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339-370/428-S/80018

FOREIGN
RELATIONS
OF THE

UNITED
STATES

1977–1980
VOLUME VI

SOVIET UNION

DEPARTMENT
OF
STATE

Washington
339-370/428-S/80018

Foreign Relations of the

United States, 1977–1980

Volume VI

Soviet Union

Editor Melissa Jane Taylor

General Editor Adam M. Howard

United States Government Printing Office

Washington
2013
339-370/428-S/80018

DEPARTMENT OF STATE

Office of the Historian

Bureau of Public Affairs

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office

Internet: bookstore.gpo.gov Phone: toll free (866) 512-1800; DC area (202) 512-1800
Fax: (202) 512-2250 Mail: Stop IDCC, Washington, DC 20402-0001
339-370/428-S/80018

About the Series

The Foreign Relations of the United States series presents the official
documentary historical record of major foreign policy decisions and
significant diplomatic activity of the United States Government. The
Historian of the Department of State is charged with the responsibility
for the preparation of the Foreign Relations series. The staff of the Office
of the Historian, Bureau of Public Affairs, under the direction of the
General Editor of the Foreign Relations series, plans, researches, com-
piles, and edits the volumes in the series. Secretary of State Frank B.
Kellogg first promulgated official regulations codifying specific stand-
ards for the selection and editing of documents for the series on March
26, 1925. These regulations, with minor modifications, guided the series
through 1991.
Public Law 102–138, the Foreign Relations Authorization Act, es-
tablished a new statutory charter for the preparation of the series,
which was signed by President George H.W. Bush on October 28, 1991.
Section 198 of P.L. 102–138 added a new Title IV to the Department of
State’s Basic Authorities Act of 1956 (22 U.S.C. 4351, et seq.).
The statute requires that the Foreign Relations series be a thorough,
accurate, and reliable record of major United States foreign policy deci-
sions and significant United States diplomatic activity. The volumes of
the series should include all records needed to provide comprehensive
documentation of major foreign policy decisions and actions of the
United States Government. The statute also confirms the editing prin-
ciples established by Secretary Kellogg: the Foreign Relations series is
guided by the principles of historical objectivity and accuracy; records
should not be altered or deletions made without indicating in the pub-
lished text that a deletion has been made; the published record should
omit no facts that were of major importance in reaching a decision; and
nothing should be omitted for the purposes of concealing a defect in
policy. The statute also requires that the Foreign Relations series be pub-
lished not more than 30 years after the events recorded. The editors are
convinced that this volume meets all regulatory, statutory, and scholar-
ly standards of selection and editing.
Sources for the Foreign Relations Series
The Foreign Relations statute requires that the published record in
the Foreign Relations series include all records needed to provide com-
prehensive documentation of major U.S. foreign policy decisions and
significant U.S. diplomatic activity. It further requires that government

III
339-370/428-S/80018

IV About the Series

agencies, departments, and other entities of the U.S. Government en-

gaged in foreign policy formulation, execution, or support cooperate
with the Department of State historians by providing full and complete
access to records pertinent to foreign policy decisions and actions and
by providing copies of selected records. Most of the sources consulted
in the preparation of this volume have been declassified and are avail-
able for review at the National Archives and Record Administration
(Archives II), in College Park, Maryland.
The editors of the Foreign Relations series have complete access to
all the retired records and papers of the Department of State: the central
files of the Department; the special decentralized files (“lot files”) of the
Department at the bureau, office, and division levels; the files of the De-
partment’s Executive Secretariat, which contain the records of interna-
tional conferences and high-level official visits, correspondence with
foreign leaders by the President and Secretary of State, and the memo-
randa of conversations between the President and the Secretary of State
and foreign officials; and the files of overseas diplomatic posts. All of
the Department’s central files for 1977–1981 are available in electronic
or microfilm formats at Archives II, and may be accessed using the
Access to Archival Databases (AAD) tool. Almost all of the Depart-
ment’s decentralized office files covering this period, which the Na-
tional Archives deems worthy of permanent retention, have been trans-
ferred to or are in the process of being transferred from the
Department’s custody to Archives II.
Research for Foreign Relations volumes is undertaken through spe-
cial access to restricted documents at the Jimmy Carter Presidential Li-
brary and other agencies. While all the material printed in this volume
has been declassified, some of it is extracted from still-classified docu-
ments. The staff of the Carter Library is processing and declassifying
many of the documents used in this volume, but they may not be avail-
able in their entirety at the time of publication. Presidential papers
maintained and preserved at the Carter Library include some of the
most significant foreign-affairs related documentation from White
House offices, the Department of State, and other federal agencies in-
cluding the National Security Council, the Central Intelligence Agency,
the Department of Defense, and the Joint Chiefs of Staff.
Editorial Methodology
The documents in this volume are presented chronologically ac-
cording to Washington time. Memoranda of conversation are placed
according to the time and date of the conversation, rather than the date
the memorandum was drafted.
Editorial treatment of the documents published in the Foreign Rela-
tions series follows Office style guidelines, supplemented by guidance
339-370/428-S/80018

About the Series V

from the General Editor and the Chief of the Editing and Publishing Di-
vision. The documents are reproduced as exactly as possible, including
marginalia or other notations, which are described in the footnotes.
Texts are transcribed and printed according to accepted conventions
for the publication of historical documents within the limitations of
modern typography. A heading has been supplied by the editors for
each document included in this volume. Spelling, capitalization, and
punctuation are retained as found in the original text, except that ob-
vious typographical errors are silently corrected. Other mistakes and
omissions in documents are corrected by bracketed insertions: a correc-
tion is set in italic type; an addition in roman type. Words and phrases
underlined in the source text are printed in italics. Abbreviations and
contractions are preserved as found in the original text, and a list of ab-
breviations is included in the front matter of each volume. In telegrams,
the number (including special designators such as secto) is printed at
the start of the text of the telegram.
Bracketed insertions are also used to indicate omitted text that
deals with an unrelated subject (in roman type) or that remains classi-
fied after declassification review (in italic type). The amount and,
where possible, the nature of the material not declassified has been
noted by indicating the number of lines or pages of text that were omit-
ted. Entire documents withheld for declassification purposes have been
accounted for and are listed with headings, source notes, and number
of pages not declassified in their chronological place. All brackets that
appear in the original text are so identified in footnotes. All ellipses are
in the original documents.
The first footnote to each document indicates the source of the doc-
ument, original classification, distribution, and drafting information.
This note also provides the background of important documents and
policies and indicates whether the President or his major policy ad-
visers read the document.
Editorial notes and additional annotation summarize pertinent
material not printed in the volume, indicate the location of additional
documentary sources, provide references to important related docu-
ments printed in other volumes, describe key events, and provide sum-
maries of and citations to public statements that supplement and eluci-
date the printed documents. Information derived from memoirs and
other first-hand accounts has been used when appropriate to supple-
ment or explicate the official record.
The numbers in the index refer to document numbers rather than
to page numbers.
Advisory Committee on Historical Diplomatic Documentation
The Advisory Committee on Historical Diplomatic Documenta-
tion, established under the Foreign Relations statute, reviews records,
339-370/428-S/80018

VI About the Series

advises, and makes recommendations concerning the Foreign Relations

series. The Advisory Committee monitors the overall compilation and
editorial process of the series and advises on all aspects of the prepara-
tion and declassification of the series. The Advisory Committee does
not necessarily review the contents of individual volumes in the series,
but it makes recommendations on issues that come to its attention and
reviews volumes as it deems necessary to fulfill its advisory and statu-
tory obligations.
Declassification Review
The Office of Information Programs and Services, Bureau of Ad-
ministration, conducted the declassification review for the Department
of State of the documents published in this volume. The review was
conducted in accordance with the standards set forth in Executive
Order 13526 on Classified National Security Information and appli-
cable laws.
The principle guiding declassification review is to release all infor-
mation, subject only to the current requirements of national security as
embodied in law and regulation. Declassification decisions entailed
concurrence of the appropriate geographic and functional bureaus in
the Department of State, other concerned agencies of the U.S. Govern-
ment, and the appropriate foreign governments regarding specific doc-
uments of those governments. The declassification review of this vol-
ume, which began in 2010 and was completed in 2012, resulted in the
decision to withhold 1 document in full, excise a paragraph or more in 1
document, and make minor excisions of less than a paragraph in 16
documents.
The Office of the Historian is confident, on the basis of the research
conducted in preparing this volume and as a result of the declassifica-
tion review process described above, that the documentation and edito-
rial notes presented here provide a thorough, accurate, and reliable—
given the limitations of space—record of the Carter administration’s
policy toward the Soviet Union.
Adam M. Howard, Ph.D. Stephen P. Randolph, Ph.D.
General Editor The Historian

Bureau of Public Affairs

December, 2013
339-370/428-S/80018

Preface
Structure and Scope of the Foreign Relations Series
This volume is part of a Foreign Relations subseries documenting
the most important foreign policy issues of the Jimmy Carter adminis-
tration. As with previous Soviet Union volumes in the Foreign Relations
series, this volume provides a snapshot of the global character of Cold
War politics. Therefore, this volume is best read in conjunction with
other volumes in the subseries, in order to understand the breadth and
scope of U.S.-Soviet relations throughout the world. The most impor-
tant of these volumes include: Foreign Relations, 1977–1980, volume VII,
Poland; Foreign Relations, 1977–1980, volume VIII, Arab-Israeli Dispute,
January 1977–August 1978; Foreign Relations, 1977–1980, volume IX,
Arab-Israeli Dispute, September 1978–December 1980; Foreign Rela-
tions, 1977–1980, volume XII, Afghanistan; Foreign Relations, 1977–1980,
volume XIII, China; and Foreign Relations, 1969–1976, volume XXXIII,
SALT II, 1972–1980.
Focus of Research and Principles of Selection for Foreign Relations,
1977–1980, Volume VI
This volume documents U.S. policy toward the Soviet Union, dem-
onstrating the growing tension between U.S. and Soviet leaders and the
eventual downfall of détente. Relations with the Soviet Union re-
mained a central element of Carter’s foreign policy agenda, just as they
had been for earlier administrations. However, the U.S. relationship
with the Soviet Union was never simply bilateral in nature; instead, the
two super powers were actively engaged politically throughout the
world. Therefore, this volume includes documentation on the Middle
East, China, Eastern and Western Europe, and the Horn of Africa, as
well as SALT, emigration, and human rights.
Unlike the leadership of the Nixon and Ford administrations, who
met regularly with the Soviet leadership, Carter conducted only one
summit meeting with Soviet General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev. Thus,
Carter and Brezhnev communicated most frequently by letter. The ma-
jority of communication and policymaking was done at the Secretary of
State/foreign minister or ambassadorial levels, and these meetings
and communications are documented in cables and memoranda of
conversation.
During the first years of the administration, Secretary of State
Cyrus Vance met with Soviet officials both in Washington, D.C. and
abroad, but as the administration progressed, Assistant to the President

VII
339-370/428-S/80018

VIII Preface

for National Security Affairs Zbigniew Brzezinski, a Soviet expert,

played a central role in the administration’s policy formulation to-
wards the Soviet Union. Brzezinski’s voice became the dominant one
during the last year of the administration with the Soviet invasion of
Afghanistan culminating in years of increasing concern over the exten-
sion of Soviet power into Africa and Asia.
President Carter brought into office an emphasis on human rights
and a determination to include this issue as a major consideration in
American foreign affairs. This emphasis was not well-received by the
Soviets, who saw it as an intrusion into their internal matters, especially
with respect to the issue of Jewish emigration from the Soviet Union,
which became a major issue of contention. Carter’s emphasis on human
rights contributed to a decline of détente by the end of his presidency.
During the final year of the Carter administration, détente and the rela-
tionship with the Soviet Union withered, overshadowed by domestic
economic problems and the hostage crisis in Iran, and weakened by the
many areas of contention between the Soviet Union and the United
States.
Acknowledgments
The editor wishes to acknowledge the assistance of officials at the
Carter Library, Atlanta, Georgia. Special thanks are due to the Histor-
ical Staff of the Central Intelligence Agency, who were extremely
helpful in arranging full access to the files of the Central Intelligence
Agency. Melissa Jane Taylor collected, selected documentation, and ed-
ited the volume under the supervision of M. Todd Bennett, Chief of the
Europe and General Division, and Edward C. Keefer, former General
Editor of the Foreign Relations series. Kristin L. Ahlberg, Assistant to the
General Editor, reviewed the volume. Dean Weatherhead coordinated
the declassification review, under the supervision first of Susan C.
Weetman and later Carl Ashley, who both served as Chief of the De-
classification and Publishing Division. Stephanie Eckroth, Vicki E.
Futscher, and Erin F. Cozens did the copy and technical editing. Do Mi
Stauber, Inc. prepared the index.
Melissa Jane Taylor, Ph.D.
Historian
339-370/428-S/80018

Contents
About the Series ....................................................... III
Preface ................................................................... VII
Sources .................................................................. XI
Abbreviations and Terms ............................................ XV
Persons .................................................................. XXI
Note on U.S. Covert Actions ........................................ XXV
Soviet Union
January–May 1977 .................................................. 1
June–December 1977 ............................................... 139
January–June 1978 .................................................. 245
July–December 1978 ............................................... 422
January–June 1979 .................................................. 508
July–December 1979 ............................................... 629
January–May 1980 .................................................. 723
June–December 1980 ............................................... 833
Index ..................................................................... 925

IX
339-370/428-S/80018

Sources
Sources for the Foreign Relations Series
The 1991 Foreign Relations statute requires that the published rec-
ord in the Foreign Relations series include all records needed to provide
comprehensive documentation on major U.S. foreign policy decisions
and significant U.S. diplomatic activity. It also requires that gov-
ernment agencies, departments, and other entities of the U.S. Govern-
ment engaged in foreign policy formulation, execution, or support,
cooperate with the Department of State Historian by providing full and
complete access to records pertinent to foreign policy decisions and ac-
tions and by providing copies of selected records. U.S. foreign policy
agencies and departments—the Department of State, National Security
Council, Department of Defense, Central Intelligence Agency, and the
Jimmy Carter Presidential Library—have complied fully with this law
and provided complete access to their relevant records.
Research for Foreign Relations volumes is undertaken through spe-
cial access to restricted documents at the Jimmy Carter Presidential Li-
brary, and other agencies. While all the material printed in this volume
has been declassified, some of it is extracted from still-classified docu-
ments. The staff of the Jimmy Carter Library is processing and declassi-
fying many of the documents used in this volume, but they may not be
available in their entirety at the time of publication.
Sources for Foreign Relations, 1977–1980, Volume VI
The files at the Jimmy Carter Presidential Library, in Atlanta,
Georgia, are the single most important source of documentation for
those interested in U.S.-Soviet relations during the Carter administra-
tion. Foreign policy research in the Carter Presidential Library centers
on two collections: National Security Affairs, Brzezinski Material, and
National Security Affairs, Staff Material. In addition, Marshall
Shulman’s lot file at the Department of State offers a nearly complete
record of U.S.-Soviet relations during the Carter administration, and
should be consulted by anyone who is researching the U.S.–U.S.S.R. bi-
lateral relationship. Additionally, the Country files in the Brzezinski
Material and the Brzezinski Donated Material provided important
documentation.
The editor also had access to the Carter Intelligence Files at the Na-
tional Security Council, the Central Intelligence Agency, and the De-
partment of Defense. The files of the Central Intelligence Agency, par-
ticularly the NIC Registry of NIE, SNIE and NIAM files, were essential

XI
339-370/428-S/80018

XII Sources

for intelligence reports and assessments on which the Carter adminis-

tration based its policy decisions.
The editor made considerable use of materials already compiled
for other volumes in the Foreign Relations series, including those of the
Middle East, China, Afghanistan, Poland, SALT, and Western Europe.
Readers interested in these subjects should consult the relevant vol-
umes for further information on the specific sources used in research.
The following list identifies the particular files and collections
used in the preparation of this volume. The declassification and
transfer to the National Archives of the Department of State records is
in process, and some of these records are already available for public
review at the National Archives.

Unpublished Sources
Department of State
Lot Files. These files have been transferred or will be transferred to the National Archives
and Records Administration in College Park, Maryland.

Files of the Bureau of European Affairs, Office of Soviet Union Affairs, Lot 91D231

Office of the Secretariat Staff, Cyrus R. Vance, Secretary of State—1977–1980, Lot 84D241

Office of the Secretariat Staff, Special Adviser to the Secretary (S/MS) on Soviet Affairs
Marshall Shulman—Jan 21, 77–Jan 19, 81, Lot 81D109

Office of the Secretary, Personal Files of Secretary Cyrus R. Vance, Lot 80D135

Office of Soviet Union Affairs, Dissidents and Political Prisoner Subject Files, 1974–1988,
Lot 91D273

National Archives and Record Administration, College Park, Maryland

Record Group 59, Records of the Department of State

Central Foreign Policy File

Jimmy Carter Presidential Library, Atlanta, Georgia

Brzezinski Donated Material

National Security Affairs

Brzezinski Material
Brzezinski Office File
Cables File
General Odom File
Name File
President’s Correspondence with Foreign Leaders File
Subject File
Trip Files
VIP Visit File
339-370/428-S/80018

Sources XIII

Staff Material
Office File
Staff Secretary File
Europe, USSR, and East/West
Global Issues
International Economics
Defense/Security Files

National Security Council Files

National Security Council Meetings
Presidential Decisions
Presidential Review Memoranda

Plains File

Central Intelligence Agency

DCI Executive Registry Files
Job 83T00237R

NIC Registry of NIE and SNIE Files

Job 79R01012A

National Security Council

Carter Intelligence Files
Subject Files

Published Sources
Brzezinski, Zbigniew. Power and Principle: Memoirs of the National Security Adviser, 1977–
1981. New York: Farrar, Straus, Giroux, 1983.
Carter, Jimmy. Keeping Faith: Memoirs of a President. New York: Bantam Books, 1982.
Congressional Quarterly. Congress and the Nation, 1977–1980, vol. V. Washington: Con-
gressional Quarterly, Inc., 1981.
Current Digest of the Soviet Press
Dobrynin, Anatoly. In Confidence: Moscow’s Ambassador to America’s Six Cold War Presi-
dents (1962–1986). New York: Times Books, 1995.
Keesing’s Contemporary Archives, 1977, 1978, 1979, 1980, 1981. London: Longman, 1977-
1981.
The New York Times
United Nations. Yearbook of the United Nations, 1977, 1978, 1979, 1980. New York: United
Nations Office of Public Information, 1981.
United States. Department of State. Bulletin, 1977–1980.
United States. National Archives and Records Administration. Public Papers of the Presi-
dents of the United States: Jimmy Carter, 1977–1980. Washington: Government Printing
Office, 1977–1982.
Vance, Cyrus. Hard Choices: Critical Years in America’s Foreign Policy. New York: Simon
and Schuster, 1983.
339-370/428-S/80018

Abbreviations and Terms

ABM, anti-ballistic missile
AC, alternating current
ACDA, U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency
A/DCM, Assistant Deputy Chief of Mission
AD, Anatoly F. Dobrynin
AF, Bureau of African Affairs, Department of State
AFL–CIO, American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations
AFSSO, Air Force Special Security Office
ALCM, air-launched cruise missile
Amcit, American citizen
ANZUS, Australia, New Zealand, United States Security Treaty
APC, armored personnel carrier
ARA, Bureau of Inter-American Affairs, Department of State
ARA/CCA, Office of Cuban Affairs, Bureau of Inter-American Affairs, Department of
State
ARPV, advanced remotely piloted vehicle
ASAP, as soon as possible
ASAT, anti-satellite
ASBM, air-to-surface ballistic missile
ASEAN, Association of Southeast Asian Nations
ASW, anti-submarine warfare
A/SY, Office of the Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for Security
AWACS, Airborne Warning and Control System

backchannel, a method of communication outside normal bureaucratic procedure; the

White House, for instance, used “backchannel” to bypass the Department of State
BW, biological weapons
BWC, Biological Weapons Convention

C, Carter; Office of the Counselor of the Department of State

CCC, Commodity Credit Corporation
CCD, Conference of the Committee on Disarmament
CEMA, Council for Mutual Economic Assistance
CIA, Central Intelligence Agency
CINCEUR, Commander-In-Chief, European Command
CINCLANT, Commander-In-Chief, Atlantic Command
CINCNORAD, Commander-In-Chief, North American Aerospace Defense Command
CINCPAC, Commander-In-Chief, Pacific Command
CINCSAC, Commander-In-Chief, Strategic Air Command
CM, cruise missile
COB, close of business
COCOM, Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls
Codel, Congressional delegation
COMNAVINTCOM, Commander, Naval Intelligence Command
CONUS, Continental United States
COS, Chief of Staff
CPSU, Communist Party of the Soviet Union
CSCE, Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe
CTB, Comprehensive Test Ban
CW, chemical weapons

XV
339-370/428-S/80018

XVI Abbreviations and Terms

D, Office of the Deputy Secretary of State

DA, David Aaron
DAS, Deputy Assistant Secretary
DC, direct current
DCI, Director of Central Intelligence
DCM, Deputy Chief of Mission
DEPTOFF, Department of State Officer
DIA, Defense Intelligence Agency
DOD, Department of Defense
DRA, Democratic Republic of Afghanistan
DSB, Dresser Science Board
DUSD/PP, Deputy Undersecretary of Defense for Policy

EA, Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, Department of State

EDT, Eastern Daylight Time.
EEC, European Economic Community
EJC3, Director for Operations Directorate, EUCOM Plans and Operations Center
EM, Edmund Muskie
EMBOFF, Embassy Officer
ER, Office of Economic Research, Central Intelligence Agency
ERW, enhanced radiation weapon
EUCOM, European Command
EUR/EE, Office of Eastern European Affairs, Bureau of European Affairs, Department of
State
EUR/RPM, Office of NATO and Atlantic Political-Military Affairs, Bureau of European
Affairs, Department of State
EUR/SOV, Office of Soviet Union Affairs, Bureau of European Affairs, Department of
State
EXDIS, exclusive distribution

FBI, Federal Bureau of Investigation

FBS, forward-based systems
FCO, Foreign and Commonwealth Office
FMS & ESF, Foreign Military Sale and Economic Support Fund
FONOFF, Foreign Office
FRG, Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany)
FSO, Foreign Service Officer
FYI, for your information

GBS, global broadcast system

GDR, German Democratic Republic (East Germany)
GLCM, ground-launched cruise missile
GNP, gross national product
GOK, Government of Kenya
GSO, General Services Officer

H, Bureau of Congressional Relations, Department of State

HA, Bureau of Human Rights and Humanitarian Affairs, Department of State
HMG, Her Majesty’s Government

IAEA, International Atomic Energy Agency

IBM, International Business Machines Corporation
ICA, International Communication Agency
ICBM, intercontinental ballistic missile
IFI, international financial institution
INFCE, International Nuclear Fuel Cycle Evaluation
339-370/428-S/80018

Abbreviations and Terms XVII

INR, Bureau of Intelligence and Research, Department of State

INR/PMT, Office of Research and Analysis for Politico-Military Research, Bureau of In-
telligence and Research, Department of State
INR/RAR, Office of Research and Analysis for American Republics, Bureau of Intelli-
gence and Research, Department of State
INR/RSE, Office of Research and Analysis for the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, Bu-
reau of Intelligence and Research, Department of State
INS, Immigration and Naturalization Service
IO, Bureau of International Organization Affairs, Department of State
IO/UNP, Office of United Nations Political Affairs, Bureau of International Organization
Affairs, Department of State
IOC, International Olympic Committee
IOU, I owe you

JCS, Joint Chiefs of Staff

JDT, joint draft text
JFK, John F. Kennedy Airport, New York, New York

KM, kilometer
KOR, Committee in Defense of the Workers (Poland)
KTS, kilotons

LAOOC, Los Angeles Olympic Organizing Committee

LDC, least developed country
LDX, long distance xerography
LOU, limited official use
L/PM, Office of the Legal Adviser, Bureau of Politico-Military Affairs, Department of
State
LRTNF, long range theater nuclear force

MBFR, Mutual and Balanced Force Reductions

MDS, Marshall Shulman
MEMCON, memorandum of conversation
MFA, Ministry of Foreign Affairs
MFN, most favored nation
MHD, magnetohydrodynamic channel
MIA, missing in action
MIRV, multiple independently targeted re-entry vehicle
MIT, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
MLBM, mobile land-based missile
MPLA, Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola
MUTS, military utility tests
MW/CM, multiple warhead/cruise missile

NAM, non-aligned movement

NATO, North Atlantic Treaty Organization
NBC, National Broadcasting Company
NCSJ, National Conference on Soviet Jewry
NEA, Bureau of Near Eastern and South Asian Affairs, Department of State
NEA/ARP, Office of Arabian Peninsula Affairs, Bureau of Near Eastern and South Asian
Affairs, Department of State
NEA/IAI, Israel and Arab-Israeli Affairs, Bureau of Near Eastern and South Asian Af-
fairs, Department of State
NEA/IWG, Interdepartmental Working Group, Bureau of Near Eastern and South Asian
Affairs, Department of State
339-370/428-S/80018

XVIII Abbreviations and Terms

NEA/PAB, Office of Pakistan, Afghanistan and Bangladesh, Bureau of Near Eastern and
South Asian Affairs, Department of State
NIACT, needs immediate action
NNFU, nuclear non-first use
NOCONTRACT, not releasable to contractors
NODIS, no distribution
NOFORN, not releasable to foreign nationals
NORAD, North American Aerospace Defense Command
NPT, Non-Proliferation Treaty
NSA, National Security Agency
NSC, National Security Council
NSS, national security strategy
NTM, national technical means
N.W., Northwest
NYT, The New York Times

OAS, Organization of American States

OAU, Organization of African Unity
OMB, Office of Management and Budget
OPEC, Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries
ORCON, Originator’s Control

P, Bureau of Political Affairs, Department of State

PAK, Pakistan
PDRY, People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen
PERMREPS, Permanent Representatives
PLO, Palestine Liberation Organization
PM, Bureau of Politico-Military Affairs, Department of State
PM/DCA, Office of Disarmament and Arms Control, Bureau of Politico-Military Affairs,
Department of State
PNE, peaceful nuclear explosion
PNG, persona non grata
PRC, People’s Republic of China; Policy Review Committee
PRK, Democratic People’s Republic of Korea
PRM, Presidential Review Memorandum
PROPIN, proprietary information involved

R, Romeo time zone (Eastern Standard Time)

REFTEL, reference telegram
REVCON, Review Conference
RF, radio frequency
RFE/RL, Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty
RPM, regional and political memorandum
RPT, repeat
RPV, remote-piloted vehicle
RSFSR, Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic
RV, re-entry vehicle
RW, radiological warfare

S, Office of the Secretary of State

S/MS, Special Adviser to the Secretary, Department of State
S/P, Policy Planning Staff, Office of the Secretary of State, Department of State
S/S, Office of the Secretariat Staff, Department of State
S/S-I, Information Management Section of the Office of the Secretariat Staff, Department
of State
S/S-O, Department Duty Officer, Operations Center, Department of State
339-370/428-S/80018

Abbreviations and Terms XIX

SAG, Saudi Arabian Government

SALT, Strategic Arms Limitation Talks
SAR, South African Republic
SAWG, Special Actions Working Group
SC, Security Council (United Nations)
SCC, Special Coordination Committee
SEPTEL, separate telegram
SFRC, Senate Foreign Relations Committee
SHAPE, Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers, Europe
SIGINT, signals intelligence
SLCM, surfaced-launched cruise missile; submarine-launched cruise missile; and
sea-launched cruise missile
SMUN, Soviet Mission at the United Nations
SNDV, strategic nuclear delivery vehicle
SPECAT, special category message
SRV, Socialist Republic of Vietnam
SSCI, Senate Select Committee on Intelligence
SSOD, Special Session on Disarmament
SU, Soviet Union
SW, Office of Scientific and Weapons Research, Central Intelligence Agency
SWAPO, South West Africa People’s Organization
SY, Office of Security Affairs, Department of State

TASS, official Soviet news agency

TNF, theater nuclear forces
TSO, Technical Security Officer
T.V., television

UK, United Kingdom

UN, United Nations
UNK, unknown
U.S., United States
U.S.A., United States of America
USAF, United States Air Force
USDA, United States Department of Agriculture
USDELMC, United States Delegation to the NATO Military Committee
USEUCOM, United States European Command
USG, United States Government
USIB, United States Intelligence Board
USLOSACLANT, United States Liaison Officer Supreme Allied Command, Atlantic
USNATO, United States Mission at the North Atlantic Treaty Organization
USNMR, United States National Military Representative
USOC, United States Olympic Committee
USSR, Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
USUN, United States Mission at the United Nations

VAC, volts of alternating current

VDC, volts of direct current
VOA, Voice of America

WH, White House

YAR, Yemen Arab Republic

Z, Zulu Time Zone (Greenwich Mean Time)

339-370/428-S/80018

Persons
Aaron, David L., Deputy Assistant to the President for National Secuurity Affairs
Albright, Madeline, Congressional Relations Officer, Press and Congressional Liaison
Office, National Security Council from March 1978
Allon, Yigal, Israeli Minister for Foreign Affairs from June 1974 until June 1977
Amin, Hafizullah, President of Afghanistan from September until December 1979
Amin, Idi, President of Uganda until 1979
Anderson, David, Deputy Executive Secretary of the Department of State from 1977 until
1978; thereafter Executive Secretariat staff
Andropov, Yury, Chairman of the Committee for Soviet State Security (KGB)
Arafat, Yassir, Chairman of the Palestinian Liberation Organization
Arbatov, Georgiy, Director of the Institute of U.S. and Canadian Studies, Russian Acad-
emy of Science, Moscow
al-Asad (Assad), Hafez, President of Syria
Atherton, Alfred L. (Roy), Assistant Secretary of State for Near Eastern and South Asian
Affairs until April 13, 1978; Ambassador-at-Large from April 11, 1978 until May 22,
1979; Ambassador to Egypt from July 2, 1979

Barre, Mohamed Siad, President of Somalia

Barry, Robert L., Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for European Affairs
Bartholomew, Reginald H., Deputy Director, Bureau of Politico-Military Affairs, from
January until November 1977; member, USSR/East Europe Cluster, National Se-
curity Council, from November 1977 until April 1979; Director, Bureau of Politico-
Military Affairs from 1979
Begin, Menachem, Israeli Prime Minister from June 1977
Bessmertnykh, Alexander A., Soviet Counselor
Blumenthal, W. Michael, Secretary of the Treasury until August 4, 1979
Brement, Marshall, Political Counselor, U.S. Embassy in Madrid from 1977 until 1979;
member, USSR/East Europe Cluster, National Security Council, from May 1979
until January 1981
Bremer, L. Paul, III (Jerry), Deputy Chief of Mission, U.S. Embassy in Oslo, until 1979;
thereafter Deputy Executive Secretary of the Department of State
Brezhnev, Leonid I., General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
Brown, Harold, Secretary of Defense
Brzezinski, Zbigniew K., Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs
Bukovskiy, Vladimir, Soviet dissident
Bush, George H.W., Director of the Central Intelligence Agency until January 20, 1977

Carter, James Earl, Jr. (Jimmy), President of the United States from January 20, 1977,
until January 20, 1981
Chernenko, Konstantin U., Member of the Soviet Politburo
Chirac, Jacques, Mayor of Paris
Christopher, Warren M., Deputy Secretary of State from February 25, 1977
Cutler, Lloyd, Counsel to the President from 1979

Daoud Khan, Mohammed, President of Afghanistan until April 1978

Dayan, Moshe, Israeli Foreign Minister from June 1977 until October 1979
Deng Xiaoping (Teng Hsiao-p’ing), Chinese Vice Premier of the State Council

XXI
339-370/428-S/80018

XXII Persons

Dobrynin, Anatoliy, Soviet Ambassador to the United States

Earle, Ralph, II, Chief of the United States Delegation to the Strategic Arms Limitation
Talks; Director, Arms Control and Disarmament Agency, from January 3, 1980 until
March 16, 1980
Eizenstat, Stuart, Executive Director, White House Domestic Policy Staff; Assistant to the
President for Domestic Affairs and Policy

Ford, Gerald R., President of the United States until January 20, 1977

Gelb, Leslie H., Director, Bureau of Politico-Military Affairs, Department of State, from
February 23, 1977 until June 30, 1979
Genscher, Hans-Dietrich, West German Vice-Chancellor and Foreign Minister
Gierek, Edward, First Secretary of the Polish United Workers’ Party until 1980
Ginzburg, Aleksandr, Soviet dissident and human rights activist
Giscard d’Estaing, Valéry, French President
Gromyko, Andrei A., Soviet Minister of Foreign Affairs

Habib, Philip, Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs until April 1, 1978; thereafter
Senior Adviser to the Secretary of State on Caribbean Issues
Hartman, Arthur A., Assistant Secretary of State for European and Canadian Affairs
Hoskinson, Samuel, Intelligence Coordinator, National Security Council, from January
1977 until May 1979
Hua Guofeng (Hua Kuo-Feng), Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party
Huntington, Samuel, coordinator of security planning for the National Security Council
from 1977 until 1978
Hussein bin Talal, King of Jordan
Hyland, William G., member, USSR/East Europe Cluster, National Security Council,
from January until October 1977

Jackson, Henry M. (Scoop), Senator (D-Washington)

Kania, Stanislaw, First Secretary of the Polish United Workers’ Party from September
1980
Karmal, Babrak, Prime Minister of Afghanistan from December 1979
Karpov, Victor P., Chief of the Soviet Delegation to the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks
Keeny, Spurgeon M., Jr., Assistant Director of the Science and Technology Bureau, Arms
Control and Disarmament Agency
Kennedy, Edward M. (Ted), Senator (D-Massachusetts)
Khalid, Ibn Abd al-Aziz al-Saud, King and Prime Minister of Saudi Arabia
Kirilenko, Andrei P., Member of the Politburo and the Secretariat of the Communist
Party of the Soviet Union
Kirchschlager, Rudolf, Austrian President
Kissinger, Henry A., Secretary of State until January 1977
Korniyenko, Georgy M., Soviet first deputy to the Foreign Minister
Kosygin, Aleksey, Chairman, Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union
Kreisky, Bruno, Austrian Chancellor
Kreps, Juanita, Secretary of Commerce until October 1979
Krimer, William D., interpreter for the Department of State
Kuznetsov, Vasili, First Deputy Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet

Luers, William H., Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for European Affairs
339-370/428-S/80018

Persons XXIII

Mathews, Jessica Tuchman, member, National Security Council Staff for Global Issues
from January 1977 until June 1979
Matlock, Jack F., Jr., Deputy Chief of Mission in Moscow until September 1978
McHenry, Donald F., United States Representative to the United Nations from Sep-
tember 23, 1979, until January 20, 1981
McIntyre, James T., Director of the Office of Management and Budget
Medvedev, Roy, Soviet dissident historian
Mengistu Haile Miriam, Chairman of the Provisional Government of Ethiopia
Mobutu Sese Seko, President of Zaire
Muskie, Edmund S., Secretary of State from May 1980

Newsom, David D., Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs from April 19, 1978
Nimieri, Gaafer, President of Sudan
Nimetz, Matthew, Counselor of the Department of State from April 8, 1977, until March
19, 1980; Under Secretary of State for Security Assistance, Science, and Technology
from February 21, 1980, until December 5, 1980
Nyerere, Julius, President of Tanzania

Odom, William E., Lieutenant General, USA, Military Assistant to the President’s Assist-
ant for National Security Affairs
Ogarkov, Nikolai V., Chief of the General Staff of the Soviet Union
Orlov, Yuriy, Soviet nuclear physicist and dissident

Patolichev, Nikolai Semenovich, Soviet Minister of Foreign Trade

Percy, Charles Harting, Senator (R-Illinois)
Pol Pot, Prime Minister of Democratic Kampuchea (Cambodia) until January 1979
Powell, Joseph L. (Jody), Jr., Press Secretary

Quandt, William B., member, National Security Council Staff from January 1977 until
August 1979

Rabin, Yitzhak, Israeli Prime Minister until May 1977

Reagan, Ronald W., Republican Presidential nominee, 1980; President of the United
States from January 1981
Reinhardt, John, Director of Information Agency (renamed the International Communi-
cation Agency on April 1, 1978) from March 1977 until August 1980
Ryabov, Yakov P., Member of the Secretariat of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
until April 1979

al-Sadat, Anwar, President of Egypt

Sakharov, Andrei, Soviet dissident; Nobel Peace Prize laureate, 1975
Schlesinger, James R., Secretary of Energy from August 5, 1977 until July 20, 1979
Schmidt, Helmut, Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany
Semenov, Vladimir S., Chief of the Soviet SALT Mission in Geneva
Shcharanskiy, Anatoliy, Soviet dissident and refusenik
Shinn, William, Director, Office of Soviet Union Affairs, Bureau of European Affairs, De-
partment of State
Shulman, Marshall, Special Advisor to the Secretary on Soviet Affairs
Sick, Gary, member, National Security Council Staff for the Middle East and North Af-
rica from January 1977 until January 1981
Slepak, Vladimir, Soviet refusenik
Smith, Gerard, Ambassador at Large and Special Representative for Non-Proliferation
Matters from July 1977 until November 1980
Solomentsev, Mikhail S., Chairman, RSFSR Council of Ministers
339-370/428-S/80018

XXIV Persons

Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr I., Soviet novelist and historian; awarded the Nobel Prize in
Literature, 1970; forced into exile, 1974
Sparkman, John J., Senator (D-Alabama) until 1979; chairman of the Senate Foreign Rela-
tions Committee until 1979
Sukhodrev, Viktor M., Soviet interpreter
Suslov, Mikhail, Member of the Politburo and the Secretariat of the Communist Party of
the Soviet Union

Taraki, Nur Muhammad, President of Afghanistan from April 1978 until September 1979
Tarnoff, Peter, Special Assistant to the Secretary of State and Executive Secretary of the
Department of State
Tito, Josip Broz, President of Yugoslavia until May 1980
Toon, Malcolm, Ambassador to the Soviet Union until October 1979
Troyanovsky, Oleg, Soviet Ambassador to the United Nations
Turner, Stansfield M., Director of the Central Intelligence Agency
Twaddell, William H., staff, Office of the Secretary of State

Ueberroth, Peter, Executive Director of the Los Angeles 1984 Olympics Organizing
Committee
Ustinov, Dmitri F., Soviet Minister of Defense

Vance, Cyrus R., Secretary of State until April 1980

Vasev, Vladillen, Soviet Minister Counselor
Vorontsov, Yuli, Soviet Minister Counselor

Waldheim, Kurt, United Nations Secretary-General until December 31, 1981

Walesa, Lech, First Chairman of the National Coordination Committee of Solidarnosc
(Solidarity) Free Trade Union
Warnke, Paul, Director, Arms Control and Disarmament Agency, from March 1977 until
October 1978
Watson, Thomas J., Jr., U.S. Ambassador to the Soviet Union from October 1979
Weizman, Ezer, Israeli Defense Minister from June 1977
Wolper, David, Associate Director of the Los Angeles 1984 Olympics Organizing
Committee
Wyszynski, Cardinal Stefan, Archbishop of Warsaw and Gniezno

Young, Andrew, U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations

Zahir Shah, Mohammed, King of Afghanistan from November 1933 until July 1973
Zia-ul-Haq, Mohammad, President of Pakistan
339-370/428-S/80018

Note on U.S. Covert Actions

In compliance with the Foreign Relations of the United States statute
that requires inclusion in the Foreign Relations series of comprehensive
documentation on major foreign policy decisions and actions, the ed-
itors have identified key documents regarding major covert actions and
intelligence activities. The following note will provide readers with
some organizational context on how covert actions and special intelli-
gence operations in support of U.S. foreign policy were planned and
approved within the U.S. Government. It describes, on the basis of de-
classified documents, the changing and developing procedures during
the Truman, Eisenhower, Kennedy, Johnson, Nixon, Ford, and Carter
Presidencies.
Management of Covert Actions in the Truman Presidency
The Truman administration’s concern over Soviet “psychological
warfare” prompted the new National Security Council to authorize, in
NSC 4–A of December 1947, the launching of peacetime covert action
operations. NSC 4–A made the Director of Central Intelligence respon-
sible for psychological warfare, establishing at the same time the prin-
ciple that covert action was an exclusively Executive Branch function.
The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) certainly was a natural choice
but it was assigned this function at least in part because the Agency
controlled unvouchered funds, by which operations could be funded
with minimal risk of exposure in Washington.1
The CIA’s early use of its new covert action mandate dissatisfied
officials at the Departments of State and Defense. The Department of
State, believing this role too important to be left to the CIA alone and
concerned that the military might create a new rival covert action office
in the Pentagon, pressed to reopen the issue of where responsibility for
covert action activities should reside. Consequently, on June 18, 1948, a
new NSC directive, NSC 10/2, superseded NSC 4–A.
NSC 10/2 directed the CIA to conduct “covert” rather than merely
“psychological” operations, defining them as all activities “which are
conducted or sponsored by this Government against hostile foreign
states or groups or in support of friendly foreign states or groups but
which are so planned and executed that any US Government responsi-
bility for them is not evident to unauthorized persons and that if un-

1
NSC 4–A, December 17, 1947, is printed in Foreign Relations, 1945–1950, Emer-
gence of the Intelligence Establishment, Document 257.

XXV
339-370/428-S/80018

XXVI Note on U.S. Covert Actions

covered the US Government can plausibly disclaim any responsibility

for them.”
The type of clandestine activities enumerated under the new direc-
tive included: “propaganda; economic warfare; preventive direct ac-
tion, including sabotage, demolition and evacuation measures; subver-
sion against hostile states, including assistance to underground
resistance movements, guerrillas and refugee liberations [sic] groups,
and support of indigenous anti-Communist elements in threatened
countries of the free world. Such operations should not include armed
conflict by recognized military forces, espionage, counter-espionage,
and cover and deception for military operations.”2
The Office of Policy Coordination (OPC), newly established in the
CIA on September 1, 1948, in accordance with NSC 10/2, assumed re-
sponsibility for organizing and managing covert actions. The OPC,
which was to take its guidance from the Department of State in peace-
time and from the military in wartime, initially had direct access to the
State Department and to the military without having to proceed
through the CIA’s administrative hierarchy, provided the Director of
Central Intelligence (DCI) was informed of all important projects and
decisions.3 In 1950 this arrangement was modified to ensure that policy
guidance came to the OPC through the DCI.
During the Korean conflict the OPC grew quickly. Wartime com-
mitments and other missions soon made covert action the most expen-
sive and bureaucratically prominent of the CIA’s activities. Concerned
about this situation, DCI Walter Bedell Smith in early 1951 asked the
NSC for enhanced policy guidance and a ruling on the proper “scope
and magnitude” of CIA operations. The White House responded with
two initiatives. In April 1951 President Truman created the Psycholog-
ical Strategy Board (PSB) under the NSC to coordinate government-
wide psychological warfare strategy. NSC 10/5, issued in October
1951, reaffirmed the covert action mandate given in NSC 10/2 and ex-
panded the CIA’s authority over guerrilla warfare.4 The PSB was soon
abolished by the incoming Eisenhower administration, but the expan-
sion of the CIA’s covert action writ in NSC 10/5 helped ensure that co-
vert action would remain a major function of the Agency.
As the Truman administration ended, the CIA was near the peak
of its independence and authority in the field of covert action. Al-
though the CIA continued to seek and receive advice on specific proj-
ects from the NSC, the PSB, and the departmental representatives origi-

2
NSC 10/2, June 18, 1948, is printed ibid., Document 292.
3
Memorandum of conversation by Frank G. Wisner, “Implementation of
NSC–10/2,” August 12, 1948, is printed ibid., Document 298.
4
NSC 10/5, “Scope and Pace of Covert Operations,” October 23, 1951, is printed in
Foreign Relations, 1950–1955, The Intelligence Community, Document 90.
339-370/428-S/80018

Note on U.S. Covert Actions XXVII

nally delegated to advise the OPC, no group or officer outside of the

DCI and the President himself had authority to order, approve,
manage, or curtail operations.
NSC 5412 Special Group; 5412/2 Special Group; 303 Committee
The Eisenhower administration began narrowing the CIA’s lati-
tude in 1954. In accordance with a series of National Security Council
directives, the responsibility of the Director of Central Intelligence for
the conduct of covert operations was further clarified. President Eisen-
hower approved NSC 5412 on March 15, 1954, reaffirming the Central
Intelligence Agency’s responsibility for conducting covert actions
abroad. A definition of covert actions was set forth; the DCI was made
responsible for coordinating with designated representatives of the
Secretary of State and the Secretary of Defense to ensure that covert op-
erations were planned and conducted in a manner consistent with U.S.
foreign and military policies; and the Operations Coordinating Board
was designated the normal channel for coordinating support for covert
operations among State, Defense, and the CIA. Representatives of the
Secretary of State, the Secretary of Defense, and the President were to
be advised in advance of major covert action programs initiated by the
CIA under this policy and were to give policy approval for such pro-
grams and secure coordination of support among the Departments of
State and Defense and the CIA.5
A year later, on March 12, 1955, NSC 5412/1 was issued, identical
to NSC 5412 except for designating the Planning Coordination Group
as the body responsible for coordinating covert operations. NSC
5412/2 of December 28, 1955, assigned to representatives (of the rank of
assistant secretary) of the Secretary of State, the Secretary of Defense,
and the President responsibility for coordinating covert actions. By the
end of the Eisenhower administration, this group, which became
known as the “NSC 5412/2 Special Group” or simply “Special Group,”
emerged as the executive body to review and approve covert action
programs initiated by the CIA.6 The membership of the Special Group
varied depending upon the situation faced. Meetings were infrequent
until 1959 when weekly meetings began to be held. Neither the CIA nor
the Special Group adopted fixed criteria for bringing projects before the
group; initiative remained with the CIA, as members representing

5
William M. Leary, editor, The Central Intelligence Agency: History and Documents
(The University of Alabama Press, 1984), p. 63; for text of NSC 5412, see Foreign Relations,
1950–1955, The Intelligence Community, Document 171.
6
Leary, The Central Intelligence Agency: History and Documents, pp. 63, 147–148; Final
Report of the Select Committee To Study Governmental Operations With Respect to Intelligence
Activities, United States Senate, Book I, Foreign and Military Intelligence (1976), pp. 50–51.
For texts of NSC 5412/1 and NSC 5412/2, see Foreign Relations, 1950–1955, The Intelli-
gence Community, Documents 212 and 250.
339-370/428-S/80018

XXVIII Note on U.S. Covert Actions

other agencies frequently were unable to judge the feasibility of partic-

ular projects.7
After the Bay of Pigs failure in April 1961, General Maxwell Taylor
reviewed U.S. paramilitary capabilities at President Kennedy’s request
and submitted a report in June that recommended strengthening
high-level direction of covert operations. As a result of the Taylor Re-
port, the Special Group, chaired by the President’s Special Assistant for
National Security Affairs McGeorge Bundy, and including Deputy
Under Secretary of State U. Alexis Johnson, Deputy Secretary of De-
fense Roswell Gilpatric, Director of Central Intelligence Allen Dulles,
and Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff General Lyman Lemnitzer, as-
sumed greater responsibility for planning and reviewing covert opera-
tions. Until 1963 the DCI determined whether a CIA-originated project
was submitted to the Special Group. In 1963 the Special Group devel-
oped general but informal criteria, including risk, possibility of success,
potential for exposure, political sensitivity, and cost (a threshold of
$25,000 was adopted by the CIA), for determining whether covert ac-
tion projects were submitted to the Special Group.8
From November 1961 to October 1962 a Special Group (Aug-
mented), whose membership was the same as the Special Group plus
Attorney General Robert Kennedy and General Taylor (as Chairman),
exercised responsibility for Operation Mongoose, a major covert action
program aimed at overthrowing the Castro regime in Cuba. When
President Kennedy authorized the program in November, he desig-
nated Brigadier General Edward G. Lansdale, Assistant for Special Op-
erations to the Secretary of Defense, to act as chief of operations, and
Lansdale coordinated the Mongoose activities among the CIA and the
Departments of State and Defense. The CIA units in Washington and
Miami had primary responsibility for implementing Mongoose opera-
tions, which included military, sabotage, and political propaganda
programs.9
President Kennedy also established a Special Group (Counter-
Insurgency) on January 18, 1962, when he signed NSAM No. 124.
The Special Group (CI), set up to coordinate counter-insurgency activ-
ities separate from the mechanism for implementing NSC 5412/2, was
to confine itself to establishing broad policies aimed at preventing and
resisting subversive insurgency and other forms of indirect aggression
in friendly countries. In early 1966, in NSAM No. 341, President
Johnson assigned responsibility for the direction and coordination of
counter-insurgency activities overseas to the Secretary of State, who es-

7
Leary, The Central Intelligence Agency: History and Documents, p. 63.
8
Ibid., p. 82.
9
See Foreign Relations, 1961–1963, volume X, Cuba, 1961–1962, Documents 270 and
278.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 7.

Who tooke to wife as yee shall vnderstand

A mayden of a noble house and olde,
Raulfe Neuil’s daughter, earle of Westmerland,
Whose sonne earle Richard, was a baron bolde,
And had the right of Salisbury in holde,
Through mariage made with good earle Thomas heyre,
Whose earned prayses neuer shall appayre.

8.

The duke my father had by this his wife

Four sonnes, of whom the eldest Edward hight,
The second Eadmund, who [in youth] did loose his life,
[1174]
At Wakefielde slayne by Clyfford cruell knight:
I George am third, of Clarence duke by right:
The fourth, borne to the mischiefe of vs all,
Was duke of Glocester,[1175] whom men did[1176]
Richard call.

9.

Whan as our sire in sute of right was slaine,

(Whose life and death himselfe declared earst)
My brother Edward plyed his cause amayne,[1177]
And got[1178] the crowne, as Warwicke hath rehearst:
The pride whereof so deepe his stomacke pearst
That hee forgot his friendes, dispisde his kin,
Of oth or office passing not a pyn.[1179]

10.

Which made the earle of Warwicke to maligne

My brother’s state,[1180] and to attempt a way
To bring from prison Henry, seely king,
To helpe him to the kingdome[1181] if hee may,
And knowing mee to bee the chiefest stay
My brother had, hee did mee vndermine
To cause mee to his treasons to encline.[1182]

11.

Whereto I was prepared long before,

My brother had beene to mee so vnkinde:
For sure no cankar fretteth flesh so sore,[1183]
As vnkinde dealing doth a louing minde:
Loue’s strongest bandes vnkindnes doth vnbinde,
It moueth loue to malice, zeale to hate,
Chiefe friendes to foes, and brethren to debate.

12.

And though the earle of Warwicke, subtile sire

Perceiude I bare a grudge against my brother,
Yet toward his feate to set mee more on fire,
Hee kindled vp one firebrand with another:
For knowing fancy was the forcing rother
Which stirreth youth to any kinde of strife,
Hee offered mee his daughter to my wife.

13.

Where through, and with his crafty filed tongue,

Hee stale my heart that earst vnsteady was,
For I was witlesse, wanton, fond and yong,
Whole bent to pleasure, brittle as the glasse,
I can not lye, In vino veritas:
I did esteeme the bewty of my bryde
Aboue my selfe, and all the world beside.

14.

These fond affections ioynd with lacke of skill,

(Which trap the heart, and blind the eyes of youth,
And pricke the minde to practise any ill)
So tickled mee, that voyde of kindly truth,
(Which if it want all wretchednes[1184] ensueth)
I stinted not to persecute my brother,
Til time hee left his kingdom to another.

15.

Thus carnall loue did quench the loue of kinde,

Till lust were lost through fancy fully fed:
But whan at length I came vnto my minde,
I saw how lewdly lightnes had mee led,
To seeke with payne the perill of my heade:
For had king Henry once beene setled sure,
I was assurde my dayes could not endure.

16.

And therefore, though I bound my selfe with[1185] oth

To help king Henry all that euer[1186] I might,
Yet at the treaty of my brethren both,
Which reason graunted to require but right:
I left his part, whereby hee perisht quite:
And reconcilde mee to my brethren twayne,
And so came Edward to the crowne agayne.

17.

This made my father[1187] in law to fret and fume,

To stamp and stare, and call mee false forsworne,
And at the length with all his power, presume
To help king Henry, vtterly forlorne:
Our friendly proffers still hee tooke in scorne,
Refused peace, and came to Barnet fielde,
And there was kild, because hee would not yeelde.
 18.

His brother also there with him was slayne,

Whereby decayed the keyes of chiualrye:
For neuer liu’d the matches of them twayne,
In manhood, power, and martiall pollecy,
In vertuous thewes, and friendly constancy,
That would to God, if it had bene his will,
They might haue tournde to vs and liued still.

19.

But what shalbe, shall bee: there is no choyse,

Thinges needes must driue as desteny decreeth,
For which wee[1188] ought in all our haps reioyce,
Because the eye eterne all things foreseeth
Which to no ill at any tyme agreeth,
For ills, to ill to vs, be good to it,
So far his skill’s exceede our reach of wit.

20.

The wounded man which must abyde the smart

Of stitching vp, or searing of his sore,
As thing to bad, reproues the surgeon’s art
Which not withstanding doth his health restore.
The childe likewise to science plied sore,
Counts knowledge ill, his teacher to be wood,
Yet surgery and sciences be good.

21.

But as the pacient’s griefe and scholer’s payne,

Cause them deme bad such things as sure be best,
So want of wisdome causeth vs complaine
Of euery hap, wherby we seme opprest:
The poore doe pine for pelfe, the rich for rest,
And when as losse or sicknesse vs assayle
 We curse our fate, our fortune we bewayle.

22.

Yet for our good, God worketh euery thing:

For, through the death of these two noble peres,
My brother liu’d and raynde a quiet king,
Who, had they liued, perchaunce in course of years
Would haue deliuered Henry fro the breres,
Or holpe his sonne t’[1189]enioy the carefull crowne,
Wherby our line should haue bene quite put downe.

23.

A carefull crowne it may be iustly named,

Not onely for the cares thereto annext,[1190]
To see the subiect well and duly framed,
With which good care few kings are greatly vext,
But for the dred wherwith they are perplext,
Of losing lordship, liberty, or life:
Which wofull wracks in kingdoms happen ryfe.

24.

The which to shun while some to sore haue sought,

They haue not sparde all persons to suspect:
And to destroy such as they gilty thought,
Though no apparaunce proued them infect.
Take me for one of this wrong punisht sect,
Imprisonde first, accused without cause,
And done to death, no processe had by lawes.

25.

Wherin I note how vengeaunce doth acquite

Like yll for yll, how vices vertue quell:
For as my mariage loue did me excite
Agaynst the king my brother to rebell,
So loue to haue his children prosper well,
Prouoked him, agaynst both law and right,
To murder me, his brother, and his knight.

26.

For by his queene two princelyke sonnes he had,

Borne to be punisht for their parent’s synne:
Whose fortunes kalked made the father sad,
Such wofull haps were found to be therin:
Which to auouch, writ in a rotten skin,
A prophesie was found, which sayd, a G
Of Edward’s children should destruction bee.

27.

Mee to bee G, because my name was George,

My brother thought, and therefore did mee hate,
But woe be to the[1191] wicked heads that forge
Such doubtfull dreames to breede vnkinde debate:
For God, a gleue, a gibbet, grate, or gate,
A Gray, a Griffeth, or a Gregory,
As well as George, are written with a G.

28.

Such doubtfull riddles are no prophesies:

For prophesies, in writing though obscure,
Are playne in sence, the darke be very lies:
What God foresheweth is euident and pure,
Truth is no harold nor noe sophist sure:
She noteth not men’s names, their shieldes, nor
creasts,
Though she compare them vnto byrds and beasts.

29.

But whom she doth forshewe shall rayne by force,

She tearms a wolfe, a dragon, or a beare:
A wilfull prince, a raynlesse ranging[1192] horse:
A bold, a lion: a cowarde much in feare,
A hare or harte: a crafty, pricked eare:
A leacherous, a bull, a goate, a foale:
An vndermyner, a moldwarpe, or a mole.

30.

By knowen beastes thus truth doth playne declare

What men they be of whom shee speakes before:
And who so can men’s properties compare
And marke what beast they doe resemble more:
Shall soone discerne who is the griesly bore:
For God by beastes expresseth men’s condicions,
And not theyr badges, haroldes supersticions.

31.

And learned Merlyne, whom God gaue[1193] the sprite

To know and vtter princes actes to come,
Like to the Iewish prophets, did recite
In shade of beastes, theyr doings all and some,
Expressing plaine by maners of the dome,
That kinges and lordes such propertyes should haue
As haue the beastes whose name he to them gaue.

32.

Which while the foolish did not well consider,

And seeing princes gaue, for difference
And knowledge of theyr issues mixt together,
All maner beastes for badges of pretence,
There tooke those badges to expresse the sence
Of Merlyne’s minde, and those that gaue the same,
To bee the princes noted by theyr name.

33.
And hereof sprang the false namde prophesies,
That goe by letters, siphers, armes, or sines:
Which all bee foolish, false, and crafty lyes,
Deuisde by gesse, or guiles vntrue deuines:
For whan they saw that many[1194] of many lynes
Gaue[1195] armes alyke, they wist not which was hee
Whom Merlyne ment the noted beast to bee.

34.

For all the broode of Warwicke’s gaue the beare,

The Buckinghams doe likewise gieue the swan:
But which beare bearer should the lyon teare
They were as wise as Goose the fery man:
Yet in theyr skill they ceased not to scan,
And to bee deemed of the people wise,
Set forth theyr gloses vpon[1196] prophesies.

35.

And whome they douted openly to name

They darkely tearmed or by some letter ment,
For so they thought, how euer the world did frame,
Preserue themselues from shame, or being shent:
For, howsoeuer contrary it went,
They might expound their meaning otherwise,
As haps in things should newely still arise.

36.

And thus there grewe of a mistaken truth,

An art so false as made the true suspect:
Whereof hath come much mischiefe, more the ruth
That errours should our mindes so much infect,
True prophets[1197] haue fowly beene reiect:
The false, which breede both murder, warre, and strife,
Beleeued to the losse[1198] of many a good man’s life.
 37.

And therefore, Baldwine, teach men to discerne,

Which prophecies be false and which bee true:
And for a ground this lesson let them learne,
That all bee false which are deuised newe:
The age of thinges are iudged by the hue:
All riddels made by letters, names or armes,
Are yong and false, far worse then witche’s charmes.

38.

I knowe thou musest at this lore of mine,

How I, no studient, should haue learned it:
And dost impute it to the fume of wine
That stirs the tongue, and sharpneth vp the wit:
But harke, a friend did teach mee euery whit,
A man of mine, in all good knowledge rife,
For which hee guiltlesse lost his learned life.

39.

This man abode my seruaunt many a day,

And still in study set his whole delight:
Which taught mee more then I could beare away
Of euery arte: and by his searching sight
Of thinges to come hee would foreshew as right,
As I rehearse the pageants that were past:
Such perfectnes God gaue him at the last.

40.

He knew my brother Richard was the bore,

Whose tuskes should teare my brother’s boyes and me,
And gaue me warning therof long before:
But wyt nor warning can in no degree
Let thinges to hap, which are ordainde to bee:
Witnesse the painted lionesse, which slue
 A prince imprisoned, lyons to eschewe.

41.

He told me eke[1199] my yoke fellow should dy,

(Wherin would God he had bene no deuyne)
And after her death I[1200] should woo earnestly
A spouse, wherat my brother would repine,
And finde the meanes she should be none of[1201] mine:
For which such malice should among vs ryse,
As saue my death no treaty should decise.

42.

And as he sayd, so all things came to passe:

For whan king Henry and his sonne were slaine,
And euery broyle so throughly quenched was
That the king my[1202] brother quietly did raygne,
I, reconciled to his loue agayne,
In prosperous health did leade a quiet lyfe,
For fiue yeares space with honours laden rife.

43.

And to augment the fulnesse of my blisse,

Two louely children by my wife I had:
But froward hap, whose maner euer is
In chiefest ioy to make the happy sad,
Bemixt my sweete with bitternes too bad:
For while I swam in ioyes on euery side,
My louing wife, my cheifest iewell dyed.

44.

Whose lacke whan sole I had bewaylde a yeare,

The duke of Burgoine’s wife, dame Margarete,
My louing sister willing me to chere,
To mary[1203] agayne did kindely me intreate:
And wisht me matched with a mayden nete,
A step daughter of her’s, duke Charles’ hayre,[1204]
A noble damsell, yong, discrete and fayre.

45.

To whose desire because I did enclyne,

The king my brother douting my degree
Through prophesies, against vs did repyne,
And at no hand would to our wills agree:
For which such rancoure pearst both him and mee,
That face to face we fell at flat defiaunce,
But were appeased by frends of our aliaunce.

46.

Howbeit my mariage vtterly was dasht:

Wherin because my seruant sayd his minde,
A meane was sought wherby he mought[1205] be lasht:
And, for they could no crime agaynst him fynd,
They forgde a fault the people’s eyes to blinde,
And told he should by sorceries pretend
To bring the king vnto a spedy ende.

47.

Of all which poynts he was as innocent

As is the babe that lacketh kindely breth:
And yet condemned by the king’s assent,
Most cruelly put to a shamefull death:
This fierd my hart, as foulder doth the heath:
So that I could not but exclame and cry,
Agaynst so great and open iniury.

48.

For this I was commaunded to the tower,

The king my brother was so cruel harted,
And when my brother Richard saw the hower
Was come, for which his hart so sore had smarted,
He thought it best take time before it parted:
For he endeuoured to attayne the crowne,
From which my life must nedes haue held him downe.

49.

For though the king within a while had died,

As nedes he must, he surfayted so oft,
I must haue had his children in my guyde,
So Richard should besyde the crowne haue coft:
This made him ply the while the wax was soft,
To finde a meane to bring me to an ende,
For realm-rape spareth neyther kin nor frend.

50.

And whan hee sawe how reason can asswage

Through length of time my brother Edward’s ire,
With forged tales hee set him newe in rage,
Till at the last they did my death conspire:
And though my truth sore troubled their desire,
For all the world did knowe mine innocence,
Yet they agreede to charge mee with offence.

51.

And, couertly, within the tower they calde

A quest, to geue such verdite as they should:
Who what with feare and what with fauour thralde,
Durst not pronounce but as my brethren would:
And though my false accusers neuer could
Proue ought they sayd, I guiltlesse was condemned:
Such verdites passe where iustice is contemned.

52.
This feate atchiued, yet could they not for shame
Cause mee bee kild by any[1206] common way,
But like a wolfe the tyrant Richard came,
(My brother, nay my butcher I may say)[1207]
Unto the tower when all men were away,[1208]
Saue such as were prouided for the feate:
Who in this wise did straungely mee entreate.

53.

His purpose was with a prepared string

To strangle mee: but I bestird mee so,
That by no force they could mee therto bring,
Which caused him that purpose to forgo:
Howbeit they bound mee, whether I would or no,
And in a but of malmesey standing by,
Newe christned mee, because I should not cry.[1209]

54.

Thus drownde I was, yet for no due desert,

Except the zeale of justice bee a crime:
False prophecies bewitcht king Edward’s hart,
My brother Richard to the crowne would clime:
Note these three causes in thy rufull rime,
And boldly say they did procure my fall,
And death of deaths most straunge and hard of all.

55.

And warne all[1210] princes prophecyes to eschue,

That are to darke and doubtfull to be knowen:
What God hath sayd, that cannot but ensue,
Though all the worlde would haue it ouerthrowne:
When men suppose by fetches of theyr owne
To fly[1211] theyr fate, they furder on the same,
Like quenching blastes which[1212] oft reuiue the flame.
 56.

Will princes therefore, not to thinke by murder

They may auoyde what prophecyes behight,
But by theyr meanes, theyr mischiefes they may furder,
And cause God’s vengeaunce heauier to alight:
Woe worth the wretch that striues with God’s foresight:
They are not wise, but wickedly do arre,
Which thinke yll deedes due destenies may barre.

57.

For if wee thinke that prophecyes be true,

We must beleue it cannot but betyde,
Which God in them foresheweth shall ensue,
For his decrees vnchaunged doe abide:
Which to be true my brethren both haue tryed,
Whose wicked warkes warne princes to detest,
That other’s harmes may keepe them better blest.[1213]
 [By that this tragedy was ended, night was so nere come that
wee could not conueniently tary together any longer: and therefore
sayd maister Ferrers: “It is best my maisters to stay here. For wee be
come now[1214] to the end of Edward the fourth’s raigne.[1215] For
the last whom wee finde vnfortunate therein, was the duke of
Clarence: in whose behalfe I commend much that which hath bene
noted. Let vs therefore for this time leaue with him, and this day
seauen nights hence, if your busines will so suffer, let vs all meete
here together[1216] agayne. And you shall see that in the meane
season I will not only deuise vpon this my selfe, but cause diuers
other of my acquayntance, which can doe very well, to helpe vs
forwarde with the rest.” To this euery man gladly agreed. “Howbeit,”
sayd[1217] another, “seing we shall end at Edward the fourth’s end,
let himselfe make an ende of our daye’s labour, with the same
oration which maister Skelton made in his name, the tenour whereof,
so far as I remember, is as foloweth.”][1218]
 Howe King Edward the fourth[1219]
through his surfeting and
vntemperate life, sodaynly dyed in the
middest of his prosperity, the nynth of
Aprill, Anno 1483.
1.

Miseremini mei yee that bee my frendes,

This world hath formed mee downe to fall:
How may I endure whan that euery thing ends?
What creature is borne to be eternall?
Now there is no more but pray for mee all,
Thus say I, Edward, that late was your king,
And twenty-two[1220] yeares ruled this imperiall,[1221]
Some vnto pleasure and some to no lyking:
Mercy I aske of my misdoyng,
What avayleth it frendes to bee my foe?
Sith I cannot resist, nor amend your complayning,
Quia ecce[1222] nunc in puluere dormio.

2.

I sleepe now in mould as it is naturall,

As earth vnto earth hath his reuerture:
What ordayned God to bee terrestriall,[1223]
Without recourse to the earth by nature?
Who to liue euer may himselfe assure?
What is it to trust to mutability?
Sith that in this worlde nothing may endure:
(For now am I gone that was late in prosperity)
To presume thereuppon it is but[1224] vanity:
Not certayne, but as a chery fayre full of wo:
Raigned not I of late in great prosperity?[1225]
Et ecce in nunc puluere dormio.

3.

Where was in my life such an one as I,

While lady fortune had with me[1226] continuaunce:
Graunted not shee mee to haue victory,
In England to raigne and to contribute Fraunce?
Shee tooke mee by the hand and led me a daunce,
And with her sugred lips on mee shee smyled,
But what for dissembled countenaunce,
I could not beware till I was beguyled:
Now from this world shee hath mee exiled,
Whan I was lothest hence for to goe,
And am in age as[1227] (who sayth) but a childe,
Et ecce nunc in puluere dormio.

4.

I had enough, I held mee not content,

Without remembraunce that I should dye:
And moreouer to encroch redy was I bent,
I knew not how long I should it occupye,
I made the towre strong, I wist not why:
I knew not to whom I purchased Tartersall:
I mended Douer on the mountayne hye:
And London I prouoked to fortify the wall:
I made Notingham a place full royall:
Windsore, Eltam, and many other mo,
Yet at the last I went from them all,
Et ecce nunc in puluere dormio.

5.
Where is now my conquest and victory?
Where is my riches and royall array?
Where be my coursers and my horses hye,
Where is my myrth, my solace, and my play?
As vanity to nought all[1228] is wythered away:
O lady Bes long for mee may you call,
For I am departed vntill dome’s day:
But loue you that lord that is soueraine of all:
Where bee my castles and buildings royall?
But Windsore alone now haue I no moe,
And of Eton the prayers perpetuall,
Et ecce nunc in puluere dormio.

6.

Why should a man bee prowde or presume hye?

Saint Bernard thereof nobly doth treate,
Saying a man is but a sacke of stercory,
And shall retourne vnto wormes meate:
Why, what became of Alexander the great?
Or else of strong Sampson, who can tell?
Were not wormes ordaynde theyr flesh to freate?
And of Salomon that was of wit the well,
Absolon preferred his hayre for to sell,
Yet for his bewty wormes eate him also,
And I but late in honoures did excell,
Et ecce nunc in puluere dormio.

7.

I haue played my pageant, now am I past,

Yee wot well all I was of no great elde:
Thus all thing concluded shalbe at the last,
When death approcheth then lost is the fielde:
Then seing this world me no longer vpheld,
(For nought would conserue mee here in this place)
In manus tuas Domine my spirit vp I yeelde,
Humbly beseeching thee, O God, of thy grace,
O you courteous commons your heartes embrace,
Beningly now to pray for mee also,
For right well you[1229] know your king I was:
Et ecce nunc in puluere dormio.[1230]
 [Whan this was sayd, euery man for that[1231] time tooke his
leaue of other, and departed (for then it waxed darke) appointing a
new day of meeting, which being come, we met all together againe.
And whan we had saluted one another, then one tooke the booke,
and began to read the story of king Edward the fifte: (for there wee
left) and when hee came to the apprehending of the lord Riuers:
“Stay there I pray you,” sayd I, “for here is his complaint. For the
better vnderstanding whereof, you must imagine that he was
accompanied with the lord Richard Gray, Hawt, and Clappam,
whose infortunes hee bewaileth after this maner.”]