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Fundamentals of Physics I
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t h e o p e n y a l e c o u r s e s s e r i e s is designed to bring the depth and
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Open Yale Courses program (http://oyc.yale.edu), these books bring out-
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books in the open yale courses series

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R. Shankar, Fundamentals of Physics I: Mechanics, Relativity,
and Thermodynamics, Expanded Edition
R. Shankar, Fundamentals of Physics II: Electromagnetism, Optics,
and Quantum Mechanics
Ian Shapiro, The Moral Foundations of Politics
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Fundamentals
of Physics I
Mechanics, Relativity,
and Thermodynamics
Expanded Edition
r. s h a n k a r
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First edition 2014. Expanded edition 2019.
Copyright c 2014, 2019 by Yale University.
All rights reserved.
This book may not be reproduced, in whole or in part, including
illustrations, in any form (beyond that copying permitted by Sections
107 and 108 of the U.S. Copyright Law and except by reviewers for the
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yale.edu (U.S. office) or sales@yaleup.co.uk (U.K. office).
Set in Minion type by Newgen North America.

Printed in the United States of America.
ISBN: 978-0-300-24377-2
Library of Congress Control Number: 2019931271
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
This paper meets the requirements of ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992

(Permanence of Paper).
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
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To my students
for their friendship and inspiration
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Deep and original, but also humble and generous, the physicist
Josiah Willard Gibbs spent much of his life at Yale University. His father was
a professor of sacred languages at Yale, and Gibbs received his bachelor’s
and doctorate degrees from the university before teaching there until his death in
1903. The sculptor Lee Lawrie created the memorial bronze tablet pictured
above, which was installed in Yale’s Sloane Physics Laboratory in 1912. It now
resides in the entrance to the J. W. Gibbs Laboratories, Yale University.
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Contents
Preface to the Expanded Edition xiii

Preface to the First Edition xiv
1. The Structure of Mechanics 1

1.1 Introduction and some useful tips 1
1.2 Kinematics and dynamics 2
1.3 Average and instantaneous quantities 4
1.4 Motion at constant acceleration 6
1.5 Sample problem 10
1.6 Deriving v 2 − v02 = 2a(x − x0 ) using calculus 13
2. Motion in Higher Dimensions 15

2.1 Review 15
2.2 Vectors in d = 2 16
2.3 Unit vectors 19
2.4 Choice of axes and basis vectors 22
2.5 Derivatives of the position vector r 26
2.6 Application to circular motion 29
2.7 Projectile motion 32
3. Newton’s Laws I 36
3.1 Introduction to Newton’s laws of motion 36
3.2 Newton’s second law 38
3.3 Two halves of the second law 41
3.4 Newton’s third law 45
3.5 Weight and weightlessness 49
4. Newton’s Laws II 51
4.1 A solved example 51
4.2 Never the whole story 54
4.3 Motion in d = 2 55
4.4 Friction: static and kinetic 56
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viii Contents
4.5 Inclined plane 57

4.6 Coupled masses 61
4.7 Circular motion, loop-the-loop 64
5. Law of Conservation of Energy 70

5.1 Introduction to energy 70
5.2 The work-energy theorem and power 71
5.3 Conservation of energy: K2 + U2 = K1 + U1 75
5.4 Friction and the work-energy theorem 78
6. Conservation of Energy in d = 2 82
6.1 Calculus review 82
6.2 Work done in d = 2 84
6.3 Work done in d = 2 and the dot product 88
6.4 Conservative and non-conservative forces 92
6.5 Conservative forces 95
6.6 Application to gravitational potential energy 98
7. The Kepler Problem 101

7.1 Kepler’s laws 101
7.2 The law of universal gravity 104
7.3 Details of the orbits 108
7.4 Law of conservation of energy far from the earth 112
7.5 Choosing the constant in U 114
8. Multi-particle Dynamics 118

8.1 The two-body problem 118
8.2 The center of mass 119
8.3 Law of conservation of momentum 128
8.4 Rocket science 134
8.5 Elastic and inelastic collisions 136
8.6 Scattering in higher dimensions 140
9. Rotational Dynamics I 143

9.1 Introduction to rigid bodies 143
9.2 Angle of rotation, the radian 145
9.3 Rotation at constant angular acceleration 147
9.4 Rotational inertia, momentum, and energy 148
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Contents ix
9.5 Torque and the work-energy theorem 154

9.6 Calculating the moment of inertia 156
10. Rotational Dynamics II 159

10.1 The parallel axis theorem 159
10.2 Kinetic energy for a general N-body system 163
10.3 Simultaneous translations and rotations 165
10.4 Conservation of energy 167
10.5 Rotational dynamics using τ = dLdt 168
10.6 Advanced rotations 169
10.7 Conservation of angular momentum 171
10.8 Angular momentum of the figure skater 172
11. Rotational Dynamics III 175

11.1 Static equilibrium 175
11.2 The seesaw 176
11.3 A hanging sign 178
11.4 The leaning ladder 180
11.5 Rigid-body dynamics in 3d 182
11.6 The gyroscope 191
12. Special Relativity I: The Lorentz Transformation 194

12.1 Galilean and Newtonian relativity 195
12.2 Proof of Galilean relativity 196
12.3 Enter Einstein 200
12.4 The postulates 203
12.5 The Lorentz transformation 204
13. Special Relativity II: Some Consequences 209

13.1 Summary of the Lorentz transformation 209
13.2 The velocity transformation law 212
13.3 Relativity of simultaneity 214
13.4 Time dilatation 216
13.4.1 Twin paradox 219
13.4.2 Length contraction 220
13.5 More paradoxes 222
13.5.1 Too big to fall 222
13.5.2 Muons in flight 226
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x Contents
14. Special Relativity III: Past, Present, and Future 227

14.1 Past, present, and future in relativity 227
14.2 Geometry of spacetime 232
14.3 Rapidity 235
14.4 Four-vectors 238
14.5 Proper time 239
15. Four-momentum 241

15.1 Relativistic scattering 249
15.1.1 Compton effect 249
15.1.2 Pair production 251
15.1.3 Photon absorption 252
16. Mathematical Methods 255

16.1 Taylor series of a function 255
16.2 Examples and issues with the Taylor series 261
16.3 Taylor series of some popular functions 263
16.4 Trigonometric and exponential functions 265
16.5 Properties of complex numbers 267
16.6 Polar form of complex numbers 272
17. Simple Harmonic Motion 275

17.1 More examples of oscillations 280
17.2 Superposition of solutions 283
17.3 Conditions on solutions to the harmonic oscillator 288
17.4 Exponential functions as generic solutions 290
17.5 Damped oscillations: a classification 291
17.5.1 Over-damped oscillations 291
17.5.2 Under-damped oscillations 292
17.5.3 Critically damped oscillations 294
17.6 Driven oscillator 294
18. Waves I 303

18.1 The wave equation 306
18.2 Solutions of the wave equation 310
18.3 Frequency and period 313
19. Waves II 316

19.1 Wave energy and power transmitted 316
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Contents xi
19.2 Doppler effect 320

19.3 Superposition of waves 323
19.4 Interference: the double-slit experiment 326
19.5 Standing waves and musical instruments 330
20. Fluids 335

20.1 Introduction to fluid dynamics and statics 335
20.1.1 Density and pressure 335
20.1.2 Pressure as a function of depth 336
20.2 The hydraulic press 341
20.3 Archimedes’ principle 343
20.4 Bernoulli’s equation 346
20.4.1 Continuity equation 346
20.5 Applications of Bernoulli’s equation 349
21. Heat 352

21.1 Equilibrium and the zeroth law: temperature 352
21.2 Calibrating temperature 354
21.3 Absolute zero and the Kelvin scale 360
21.4 Heat and specific heat 361
21.5 Phase change 365
21.6 Radiation, convection, and conduction 368
21.7 Heat as molecular kinetic energy 371
22. Thermodynamics I 375

22.1 Recap 375
22.2 Boltzmann’s constant and Avogadro’s number 376
22.3 Microscopic definition of absolute temperature 379
22.4 Statistical properties of matter and radiation 382
22.5 Thermodynamic processes 384
22.6 Quasi-static processes 386
22.7 The first law of thermodynamics 387
22.8 Specific heats: cv and cp 391
23. Thermodynamics II 394

23.1 Cycles and state variables 394
23.2 Adiabatic processes 396
23.3 The second law of thermodynamics 399
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xii Contents
23.4 The Carnot engine 403

23.4.1 Defining T using Carnot engines 409
24. Entropy and Irreversibility 411

24.1 Entropy 411
24.2 The second law: law of increasing entropy 418
24.3 Statistical mechanics and entropy 423
24.4 Entropy of an ideal gas: full microscopic analysis 430
24.5 Maximum entropy principle illustrated 434
24.6 The Gibbs formalism 437
24.7 The third law of thermodynamics 441
Exercises 443
Problem Set 1, for Chapter 1 443
Problem Set 3, for Chapters 3 and 4 449
Problem Set 4, for Chapters 5, 6, and 7 455
Problem Set 7, for Chapters 12, 13, 14, and 15 466
Answers to Exercises 487

Constants and Other Data 501
Index 503
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Preface to the Expanded Edition
Besides the correction of typos, the most important change is the inclusion
of over 300 exercises to go with these 24 chapters. Answers are given to
all exercises, but not the solutions. They were chosen to test the material
covered in this book. This was done in response to calls from students
and instructors. A similar inclusion will be made in the next edition of the
companion volume, Fundamentals of Physics II.
xiii
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Preface to the First Edition
Given that the size of textbooks has nearly tripled during my own career,
without a corresponding increase in the cranial dimensions of my students,
I have always found it necessary, like my colleagues elsewhere, to cull the
essentials into a manageable size. I did that in the course Fundamentals
of Physics I taught at Yale, and this book preserves that feature. It covers
the fundamental ideas of Newtonian mechanics, relativity, fluids, waves,
oscillations, and thermodynamics without compromise. It requires only
the basic notions of differentiation and integration, which I often review
as part of the lectures. It is aimed at college students in physics, chemistry,
and engineering as well as advanced high school students and independent
self-taught learners at various stages in life, in various careers.
The chapters in the book more or less follow my 24 lectures,
with a few minor modifications. The style preserves the classroom
atmosphere. Often I introduce the questions asked by the students
or the answers they give when I believe they will be of value to
the reader. The simple figures serve to communicate the point with-
out driving up the price. The equations have been typeset and are
a lot easier to read than in the videos. The problem sets and ex-
ams, without which one cannot learn or be sure one has learned the
physics, may be found along with their solutions at the Yale website,
http://oyc.yale.edu/physics, free and open to all. The lectures may also be
found at venues such as YouTube, iTunes (https://itunes.apple.com/us/
itunes-u/physics-video/id341651848?mt=10), and Academic Earth, to
name a few.
The book, along with the material available at the Yale website, may
be used as a stand-alone resource for a course or self-study, though some
instructors may prescribe it as a supplement to another one adapted for
the class, so as to provide a wider choice of problems or more worked
examples.
To my online viewers I say, “You have seen the movie; now read the
book!” The advantage of having the printed version is that you can read it
during take-off and landing.
xiv
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Preface to the First Edition xv
In the lectures I sometimes refer to my Basic Training in Mathematics,

published by Springer and intended for anyone who wants to master the
undergraduate mathematics needed for the physical sciences.
This book owes its existence to many people. It all began when Peter
Salovey, now President, then Dean of Yale College, asked me if I minded
having cameras in my Physics 200 lectures to make them part of the first
batch of Open Yale Courses, funded by the Hewlett Foundation. Since my
answer was that I had yet to meet a camera I did not like, the taping be-
gan. The key person hereafter was Diana E. E. Kleiner, Dunham Professor,
History of Art and Classics, who encouraged and guided me in many ways.
She was also the one who persuaded me to write this book. Initially reluc-
tant, I soon found myself thoroughly enjoying proselytizing my favorite
subject in this new format. At Yale University Press, Joe Calamia was my
friend, philosopher, and guide. Liz Casey did some very skilled editing. Be-
sides correcting errors in style (such as a long sentence that began in first
person past tense and ended in third person future tense) and matters of
grammar and punctuation (which I sprinkle pretty much randomly), she
also made sure my intent was clear in every sentence.
Barry Bradlyn and Alexey Shkarin were two graduate students and
Qiwei Claire Xue and Dennis Mou were two undergraduates who proof-
read earlier versions.
My family, from my wife, Uma, down to little Stella, have encouraged
me in various ways.
I take this opportunity to acknowledge my debt to the students at Yale
who, over nearly four decades, have been the reason I jump out of bed on
two or three days a week. I am grateful for their friendship and curiosity.
In recent years, they were often non-majors, willing to be persuaded that
physics was a fascinating subject. This I never got tired of doing, thanks to
the nature of the subject and the students.
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chapter 1
The Structure of Mechanics
1.1 Introduction and some useful tips

This book is based on the first half of a year-long course that introduces
you to all the major ideas in physics, starting from Galileo and Newton,
right up to the big revolutions of the twentieth century: relativity and
quantum mechanics. The target audience for this course and book is really
very broad. In fact, I have always been surprised by the breadth of interests
of my students. I don’t know what you are going to do later in life, so I have
picked the topics that all of us in physics find fascinating. Some may not
be useful, but you just don’t know. Some of you are probably going to be
doctors, and you don’t know why I’m going to cover special relativity or
quantum mechanics. Well, if you’re a doctor and you have a patient who’s
running away from you at the speed of light, you’ll know what to do. Or, if
you’re a pediatrician, you will understand why your patient will not sit still:
the laws of quantum mechanics don’t allow a very small object to have a
definite position and momentum. Whether or not you become a physicist,
you should certainly learn about these great strides in the human attempt
to understand the physical world.
Most textbooks are about 1,200 pages long, but when I learned
physics they were around 400 pages long. When I look around, I don’t
see any student whose head is three times as big as mine, so I know that
you cannot digest everything the books have. I take what I think are the
really essential parts and cover them in these lectures. So you need the lec-
tures to find out what’s in the syllabus and what’s not. If you don’t do that,
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2 The Structure of Mechanics
there’s a danger you will learn something you don’t have to, and we don’t
want that, right?
To learn physics well, you have to do the problems. If you watch me
online doing things on the blackboard or working through derivations in
the book, it all looks very reasonable. It looks like you can do it yourself
and that you understand what is going on, but the only way you’re go-
ing to find out is by actually doing problems. A fair number are available,
with their solutions, at http://oyc.yale.edu/physics/phys-200, and over 300
(with answers but not solutions) in the exercises and answers sections at
the back of this book. You don’t have to do them by yourself. That’s not
how physics is done. I am now writing a paper with two other people. My
experimental colleagues write papers with four hundred or even a thou-
sand other people when engaged in the big collider experiments like the
ones in Geneva or Fermilab. It’s perfectly okay to be part of a collaboration,
but you have to make sure that you’re pulling your weight, that everybody
makes contributions to finding the solution and understands it.
This calculus-based course assumes you know the rudiments of dif-
ferential and integral calculus, such as functions, derivatives, derivatives
of elementary functions, elementary integrals, changing variables in inte-
grals, and so on. Later, I will deal with functions of more than one variable,
which I will briefly introduce to you, because that is not a prerequisite. You
have to know your trigonometry, to know what’s a sine and what’s a co-
sine and some simple identities. You cannot say, “I will look it up.” Your
birthday and social security number are things you look up; trigonometric
functions and identities are what you know all the time.
1.2 Kinematics and dynamics

We are going to be studying Newtonian mechanics. Standing on the shoul-
ders of his predecessors, notably Galileo, Isaac Newton placed us on the
road to understanding all the mechanical phenomena for centuries until
the laws of electromagnetism were discovered, culminating in Maxwell’s
equations. Our concern here is mechanics, which is the motion of billiard
balls and trucks and marbles and whatnot. You will find out that the laws
of physics for this entire semester can be written down on the back of
an envelope. A central purpose of this course is to show you repeatedly
that starting with those few laws, you can deduce everything. I would en-
courage you to think the way physicists do, even if you don’t plan to be a
physicist. The easiest way to master this subject is to follow the reasoning I

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The Structure of Mechanics 3
give you. That way, you don’t have to store too many things in your head.
Early on, when there are four or five formulas, you can memorize all of
them and you can try every one of them until something works, but, after
a couple of weeks, you will have hundreds of formulas, and you cannot
memorize all of them. You cannot resort to trial and error. You have to
know the logic.
The goal of physics is to predict the future given the present. We will
pick some part of the universe that we want to study and call it “the sys-
tem,” and we will ask, “What information do we need to know about that
system at the initial time, like right now, in order to be able to predict its
future evolution?” If I throw a piece of candy at you and you catch it, that’s
an example of Newtonian mechanics at work. What did I do? I threw a
piece of candy from my hand, and the initial conditions are where I re-
leased it and with what velocity. That’s what you see with your eyes. You
know it’s going to go up, it’s going to follow some kind of parabola, and
your hands get to the right place at the right time to receive it. That is an
example of Newtonian mechanics at work, and your brain performed the
necessary calculations effortlessly.
You only have to know the candy’s initial location and the initial ve-
locity. The fact that it was blue or red is not relevant. If I threw a gorilla
at you, its color and mood would not matter. These are things that do not
affect the physics. If a guy jumps off a tall building, we want to know when,
and with what speed, he will land. We don’t ask why this guy is ending it
all today; that is a question for the psych department. So we don’t answer
everything. We ask very limited questions about inanimate objects, and we
brag about how accurately we can predict the future.
The Newtonian procedure for predicting the future, given the
present, has two parts, kinematics and dynamics. Kinematics is a complete
description of the present. It’s a list of what you have to know about a sys-
tem right now. For example, if you’re talking about a piece of chalk, you
will want to know where it is and how fast it’s moving. Dynamics then
tells you why the chalk goes up, why it goes down, and so on. It comes
down due to the force of gravity. In kinematics, you don’t ask for the rea-
son behind anything. You simply want to describe things the way they are,
and then dynamics tells you how and why that description changes with
time.
I’m going to illustrate the idea of kinematics by following my pre-
ferred approach: starting with the simplest possible example and slowly
adding bells and whistles to make it more and more complicated. In the

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initial stages, some of you might say, “Well, I have seen this before, so
maybe there is nothing new here.” That may well be true. I don’t know how
much you have seen, but it is likely that the way you learned physics in high
school is different from the way professional physicists think about it. Our
priorities, and the things that we get excited about, are often different; and
the problems will be more difficult.
1.3 Average and instantaneous quantities

We are going to study an object that is a mathematical point. It has no
size. If you rotate it, it will look the same, unlike a potato, which will look
different upon rotation. It is not enough to just say where the potato is;
you have to say which way its nose is pointing. The study of such extended
bodies comes later. Right now, we want to study an entity that has no spa-
tial extent, a dot. It can move around all over space. We’re going to simplify
that too. We’re going to take an entity that moves only along the x-axis. So
you can imagine a bead with a straight wire going through it, which allows
it to only slide back and forth. This is about the simplest thing. I cannot
reduce the number of dimensions. I cannot make the object simpler than
a mathematical point.
To describe what the point is doing, we pick an origin, call it x = 0,
and put some markers along the x-axis to measure distance. Then we will
say this guy is sitting at x = 5. Now, of course, we have to have units and the
unit for length is going to be the meter. The unit for time will be a second.
Sometimes I might not write the units, but I have earned the right to do
that and you haven’t. Everything has got to be in the right units. If you
don’t have the units, and if you say the answer is 42, then we don’t know if
you are right or wrong.
Back to the object. At a given instant, it’s got a location. We would like
to describe the object’s motion by plotting a graph of space versus time. A
typical graph would be something like Figure 1.1. Even though the plot is
going up and down, the object is moving horizontally, back and forth along
the spatial x-axis. When it is at A, it’s crossing the origin from the left and
going to the right. Later, at B, it is crossing back to the left. In the language
of calculus, x is a function of time, x = x(t), and the graph corresponds
to some generic function that doesn’t have a name. We will also encounter
functions that do have a name, like x(t) = t, x(t) = t 2 , x(t) = sin t, cos t,
and so on.

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Figure 1.1 Trajectory of a particle. The position, x(t), is measured vertically and
the time, t, is measured horizontally.
Consider v̄, the average velocity of an object, given by
x(t2 ) − x(t1 )
v̄ = (1.1)
t2 − t1
where t2 > t1 are two times between which we have chosen to average the
velocity. In the example in Figure 1.1, v̄ < 0 for the indicated choice of t1
and t2 since the final x(t2 ) is less than the initial x(t1 ).
The average velocity may not tell you the whole story. For example,
if you started at x(t1 ) and at time t1 ended up at point C with the same
coordinate, the average velocity would be zero, which is the average you
would get if the particle had never moved!
The average acceleration, ā, involves a similar difference of velocities:
v(t2 ) − v(t1 )
ā = . (1.2)
t2 − t1
Now for an important concept, the velocity at a given time or instan-
taneous velocity, v(t). Figure 1.1 shows some particle moving a distance
x between times t and t + t. The average velocity in that interval is
x
t . What you want is the velocity at time t. We all have an intuitive no-
tion of velocity right now. When you’re driving your car, if the needle
says 60 miles per hour, that’s your velocity at that instant. Though veloc-
ity seems to involve two different times in its very definition—the initial

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time and the final time—we want to talk about the velocity right now. That
is obtained by examining the position now and the position slightly later,
and taking the ratio of the change in position to the time elapsed between
the two events, while bringing the two points closer and closer in time. We
see in the figure that when we do this, both x → 0 and t → 0, but their
ratio becomes the tangent of the angle θ , shown in Figure 1.1. Thus the
velocity at the instant t is:
x dx
v(t) = lim = . (1.3)
t→0 t dt
Once you take one derivative, you can take any number of deriva-
tives. The derivative of the velocity is the acceleration, and we write it as
the second derivative of position:
dv d 2 x
a(t) = = 2. (1.4)
dt dt
You are supposed to know the derivatives of simple functions like x(t) =
dt = nt
t n ( dx n−1 ), as well as derivatives of sines, cosines, logarithms, and
exponentials. If you don’t know them, you should fix that weakness before
proceeding.
1.4 Motion at constant acceleration

We are now going to focus on problems in which the acceleration a(t) is
just a constant denoted by a, with no time argument. This is not the most
general motion, but a very relevant one. When things fall near the surface
of the earth, they all have the same acceleration, a = −9.8 ms −2 = −g.
If I tell you that a particle has a constant acceleration a, can you tell me
what the position x(t) is? Your job is to guess a function x(t) whose second
derivative is a. This is called integration, which is the opposite of differenti-
ation. Integration is not an algorithmic process like differentiation, though
it is governed by many rules that allow us to map a given problem into
others with a known solution. If I give you a function, you know how to
take the derivative: change the independent variable, find the change in
the function, divide by the change in the independent variable, take the
ratio as all changes approach zero. The opposite has to be done here. The
way we do that is we guess, and such guessing has been going on for three
hundred years, and we have become very good at it. The successful guesses

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are published as the Table of Integrals. I have a copy of such a table at

home, at work, and even in my car in case there is a breakdown.
So, let me guess aloud. I want to find a function that reduces to the
number a when I take two derivatives. I know that each time I take a
derivative, I lose a power of t. In the end, I don’t want any powers of t.
It’s clear I have to start with a function that looks like t 2 . Well, unfortu-
nately, we know t 2 is not the right answer, because the second derivative is
2, while I want to get a. So I multiply the original guess by 12 a and I know
x(t) = 12 at 2 will have a second derivative a.
This certainly describes a particle with an acceleration a. But is this
the most general answer? You all know that it is just one of many: for ex-
ample, I can add to this answer some number, say 96, and the answer will
still have the property that if you take two derivatives, you get the same ac-
celeration. Now 96 is a typical constant, so I’m going to give the name c to
that constant. We know from basic calculus that in finding a function with
a given derivative, you can always add a constant to any one answer to get
another answer. But if you only fix the second derivative, you can also add
anything with one power of t in it, because the extra part will get wiped
out when you take two derivatives. If you fixed only the third derivative of
the function, you can also add something quadratic in t without changing
the outcome.
So the most general expression for the position of a particle with
constant acceleration a is
1
x(t) = at 2 + bt + c (1.5)
2
where b, like c, is a constant that can be anything.
Remember that x(t) in the figure describes a particle going from side
to side. I can also describe a particle going up and down. If I do that, I
would like to call the vertical coordinate y(t). You have to realize that in
calculus, the symbols that you call x and y are arbitrary. If you know the
second derivative of y to be a, then the answer is
1
y(t) = at 2 + bt + c. (1.6)
2
Let me go back now to Eqn. 1.5. It is true, mathematically, you can add
bt + c as we did, but you have to ask yourself, “What am I doing as a
physicist when I add these two terms?” What am I supposed to do with
b and c? What value should I pick? Simply knowing that the particle has

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an acceleration a is not enough to tell you where the particle will be. Take
the case of a particle falling under gravity with acceleration −g. Then
1
y(t) = − gt 2 + bt + c. (1.7)
2
The formula describes every object falling under gravity, and each has its
own history. What’s different between one object and another object is the
initial height, y(0) ≡ y0 , and the initial velocity v(0) ≡ v0 . That’s what these
numbers b and c are going to tell us. To find c in Eqn. 1.7 put time t = 0
on the right and the initial height of y0 on the left:
y0 = 0 + 0 + c (1.8)
which tells us c is just the initial coordinate. Feeding this into Eqn. 1.7 we
obtain
1
y(t) = − gt 2 + bt + y0 . (1.9)
2
To use the information on the initial velocity, let us first find the velocity
associated with this trajectory:
dy
v(t) = = −gt + b (1.10)
dt
and compare both sides at t = 0
v0 = b. (1.11)
Thus b is the initial velocity. Trading b and c for v0 and y0 , which makes
their physical significance more transparent, we now write
1
y(t) = − gt 2 + v0 t + y0 . (1.12)
2
Likewise for the trajectory x(t) when the acceleration is some constant a,
the answer with specific initial position x0 and initial velocity v0 is
1
x(t) = at 2 + v0 t + x0 . (1.13)
2

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In every situation where the body has an acceleration a, the location

has to have this form. So when I throw a candy and you catch it, you are
mentally estimating the initial position and velocity and computing the
trajectory and intercepting it with your hands. (The candy moves in three
spatial dimensions, but the idea is the same.)
Now, there is one other celebrated formula that relates v(t), the final
velocity at some time, to the initial velocity v0 and the distance traveled,
with no reference to time. The trick is to eliminate time from Eqn. 1.13.
Let us rewrite it as
1
x(t) − x0 = at 2 + v0 t. (1.14)
2
Upon taking the time-derivative of both sides we get
v(t) = at + v0 (1.15)
which may be solved for t:
v(t) − v0
t= . (1.16)
a
Feeding this into Eqn. 1.14 we find

1 v(t) − v0 2 v(t) − v0
x(t) − x0 = a + v0 (1.17)
2 a a
v (t) − v0
2 2
= (1.18)
2a
which is usually written as
v 2 − v02 = 2a(x − x0 ) (1.19)
where v and x are assumed to be the values at some common generic

time t.

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1.5 Sample problem

We will work through one standard problem to convince ourselves that we
know how to apply these formulas and predict the future given the present.
Figure 1.2 shows a building of height y0 = 15m.
I am going to throw a rock with an initial velocity v0 = 10m/s from
the top. Notice I am measuring y from the ground. The rock is going to
go up to point T and come down as shown in Figure 1.2. You can ask me
any question you want about this rock, and I can give the answer. You can
ask me where it will be 9 seconds from now, how fast will it be moving 8
seconds from now, and so on. All I need are the two initial conditions y0
and v0 that are given. To make life simple, I will use a = −g = −10ms −2 .
The position y(t) is known for all future times:
y = 15 + 10t − 5t 2 . (1.20)
Of course, you must be a little careful when you use this result. Say you
put t equal to 10, 000 years. What are you going to get? You’re going to
find y is some huge negative number. That reasoning is flawed because you
cannot use the formula once the rock hits the ground and the fundamental
premise that a = −10ms −2 becomes invalid. Now, if you had dug a hole of
Figure 1.2 From the top of a building of height y0 = 15m, I throw a rock with
an initial upward velocity of v0 = 10m/s. The dotted line represents the trajectory
continued back to earlier times.

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depth d where the rock was going to land, y could go down to −d. The
moral is that when applying a formula, you must bear in mind the terms
under which it was derived.
If you want to know the velocity at any time t, just take the derivative
of Eqn. 1.20:
v(t) = 10 − 10t. (1.21)
Let me pick a few more trivial questions. What is the height ymax of the
turning point T in the figure? Eqn. 1.20 tells you y if you know t, but we
don’t know the time t ∗ when it turns around. So you have to put in some-
thing else that you know, which is that the highest point occurs when it’s
neither going up nor coming down. So at the highest point v(t ∗ ) = 0. From
Eqn. 1.21
0 = 10 − 10t ∗ which means t ∗ = 1s. (1.22)
So we know that it will go up for one second and then turn around
and come back. Now we can find ymax :
ymax = y(t ∗ ) = y(1) = 15 + 10 − 5 = 20m. (1.23)
When does it hit the ground? That is the same as asking when y = 0,
which is our origin. When y = 0,
0 = 15 + 10t − 5t 2 . (1.24)
The solutions to this quadratic equation are
t = 3s or t = −1s. (1.25)
Why is it giving me a second solution? Can t be negative? First of all,

negative times should not bother anybody; t = 0 is when I set the clock
to zero, and I measured time forward, but yesterday would be t = −1 day,
right? So we don’t have any trouble with negative time; it is like the year
300 BC. The point is that this equation does not know that I went to a
building and launched a rock or anything. What does it know? It knows
that this particle had a height of y = 15 m and velocity v = 10 m/s at time
t = 0, and it is falling under gravity with an acceleration of −10 ms −2 .

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That’s all it knows. If that’s all it knows, then in that scenario there is no
building or anything else; it continues a trajectory both forward in time
and backward in time, and it says that one second before I set my clock to
0, this particle would have been on the ground. What it means is that if you
had released a rock at y = 0 one second before I did with a certain speed
that we can calculate (v(−1) = 20m/s from Eqn. 1.21), your rock would
have ended up at the top of the building when I began my experiment,
with the same height y = 15m, and velocity v0 = 10 m/s. So sometimes
the extra solution is very interesting, and you should always listen to the
mathematics when you get extra solutions.
When Paul Dirac was looking for the energy of a particle in rela-
tivistic quantum mechanics, he found the energy E was connected to its
momentum p, mass m, and velocity of light, c, by
E 2 = p 2 c 2 + m2 c 4 , (1.26)
in accord with a relation we will encounter in relativity. Now, this quadratic

equation has two solutions:

E = ± c 2 p 2 + m2 c 4 . (1.27)
You may be tempted to keep the plus sign because you know energy
is not going to be negative. The particle’s moving, it’s got some energy
and that’s it. This is correct in classical mechanics, but in quantum me-
chanics the mathematicians told Dirac, “You cannot ignore the negative
energy solution in quantum theory; the mathematics tells you it is there.”
It turns out the second solution, with negative energy, was telling us that
if there are particles, then there must be anti-particles, and the nega-
tive energy particles, when properly interpreted, describe anti-particles of
positive energy.
So the equations are very smart. When you find some laws in mathe-
matical form, you have to follow the mathematical consequences; you have
no choice. Here was Dirac, who was not looking for anti-particles. He was
trying to describe electrons, but the theory said there are two roots to the
quadratic equation and the second root is mathematically as significant as
the first one. In trying to accommodate and interpret it, Dirac was led to
the positron, the electron’s anti-particle.

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is less likely to be localized, and, on the whole, it is not so severe as
the terrible torture of the neoplasm. Irregular but very decided febrile
phenomena are more likely to be present in meningitis than in tumor.
Like brain tumor, tubercular meningitis of the convexity may give
psychical disturbances, palsies, local spasms, general convulsions,
sensory disturbances, peculiar disorders of the special senses, etc.;
but these symptoms in the former usually come on more irregularly
and are accompanied less frequently with paroxysmal exacerbations
of headache, vomiting, vertigo, etc. Tubercular meningitis of the base
can be more readily distinguished from cases of tumor by the fact
that one cranial nerve after another is likely to become involved in
the diffusing inflammatory process. Tubercular meningitis is of
shorter duration than the majority of cases of brain tumor, and in it
delirium and mental confusion come on more frequently and earlier.
A history and physical evidences of more or less generalized
tuberculosis favor the diagnosis of tubercular meningitis. In both
affections the ophthalmoscope may reveal choked disc or
descending neuritis. It will be seen that the differentiation between
the affections is not always very clear, although in some cases the
decision may be quickly reached from a study of the points here
suggested.
Some of the forms of chronic hydrocephalus are difficult to

distinguish from tumors, especially gliomata. In hydrocephalus, when
not the result of, or not accompanied by, tubercular meningitis, the
disease advances more slowly and with less irritative symptoms than
in cases of tumor. Headache, vertigo, vomiting, and the other
symptoms of meningeal irritation are not so frequently present,
although the ophthalmoscopic appearances are often the same.
Rosenthal speaks of the necessity of diagnosticating brain tumor

from the chronic cerebral softening of Durand-Fardel, from acquired
cerebral atrophy, and the cerebral hypertrophy of children. An
elementary knowledge of the general symptomatology of intracranial
tumors will, however, be sufficient to prevent mistakes of
differentiation in these cases. Neither of these affections presents
the violent paroxysmal symptoms, the affections of the special
senses, or the severe motor and sensory phenomena of intracranial
growths.
Acute mania and paretic dementia are sometimes confounded with

intracranial growths. A case of brain tumor is more likely to be
regarded as one of acute mania than the reverse. In some
comparatively rare instances in the course of their sufferings the
cases of tumor become maniacal, but even a superficial study of
general symptomatology in such a case will be sufficient to clear up
the doubt.
Paretic dements are occasionally supposed to be cases of brain

tumor, because of the epileptiform attacks and isolated pareses
which occur as the disorder progresses. It is only necessary to refer
to this matter, as the mistake would not be likely to be made by one
having any familiarity with dementia paralytica.
L. J. Lautenbach, in a recent communication to the Philadelphia

Neurological Society, which embodied a large number of
ophthalmoscopic examinations of the insane at the State Insane
Hospital, Norristown, Pennsylvania, and the Insane Department of
the Philadelphia Hospital, and also the results of the investigations of
the fundus of the eye in cases of insanity by other observers,
showed that about 16 per cent. of cases of acute mania presented
well-defined papillitis—a condition which he described as one of
swelling and suffusion of the disc, corresponding to cases reported
as choked disc, descending neuritis, and severe congestion of the
optic nerve. No reports of post-mortem examinations were made of
these cases, but they did not present the clinical history of meningitis
or brain tumor. It therefore follows that the existence of papillitis in a
case of acute mania does not necessarily point to a gross lesion,
such as tumor or meningitis.
In the early stage of posterior spinal sclerosis some of the symptoms

of the initial or middle stage of intracranial growths in certain
positions are likely to be present; more particularly, such eye
symptoms as diplopia from deficiency or paresis of the ocular
muscles and disorders of the bladder may mislead. In posterior
spinal sclerosis, however, some at least of the pathognomonic
symptoms of locomotor ataxia, such as lancinating pains, absent
knee-jerk, or Argyle-Robertson pupil, will almost invariably be
present. Those tumors of the cerebellum, pons, tubercular
quadrigemina, etc. which give rise to ataxic manifestations are
usually readily discriminated from posterior spinal sclerosis by the
headache, vomiting, and other general symptoms of brain tumor,
which rarely occur in ataxia. It is far more difficult to separate non-
irritative lesions of certain cerebellar and adjoining regions from the
spinal disorder.
Strange to say, one of the most frequent mistakes of diagnosis is

that which arises from confounding brain tumor with grave hysteria.
In several of our tabulated cases the patients at different periods of
the disease and by various physicians had been set down as
suffering from hysteria. One of Hughes-Bennett's cases (Case 30), a
wayward, hysterical girl of neurotic family, had had her case
diagnosticated as hysteria by one of the highest medical authorities
of Europe, and yet after death a tumor the size of a hen's egg was
found in the cerebrum. In a case reported by Eskridge (Case 76)
hysterical excitement and special hysterical manifestations were of
frequent occurrence, and misled her physicians for a time. Eskridge
remarks, in the detailed report of this case, that to such a degree
was the emotional faculty manifest that had no ocular lesion been
present there would have been great danger of mistaking the case
for one of pure hysteria; and, indeed, a careful physician of many
years' experience, not knowing the condition of the eyes,
pronounced the woman's condition to be pregnancy complicated by
hysteria. A close study of such objective phenomena as choked
discs and paralysis will usually be of the most value.
Even malaria has been confounded in diagnosis with brain tumor.

Holt37 reports a case which presented the history of a fever, at first
periodical, with marked splenic enlargement, great muscular
soreness, and incomplete paralysis, which was diagnosticated to be
chronic malarial poison. The patient for a time improved under
quinine, but eventually grew worse, and on an autopsy a glioma-
sarcoma was found on the inferior surface of the cerebellum. Several
years since a physician about fifty years of age was brought to one
of us for consultation, and in his case a similar mistake had been
made. The case was a clear one of tumor, probably cerebellar, with
headache, neuritis, vertigo, and other general symptoms, which
pointed to an organic lesion. This patient, who came from a malarial
district in the West, had doctored himself, and had been treated by
others with enormous doses of quinine and arsenic.
37 Med. Record, March 1, 1883.
LOCAL DIAGNOSIS.—Niemeyer would hardly say to-day that the

brilliant diagnoses where the precise location of a tumor is fully
confirmed by autopsy are not usually due to the acumen of the
observer, but are cases of lucky diagnosis. It can be asserted with
confidence that the exact situation of a tumor can be indicated during
life in at least two or three locations. Great caution should be
exercised, as insisted upon by Nothnagel,38 in the localization of
tumors of the brain, because, among other reasons, of the frequent
polypus-like extension of such tumors.
38 Wien. Med. Bl., 1, 1882.
The subject of local diagnosis can be approached in several ways,

according to the method of subdividing the brain into regions. Thus,
Rosenthal discusses, in the first place, tumors of the convexity of the
brain, but as this is a very general term, covering portions of several
lobes, we can see no advantage in making such a subdivision.
A few general remarks might be made in the first place, however,

with regard to the general symptoms presented by surface or cortical
growths as compared with those which are produced by deep-seated
neoplasms. The direct or indirect involvement of the membranes in
nearly all cortical tumors makes the symptoms of irritation referable
to these envelopes very numerous and important.
The various centres so called, motor, sensory, and of the special

senses, which have their highest differentiation in the cerebral
cortex, are each and all represented by well-defined tracts of white
matter in the centrum ovale and capsules which connect these
centres with the lower brain, the spinal cord, and the periphery of the
organism. It therefore follows that symptoms produced by localized
lesions of the cortex will be reproduced in other cases by those of
the tracts which go to or come from these centres. We may thus
have a monoplegia or a hemiplegia, a partial anæsthesia or a
hemianæsthesia, a hemianopsia, a word-blindness or word-
deafness, a loss of power to perceive odors or to appreciate
gustatory sensations, from a peculiarly limited tumor or other lesions
of either the gray centres of the cortex or of the white matter of the
central area of the brain; but these specialized symptoms are more
likely to arise from cortical lesions in the case of intracranial
neoplasms, because of the much greater frequency with which these
adventitious products arise from membranes and therefore involve
the cortex.
Peculiar symptoms arise in the case of lesions of the centrum ovale

from the fact that it contains not only projection-fibres which more or
less directly connect cerebral centres with the outer world; but also a
system of commissural fibres which unite corresponding regions of
the two cerebral hemispheres by way of the corpus callosum and
commissures, and a system of association-fibres which connect
different convolutions together, in special cases even those which
are situated remotely from each other, but are associated in function.
It is evident, therefore, as asserted by Starr,39 that a peculiar set of

additional symptoms will be referable to the destruction or irritation of
these commissural and association fibres. For example, failure to
perform easily corresponding bilateral motions in face, hands, or feet
would indicate some obstruction to conduction in the commissural
fibres joining the motor convolutions. “Integrity of both occipital
lobes, and simultaneous, connected, and harmonious action in both,
are necessary to the perfect perception of the whole of any object
when the eyes are fixed upon one point of that object.” Starr gives
the following examples of the methods of detecting a lesion of such
fibres: “In the case of the fibres associating the auditory with the
motor speech-area the symptoms to be elicited seem to be very
simple. Can the patient talk correctly? Can he repeat at once a word
spoken to him? These are the questions which any one will ask who
examines a case of aphasia. But this is not all. The patient must be
further questioned. Can he read understandingly to himself, and tell
what he has read? This will test the occipito-temporal tract. Can he
read aloud? This will test the occipito-temporo-frontal tract. Can he
write what he sees? This will test his occipito-central tract. Can he
write what he hears? This will test the temporo-central tract. Can he
write what he says, speaking to himself in a whisper? This will test
his fronto-central tract. Can he name an odor or a color? Brill has
recorded40 a case of lesion of the cuneus associated with color-
blindness to green, and he states that the patient had difficulty in
naming various colors on account of the presence of a slight degree
of amnesic aphasia.... Can the patient write the name of an odor?
Can he tell how a surface feels—smooth, or warm, or heavy? Such
questions as these will suggest themselves at once to any one who
studies the association of ideas subjectively.
“Take as an example a lesion in the centrum ovale of the occipito-

temporal region. Such a lesion will produce hemianopsia, because it
involves the visual tract of the projection system. It may also produce
a peculiar mental condition known as word-blindness, in which the
patient is no longer able to associate a word or letter seen with its
corresponding sound or with the motion necessary to write it.
Charcot has reported a case of this kind.... The man, who was a very
intelligent merchant, was suddenly seized with right hemianopsia
while playing billiards, and was surprised to find that he saw but one-
half of the ball and of the table. Soon after he had occasion to write a
letter, and after writing it was surprised to find that he could not read
what he had just written. He found, however, that on tracing
individual letters with the pen or fingers he became conscious of the
letters—a few letters (r, s, t, x, y, z), however, being an exception to
this rule. When a book was given him to read he would trace out the
forms of the letters with some rapidity, and thus manage to make out
the words. If his hands were put behind him and he was asked to
read, he would still be observed to put his fingers in motion and trace
the letters in the air. Speech was in no way interfered with, but
reading aloud was only accomplished, like reading to himself, by the
aid of muscular sense. Here, then, was an example of a lesion which
had separated entirely the tract associating sight with speech—viz.
the occipito-temporal tract—but had left intact the tract associating
sight with muscular sense—viz. the occipito-central tract.”
39 Med. Record, vol. xxix. No. 7, Feb. 13, 1886.
40 Amer. Journ. of Neurology, Feb., 1883.
Our tabulated cases, although collected for the purpose of studying

inductively the phenomena of intracranial tumors from all points of
view, have been arranged to indicate, so far as is possible, the
special symptoms which are produced by growths in special
localities. Thus we have made thirteen subdivisions:
I. Superior antero-frontal region (5 cases).—The lateral and

median aspects of the hemisphere from the anterior tip
backward to the posterior thirds of the first three frontal
convolutions, the region roughly bounded by the coronal suture.
II. Inferior antero-frontal or orbital region (5 cases).—From the

anterior tip of hemisphere at the base backward to the optic
chiasm and Sylvian fissures.
III. Rolandic region or motor cortex (15 cases).—From antero-

frontal region backward nearly to mid-parietal lobe, including
posterior thirds of superior middle and inferior frontal
convolutions, ascending frontal and ascending parietal
convolutions, and anterior extremities of superior and inferior
parietal convolutions—lateral and median aspects.
IV. Centrum ovale, fronto-parietal region (5 cases).
V. Postero-parietal region (5 cases).—From Rolandic region to

parieto-occipital fissure, including posterior two-thirds of the
superior and inferior parietal convolutions and the præcuneus.
VI. Occipital region (9 cases).—Occipital lobe—cortex and
centrum ovale.
VII. Temporo-sphenoidal region (4 cases).—Temporo-

sphenoidal lobe.
VIII. Basal ganglia and adjoining regions (19 cases).—Caudate

nucleus, lenticular nucleus, optic thalamus, internal capsule,
corpora quadrigemina, and ventricles except the fourth.
IX. Cerebellum (9 cases).
X. Floor of fourth ventricle (6 cases).—(Directly or indirectly

involved.)
XI. Pons varolii and medulla oblongata (8 cases).
XII. Crura cerebri (3 cases).
XIII. Middle region of base of brain and floor of skull (7 cases).—

In the main, from optic chiasm backward to pons, in the middle
basilar region, in some instances extending beyond this area in
special directions.
Tumors of the antero-frontal regions can be diagnosticated with

considerable certainty, partly by a study of the actual symptoms
observed and partly by a process of exclusion. Headache of the
usual type, vertigo, choked discs, inflammatory and trophic affections
of the eyes, widely varying body-temperature, and high head-
temperature are among the most positive manifestations. Mental
slowness and uncertainty seem to be greater in these cases than in
others. Mental disturbance of a peculiar character unquestionably
occurs in cases of tumor, as of other lesions, in this region. This
disturbance is exhibited chiefly in some peculiarity of character,
showing want of control or want of attention. The speech-defects
present in a number of cases were rather due to the change in
mental condition than to any involvement of speech-centres. Under
Symptomatology has been given in some detail a study of the
psychical condition in one case of antero-frontal tumor. The absence
of true paralysis and of anæsthesia is characteristic. Nystagmus and
spasm in the muscles of the neck and forearm were present in one
instance, but usually marked spasm is not to be expected. Vomiting
is less frequent than in tumors situated farther back. Facial and other
forms of paresis occasionally are present, but are not marked, and
are probably due to involvement by pressure or destruction of
surrounding tissue of neighboring motor areas. Hemianopsia, such
as was observed in Case 10, showed involvement of the orbital
region. Tumors of the inferior antero-frontal lobe give the same
positive and negative characteristics as those of the superior frontal
region, with the involvement in addition of smell and certain special
ocular symptoms, such as hemianopsia.
Tumors of the motor zone of the cerebral cortex, the region

surrounding and extending for some distance on each side of the
fissure of Rolando, can be diagnosticated with great positiveness: 15
of the 100 cases are examples of tumors of this region, and in many
of these the diagnosis of the location of the growth was accurately
made during life. Localized spasm in peripheral muscles; localized
peripheral paralysis; neuro-retinitis or choked discs; headache; pain
elicited or increased by percussion of the head near the seat of the
tumor; and elevated temperature of the head, particularly in the
region corresponding to the position of the growth,—are the
prominent indications. The spasmodic symptoms usually precede
the paralysis in these cases. The spasm is often local, and generally
begins in the same part in different attacks—in the fingers or toes or
face of one side.
A study of cases of tumor localized to the cortical motor area will

show that in almost any case a local twitching convulsion preceded
the development of paresis or paralysis. Hughlings-Jackson41 reports
a case of sarcoma, a hard osseous mass on the right side of the
head, of eighteen years' standing, subjacent to which was a tumor
the size of a small orange growing from the dura mater. The patient
was a woman aged forty-nine, whose symptoms were very severe
headache and double optic neuritis, with paresis in left leg, followed
by slighter paresis in left arm and left face. A very slow, gradual
hemiplegia came on by pressure on the cortex without any fit.
Jackson says this is the only case which he has seen in which the
hemiplegia has not followed a convulsion where the lesion has been
on the surface. In all very slowly oncoming hemiplegias which he has
seen, except this one, the tumor was in the motor tract.
41 Medical Times and Gazette, London, 1874, vol. i. 152.
As the white matter of the centrum ovale and capsules represents

simply tracts connecting cerebral centres with lower levels of the
nervous system, with each other, or with the opposite hemisphere,
lesions of this portion of the cerebrum will closely resemble those
cortical lesions to which the tracts are related. We have already
referred to the peculiar symptoms referable to involvement of
commissural and association fibres. Tumors of the centrum ovale of
the fronto-parietal region, of which five examples are reported in the
table, vary in symptomatology according to their exact location.
Those situated in the white matter in close proximity to the
ascending convolutions give symptoms closely resembling those
which result from lesions of the adjoining cortical motor centres. In
the cases of Osler, Seguin, and Pick (Cases 26, 27, 28, 29) spastic
symptoms in the limbs of one side of the body, with or without loss of
consciousness, were marked symptoms. In two of these cases some
paresis preceded the occurrence of the spasms. They did not,
however, fully bear out the idea of Jackson that the hemiparesis or
hemiplegia in tumors of the motor tract comes on slowly before the
appearance of spasm.
Tumors of the postero-parietal region present some characteristic

peculiarities. In several cases tumors were located in this region, and
in several others the white matter of the parietal lobe was softened
as the result of the obliteration of blood-vessels by the tumors. In
general terms, we might say that hemianæsthesia, partial or
complete, and impairment of sight and hearing on the side opposite
to the lesions, seemed to be the most constant peculiarities.
Tumors and other lesions of the occipital lobes have in the last few
years received extended attention, and, where possible, exact study,
because of the opportunities which they furnish for corroborating the
work of the experimental physiologists. It is unfortunate that the
records of older cases do not furnish the exact detail which would
render these tumors among the most important and interesting to be
met with in the brain: some cases have, however, been observed
with great care, and a few such are included in the table. To
understand the special significance of the symptoms of such tumors,
it will be well briefly to state some of the well-established facts about
the function of the occipital cortex. The investigations of Gratiolet
and Wernicke especially have proved that this surface of the brain is
in direct connection with the fibres (1) which are continued upward
from the posterior or sensory columns of the cord through the
posterior portion of the internal capsule, and (2) with the expansion
of the optic nerve, or the tract which passes, according to Wernicke,
from the thalamus to the occipital lobe. There is but a partial
decussation of the optic nerves at the chiasm, so that each half of
the brain receives fibres from both eyes. This arrangement is best
stated by Munk (quoted by Starr) as follows: “Each occipital lobe is in
functional relation with both eyes in such a manner that
corresponding halves of both retinal areas are projected upon the
cortex of the lobe of the like-named side; e.g. destruction of the left
lobe produces loss of function of the left halves of both retinæ.” This,
of course, causes the right halves of both fields of vision to appear
black. This condition is known as lateral homonymous hemianopsia,
and was exhibited in several of the tabulated cases (Cases 40, 41,
42, and 43). It is probable that the dimness of the right eye recorded
in Case 38 was really right lateral hemianopsia, as patients mistake
this condition for blindness of that eye alone which is on the side
upon which the visual fields are blank. It follows that this condition of
the eyes will be caused by a destructive unilateral lesion at any point
upon the optic tract behind the chiasm; and its exact nature and
location are to be inferred from other corroborating symptoms.
Among these corroborating symptoms, as will be inferred from the
other functions of the occipital cortex, is especially to be considered
partial hemiplegia and partial hemianæsthesia. This was observed in
Cases 38, 40. These most characteristic localizing symptoms of
occipital tumor have usually others, which, if not of such special
importance, yet help to form a special complexus. Among these
diffused headache is referred to by some writers as characteristic,
but it seems to us that a localized headache, with pain on percussion
over the affected region, is the only kind in this as in other regions
which could have special diagnostic importance. Affections of
hearing are recorded by some. It is not at all uncommon to have an
incomplete hemiplegia and local paralysis. In Case 41 complete
hemiplegia with facial paralysis is recorded. Local palsies, ocular and
facial, are recorded in Cases 36, 37, 38, and 39. It is doubtless by
transmitted pressure, or by extension of the tumor, or the softening
caused by it, toward the motor fibres, that these more or less
incomplete paralyses are caused. The general symptoms, such as
vertigo, vomiting, and convulsions, are frequently present with
tumors of the occipital lobes. We are at a loss to know upon what
data of theory or experience Rosenthal bases his statement that
psychic disorders are more common in occipital tumors than in those
of the anterior and middle lobes, unless he refers simply to the
hebetude and late coma which seem to come generally in these
cases.
Tumors of the temporo-sphenoidal region, so far as we have been

able to study them, present few characteristic features. Physiology
seems to point to the upper temporal convolutions as the cerebral
centres for hearing; thus, according to Starr,42 “disturbances of
hearing, either actual deafness in one ear or hallucinations of sound
on one side (voices, music, etc.), may indicate disease in the first
temporal convolution of the opposite side. Failure to recognize or
remember spoken language is characteristic of disease in the first
temporal convolution of the left side in right-handed persons, and of
the right side in left-handed persons. Failure to recognize written or
printed language has accompanied the disease of the angular gyrus
at the junction of the temporal and occipital regions of the left side in
three foreign and one American case.” In two of our four cases of
tumor in the temporo-sphenoidal region disturbances of hearing
were noted, but in none was the sense studied with sufficient care to
throw any light upon the actual character of the disorder. The case of
Allan McLane Hamilton (Case 47), already referred to under
Symptomatology, was interesting because of the presence of a
peculiar aura connected with the sense of smell. Stupidity, want of
energy, drowsiness, and general mental failure were marked in
tumors of this region.
42 American Med. Sci., N. S. vol. lxxxviii., July, 1884.
Tumors of the motor ganglia of the brain are seldom strictly localized
to one or the other of these bodies. Growths occurring in this region
usually involve one or more of the ganglia and adjacent tracts, and
can only be localized by a process of careful exclusion, assisted
perhaps by a few special symptoms. Paralysis or paresis on the side
opposite to the lesion usually occurs in cases of tumor of either the
caudate nucleus or lenticular nucleus; but whether this symptom is
due to the destruction of the ganglia themselves, or to destruction of
or pressure upon the adjoining capsule, has not yet been clearly
determined. In a case of long-standing osteoma of the left corpus
striatum (Case 49) the patient exhibited the appearance of an
atrophic hemiplegia: his arm and leg, which had been contractured
since childhood, were atrophied and shortened, marked bone-
changes having occurred. Another case showed only paresis of the
face of the opposite side. Clonic spasms were present in two cases,
in one being chiefly confined to the upper extremities of the face. In
this case paralysis was absent. Disturbances of intellect and speech
have been observed in tumors of this region. According to
Rosenthal, aphasic disturbances of speech must be due to lesions of
those fibres which enter the lenticular nucleus from the cortex of the
island of Reil.
Tumors of the optic thalamus usually cause anæsthesia or other

disturbances of sensation in the extremities of the opposite side.
They sometimes show third-nerve palsies of the same side in
association with hemiplegia on the opposite side, these symptoms
being probably due to pressure owing to the proximity of the
neighboring cerebral crus. Speech and gait in such tumors are also
often affected.
Tumors of the corpora quadrigemina give rise to disturbances of

sight and special ocular symptoms, such as difficulty in the lateral
movement of the eyes. Spasms were usually present. Automatic
repetition of words was observed in one case, nystagmus in another,
and diminished sexual inclinations in a third. In other cases peculiar
ataxic movements or a tendency to move backward were noted;
other symptoms, such as spasm, vomiting, headache, were general
phenomena of intracranial tumors; still others, such as hemiplegia,
hemiparesis, or anæsthesia, were probably simply due to the
position of the growth in the neighborhood of motor ganglia and
tracts.
Tumors of the cerebellum have some special symptoms, which also

derive importance from their characteristic grouping. The symptoms
which depend upon the lesion in the organ must be distinguished
from those which are caused by pressure upon adjacent parts,
although these latter symptoms are very important as corroborative
evidence of the location. Among the special symptoms is occipital
headache (often not present), especially when the pain is increased
by percussion about the occiput or by pressure upon the upper part
of the neck. In these cases weakness of the gait (Case 75) and other
motor phenomena, which are usually described as inco-ordination,
are of comparatively frequent occurrence. They are not so much true
inco-ordination as tremor of the limbs, rotation (which is usually only
partial), and the so-called movements of manége. These movements
were present in one-third of the cases collected by Leven and Oliver
(quoted by Rosenthal). Staggering gait is also present, and may be
dependent upon the vertigo, which is apt to be unusually intense in
this kind of intracranial tumor (Cases 69 and 71). The symptoms
caused by pressure of cerebellar tumors upon adjacent organs are
of importance, because in conjunction with the special symptoms
they acquire unusual significance. Sight and hearing are the two
special senses apt to be affected, because of pressure upon the
geniculate bodies and upon the auditory nerve or its nucleus.
Descending optic neuritis, progressing to total blindness, and varied
forms of oculo-motor paralysis may be present. Strabismus
convergens has been said to be a symptom, caused by the paralysis
of the sixth nerve. A hemiplegia and hemianæsthesia result
sometimes from pressure upon the tracts in the pons or medulla.
Continued pressure upon the medulla may eventually, toward the
termination of the case, according to Rosenthal, cause disorders of
the pulse and of respiration and deglutition. This author gives
absence of psychical symptoms as negative evidence which counts
for tumors of the cerebellum, but our table shows several instances
(Cases 70, 71, 74, and 76) in which were present hebetude,
incoherence, or hysteroidal symptoms. It is probable, however, that
such symptoms are not as common and distinct as in tumors of the
cerebrum.
Certain symptoms—or, better, groups of symptoms—characterize

tumors of the pons varolii, and serve to render the local diagnosis
comparatively certain. These depend upon the fact that the pons
combines in itself, or has on its immediate borders, nerve-tracts,
both motor and sensory, in great complexity, from or to almost every
special or general region of the body. Among these symptoms may
especially be mentioned alternating and crossed hemiplegia,
paralysis of eye-muscles (strabismus), paresis of tongue, dysphagia,
anæsthesia (sometimes of the crossed type), and painful affections
of the trigeminus. Vaso-motor disturbances have also been noted. In
one case persistent and uncontrollable epistaxis hastened the fatal
termination of the case.
Conjugate deviation of the eyes, with rotation of the head, as stated

under Symptomatology, is a condition often present in tumors of the
pons varolii as well as in the early stages of apoplectic attacks. A
paper43 has been published by one of us on a case of tumor of the
pons, and from it we will give some discussion of this subject.
43 Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, July, 1881; Case 84 of Table.
Vulpian was probably the first to study thoroughly conjugate

deviation. The sign, when associated with disease of the pons, was
supposed by him and by others to be connected in some way with
the rotatory manifestations exhibited by animals after certain injuries
to the pons. Transverse section across the longitudinal fibres of the
anterior portions of the pons produces, according to Schiff, deviation
of the anterior limbs (as in section of a cerebral peduncle), with
extreme flexion of the body in a horizontal plane toward the opposite
side, and very imperfect movements of the posterior limbs on the
other side. Rotation in a very small circle develops in consequence
of this paralysis.44 The movements of partial rotation are caused,
according to Schiff, by a partial lesion of the most posterior of the
transverse fibres of the pons, which is followed in animals by rotation
of the cervical vertebræ (with the lateral part of the head directed
downward, the snout directed obliquely upward and to the side).
44 Rosenthal's Diseases of the Nervous System, vol. i. p. 125.
This deviation, both of head and eyes, occurs, however, not only
from lesions of the pons and cerebellar peduncles, but also from
disease or injury of various parts of the cerebrum—of the cortex,
centrum ovale, ganglia, capsules, and cerebral peduncles. It is
always a matter of interest, and sometimes of importance, with
reference especially to prognosis, to determine what is the probable
seat of lesion as indicated by the deviation and rotation.
Lockhart Clarke, Prevost, Brown-Séquard, and Bastian, among

others, have devoted considerable attention to this subject. To
Prevost we owe an interesting memoir. Bastian, in his work on
Paralysis from Brain Disease, summarizes the subject up to the date
of publication (1875). Ferrier, Priestly Smith, and Hughlings-Jackson
have investigated the relations which cortical lesions bear to the
deviation of the eyes and head.
It has been pointed out by several of the observers alluded to that

when the lesion is of the cerebrum the deviation is usually toward the
side of the brain affected, and therefore away from the side of the
body which is paralyzed. In a case of ordinary left hemiplegia it is
toward the right; in one of right hemiplegia, toward the left. In several
cases of limited disease of the pons, however, it has been observed
that the deviation has been away from the side of the lesion. In our
case (Case 84) the conjugate deviation was to the right, while the
tumor was entirely to the left of the median line, thus carrying out
what appears to be the usual rule with reference to lesions of the
pons.
During the life of the patient it was a question whether the case was
not one of oculo-motor monoplegia or monospasm from lesion of
cortical centres. It is probable, as Hughlings-Jackson believes, that
ocular and indeed all other movements are in some way represented
in the cerebral convolutions. In the British Medical Journal for June
2, 1877, Jackson discusses the subject of disorders of ocular
movements from disease of nerve-centres. The right corpus striatum
is damaged, left hemiplegia results, and the eyes and head often
turn to the right for some hours or days. The healthy nervous
arrangement for this lateral movement has been likened by Foville to
the arrangement of reins for driving two horses. What occurs in
lateral deviation is analogous to dropping one rein; the other pulls
the heads of both horses to one side. The lateral deviation shows,
according to Jackson, that after the nerve-fibres of the ocular nerve-
trunks have entered the central nervous system they are probably
redistributed into several centres. The nerve-fibres of the ocular
muscles are rearranged in each cerebral hemisphere in complete
ways for particular movements of both eyeballs. There is no such
thing as paralysis of the muscles supplied by the third nerve or sixth
nerve from disease above the crus cerebri, but the movement for
turning the two eyes is represented still higher than the corpus
striatum.
It would seem a plausible theory that we have in this conjugate

deviation of the eyes and head a distinct motor analogue to the
hemianopsia which results from certain lesions high in the optic
tracts. The fact that we never have a distinct oculo-motor
monoplegia from high lesions, but always a lateral deviation of both
eyes in the same direction, suggests that only a partial decussation
of the fibres of the motor nerves of the eyes occurs, and that each
hemisphere does not control the whole motor apparatus of the
opposite eye, but half of this apparatus in each eye.
Alternating hemiplegia, or paralysis of one side of the body followed

by a paralysis of the other side, is observed in tumors of the pons,
and is readily accounted for by the close proximity of the motor
tracts, a lesion which affects one tract first being very likely, sooner
or later, to involve, partially at least, the other, as in Case 84. Cross-
paralysis of the face and body may be seen, and like crossed
anæsthesia (seen also in Case 84) depends upon the fact that both
motor and sensory fibres to the limbs do not decussate at the same
level as these fibres to the face. Trigeminal neuralgia, from
involvement of the nerve by pressure or otherwise, is recorded in this
characteristic group of symptoms. The association of the general
with the local paralytic symptoms in the manner stated, the
involvement of sensory functions, and the deviation of the eyes and
head serve to distinguish tumors of the pons from cortical or high
cerebral local lesions. Cases 81, 84, 89, and 90 illustrate these facts
in various ways. Case 82, involving the floor of the fourth ventricle,
appears to be an exception, as the deviation is toward the side of the
lesion.
The special localizing symptoms which indicate a tumor of the crus

cerebri are paralysis of the oculo-motor nerve upon the same side as
the tumor, and especially the tendency of this paralysis to pass to the
other side later in the case; disturbance of the innervation of the
bladder; and involvement of the vaso-motor functions. In considering
these symptoms in detail it becomes very evident why we have the
alternating paralysis of the two oculo-motor nerves. As this trunk
arises from the crus, it is in direct risk of injury by the neoplasm, and
the extension of the new growth even slightly must later in the case
involve its fellow. Therefore a ptosis, followed by a similar symptom
on the other side, or other third-nerve symptoms passing from one
side to the other, with other characteristic and corroborating
symptoms, furnish strong evidence of this lesion, as in Case 93.
Rosenthal refers especially to involvement of the bladder, as
difficulty of micturition, but the three cases in the table do not present
such a symptom. He says that experiments prove that irritation of the
peduncle is followed by contraction of the bladder, and that it has
been shown that lesions of the crus abolish the influence of the will
upon micturition. As this occurs at all levels of the cord, its
occurrence with lesions of the crus is not to be considered a very
distinctive symptom. The involvement of the vaso-motor functions is
one of much interest. Its occurrence is not recorded in the cases of
tumors of the crus included in the table, but in Case 94 of twin
tumors in front of the optic chiasm it is recorded that profuse
perspiration occurred. We believe that the centres for the vaso-
motors are not well determined: they seem to be affected by various
lesions, especially about the base of the brain. Among other
corroborating symptoms may be mentioned rotatory movements and
deviation of the head: these rotatory movements are probably
caused by the action of the sound side not antagonized by the
muscles of the paralyzed side. Lateral deviation of the head is
referred to by some. Partial or complete hemiplegia, with facial
paralysis on the side opposite to the lesion, may occur; whereas the
oculo-motor palsy is seen on the same side as the lesion. Diminution
of sensibility happens on the opposite side, or occasionally pain in
the legs, as recorded in Case 92. It is of interest to note, with
Rosenthal, that the reactions of degeneration are not likely to appear
in the facial muscles in this lesion, as it occurs above the nucleus of
that nerve, and thus causes a true centric paralysis. The absence of
psychic symptoms is usually to be noted.
Tumors anywhere in the middle portion of the base of the brain and
floor of the skull, the region of the origin of the various cranial
nerves, can of course be diagnosticated with comparative ease by a
study of the various forms of paralysis and spasms in the distribution
of these nerves, in connection with other special and general
symptoms. Varieties of alternate hemiplegia are to be looked for, and
also isolated or associated palsies of the oculo-motor, pathetic,
facial, trigeminal, and other cranial nerves. In studying these palsies
it must be borne in mind that although the lesions producing them
are intracranial, the paralyses themselves are peripheral.
In most cases apparent exceptions to the ordinary rules as to
localization are capable of easy explanation; thus, for instance, in a
case of tumor of the occipital lobe (Case 44) numbness and pain
were present in the right arm, although the tumor was situated in the
right hemisphere. The tumor was of considerable size, and may
have affected by pressure the adjoining sensory tracts.
Hughlings-Jackson45 reports a case of tubercular tumor, half the size

of a filbert, in the pons under the floor of the fourth ventricle, in the
upper third of the left side. A much smaller nodule was found in the
right half of the pons. This patient, a man thirty-three years old, had
inconstant headache, a gradual incomplete hemiplegia of the right
side, with also paresis of the left masseter and right lower face.
Sensation was diminished in the right arm, leg, and trunk. The optic
discs were normal; the left pupil was smaller than the right. There
was lateral deviation of the eyes to the right. Diplopia was present in
some positions, and one image was always above the other. Aphasic
symptoms were also present. Especial interest attaches to the fact
that the facial paralysis in this case was on the same side as the
hemiplegia, opposite that of the lesion; whereas usually in lesions of
the pons facial paralysis is on the side opposite the hemiplegia. This
is explained by the fact that the tracts of the facial nerve decussate
in the pons below its upper third, and therefore in this case the lesion
caught the nerve-tracts above their decussation.
45 Med. Times and Gazette, London, 1874, p. 6.
PROGNOSIS.—The prognosis in intracranial tumors is of course

usually in the highest degree unfavorable. The early recognition of
the existence of a tumor syphilitic in origin will enable a
comparatively favorable prognosis to be made. It is far from correct,
however, to suppose that all or a majority of the cases of known
syphilitic origin are likely to have a favorable termination. Amidon46
puts this matter very correctly as follows: “Has a destructive lesion
occurred? and if so, where is it located, and what is its extent?
Indications of a destructive lesion should lead one to a cautious
prognosis as regards perfect recovery, while the prognosis for life

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Preface to the Expanded Edition xiii

1. The Structure of Mechanics 1

2. Motion in Higher Dimensions 15

4.5 Inclined plane 57

5. Law of Conservation of Energy 70

7. The Kepler Problem 101

8. Multi-particle Dynamics 118

9. Rotational Dynamics I 143

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In the lectures I sometimes refer to my Basic Training in Mathematics,

1.1 Introduction and some useful tips

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1.2 Kinematics and dynamics

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1.3 Average and instantaneous quantities

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Consider v̄, the average velocity of an object, given by

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1.4 Motion at constant acceleration

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are published as the Table of Integrals. I have a copy of such a table at

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In every situation where the body has an acceleration a, the location