construction process of precision casting products in the
design stage. Therefore, 150 pieces of aluminum alloy precision castings in the production
line of a foundry were used as the research samples, and the digitalization of casting
product characteristics and the construction procedures of classification were set as the
objectives, so as to make the product process sustainable and in line with the standards
of lifecycle management. Therefore, simulation and experimental methods were used as
the main methods, and SolidWorks 2021 and SOLIDCast 9.0 were used as auxiliary tools
for the analysis. The classification rules used to simplify the geometries of the models can
be determined and established by disassembling and summarizing the geometries of 3D
models. On the other hand, based on the pouring system and casting method commonly
used in foundries, SOLIDCast 9.0 was used to assist in analyzing, modifying, and predicting
the appropriate combination of the product geometry, pouring system, and casting method.
In order to verify the correctness of the simulated physical behavior of the aluminum alloy,
casting experiments and metallographic observations were performed. If the material
density and critical fraction of the solid matched the defect location of the experimental
samples, the simulation results were reliable. Simplified classification was used instead of
codes; meanwhile, the characteristic data and classification rules were stored in a database
to facilitate the subsequent machine learning and classification prediction. Abbreviations
and symbols are listed in Appendix A.
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2.1. Model Dimensions

2.1. The casting
Model Dimensions samples in this study consisted of two basic shapes: rectangular and
2.1.
2.1. Model
2.1. Model
Model Dimensions
Dimensions
Dimensions
cylindrical.
2.1. Model The rectangular shapes ranged from 100 mm to 250 mm in length, from 100 mm
Dimensions
The casting samples in this study consisted of two basic shapes: rectangular and cy-
toThe
250
The
The
The
casting
mm
casting
castingin samples
casting width,
samples
samples
samples
in
and
in this
ininfrom
this
this
this
study
55
study
study mm
study consisted
to 200 mm
consisted
consisted
consisted
of two
ofof
of twoin
twotwo basic
height,
basic
basic
basic
shapes:
while
shapes:
shapes:
shapes:
rectangular
the cylindrical
rectangular
rectangular
rectangular
and
and
andandcy-
shapes
cy-
cy-
cy-
lindrical.
lindrical. The rectangular shapes ranged from 100 mm to 250 mm in length, from 100 mm
rangedThe
lindrical.
lindrical.
lindrical. from
The
TheTherectangular
10 mm to 400
rectangular
rectangular
rectangular
shapes
shapes
shapesmmranged
shapes inranged
ranged
ranged
from
height,
from
from with
from 100
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mm
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to 250
to
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inin
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mm mmin in width,
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from from55 55
mm mmto to
200 200
mm mmin in
height, while
while the the cylindrical
cylindrical shapes
shapes
to in
to
to 250Table
250
250 mm mm
mmfrom1.
in These
in
in width,
width, 3D
width, and
andmodels
and from
from
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55 55
55inmm
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to to
to 200 a
200 maximum
200 mm mm
mma in in of
in height, five
height,
height, while layers
while
while of
the the
the ofgeometries.
cylindrical
cylindrical
cylindrical However,
shapes
shapes
shapes
ranged
ranged from 10 10 mm
mm to to 400
400 mm mm
in height,
height, with with maximum
aa maximum diameter
diameter of 250 250
mm, mm,as as shown
shown
the geometry
ranged
ranged
ranged fromfrom
from 10
1010 ofmm
mm
mm castings
to
to to 400
400
400 mm
mmprocessed
mm in
in in in post-processing
height,
height,
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with with a a maximum
maximum
maximum machining,
diameter
diameter
diameter ofsuch
of of
250
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250mm,
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mm, as
asas
shownholes,
shown
shown
in in Table
Table 1. 1.
TheseThese3D 3D models
models consisted
consisted of aof a maximum
maximum of of
five five layers
layers of of geometries.
geometries. How-
How-
was not analyzed in this study, and the holes were filled up beforehand.
inin
in Table
Table
Table
ever, 1. 1.
1.
the These
These
These
geometry 3D3D
3D ofmodels
models
models consisted
consisted
consisted
castings processedofof
of ainmaximum
aa maximum
maximum ofof
of
post-processing fivefive
five layers
layers
layers ofof
of
machining, geometries.
geometries.
geometries.
such How-
How-
How-
as threaded
ever,
ever, the
ever, the
the geometry
geometry
geometry of
of castings
of castings
castings processed
processed
processed in
in post-processing
in post-processing
post-processing machining,
machining,
machining, suchsuch
such as
as threaded
as threaded
threaded
ever, the was
holes, geometry
not of castings
analyzed processed
in this study, in post-processing
and the holes were machining,
filled up such as threaded
beforehand.
holes,
Table
holes,was1. not
was Thenotanalyzed
size rangein
analyzed ofthis study,
rectangular and
and the holes
cylindrical were
shapes filled
thatup beforehand.
constitute the basic geometry
holes,
holes, was
was not
not analyzed
analyzed inin
in thisthis
this study,
study,
study, and
andand the
the the holes
holes
holes were
were
were filled
filled
filled upup
up beforehand.
beforehand.
beforehand.
of castings.
Table
Table 1. 1. The
The sizesize range
range of of rectangular
rectangular andand cylindrical
cylindrical shapes
shapes thatthat constitute
constitute the the basic
basic geometry
geometry of of
Table
Table
Table 1. 1.
1. The
The
castings. The size
size
size range
range
range of
of of rectangular
rectangular
rectangular and
and
and cylindrical
cylindrical
cylindrical shapes
shapes
shapes that
that
that constitute
constitute
constitute thethe
the basic
basic
basic geometry
geometry
geometry of
of of
castings.
castings.
castings. Shape Rectangle Cylinder
castings.
Shape(mm)
Length
Shape Rectangle
100~250
Rectangle Cylinder-
Cylinder
Shape
Shape
Shape Rectangle
Rectangle
Rectangle Cylinder
Cylinder
Cylinder
Length Length
Width
(mm) (mm)
(mm) 100~250100~250 100~250 -- -- -
Length
Length
Length (mm)
(mm)(mm) 100~250
100~250
100~250 - -
Width Width
Height
(mm) (mm)(mm) 100~250100~250 55~200 -- -10~400
Width
WidthWidth (mm)
(mm)(mm) 100~250
100~250
100~250 -
Height Height (mm) (mm) 55~200 55~200 10~400
10~400
Height Diameter
Height (mm) (mm) (mm) 55~200 -
55~200 10~400
10~400 Below 250
Height
Diameter (mm) (mm) 55~200 - 10~400
Below 250
Diameter
Diameter
Diameter (mm)
(mm) (mm) -
-- - Below
Below
Below 250
250 250
Diameter (mm) Below 250
2.2. Model Pretreatment
2.2. 2.2.
Model Model Pretreatment
Pretreatment
2.2.2.2.
2.2. Model
ModelModel The Pretreatment
Pretreatment
two
Pretreatmentbasic shapes, rectangular and circular, were subdivided into solid and hollow
The The
two twobasic basicshapes,shapes, rectangular
rectangular and and circular,
circular, were were subdivided
subdivided into into solid solidand and hol- hol-
types. The The Solid
two two basiccylinders
basic shapes,
shapes, are designated
rectangular
rectangular andas
and A1, hollow
circular,
circular, werewerecylinders subdivided
subdivided as A2, into solid
into solid rectangles
solid and and hol-hol- as
low The two
types. basic
Solid shapes,
cylinders rectangular
are designated and circular,
as A1, were
hollow subdivided
cylinders into
as A2, solid
solid and hol-
rectangles
low B1,
low types. and
types. Solid
thinSolid cylinders
shell rectangles
cylinders are are designated
as B2,
designated and as if A1,the hollow
layer has cylinders no as
geometry, A2, solid
it is rectangles
designated as
low
low astypes.
types.
B1, and Solid
Solid
thin cylinders
cylinders
shell are
are
rectangles designated
designated
as B2, and asas
as A1,
A1,
if A1,
the hollow
hollow
hollow
layer cylinders
cylinders
cylinders
has no asas
as
geometry, A2,
A2, A2, solid
solidsolid
itdesignated rectangles
rectangles
rectangles
is designated as
as B1,
D, and
as thin
shown shell
in rectangles
Table 2. The as B2,
first and
layer if the
must layer
not behas D no or geometry,
it will be it
judgedis as an as
invalid
asas
as B1,
B1,
D, B1, and
asand and
shown thin
thin
thin shellshell
shell
in rectangles
rectangles
rectangles
Table 2. The as
as as
B2,
firstB2, B2,and
and
layer and if
if if
the
the
must the layer
layer
not layer behas
has has
D no
no or no geometry,
geometry,
geometry,
it will be it it
it
judgedis is
is designated
designated
designated
as an asas
as
invalid
D, as shown
simplification. in Table
To 2.
build Thethe first
model, layer the must
parts notneed be D
to or
be itit will
dismantled be judged
and the as an invalid
characteristics
D,D,
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as shown
shown
simplification.shown inin
in Table
Table
Table
To 2. 2.
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build The
The The
the first
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first
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not not
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and the as asanan
an invalid
ascharacteristics invalid
invalid
simplification.
of each
simplification.
simplification. layer To
Tofrom
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build
build the
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must
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presented.
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to be
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be dismantled
The
be shapes
dismantled
dismantled ofandthe
andand the
150
the the characteristics
existing
characteristics
characteristics castings
simplification.
of each layer To
from build bottom the model,
to top the parts
must need to beThe
be presented. dismantled shapes ofandthe the
150 characteristics
existing castings
of each
can layer
be from
classified bottom
into to
five top must
categories be presented.
after dismantling The shapesand of the
simplifying, 150 existing
namely, castings
A/A/A,
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of each
each
can each be layer
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fromfrom
classified bottom
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into to
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be be presented.
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after dismantling The
The The shapes
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shapes and of
of of
the
thethe150
150
simplifying, 150 existing
existing
existingnamely, castings
castings
castings A/A/A,
can be
A/A/D,
can classified A/D/D, into five
B/B/D, categories
and B/D/D. after dismantling
A/A/A is and
a and simplifying,
three-layer namely,
cylinder, A/A/DA/A/A, is a
can
can bebe
be
A/A/D, classified
classified
classified
A/D/D, into
intointo
B/B/D, five
fivefive categories
categories
categories
and B/D/D. afterafter
after
A/A/A dismantling
dismantling
dismantling
is a three-layer and
and simplifying,
simplifying,
simplifying,
cylinder, A/A/D namely,
namely,
namely, is a A/A/A,
A/A/A,
A/A/A,
two-layer
two-layer
A/A/D,
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A/D/D,cylinder,
B/B/D,
B/B/D, A/D/D
and and B/D/D. is
B/D/D. a single-layer
A/A/AA/A/A is a cylinder,
three-layer B/B/D cylinder, is a two-layer
A/A/D is a rectangle,
two-layer and
A/A/D,
A/A/D,
cylinder, A/D/D,
A/D/D, A/D/D B/B/D,
B/B/D, a and
and B/D/D.
B/D/D. A/A/A
A/A/A is is
is athree-layer
aaB/B/D three-layer
three-layer cylinder,
cylinder,
cylinder, A/A/D
A/A/D
A/A/D is is
isand atwo-layer
two-layer
aa two-layer
B/D/D
cylinder,
cylinder, A/D/Dis
A/D/D is aaissingle-layer
a single-layer
is a
single-layer
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single-layer
cylinder,
cylinder, as shown
cylinder, B/B/DB/B/D in
is is
istwo-layer
aTable
a
a two-layer
3. A Cartesian
two-layer
rectangle,
rectangle,
rectangle, coordinate
and and B/D/D B/D/D
B/D/D system
is aaisaa
cylinder,
cylinder,
single-layer A/D/D
A/D/D is
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is a single-layeras shown cylinder,
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in Table B/B/D
B/B/D
3. A is a two-layer
is a two-layer
Cartesian coordinate rectangle,
rectangle, system and
andwas B/D/D
B/D/D used is is
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single-layer
single-layer
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as was
shown
shown
shown defined
in
in Table
in
Table as the
Table 3.
3. A
3.
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ACartesian
Cartesian
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coordinate
coordinate
coordinate When simplifying
system
system
system was
was was used
useda part,
used and
and and the
single-layer
X 0 Y0 Z0 was
center point
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defined
of each
as asshown
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coordinate Table
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3. A
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determined
CartesianWhenfirst,
coordinate
simplifying
and then
system
the a part,
coordinates
was
the used
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are
and
point
given
X 0 Y0 Z0 was defined as the coordinate datum. When simplifying a part, the center point
XX00Xof
YY00 00Yeach
ZZ00 00Zwas
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was layer defined
defined
definedshould asas
as the
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be the coordinate
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coordinate
determined datum.
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first, and When
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then simplifying
simplifying
simplifying
the coordinates a are
part,
aa part,
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the
given the center
center
center
according pointpoint
point * * to
of each
according layer should
to the be
number determined
of layers first,
and and then
geometries, the coordinates
as shown in are given
Equation according
(1), where to
i ,toj ,
ofof
of each
each each layer
layer
layer should
should
should be
be be determined
determined
determined first,
first,
first, and
and and then
thenthen the
the the coordinates
coordinates
coordinates are
arearegiven
givengiven ⇀ according
according
⇀
according ⇀to
to
the *
number of layers and geometries, as shown in Equation (1), where ⇀ ij⇀⇀ ,,⇀jand , and k⇀k⇀⇀ kare
⇀k are are
the
the
thethenumber
and number
number
number k areof ofthe
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layers
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and and geometries,
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geometries,
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as
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as to the
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shown
shown
in
inin
in Equation
center
Equation
Equation
Equation point (1),
(1),
(1), in
(1), the x,ii⇀i⇀y,,i⇀,, and
where
where
where
where jj⇀, j,, and
,zand
and directions,
k areare
the the
distancesdistances from from the the
datum datum to to
the the
center center point point in in
the the
x, x,
y, y,
and and z directions,
zz directions, respectively.
respectively.
the
the respectively.
the distances
distances
distances from
from from the
the the datum
datum
datum toto
to the
the the center
center
center point
point
point inin
in the
the the x, x,
x, y,
y, y,
and and z directions,
z directions, respectively.
respectively.
*and * * directions, respectively.
(X(X−X−(X−X X00, ,Y−Y0, −
Y Y−Y Y00, Z−Z Z −0Z ) ⇀0=) = ⇀ ⇀
i⇀ , ij⇀, ,jk, k ⇀ (1)
0, Z−Z0) = i⇀
) =i⇀ ,i⇀, jj⇀⇀, ,j⇀, kk⇀⇀, k⇀
(1)
(X−X
(X−X(X−X 00, Y−Y
0, Y−Y
0, Y−Y
00, Z−Z
0, Z−Z
0, Z−Z
0) 0=
0) 0= i , j , k (1)(1)
(1)
Table
Table 2. 2. The
The The
two two
twobasic
basicbasicshapes
shapes
shapes of of of
rectangle
rectangle and and
rectangle cylinder
and
cylinder are are
cylinder further
are
further divided
further
divided into
divided
into solid
into
solid and and
solid hollow
and hol-
hollow
Table
Table
Table 2. 2.
TheThe
2.types.
types. The twotwo
two basic
basic
basic shapes
shapes
shapes ofof
of rectangle
rectangle
rectangle and
and
and cylinder
cylinder
cylinder areare
are further
further
further divided
divided
divided into
into
into solid
solid
solid andand
and hollow
hollow
hollow
low
types.
types.
types.
types.
A1 A1
A1A1 A2 A2 B1 B1
B1 B2 B2
B2
A1
A1 A2A2
A2 B1B1
B1 B2B2
B2
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Table 3.
Table A
3.A
3. total
Atotal
total
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150
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into
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categories.
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5 categories.
Table 3.
Table 3.A
3. A total of
total of 150
of 150 models
models can
models can be
can be divided
be divided into
divided into 555 categories.
into categories.
A/A/A
A/A/A
A/A/A
A/A/A
A/A/A
A/A/A A/A/D
A/A/D
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A/D/D
A/D/D B/B/D
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2.3.
2.3.
2.3.
2.3.2.3.
2.3.
2.3. Mold
Mold
Mold Mold
Mold
Mold
Mold Flow
Flow
Flow Flow
Flow
Flow
Flow Analysis
Analysis
Analysis
Analysis
Analysis
Analysis
Analysis
In
InIn
In this
Inthis
this
In
In
this
this this
thisstudy,
study,
study,
study,
study,
study,
study, SOLIDCast
SOLIDCast
SOLIDCast
SOLIDCast
SOLIDCast
SOLIDCast
SOLIDCast was
was
was
was
was was
was used
used
used
used
usedused
usedto
toto
to calculate
tocalculate
calculate
to
to calculate
calculate
calculate
calculate the
the
the
the
the thecritical
critical
critical
critical
thecritical
critical fraction
fraction
fraction
fraction
critical fraction
fraction
fraction ofof
of
of solid,
ofsolid,
solid,
of
of solid,
solid,
solid, material
material
material
material
solid, material
material
material
density,
density,
density,
density,
density, temperature,
temperature,
temperature,
temperature,
density, temperature,
temperature, flow flow
flow
flow flowrate,
rate,
rate,
rate,
flow rate,
rate, and and
and
and and pressure
pressure
pressure
pressure
and pressure
pressure inside inside
inside
inside
inside
inside each each
each
each each casting.
casting.
casting.
casting.
each casting.
casting. The The
The
The The simulated
simulated
simulated
simulated
The simulated
simulated casting casting
casting
casting
casting
casting
temperature
temperature
temperature and
and and
and surrounding
surrounding
surrounding
surrounding temperature
temperature
temperature
temperatureof of
of the
the
of the shell
shell
shell mold
mold
mold were
were
were set
setsetto
to 710
to710 ◦
710 °C,
°C,°C,the
the the thick-
thick-
thick-
temperature
temperature and
temperature and
and surrounding
surrounding
surrounding temperature
temperature
temperature ofofthe
of theshell
the
the shell mold
shell mold were
mold wereset
were
were set to
set to
to 710
710 °C,
710 C, the
°C,
°C, thethickness
the thick-
thick-
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ness
ness
ness
nessness
ofof
ness of
of
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of
of the
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mold mold
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mold
moldmold
was was
was
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was
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toto
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to
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6
to
mm, mm,
mm,
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mm,and
6 mm,
mm, and
and and
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casting
casting time
time
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time
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to20
to
to 20
20
to s.
20
20s.s.
20
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s.The
s. The
The
s. The tempera-
tempera-
tempera-
Thetemperature
The
The tempera-
tempera-
tempera-
ture
ture
turedifference
difference
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in
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a
in casting
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a
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waswas
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100 100
100◦100
C,°C,
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°C,
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difference in in
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thethe
flowflow
flow
flow
raterate
rateratewas
was
was was
not
ture
ture difference in a casting was not more than 100 °C, the difference in the flow rate
ture difference
difference in
in a
a casting
casting was
was not
not more
more than
than 100
100 °C,
°C, the
the difference
difference in
in the
the flow
flow rate
rate was
was
was
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more
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than
than
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1.5 1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5 m/s,
m/s,
1.5
m/s,
m/s,
m/s,m/s,and
andand
and
andand
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the
the
the thedifference
difference
difference
difference
difference
difference ininin
in
in the the
the
in
the
the pressure
thepressure
pressure
pressure
pressure
pressure
not more than 1.5 m/s, and the difference in the pressure drop was not more than 5 kPa. drop
drop
drop
drop
dropdrop
waswas
was
was
was was
notnot
not
not
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moremore
more
more
more more
thanthan
than
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than than
5 55
kPa.
55 kPa.
kPa.
5 kPa.
The
kPa.
kPa.
The
The
The
The
TheThemesh
meshmesh
mesh
mesh
meshmesh
ofof of
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set set
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toset
1.5
to
to 1.5
1.5
to
1.5 1.5
mm.
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1.5 mm.
mm.mm.
mm.
mm. mm.AllAll
AllAll
All
All All
the the
the
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datadata
data
data
data
datadata
are are
are
are arelisted
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are
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inin Table
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in
Table
TableTable
Table
Table 4.4.4.
4. 4.
4.
4.
Table
Table
Table 4.
Table 4.
The
4.The
The
4. The simulation
simulation
simulation
The simulation parameters
parameters
parameters and
and
and
parameters and constraints
constraints
constraints
constraints used
used
used
usedin in SOLIDCast
SOLIDCast
inSOLIDCast
SOLIDCast
in SOLIDCast 9.0.
9.0.
9.0.
9.0.
Table
Table 4.
Table 4. The
4. The simulation
simulation parameters
simulation parameters and
parameters and constraints
and constraints used
constraints used in
used in SOLIDCast
in SOLIDCast 9.0.
9.0.
9.0.
Shell Casting Tempera-
Temperature
Tempera- Flow Rate
Tempera-
Tempera- Pressure Simulation
Temperature
Tempera-
Tempera-
Tempera- Casting
Casting
Casting Tempera-
Tempera- Flow
Flow
Flowrate
rate
rate Pressure
Pressure
Pressure Simulation
Simulation
Simulation
Tempera-
Tempera-
Tempera- Shell
Shell Mold
Shell Mold
Mold Casting
Casting
Time
Casting
Mold Difference
ture
ture
tureDiffer-
Differ- Flow
Flow
Differ- rate
rate
Difference
Flow rate Pressure
Pressure
Drop Simulation
Simulation
Pressure SimulationMesh
ture
ture
ture Shell
Shell
Shell Mold
Mold
Mold Time
Time
Time ture
ture
ture Differ-
Differ-
Differ- Difference
Difference
Difference Drop
Drop
Drop Mesh
Mesh
Mesh
ture
ture
ture710 ◦ C 6 mm Time
Time
Time
20 s ≤ 100
ence
ence
◦C
ence Difference
≤1.5 m/s Drop
Difference
Difference Drop
≤
Drop 5 kPa Mesh
Mesh
Mesh
1.5 mm
ence
ence
ence
710
710
710
710
710 °C
°C°C
710
°C
°C
°C 66666mm
mm
mm
6 mm
mm
mm 20
20
20
20 ssss s
20s20 ≤100
≤100
≤100≤100
≤100
≤100 °C
°C
°C
°C ≤1.5
≤1.5
°C°C ≤1.5 ≤1.5
≤1.5
≤1.5 m/s
m/s
m/s
m/s
m/s ≤5
≤5≤5
m/s ≤5
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≤5 kPa
kPa
kPa
kPa
kPakPa 1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5 mm
1.51.5
mmmm
mm
mm mm
2.4. Specimen Preparation
2.4.
2.4.
2.4.
2.4. The casting
Specimen
Specimen
2.4. Specimen
Specimen
Specimen Preparation
Preparationparameters of the experimental sample followed the simulated results of
Preparation
Preparation
Preparation
2.4. Specimen Preparation
thisThe
Thestudy
The and
casting
casting
casting were
parametersthen verified
parameters
parameters of the
ofthe
the
of with metallographic
experimental
experimental
the experimental sample
sample
sample observation
followed
followed
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the to
the match
simulated
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simulated theresults
results.
results
resultsof In
ofof
The
The
The casting
casting
casting parameters
parameters
parameters of
of
of the
the experimental
experimental
experimental sample
sample
sample followed
followed
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the
the simulated
simulated
simulated results
results
results of
of
of
order
this
this study
thisstudy to
study analyze
and
and
and were
werewerethe internal
then
then verified
thenverifiedorganization
verified with
with
with of the
metallographic
metallographic
metallographicmaterial, the
observation
observation preparation
observation to match
tomatch
match
to matchofthe
thethe
the specimens
results.
results.
results.In
InIn
this
this
this study
study
study and
and
and were
were
were then
then
then verified
verified
verified with
with
with metallographic
metallographic
metallographic observation
observation
observation to
to
to match
match the
the
the results.
results.
results. In
In
included
order
order
order to
to location
analyze
analyze
to analyze the
thethe selection,
internal
internal
internal cutting,
organization
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organization of
of the
the
of the grinding,
material,
material,
material, the
the etching,
thepreparation
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preparationand cleaning.
of
of the
the
of the The In
specimens
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specimens
order
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order to
toanalyze
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analyze the
theinternal
internal organization
organization of
ofthe
of theinmaterial,
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theispreparation
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ofthe
of the5.specimens
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position
included
included
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location
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location A356internal
selection,
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organization
aluminum
cutting,
cutting, alloy
cutting, used
mounting,
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this study
grinding,
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preparation
shown
etching,
etching,
etching, and
and incleaning.
and Table
cleaning.
cleaning.
specimens
The
The
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Theetching
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included
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location
location selection,
selection,
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cutting,
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mounting,
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grinding,
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etching,
etching, and
and
and cleaning.
cleaning.
cleaning. The
The
The com-
com-
com-
solution
position
position
position of
of was
the
the
of the 5
A356g
A356 of
A356 sodium
aluminum
aluminum
aluminumhydroxide
alloy
alloy and
used
used
alloy used in
in100
this
this
in c.c.
this of
study
study water,
study is
is and
shown
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is shown the
in
in etching
Table
Table
in Table5.
5. time
The
The
5. The was
etching400 s.
etching
etching
position
position of
position of the
of the A356
the A356 aluminum
A356 aluminum alloy
aluminum alloy used
alloy used in
used in this
in this study
this study is
study is shown
is shown in
shown in Table
in Table 5.
Table 5. The
5. The etching
The etching
etching
solution
solution
solution
solution was
was
was was555composition
ggg5of
of
of sodium
sodium
g sodium
of sodium hydroxide
hydroxide
hydroxide and
and
and100
100 c.c.
100c.c. of water,
ofwater,
c.c. water,
of water, and
and
and the
the the etching
etching
etching time
time
timewas
was
was 400
400400
solution
solution
Table 5. was
was The55 gg of
of sodium
sodium ofhydroxide
hydroxide
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A356. and
and
and 100
100
100 c.c.
c.c.
c.c. of
of
of water,
water, and
and
and the
the
the etching
etching
etching time
time
time was
was
was 400
400
400
s.s.
s.
s.
s. s.
Element Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Ti Zn Al
Table
Table
Table
Table 5.
Table
5.
5. The
5.The
The
5.
The composition
composition
The
composition
composition of
composition
of A356.
ofA356.
of A356.
of A356.
A356.
Wt% 6.5–7.5 Table 5.
≤0.15 The composition
≤0.2 of A356.≤0.1 0.25–0.45 ≤0.2 ≤0.1 Bal.
Element
Element
Element
Element
Element
Element Si
SiSi
Si
Si
Si FeFe
Fe
FeFeFe CuCu
Cu
CuCu Cu Mn Mn
Mn
MnMn Mn Mg Mg
Mg
Mg
Mg Mg Ti Ti
TiTi
Ti
Ti ZnZn
Zn
ZnZnZn Al
AlAl
Al
Al
Al
Wt%
Wt%
3. Wt% Wt%
Wt% and6.5–7.5
Results
Wt% 6.5–7.5
6.5–7.5
6.5–7.5
Discussion
6.5–7.5
6.5–7.5 ≤0.15
≤0.15
≤0.15
≤0.15
≤0.15≤0.15 ≤0.2
≤0.2
≤0.2
≤0.2
≤0.2 ≤0.2 ≤0.1
≤0.1
≤0.1 ≤0.1
≤0.1 0.25–0.45
≤0.1 0.25–0.45
0.25–0.45
0.25–0.45
0.25–0.45 ≤0.2
0.25–0.45 ≤0.2
≤0.2
≤0.2
≤0.2 ≤0.2 ≤0.1
≤0.1
≤0.1
≤0.1
≤0.1 ≤0.1 Bal.
Bal.
Bal.
Bal.
Bal.Bal.
The construction rules of model classification are discussed in this study. A simulation
3.3.
3.
3. Results
3.Results
Results
3. Results
Results
was
Results used and
and
and
and
and and
to Discussion
Discussion
Discussion
Discussion
Discussion
construct
Discussion and predict the correlation between 3D model geometry, pouring
The
The
system,
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and casting
The construction rules of
The construction
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rules
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method.
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Therefore, classification
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of
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design AA
A
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rules.
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the simplified model was an important link to the reliability of the classification rules.
subsections
Finally,
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Finally,
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Finally, the
the
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of directly
machine
ofmachine
machine used
learning.
learning.for
learning. machine
Therefore,
Therefore,
Therefore, learning,
the
the
the fol-
fol-but
fol-
basis for
basis for the
for the classification
the classification and
classification and training
and training accuracy
training accuracy of
accuracy of machine
of machine learning.
machine learning. Therefore,
learning. Therefore, the
Therefore, the fol-
the fol-
fol-
the machine
lowing
lowing
lowing
lowing four
fourfour learning address
subsections
subsections
subsections algorithm
address
address
address isthe
the
the outside
above
above
above ofaspects.
the scope
aspects.
aspects. The
TheThe ofmain
main
main this study.
purpose
purpose
purpose of
of Section
Section
of Section 3.4
3.43.4is
is to
toto
is
lowing four subsections address the above aspects. The main purpose of Section 3.4 is to
lowing four
four subsections
subsections address the
the above
above aspects.
aspects. The
The main
main purpose
purpose of
of Section
Section 3.4
3.4 is
is to
to
show
show
show
show
showshow that
that
that
that that the
the
the
the the digitized
digitized
digitized
digitized
digitized system
system
system
system
system constructed
constructed
constructed
constructed
constructed inin
in this
inthis
this
in
this thisstudy
study
studystudy
study can
can
can
can can be
be
be directly
bedirectly
bedirectly
directly
directly used
used
used
used used for machine
forfor
for
for machine
machine
machine
machine
3.1.that
learning,
learning, Design
learning,
the
but
but but
digitized
Solution
the
the themachine
machine
system
and
machine learning
constructed
Experimental
learning
learning algorithm
algorithm
in
Verification
algorithm
this
is
is
study
outside
outside
is outside
can
of
of the
the
of
be
the
directly
scope
scope
scope of
of
used
this
ofthis
this
for
study.
study.
machine
study.
learning,
learning, but
but the
the machine
machine learning
learning algorithm
algorithm
learning, but the machine learning algorithm is outside of the scope of this study. is
is outside
outside of
of the
the scope
scope of
of this
this study.
study.
To confirm the correctness of the casting method, an A356 casting with a thin shell
was simulated and analyzed. It is easy to determine the degree of consistency between the
Sustainability 2023, 15, 12683 3.1. Design Solution and Experimental Verification 6 of 15
3.1. Design Solution and Experimental Verification
simulation
simulation and and the
the actual
actual casting
casting as
as the
the thin
thin shell
shell is prone
prone to producing
producing internally
internally isolated
isolated
simulation and the actual casting as the thin shell is prone to producing internally isolated
zones
zones and
and causing
causing shrinkage
shrinkage holes.
holes. Through the analysis of casting bare parts, parts, it
it can
can bebe
zones and causing shrinkage holes. Through the analysis of casting bare parts, it can be
seen
seen that
thatthere
thereareareobvious
obviousshrinkage
shrinkagezones
zonesininthethe
middle
middle and andthethe
thinnest
thinnestyellow
yellowparts on
parts
seen that there are obvious shrinkage zones in the middle and the thinnest yellow parts
the right
on the of the
right of casting,
the casting,as shown in Figure
as shown 1. Therefore,
in Figure 1. Therefore,the pouring system
the pouring and die
system andinlet
die
on the
were
right oftothe
planned be
casting,close
placed
as shown
to this
in FigureIt 1.
region. can
Therefore,
be seen
the pouring
from the
system
analysis
andthat,
results
die
inlet were planned to be placed close to this region. It can be seen from the analysis results
inlet
after were planned to be placed close to this region. It can be seen from the analysis results
that, aafter
design with awith
a design suitable pouring
a suitable systemsystem
pouring was created, the defects
was created, shiftedshifted
the defects from inside
from
that,
the after
casting a design
body tobody with a
the yellow suitable pouring system was created, the defects shifted from
inside the casting to the parts
yellow ofparts
the outer
of thepouring system. system.
outer pouring The isolated molten zone
The isolated mol-
inside
also the castingin
disappeared body to the yellow
a thin-walled parts
region of to
due thethe
outer pouringsolidification
directional system. The isolated mol-
of the metal
ten zone also disappeared in a thin-walled region due to the directional solidification of
ten zone
liquid, as also
shown disappeared
in Figure in
2. a
Thethin-walled
black flow region
line was due to
also the
smoothdirectional
without solidification
turbulence, of
as
the metal liquid, as shown in Figure 2. The black flow line was also smooth without tur-
the metal
expected, liquid,
asexpected,as
shown in asshown
Figure in Figure 2. The
3. in Figure 3. black flow line was also smooth without tur-
bulence, as shown
bulence, as expected, as shown in Figure 3.
Figure 1.
1. The defects
defects appear in
in the middle
middle and in
in the thinnest
thinnest yellowparts
parts ofthe
the castingbody.
body.
Figure 1. The
Figure The defectsappear
appear inthe
the middleand
and inthe
the thinnestyellow
yellow partsof
of thecasting
casting body.
Figure 2. The defects shift from the inside of the casting body to the yellow parts of the outer yel-
Figure2.2. The
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Figure Thedefects
defectsshift
shiftfrom
fromthe
theinside
insideofofthe
thecasting
castingbody
bodytotothe
theyellow
yellowparts
partsofofthe
theouter
outeryellow
7 yel-
of 15
low pouring system.
low pouring
pouring system.
system.
Figure3.3. The
Figure The black
blackflow
flowline
lineisissmooth
smoothwithout
withoutturbulence,
turbulence,as
asexpected.
expected.
The appearance of the actual cast product showed no shrinkage or cracks, as shown
in Figure 4. There were also no obvious defects in the casting at the closest point to the
gate and the farthest point from the riser, and there were no holes exceeding 1 mm, as
Figure 3.Figure 3. The

The black black
flow line flow line iswithout
is smooth smooth turbulence,
without turbulence, as expected.
as expected.
The appearance of the actual cast product showed no shrinkage or cracks, as shown in
FigureThe ThereThewere
4. appearance appearance
of the
also of thecast
noactual
obvious actual castinproduct
product
defects showed showed
the casting at theno
no shrinkage shrinkage
pointor
or cracks,
closest cracks,
toas shown
the as shown
gate
and the farthest point from the riser, and there were no holes exceeding 1 mm, as shown to the
in Figurein Figure
4. There 4. There
were were
also no also no
obvious obvious
defects defects
in the in
castingthe casting
at the at
closestthe closest
point to point
the
gate
in andgate
Figures the and
5 and 6.the
farthest Infarthest
point point
from
addition, thefrom
riser,the
needle-like orriser,
and and
there
flaky there
Siwere
can nowere
be no
holesin
seen holes
exceeding
the SEM exceeding
1 mm, as
image, 1 mm, as
as
shown in
shown shown
in Figures in
Figure 7a. Figures
5 andAn 6. 5 and 6. In
In addition,
EDX addition, needle-like
needle-likethat
analysis confirmed or flaky or flaky Si
Si can be seen
the composition can be
of in seen
thethe SEM
test in the
piece was image,
SEM
image,
as shown
Al-Si asin
alloy, shown
Figure
which in7a.
Figure
contains 7a.
An aEDX An
slender EDX
analysis analysis
confirmed
Si-rich confirmed
structure, that
while that
theFe, the composition
composition
Cu, Mn, Mg,ofTi,theand ofZn
test the
piecetest piece
are
evenly dispersed in the Al substrate, as shown in Figure 7b,c. Therefore, it was confirmed Ti, and
was was
Al-Si Al-Si
alloy, alloy,
which which
contains contains
a slender a slender
Si-rich Si-rich
structure, structure,
while while
Fe, Cu, Fe,
Mn, Cu,
Mg, Mn,
Ti, Mg,
and
Zn are
that Zn
theevenly
methodare dispersed
evenly dispersed
of planning in the
andAl insubstrate,
the Alinsubstrate,
analysis as shown
advance as in
withshown
Figure
correctin7b,c.
Figure 7b,c.isTherefore,
Therefore,
parameters it was it was
credible
confirmed
and confirmed that
that the save
can effectively the
method method
ofand
costs of
planning planning
improveandthe and
analysis analysis
successinofadvance in advance with correct
casting. with correct parameters parameters
is credible and can effectively save costs and improve
is credible and can effectively save costs and improve the success of casting. the success of casting.
Figure 4.Figure 4. The appearance

The appearance of the
of the actual actual
cast cast shows
product product
noshows no shrinkage
shrinkage and cracks.
and cracks.
Figure 4. The appearance of the actual cast product shows no shrinkage and cracks.
(G)
Figure 5. There
Figure areare
5. There no obvious defects
no obvious in the
defects in casting at the
the casting at closest pointpoint
the closest to thetogate
the and
gateno
andholes
no holes
exceeding 1 mm. From (A–F) represent the metallographic observations of each localized
exceeding 1 mm. From (A–F) represent the metallographic observations of each localized positionposition
shown
shownin in
(G).
(G).
(G)
Sustainability 2023, 15, 12683 Figure 5. There are no obvious defects in the casting at the closest point to the gate 8and no holes
of 15
exceeding 1 mm. From (A–F) represent the metallographic observations of each localized position
shown in (G).
(G)
Figure
Figure 6. There
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6.no
are There are no
obvious obvious
defects defects
in the in the
casting casting
at the at the
farthest farthest
point from point from
the riser 9the
and noriser
of and no
15holes
exceeding holes
1 mm.exceeding 1 mm.
From (A–F) From (A–F)
represent represent the metallographic
the metallographic observations of observations ofposition
each localized each localized
position shown in (G).
shown in (G).
(a)
(b) (c)
Figure 7.
Figure 7. (a):
(a) The
Theneedle-like
needle-likeSiSican be be
can seen from
seen the SEM
from image;
the SEM (b,c): the
image; (b,c)composition analysisanalysis
the composition
confirms that the test piece is Al-Si alloy.
3.2. Model Simplification and Comparison
To demonstrate the feasibility of model simplification, the thin-shell casting investi-
gated in Section 3.1 was simplified in shape as a combination of three thin-shell rectangles,
as shown in Figure 8a,b. The analysis of the bare part found that the simplified castings
(b) (c)
Sustainability 2023, 15, 12683 Figure 7. (a): The needle-like Si can be seen from the SEM image; (b,c): the composition analysis
9 of 15

To demonstrate
To demonstrate the the feasibility
feasibility of
of model
model simplification,
simplification, the the thin-shell
thin-shell casting
casting investi-
investi-
gated in
gated in Section 3.1 was
Section 3.1 was simplified
simplified inin shape
shape as as aa combination
combination of of three
three thin-shell
thin-shell rectangles,
rectangles,
as shown
as shown in in Figure
Figure 8a,b.
8a,b. The
The analysis
analysis ofof the
the bare
bare part
part found
found that
that the
the simplified
simplified castings
castings
had fewer curves in shape, and so the geometry in the pouring
had fewer curves in shape, and so the geometry in the pouring system changed to system changed to aa flat
flat
surface. The consistency of the same pouring system before and after
surface. The consistency of the same pouring system before and after simplification was simplification was
simulated, and
simulated, and the
the present
present material
material density
density and
and thethe critical
critical fraction
fraction of of solid
solid in
in the
the red
red part
part
of simulation
of simulation were
were the
the same,
same, asas shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 9a–d.
9a–d. The
The flow
flow lines
lines of
of both
both models
models allall
entered the die from the left and started filling with the side casting, as shown
entered the die from the left and started filling with the side casting, as shown in Figure 9e,f. in Figure
9e,f. red
The Thecolor
red color indicates
indicates that that all trends
all the the trends
werewere the same.
the same. It was
It was proven
proven thatthat
thethe sim-
simula-
ulation results could be maintained, and regions prone to defects showed
tion results could be maintained, and regions prone to defects showed no difference after no difference
after simplification.
simplification.
(a) (b)
Figure 8. (a) The original 3D model of a thin-shell
Sustainability 2023,Figure (a) The
8.PEER
15, x FOR original
REVIEW thin-shell casting;
casting; (b)
(b) the
the model
model is
is simplified
simplifiedininshape
shapeas aa of 15
as10
combination of
combination of three
three thin-shell
thin-shell rectangles.
rectangles. Blocks
Blocks 11 to
to 33 are
are simplifications
simplifications ofof individual
individual shapes.
shapes.
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)

Figure 9.of
Figure 9. Comparison Comparison
the originalof model
the original
and model and the simplified
the simplified shape in shape
(a,b): in (a,b): material
material density;density;
(c,d): (c,d):
critical fraction of solid in the red circles; (e,f): flow lines. The red color indicates that all the trends
critical fraction of solid in the red circles; (e,f): flow lines. The red color indicates that all the trends
are the same.
are the same.
3.3. Classification Type and Casting Method
3.3. Classification Type and Casting Method
The casting methods to be selected for the parts are related to the height, thickness,
The casting
area,methods to be
and volume selected
of the for
parts. In the
this partsseveral
study, are related
castingto the height,
methods thickness,
for foundation shapes
area, and volume of the parts. In this study, several casting methods for foundation
were simulated using SOLIDCast, and finally, five categories of geometries with two cast-
shapes were simulated
ing methodsusing SOLIDCast,
were identified, asand finally,
shown five categories
in Table of geometries
6. The models in categorywith two
1 were placed
casting methods were identified,
horizontally, and sideascasting
shownwas in Table 6. The
selected. models
There were noin defects
category 1 were
inside placed with
the casting
horizontally, and side castingand
this combination, wastheselected.
maximum There were no
differences in defects inside
temperature andthe casting
pressure with
were 20.8 °C
and 116.4 Pa, respectively. The models in category 2 combined with the bottom casting
showed no defects, and the maximum differences in temperature and pressure were 27.7
°C and 983.4 Pa. Category 3 was suitable for side casting, and the maximum differences
in temperature and pressure were 48.5 °C and 2488 Pa, respectively. For category 4, a bot-
tom casting was adopted, and the maximum differences in temperature and pressure
and and116.4and
116.4Pa,and
and 116.4
Pa, 116.4
Pa,Pa, Pa,
respectively.
respectively.
116.4 respectively.
respectively.
The The The
models
models
respectively. The
inmodels
The in models in in
category
category
models 2incombined
2category
category combined
category 2 2with
2 combinedcombined
with
combinedthethe with withthethe
bottom
bottom
with the
bottombottom
casting
casting
bottom casting
casting
casting
showed
showed showed
no noshowed no
defects,
defects, no
and anddefects,
defects,
the the and and
the
maximum
maximum the
maximummaximum
differences
differences indifferences
differencesin in
temperature
temperature
showed no defects, and the maximum differences in temperature and pressure were 27.7 in temperature
temperature
and and and
pressure
pressure and
were pressure
pressure
were 27.7 were
27.7 were27.7 27.7
°C °Candand °C
983.4 °C
and
983.4
°CPa.andand
983.4
Pa. 983.4Pa.
Category
Category
983.4 Pa. Category
Category
3 was
Pa.3 Category
was 3 was3
suitable
suitable 3 was was
forfor suitable
suitable
sideside
suitable for for
side
casting,
casting,
for side side
and andcasting,
casting,
thethe
casting, and and
the
maximum
maximum the
maximum
and the differencesmaximum
differences
maximum differences
differences
differences
in in
in temperature intemperature
temperature
temperature
in temperature and and and
pressure
pressure and
and were pressure
pressure
were 48.5
pressure were
48.5
°C were
°C
and
were 48.5
and 48.5
°C
2488
48.5 2488
°C°Cand
and
Pa, and
Pa,2488 2488
Pa,Pa,
respectively.
respectively.
2488 Pa, respectively.
respectively.
ForFor For
category
category
respectively. ForFor a4,category
categorya bot-
4, category
bot- a 4,
4, 4, a abot-
bot- bot-
tom tom tom
casting
casting tom
tomwas wascasting
casting
adopted,
casting was
adopted, was
was and adopted,
adopted,
and thethe
adopted, and and
thethe
maximum
maximum
and the maximum
differences
differences
in in in in
temperature
temperature
differences intemperature
temperature
temperature
and and and
pressure
pressure and
and pressure
pressure
pressure
without
without without
without
defects
defects
without were defects
defects
were 20.8
defects were
20.8
°C were
were°C 20.8
and and 20.8
°C
36.4
20.8 36.4
°C°Cand
and
Pa, and
Pa,36.4 36.4
Pa,Pa,Pa,
respectively.
respectively.
36.4 respectively.
respectively. Finally,
Finally,
respectively. the theFinally,
Finally, thethe
models
models
Finally, the
inmodels
in models in in
category
category
models 5incategory
5category
category 5 55
without
without without inside defects were connected with side casting. The maximum differences inin
without
without
inside
inside inside inside
defects
defects were defects
defects
were were were
connected
connected connected
connected
with with side with
side with side
casting.
casting. side
The Thecasting.
casting. The
maximum
maximum The maximum
differences indifferences
differencesin in
temperature
temperature temperature
temperature
and and
temperaturepressureand
pressure and
and were pressure
pressure
were27.7
pressure were
27.7
°C were
°C
and
were 27.7
and 27.7
592
27.7 °C592 °CPa,
and
Pa,
°C and
592 592
Pa,Pa,
respectively.
respectively.
and 592 Pa, respectively.
respectively.
respectively.
this combination, and the maximum differences in temperature and ◦C
From
From thetheFrom
aboveFrom
From the
above the
above
analysis,
the above
analysis,
above analysis,
analysis,
it can
it analysis,
can be beit canit
itseen
seen can
that
can bebe
bethat
seen
side seen
side
seen that that
side
casting
casting
that side
can
side cancasting
casting
be be can bepressure
can
combined
combined
casting can bebe
combined
with with
combined were
combined
two with
two 20.8
with
with two twotwo
kinds
kinds ofand
kinds 116.4
kindsof of
geometries.
of geometries. Pa,
geometries.
The respectively.
ofgeometries.
geometries.
The The
first
first is isThe
first
partspartsThe
first models
isthat
that isparts
parts
are parts
arethat in
that category
areare
relatively
relatively are
relatively
largelarge 2
relativelycombined
inlarge
in volume large
volume inand with
inand
volume the
volumeinand
in height. bottom
and
height.inIfin in casting
height.
height.
Ifheight. If If
kinds The first is that relatively large in volume and ◦ CIf
showed
bottom no defects,
casting and
isthese
used the inmaximum
these differences
parts, defects in
wouldtemperature
appear and
due apressure
to were in27.7
bottom
bottom bottom
casting
casting
bottom iscasting
iscasting
usedused inisin
used
these
is used in
parts, these
parts,
in parts,
defects
defects
these parts, defects
would
would defects would
appearappear
would dueappear
due to
appearto due
a due
a large todrop
large to a alarge
drop inlarge
large indrop
flow. drop
flow.
drop in inflow.
flow. flow.
and The983.4secondPa. Category
kind 3 geometry
was suitable for side casting, and the maximum differences in
TheThesecondThe
second second
kind
The kind is
is the
second kind
the isisthe
is the
geometry
geometry
kind the
geometryof
ofgeometry of of
thin-shell
thin-shell of thin-shell
thin-shell
rectangles
rectangles
◦thin-shell or rectangles
rectangles
or
roundround
rectangles or orround
round
tubes.
tubes.
or round
Thistubes.
This tubes.
type
tubes. This
type This
of
ofThis type
cast-cast-type
type of of ofcast-
cast- cast-
temperature
ing can and
easily pressure
solidify were
prematurely48.5 C and
because 2488 ofPa,the respectively.
thin wall For
thickness, categoryand 4, a bottom
ingingcancaning
easily can
easily easily
solidify
ingsolidify
can easily solidify
prematurely
prematurely prematurely because
because
solidify prematurely because
of
of the the
becausethin of
thin the
of wall
wall thin wall
thickness,
thethickness,
thin thickness,
walland and and
it isit crucial
thickness, is and it
crucialittoistocrucial toto
is it is
crucialcrucial to
casting
consider
consider was
thethe adopted,
the location
location and
and andthe maximum
height of the differences
pouring in
gates temperature
related to and
the pressure
casting. On without
the other
consider
consider the
theconsiderlocation
location and and height
height
location
◦ ofheight
and ofheight
the the of of
pouring thethe
pouring pouring
gatesgates
pouringrelatedgates
related torelated
gates torelated
the the to to
casting. thethe
casting. casting.
On On thethe
casting. On
otherother
Onthe theother
other
defects
hand, hand, were
bottombottom 20.8 C
casting and 36.4
ismore
more Pa, respectively.
suitable for Finally,
these plates.the models
Inaddition
addition in category
tothe
the 5 without
differences in inin
hand,
hand, bottom
bottom hand, casting
casting
bottom iscasting
iscasting
moremore is suitable
more
suitable
is suitable
for for
these
suitablethesefor these
plates.
plates.
for theseInplates.
In
addition
plates. In In
addition addition
to to
the the to the
differences
differences
to differences
in in
differences
inside defects
pressure and were connected with
temperature, the side casting.
position and The
amount maximum of differences
subsequent in temperature
machining must
pressure
pressure pressure
and and and
temperature,
temperature,
pressure and temperature,
thethe position
temperature, the
position the position
and and amount
position
◦ C and 592 Pa, respectively. and
amount and amount
of of
subsequent
amount of
subsequent subsequent
of machining
machining
subsequent machiningmust
must
machining be must
be must be bebe
andtaken
pressureinto were 27.7
account when selecting the casting method.
taken
taken intotaken
into
account into
account account
whenwhen when
selecting
selecting selecting
the the the
casting
casting
taken into account when selecting the casting method. casting
method.
method. method.
Table TheThe
6.6.The
Table suitable casting methods for 55for
categories andand
the maximum differences in
in temperatures
Table
Table 6.Table
6. The The
suitable
Table 6.6.The
suitable castingsuitable
suitable
casting
suitable casting
casting
methods
methods for
casting 5methods
methods
for for
5 categories
categories
methods 5 5categories
and categories
forcategories
and
thetheand
maximum
maximum
and the
thethe maximum
maximum
differences
differences
differences
in tempera-
indifferences
tempera- inintempera-
tempera-
tempera-
tures and
tures pressures
tures
and and inside
pressures
pressures castings.
inside
inside castings.
castings.
tures andand pressures
pressures
tures and inside
inside castings.
castings.
pressures inside castings.
Side
Side Side Casting
SideSide
Casting
CastingSide Casting
Casting
Casting Bottom
Bottom Bottom
Bottom
Bottom
Casting
Casting
Bottom Casting
Casting
Casting
Casting
Category 1 Category 3 Category 5 Category 2 Category 4

∆20.8 ◦C ∆48.5 ◦C ∆27.7 ◦C ∆27.7 ◦C ∆20.8 ◦ C
∆116.4 Pa ∆2488 Pa ∆592 Pa ∆983.4 Pa ∆36.4 Pa
From the above analysis, it can be seen that side casting can be combined with two
kinds of geometries. The first is parts that are relatively large in volume and in height. If
bottom casting is used in these parts, defects would appear due to a large drop in flow. The
second kind is the geometry of thin-shell rectangles or round tubes. This type of casting can
easily solidify prematurely because of the thin wall thickness, and it is crucial to consider
the location and height of the pouring gates related to the casting. On the other hand,
bottom casting is more suitable for these plates. In addition to the differences in pressure
and temperature, the position and amount of subsequent machining must be taken into
account when selecting the casting method.
3.4. Database and Learning

For the final normalization of the five categories and to compress the data, the sim-
plified data were automatically converted into CAD 3D drawing files through macro
instructions. Category 1 contains 30 samples, which can be summarized in seven ways
with a compression rate of 76.7%. The 30 samples in category 2 can be summarized in eight
ways with a compression rate of 73.4%. In category 3, the 30 samples can be summarized
in five ways with a compression rate of 83.4%. Category 4 contains 30 samples, which
can be summarized in 11 ways with a compression rate of 63.4%. The final 30 samples
in category 5 can be summarized in six ways with a compression rate of 80%. Therefore,
the database can be shown to only use 37 methods for 150 castings with a compression
rate of 75% on average, as shown in Table 7. The need for part simplification can also be
highlighted through the aforementioned methods and compression ratios.
All the classification data, including part number, number of layers, dimensions,
datum, volume, surface area, and casting method, can be recorded in the database. Based
on these data, it is possible to directly transfer the information as codes for machine learning.
Through the visual analyses that are shown in Figure 10, it was confirmed that objects with
more than three layers are more suitable for side casting (blue spots), while plates with
high area/height ratios are suitable for bottom casting (green spots), which is consistent
with the results of mold flow analysis. The relationships of layer number, surface area,
height, mass, and casting method can be used as characteristics and imported into machine
learning for learning and training. Model training by random forest classification with
the data of 150 casting samples resulted in an 88.8% accuracy when predicting the casting
method. The code is shown in Appendix B. Therefore, it is certain that the digital product
database system constructed in this study can be used for developing intelligent processes
and as a basis for life cycle management.
Table 7. The total 150 castings can be summarized into five categories and 37 methods.
Category 1 Category 2 Category 3 Category 4 Category 5

76.7% (7/30) 73.4% (8/30) 83.4% (5/30) 63.4% (11/30) 80% (6/30)
A2/A1 A1 A2 B1 B2
A1/A1 A2/A2 A1/A2 B1/B1 B2/B1
A2/A1/A2 A2/A1 A2/B1 B1/B1/B1 B1/B1
A1/A1/A1 A1/A1 A2/B1/B1 B1/B1/B1/B1 B1/B2
A1/A1/A1/A1 A1/A2 A1/A2/A2 B1/B1/B1/B1/B1 B2/A1
A1/A1/A1/A2 A1/A1/A2 B1/B1/B1/B1/B1/B1 B2/B2
A1/A1/A1/A1/A1 A1/A2/A1 B1/A2
A2/A1/A1 B1/A1
B1/A1/A1
B1/A1/A1
B1/B1/A1/A1/A1/A1
Figure 10. The relationships between layer number, surface area, height, mass, and casting method
can be used as characteristics and imported into machine learning for learning and training.
4. Conclusions
Based on the classification of the casting geometry and the pouring system, a mold
flow analysis using SOLIDCast was conducted to obtain the feeding efficiency, while
casting simplification could indeed achieve the purpose of effective classification and data
reduction. The following four conclusions can be drawn from the study:
1. Similar geometries can be applied to the same pouring system, but with the same
range of volumes.
2. Part simplification does result in data compression, as 150 castings ended up using
only 37 methods, resulting in an average compression rate of 75% and preserving
data integrity after compression.
3. From a geometric analysis, it was found that the qualities of thin-shell rectangles,
round tubes, and solid cylindrical castings were better when using side casting, and
those of plate rectangles and pie models were better when using bottom casting. The
quality of any shape of castings with a height from 55 mm to 200 mm was poor when
using top casting.
4. All of the model classification data in the database, including material and geometrical
characteristics, can be directly used in machine learning for a predicted casting method
with 88.8% accuracy. The data and the database constructed in this study are in line
with digital product lifecycle management and successfully save costs for further
development.
This study demonstrates the foundation of process intelligence, and future develop-
ment should focus on expanding the number of original 3D model samples. At the same
time, it is necessary to establish a single or conversion standard between upstream and
downstream factories in order to achieve a sound digital 3D modeling system. Based on a
sufficient amount of product characteristic data and information, the foundry industry can
establish a mature intelligent process and prediction system through data science analysis
to achieve the ultimate goal of corporate sustainability.
Author Contributions: T.-M.C. directed this study. T.-M.C. and J.-Q.W. designed the architecture
and experiments of the research, and then all of the authors carried out the data analysis. T.-M.C.
wrote the manuscript with the help of J.-Q.W. and J.-T.L. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data used in this research are enclosed within the manuscript. No
external data sources were used in this research.
Acknowledgments: The authors acknowledge the help from Geober precision casting Co., Ltd. and
Chyn Wang Light Metal Tech Co., Ltd. for supplying models and manufacturing parameters.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Appendix A
Abbreviations and symbols:
A: Cylinder; A1: Solid Cylinder; A2: Hollow Cylinder
B: Rectangle; B1: Solid Rectangle; B2: Shell Rectangle
D: No Geometry
X0 , Y0 , Z0 : Coordinate Datum
→
i : Distance in the X Direction from the Coordinate Datum
→
j : Distance in the Y Direction from the Coordinate Datum
→
k : Distance in the Z Direction from the Coordinate Datum
SEM: Scanning Electron Microscope

EDX: Energy-dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy
∆: Difference in Temperature or Pressure
Appendix B
The random forest classification code.
import time
from sklearn.model_selection import train_test_split
from sklearn.ensemble import RandomForestClassifier
from sklearn import metrics
from sklearn.feature_selection import SelectKBest
import pandas as pd
from imblearn.over_sampling import SMOTE
from collections import Counter
cast = pd.read_csv(r0 ./feature.csv0 , encoding = “big5”)
cast = pd.get_dummies(cast)
cast = pd.DataFrame(cast)
5 = cast.drop(labels = [‘pouring method_bottom pouring’,‘pouring method_side
pouring’], axis = 1)y5 = cast[‘pouring method_side pouring’]
smote = SMOTE()
x_smote, y_smote = smote.fit_resample(x5, y5)
x = x_smote
y = y_smote
a=0
b=0
c=0
score = 0
while score < 0.85:
for z in range(9,10):
for d in range(5,13):
selector = SelectKBest(k = z)
phn = selector.fit_transform(x, y)
mask = selector.get_support()
new_features = x.columns[mask]
print(new_features)
mas = mask.copy()
mas = (mas-1)∗(−1)
mas = 1 <= mas
new_features = x.columns[mas]
x2 = phn
x_train,x_test,y_train,y_test = train_test_split(x2, y, test_size = 0.25,
random_state = 0)
if score < 0.85:
rfc = RandomForestClassifier(d)
start = time.clock()
rfc.fit(x_train, y_train)
train_score = rfc.score(x_train, y_train)
cv_score = rfc.score(x_test, y_test)
print(0 elaspe: {0:.6f}; train_score: {1:0.6f}; cv_score: {2:.6f}0 .format
(time.clock()-start, train_score, cv_score) + 0 k = 0 + str(z))
if cv_score > a:
a = cv_score
b=z
c=d
score = cv_score
print(‘score = ‘+str(a)+’ k = ‘+str(b)+’ degree = ’+ str(c))
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and further standardization of feature-based modeling frameworks is imperative to avoid

2. Research Method and Procedure

Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 15

2.1. Model Dimensions

Figure 3.Figure 3. The

Figure 4.Figure 4. The appearance

Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 15

3.2. Model Simplification and Comparison

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

Category 1 Category 3 Category 5 Category 2 Category 4

3.4. Database and Learning

Category 1 Category 2 Category 3 Category 4 Category 5

SEM: Scanning Electron Microscope

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