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Springer Geography
Sathaporn Monprapussorn
Zhaohui Lin
Asamaporn Sitthi
Parichat Wetchayont Editors
Geoinformatics
for Sustainable
Development
in Asian Cities
Springer Geography
Advisory Editors
Mitja Brilly, Fac. Civil & Geodetic Engineering, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana,
Slovenia
Richard A. Davis, School of Geosciences, dept. of Geology,
University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
Nancy Hoalst-Pullen, Dept. Geography & Anthropology, Kennesaw State
University, Kennesaw, GA, USA
Michael Leitner, Department of Geography & Anthropology, Louisiana State
University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
Mark W. Patterson, Dept. Geography & Anthropology, Kennesaw State University,
Kennesaw, GA, USA
Márton Veress, Department of Physical Geography, University of West Hungary,
Szombathely, Hungary
The Springer Geography series seeks to publish a broad portfolio of scientific
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The series includes peer-reviewed monographs, edited volumes, textbooks, and
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Sathaporn Monprapussorn Zhaohui Lin
• •
Asamaporn Sitthi Parichat Wetchayont

• •
Editors
Geoinformatics
for Sustainable Development
in Asian Cities
123
Editors
Sathaporn Monprapussorn Zhaohui Lin
Faculty of Social Sciences, Institute of Atmospheric Physics
Department of Geography Chinese Academy of Sciences
Srinakharinwirot University Beijing, China
Bangkok, Thailand
Parichat Wetchayont
Asamaporn Sitthi Faculty of Social Sciences,
Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Geography
Department of Geography Srinakharinwirot University
Srinakharinwirot University Bangkok, Thailand
Bangkok, Thailand
ISSN 2194-315X ISSN 2194-3168 (electronic)

Springer Geography
ISBN 978-3-030-33899-2 ISBN 978-3-030-33900-5 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-33900-5
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
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Preface
Nowadays many global environmental issues have become one of the severe
problems that our planet is facing today. The problem has become worsen every
day and shown visible effects. Environmental problems from climate change,
natural disasters to biodiversity loss, have a great impact on environmental
degradation, economic slowdown and human well-being. Given the fundamental
geographic underpinning of environmental problems, geography and
geoinformatics can be applied in assessing environmental problems and planning
for sustainable environmental development which is largely required by scientists,
social scientists, policy makers and communities.
Prepared in the context of sustainable development goals (SDGs) initiative, led
by the United Nations. This publication will be useful to all those interested in the
handling of matters related to climate change, land use, natural disaster and urban
growth problems and in applying geography and geoinformatics for spatial problem
solving.
This volume contains a revised version of selected papers presented at the 1st
International Conference on Geography and Geoinformatics for Sustainable
Development (ICGGS), which was held in Bangkok, July 19–20, 2018. It aims to
especially focusing on using geospatial knowledges, methods and tools as the
significance of natural resources and environment, socioeconomic and societal
planning in promoting sustainable development.
July 2018 Sathaporn Monprapussorn

Asamaporn Sitthi
Zhaohui Lin
Parichat Wetchayont
v
Contents
Apply Deep Learning Techniques on Classification of Single-Band

SAR Satellite Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Chairath Sirirattanapol, Nopphawan Tamkuan, Masahiko Nagai,
and Michio Ito
Detecting the Potential Roof for Green Rooftop Development Using
Geospatial Techniques: A Case Study in North of Bangkok . . . . . . . . . 12
Chomchanok Arunplod
Land Use and Land Cover Change of Chanthaburi Watershed
Following 1999, 2006 and 2013 Floods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Chuti Chatewutthiprapa, Srilert Chotpantarat, and Sombat Yumuang
Identification of Urban Expansion Patterns in Bangkok
Metropolitan Region Through Time Series of Landsat Images
and Landscape Metrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Chudech Losiri and Masahiko Nagai
Monitor the Land Use Change and Prediction Using CA-Markov
Model in Li Pe Island, Satun Province, Thailand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Katawut Waiyasusri, Nayot Kulpanich, Morakot Worachairungreung,
and Pornperm Sae-ngow
Sustainable Cultivation Planning in Ban Phaeo District, Samut
Sakhon Province with Goal Programming and Geographic
Information System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Talisa Niemmanee and Walaiporn Phonphan
Drought Assessment During Dry Season Derived from LANDSAT
Imagery Using Amplitude Analysis in Sa Kaeo, THAILAND . . . . . . . . 68
Tawatchai Na-U-Dom, Prasarn Intacharoen, Thippawan Thodsan,
and Siriprapha Jangkorn
vii
viii Contents
Determination Critical Rainfall Threshold for the Initiation

of Landslides Using Rainfall-Infiltration Model and Infinite
Slope Stability Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Thapthai Chaithong
Comparison of Rice Phenology from MODIS and Ground
Image Data in Sakaeo Province, Thailand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Wannaphorn Srichupieam, Narut Soontranon, and Sutatip Chavanavesskul
Application of Geographic Information System to Predict Land
Use Change for Maximum Flow Rate Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Yutthana Chaona, Teerawate Limkomonvilas,
and Sathaporn Monprapussorn
A Study of Köppen-Geiger Climate Classification Change
in Thailand from 1987–2017 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Nutthakarn Phumkokrux
Analysis Forest Fire Cause and Different Land Use Within Buffer
Zones in Kanchanaburi Province, Thailand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Walaiporn Phonphan
Spatiotemporal Analysis of Urban Agglomeration: A Case Study
of Hyderabad City, Telangana State, India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Ashok Kumar Lonavath, Karunakar Virugu, V. Sathish Kumar,
B. Ravi Naik, and Krishna Naik
Modelling of Potential Sites for Residential Development
at South East Peri-Urban of Kolkata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Rukhsana and Md. Hasnine
Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

Apply Deep Learning Techniques
on Classification of Single-Band
SAR Satellite Images
Chairath Sirirattanapol1(&) , Nopphawan Tamkuan2 ,

Masahiko Nagai2, and Michio Ito3
1
Remote Sensing and GIS FoS, School of Engineering and Technology, Asian
Institute of Technology, P.O. Box 4, Klong Luang 12120, Pathumthani, Thailand
schairath@gmail.com
2
Graduate School of Sciences and Technology for Innovation, Yamaguchi
University, 2-16-1, Tokiwadai, Ube, Yamaguchi 755-8611, Japan
3
Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, Chofu, Japan
Abstract. Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) images have been widely applied to
compensate the optical satellite images. SAR can be performed night and day, as
well as be able to penetrate the cloud is one of advantages. It is famously used in
disaster applications for gathering the damaged area information. Apart from
that, SAR images are also contained with speckle noises, which cause the dif-
ficulty of the images for human visualization as well as the one band of SAR
image is insufficient, they are additionally required skillful specialists. There-
fore, to work on manual classification purpose would face the questionable
objects and easy to be misclassified. Nowadays, the deep learning techniques
could be capable of solving classification problems due to outperformed accu-
racy. In this study, we proposed the end-to-end classification framework using
single band SAR image, which applied the deep learning to solve the problems.
Our framework is divided into three main parts consisting of preparing and the
dataset, developing the classification model, and classifying our testing images.
We experimented on four classes using ALOS 2 satellite images. Finally, the
prediction model reached to 91% accuracy on our test dataset with adding
dropout techniques. Expectedly, our framework could be practically adopted in
different applications in advance.
Keywords: Deep learning Convolutional neural networks (CNNs) VGG16

Single-band SAR images Classifications
1 Introduction
Satellite images have influenced to various applications such as agriculture, forestry,

weather, ocean, urban management, change detection, even disaster application [1–4].
Many applications apply the benefits from optical satellite images due to hyper-spectral
reflectance and easy interpretation. On the other hand, the limitations occurred when
they are facing to weather conditions and cloud covered.

S. Monprapussorn et al. (Eds.): ICGGS 2018, SPRINGERGEOGR, pp. 1–11, 2020.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-33900-5_1
2 C. Sirirattanapol et al.
Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) images are well-known to be compensated uti-

lization. SAR could be performed night and day, as well as to penetrate the cloud is one
of advantages of SAR characteristics. The image is represented backscattered values,
which high values are shown as bright areas, conversely the dark areas could be
represented the flat smooth surfaces like road and water. It is useful for disaster
applications to gather the damaged area information [5, 6]. There are many advantages
of SAR images but they still need some specialized knowledge to visualize the SAR
images. The images are also difficult to human visualization due to the radar charac-
teristics, and speckle noise problems [7] as shown in the Fig. 1. To interpret the single-
band SAR, one-band information is insufficient for classification in traditional methods.
It has been still facing with difficulties to differentiate and perceive the useful infor-
mation such as forest area, water area, agriculture area, and housing area compared to
optical satellite images. It is required some domain experts to correctly identify the
images. The human interpretation could sometimes lead to misclassify the areas due to
the radar characteristics. To correctly classify the land cover or land use, are impor-
tantly helpful when the disaster occurred such as finding the land-slide, or flooding
areas. Also, the SAR images are covered the large area more than 1,000 km, if the
classifying processes are done by manually, that would be a problem.
Fig. 1. Example of SAR images (HH band)
Nowadays, deep learning techniques have been playing the import role due to the
outperformed accuracy and hardware capability. One of the deep learning techniques
called Convolutional neural networks (CNNs), which are practically well-known for
classification problems such as face recognition, medical image classification, scene
labeling, human pose estimation, text and document analysis [8–11]. In remote sensing
field, the deep learning technique also has utilized for satellite images such as land use
and land cover applications, cloud detection, and building detection [12–14]. CNNs
Apply Deep Learning Techniques 3
have been developed and optimized in various architectures to improve performance

such as AlexNet [15], VGG [16], GoogleNet [17], ResNet [18] in order to compete
each other in terms of accuracy and speed. The less complex layers mean faster but
giving lower accuracy and vice versa. Therefore, we proposed the utilization of deep
learning techniques to classify the single-band SAR image, which will be elaborated in
step-by-step how to prepare the training dataset and developing the CNN model
including of evaluating the model. Also, the four classes land cover classification were
experimented as our example by applying the proposed framework.
2 Materials and Methods
Based on our study is designed for classification problems. This experiment is focused
on the four class land cover classification, which is comprised of forest, agricultural,
water, and housing areas. However, we have tried to develop the end-to-end frame-
work, which we have expected on our framework could be applied with other appli-
cations. Additionally, the detail of dataset and methodology are explained in the
Sects. 2.1 and 2.2 respectively.
2.1 Dataset
Our dataset were taken from Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), In our
experiment, we also have taken HH band of ALOS-2/ PALSAR-2 SM1 mode level 2.1
into account. The study area is located at Kumamoto, the coordinate is shown in the
Table 1 and Fig. 2. The scene was observed on 21 May 2015 from the right-side
observation of ascending orbit direction, which also has pixel size 2.5 m.
Table 1. Coordinates of the study area.

Bounding box UTM Coordinate
Upper left 649260.521, 3634971.020 130d35′41.63″E, 32d50′33.57″N
Lower left 649260.521, 3624144.945 130d35′35.36″E, 32d44′42.13″N
Upper right 664349.718, 3634971.020 130d45′21.84″E, 32d50′25.80″N
Lower right 664349.718, 3624144.945 130d45′14.94″E, 32d44′34.39″N
Center 656805.120, 3629557.983 130d40′28.45″E, 32d47′34.07″N
2.2 Methodology
To create the end-to-end framework since obtaining the SAR image dataset from JAXA
until classifying the images, we developed the methodology of our study, which is
comprised of main three parts; preparing the dataset, developing and fine-tuning the
convolutional neural networks model for classification and then classifying the testing
image. The overall detail of the methodology is shown the Fig. 3.
Fig. 2. Observed scene on 21 May 2015
Fig. 3. The framework of the study
Preparing the Dataset

Initially, the HH-band SAR image was taken from ALOS-2. The image was tiled into
25 25 pixels. Those tiled images were used for training and testing the classification
model. Each tile could be represented by each area. To assign only the tile images, it is
facing unquestionable scenes if lacking of SAR characteristic knowledge such as side
looking observation, and geometric effects. Therefore, making the tiled image in order
to compare with the optical image are crucially useful. The tiled-grid was also designed
in order to easily visualize, compare and validate the tiled images as shown in the
Figs. 4 and 5. In this experiment, four classes were selected as forest, agriculture, water
and housing areas, meaning that the tiled images could be represented to each class,
each class was assigned the ID using QGIS software providing the information of class
ID, and class name. Finally, each tiled information was stored in the text file, which
provided image name with one-hot encoder. For example of the forest class is stored as
[tile1.jpg, 0, 0, 1, 0], id 3 is represented as forest, the third position will be set as 1 and
the rest of them are set as 0. Finally, the tiled images were randomly separated into 80%
and 20% as training and testing images in order to be fed into the deep neural network
model respectively.
Fig. 4. The process of assignment the tiled images into each class
Fig. 5. Tiled-grid was used for understandably assigning the class to each tile.
Creating the Model for SAR Image Classification

In order to develop the deep learning model, Keras framework with Tensorflow
backend was taken into account in our study. We applied the benefit of VGG 16 model
[16] due to its compact, and outperformance compared to other models, the model was
developed for image recognition. The 80% of training dataset is fed to the network by
adding dropout technique at 0.4 in order to fine-tune VGG 16 avoid overfitting, the
network is shown in the Fig. 6. We applied SGD optimizer by setting the learning rate
at 0.0001, using the categorical cross-entropy loss. The softmax function was added up
to top of the layer to classify the output. Also, the training process was set at 30 epochs
due to the limitation of CPU performance. Finally, the loss and accuracy were com-
puted after the network was trained.
Fig. 6. Fine-tuning VGG16 for Single-band SAR image classification
Classification Image
After the classification model was performed better accuracy, and loss reduced in terms
of both training and testing dataset, the process of classifying the whole SAR image
was applied. The big SAR image was tiled to 25 25 pixel using window sliding
technique by defining window size 25 25, and slide passing through the whole
image from left to right and top to bottom as shown in the Fig. 7. Each tile was sent to
the model to classify and the class id was assigned into the tile, repeating this process
until covering the whole area.
Fig. 7. 25 25 window sliding to the whole image

3 Results
3.1 The Total Number of Dataset
The dataset was divided into 80% and 20% for training and testing set, respectively.
The number of each set is shown in the Table 2.
Table 2. Class details and number of training and testing data

Class ID Class name No. of training No. of testing
0 [Water, Wetland] 380 88
1 [Urban, Building, Housing] 545 136
2 [Forest] 385 97
3 [Agriculture, Paddy field, Grassland] 382 98
Total 1,692 419
3.2 Loss and Accuracy of the Classified Model

The loss of training and testing data were decreasing continuously, conversely the
accuracy could be rapidly increasing to 99% and 91% for training and testing
respectively as shown in the Fig. 8. Moreover, the all testing tiles were predicted,
which is shown in the Fig. 9. The blue dot is shown the correct prediction and the red
dot is shown wrong classification.
Fig. 8. Loss and accuracy of the model

Fig. 9. Results of prediction from the testing dataset
3.3 The Result of Classified SAR Image

To apply the window sliding for the whole image, each tile was classified and given the
color to represent each class, the classified image is shown in the Fig. 10. Also, we
evaluated our testing tiled image using confusion matrix, which shown in the Table 3,
and finally the Kappa coefficient was calculated at 0.884.
Fig. 10. Result of the classified image compared to optical image (from google)
4 Discussion
The benefits of Deep convolutional neural networks could be well-performed in the

SAR classification task. Based on the accuracy of the model could reach to 91% but the
losses of training and testing still need to improve due to limited number of training
dataset. In the Table 3, there are lot of numbers misclassified from agricultural area and
water, because some our dataset could not be strongly classified into one-label class.
For example, some agricultural areas are contained with water like planting paddy field,
the user assigned these tiles as agricultural class as shown in the Fig. 11. The blue areas
were misclassified from agriculture to water, and also some agricultures faced with
misclassed with housing area due to the greenhouse, sometimes the agricultural areas
are covered with the protecting roof. For radar characteristics, SAR image generally
obtains from side looking observation. SAR data provides surface information by
backscattering return to satellite. The image consists of surface characteristic and also
geometric effects (layover, shadow and foreshortening). Therefore, it is possible mis-
classified by radar characteristics. For example, radar shadow in a mountainous area
and paddy in the wet-field could be classified as water because of the less backscat-
tering returned to the sensor. To improve our accuracy, the number of training dataset
should be more prepared with various temporal data and different areas, also the data
augmentation techniques should be implemented appropriately.
Table 3. Confusion matrix reference data (tiles)

Water Housing Forest Agriculture Total Producer’s
accuracy
Classified data Water 75 1 0 12 88 85%
(tiles) Housing 2 134 0 0 136 99%
Forest 2 3 92 0 97 95%
Agriculture 16 0 0 82 98 84%
Total 95 138 92 94 383
User’s 79% 97% 100% 87% Total 419
accuracy
Fig. 11. Misclassified results
In the future, the classification model could be improved in terms of accuracy and
time processing, also our framework could be expectedly adapted in various applica-
tions such as land slide detection, land use and land cover classification.
5 Conclusions
Single-band SAR images have been facing the problems of understandable visualiza-
tion due to noise and back-scattering characteristics of radar. Regarding to the out-
performed accuracy of deep learning techniques, we proposed the end-to-end
framework that could classify the single-band SAR image from preparing the dataset to
the evaluation the result. Our model was worked on pre-trained VGG16 model by
adding dropout with limited number of training dataset as well as we experimented our
framework on four classes classification, which performed 91% accuracy on classifi-
cation model of our study that could be implemented in other problems in the future.
Acknowledgments. This study is the project on utilization of space technology, under Space
Utilization Engineering Laboratory, Yamaguchi university and collaborating with Japan Aero-
space Exploration Agency (JAXA) who provided the useful sources such as ALOS2 images, and
the best guiding and recommendation to reach this study to achievements.
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18. He, K., Zhang, X., Ren, S., Sun, J.: Deep residual learning for image recognition. In: 2016
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(2016). http://doi.org/10.1109/CVPR.2016.90
19. http://cs231n.github.io/linear-classify/
20. https://keras.io
Detecting the Potential Roof for Green Rooftop
Development Using Geospatial Techniques:
A Case Study in North of Bangkok
Chomchanok Arunplod(&)
Geography Department, Faculty of Social Sciences,

Srinakarinwirot University, Bangkok, Thailand
chomchanok@g.swu.ac.th
Abstract. Bangkok, a capital city of Thailand, is a life destination of people not

only be a capital city but also the center of business, education and tourism.
Then Bangkok is one of the fascinating places to visit and live, resulting in over-
capacity. The highly demand of land allocation which shifts from agriculture or
other spaces to shelter function. The green space in urban area is dramatically
decreasing since last decade. In 2015, a green space in Bangkok appeared less
than 20% of the total area, especially in north of Bangkok due to urban
expansion. In contrast, the demand of green space is increasing year by year.
Government authorities and communities are endeavoring to get a green space.
The main find out of this research is to identify the potential area for green space
developing on rooftop in a northeast area of Bangkok. Best Management
Practices (BMPs) for urban green space development process by using Geo-
graphic Information System (GIS)-based model is applied for site suitability
analysis. The criteria for potential green space on rooftop are defined in term of
physical and economic aspects. The preliminary result of suitable green-rooftop
development are identified and compared with the land-price. Finally, the green
rooftop areas were identified based on economic factor as a main driver for
decision making for urban planner and communities.
Keywords: Green rooftop Best management practice Geographic

information system (GIS) Bangkok
1 Introduction
Bangkok is like almost every Southeast Asian metropolis, the population has nearly
tripled from 1960 to 2010 and since 2000 the city recorded average growth of 2.5%,
per year. Urban expansion was the major reason behind the issue [1]. Bangkok is the
center of all; administrations, economy and industries. Moreover Bangkok knows as
one of the fascinating cities in Thailand for visiting, living and working. The popu-
lation of Bangkok is stroking increasing in this decade, cross the city’s capacity [2].
Most of city dominated by air-conditioned complexes environment and crowded [3].
There are small numbers of green areas in Bangkok likes other major cities in Asian,
unable to fulfill the demand of people. Since Bangkok Metropolis Administrative
(BMA) has enacted the master plan for Bangkok area, neither slowing down the growth

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-33900-5_2
Detecting the Potential Roof for Green Rooftop Development 13
rate. In other words, it fascinates people to move into the Bangkok year by year. An
extended boundary needs a transportation to carry on the commuters then the primary
transportation mode of Bangkok is road-based transportation. The covered road-
networks and first-car policy in 2010 resulted in sharp increases in private car return in
more air pollution added in Bangkok [4]. The static endorses the push & pull condi-
tions of Bangkok growth including transportation networks, are getting to become an
increasingly more important factor in the future urban densification [5].
Urban-Heat-Island (UHI) issue in Bangkok is raised by several stakeholders in
2012. Unfortunately, the urban extent of Bangkok is continued to increase at an
average rate of 4.8% since 2002 [5, 6]. Demand for built-up areas is rising and urban
areas tend to be widely sprawled out from inner of Bangkok to nearby provinces.
Physical effects are clearly defining like congestion, equity in public services, pollution
etc. Major effect of urban expansion is the increased in average temperature.
The heat prevents water vapor from cooling and condensing to produce rainfall.
Water vapor collects and allies with energy from downtown Bangkok, which moves up
to meet cool, moist bodies of air in the north of Bangkok, called Rangsit-PathumThani
area [7]. Moreover, the concert construction, also called grey construction, directly
changes the character of urban, especially runoff consumption. When rain falls on our
roofs, streets, and parking lots in cities and their suburbs, the water cannot soak into the
ground as it should. The fast and strong runoff, called stormwater, is a main of water
pollution in urban areas. Because stormwater carries trash, bacteria, heavy metals, and
other pollutants from the urban landscape, are damaging habitat, property, and
infrastructures [8].
According to ongoing global trend of sustainable development and impacts of
urban expansion, it is increasing awareness and perception of urban green concept.
A green concept is introducing as the new way to sustain our urban environment, get
rid of the pollution and heat problems in urban area. Hence, modern urban has recently
turned their attention into environment-friendly constructions or urban agriculture [9].
Green roofs are one specific types of green concept [10]. The green roof constructions
are concerning surface area of rooftop. An increasing of green awareness and per-
ception of urban effects lead the widespread of green roof in Europe [11, 12]. Several
scientific literatures have mentioned about the benefits of green rooftop application and
one of the vast recognized benefits was the capacity for thermal decreasing [10, 13].
The scientists report a significant green roof that it is able to decrease of surface and air
temperature comparing with conventional roofs [14–16].
The keys to success are ability of monitoring urban environment situation and
strengthen urbanites of green perception. Literatures disclose that a geospatial tech-
nique provides significant contributions in green concept more than a decade, ranging
from an overlay technique to complex criteria of site suitability selection. Tuntaopas [7]
used image classification techniques to detected land use change of green area in the
east of Bangkok, Nongchok district by using satellite images; 10-year in range. Results
stated that a compound agriculture was rapidly changed to built-up area. The study
confirmed the useful to apply Geoinformatics techniques for monitoring ad detecting
green area. Additionally, success stories on an urban green area monitoring using
geoinformatics techniques has been evidenced. Wong and Lau [17] published the
potential green roof retrofit in the densely old urban district of Mongkok in Hong
14 C. Arunplod
Kong. Two variables were analyzed: exposure to sunlight and roof space which
manually extracted from Google View images. They found that many of the rooftops
have the potential for green roof retrofit due to building conditions. As same as Tian
and Jim [18] who have studied the factors that affect the spatial pattern of sky garden in
Hong Kong using orthophoto maps, building’s footprint and zoning plans information.
The buildings were classified according their characters at district level. Both of two
researches aim to study current green rooftops and podiums rather than to identify the
new area for green rooftops.
Best Management Practices (BMPs) is proposed to provide more practically
development in green concept. BMPs was developed by United States Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA), a main function is site selection for different types of low
impact development (LID) [19] according to the defined site suitability criteria, such as
land use, soil, height information etc.
In this study, we determine the potential area for green rooftop development in the
North of Bangkok where urban expansion is increasing. Multi spatial datasets are
collected and prepared for GIS-based analysis. The analysis based on BMPs model
which is plug-in in ArcGIS software to selects a suitable site for green roof develop-
ment. However, to motivate people turn their conventional rooftop into green roof
needs more than physical factor alone. This study also focused on socio-economic
factor. The results were then overlay with the land price, the average income layers to
explain a possibility of development the green-rooftop both in common and policy
levels. Consequently, the green roofs are related to the characteristics, spatial and
economic extent of different environment.
2 Materials and Methods
2.1 Study Area and Available Spatial Data

Bangkok has a registered population of 5,696,409 according to the 2015, the ten
districts where the population have more than 100,000 mostly located in the north part
of Bangkok [5]. The blooming of population results from promoting public transport
policy by extending sky train networks construction projects (red &green lines), the
connecting new CBD-to-motorway. For the past five years, a rapid change in land use
reflects by the increase in construction activities. Area of study site is shown in Fig. 1.
The major land use type is residential, government, commercial and tiny industrial
respectively. The lower of study site is connected with an old city area, high density
resident with old construction models. The upper zone is newly construction area
consisting of transportation networks.
This study has utilized different spatial data sources in GIS environment (ArcMap
version 10.2, ESRI). The spatial data collected from various government official
sources as the following;
1. A digital elevation model (DEM) from aerial photo with 5 meters resolution and a
height accuracy 1 m (RTSD, 2016)
2. A vector based land use map based on Bangkok’s planning laws. The map was
generated from aerial photo at scale of 1:4000 (BMA, 2016)
Fig. 1. Map of north area of Bangkok (white boundary) (map source: google earth data through
ArcGIS software)
3. Utilities life line of study area based on 2015 which were provided as polyline
vector data of roads and major river network. (BMA, 2016)
4. Soil map which provides a soil character of the study area in polygon format.
(BMA, 2016)
5. Groundwater map. (DGR, 2016)
2.2 Data Preparation

All spatial data layers (Table 1) were prepared by a ready-format of ArcMap-BMPs.
This section briefly explains the preparation process through various layers.
Noises in elevation layer were filled by using Raster management tool in GIS
software to represent contiguous surface (Fig. 2). Stream network defined as river and
irrigation network provides location of water run-off area and direction (Fig. 3).
Drainage area of urban run-off water is derived by road network.
Land use data collected from BMA is classified into 12 types of land use.
According to definition of ArcMap-BMPs, land use was recoding as number 1–10 and
transformed into raster format with the same pixel size of DEM (Fig. 4).
Urban land use data is digitized through GIS software and was generated from land
use data to identify public or private area for land ownership. An initial land use data is
16 C. Arunplod
Table 1. The input layer of ArcMap-BMPs tool.

Input Explanation Format
DEM To calculate the drainage slope and drainage areas Raster
Soil To provides the percent impervious layer Vector
Stream To define a buffer area, can be placed outside the buffer to Vector
minimize the impact on streams
Road To identify suitable location according in a specific road buffer Vector
Land use To eliminate the unsuitable areas from analysis Raster
Urban land To contain the boundaries for the buildings and the impervious Vector
use area
Groundwater To locates the infiltration capacity Vector
Land To identify the public or private land Vector
ownership
Fig. 2. Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of study site, the dark represents the low and the light
represents the high.
recorded by using two categories; a government and public services category are
recording as public whereas residential, commercial and industrial area are recorded as
a private area (Fig. 5).
Fig. 3. Stream and road networks are the initial data to generated the impact area on streams.
Fig. 4. Land use map from BMA, an initial data to generated the other layers
18 C. Arunplod
Fig. 5. Public and private land ownership in a study area
3 The Green Rooftop in Expanded Urban
All required layers were obtained scores based on suitability level for green rooftop
development. In consequence, an initial result is the locations of potential green rooftop
which only consider the physical factors according to Arc-BMPs model. Aforemen-
tioned, this study concerns not only physical factor but economic factors need to be
taken into account also. A land price map and an average income map were overlay
with the identified green rooftops to suggest the potential of green rooftop installation
in practical way (Fig. 6). The result demonstrated the potential area to develop green
rooftop. The most proper buildings is identified as public buildings like hospital,
government offices and airport because the size and the shape of these rooftop are large
and flat. Moreover, the public buildings can be funding support by government which
easy to rooftop renovation and promoting the green infrastructure concept. Another
alternative buildings are flatted-rooftop of private buildings with pretty high average
income. The shape of rooftop is suitable to develop to be green rooftop but decision has
to be made by owner of buildings. Finally, the low potential of green rooftop devel-
opment is the private buildings with sloped-rooftop.
Fig. 6. The suitable buildings for green rooftop development based on their physical and
economic factors.
4 Concluding Remarks
The motivation of this study is to address and map the area for green rooftop devel-
opment. A GIS-based model was selected to analysis, all model requirement maps
prepared. The output shows the potential area based on physical criteria. To encourage
people on green concept, green rooftop do needs to consider socio-economic criteria.
Even the green concept is wide spreading in Thailand but the installment cost of green
rooftop system is still expensive. This study applied the land price and average income
layers to analyze a possibility of development the green-rooftop. Furthermore, the age
of building should be considering in analysis; it relates to ability of structure-weighting.
The type of plant has to be specified in various literatures for urban area. The green
rooftop is proven to be useful in several countries [20, 21], reducing the global
warming and energy consumption in household level. This attempts cannot be success
without promoting to increase the green rooftop development in urban area for a sustain
urban environment.
References
1. Urbanalyse. https://urbanalyse.com/research/growing-bangkok/
2. Shlomo, A., Jason, P., Daniel, L.C., Blei, A.M.: Making Room for a Planet of Cities. Lincoin
Institute of Land Policy, USA (2011). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267418628_
Making_Room_for_a_Planet_of_Cities_Ma-ing_Room_for_a_Planet_of_Cities
20 C. Arunplod
3. NationNEWS. http://www.nationmultimedia.com/business/Green-roof-the-environment-
friendly-urban-access-t-30236625.html
4. Clean Air Initiative, Archive.org. Developing Integrated Emission Strategies for Existing
Land-transport (2012). https://web.archive.org/web/20130603110642/http://cleanairinitiative.
org/portal/system/files/articles-72628_Ch3.pdf
5. Table of Population and household statistics by districts in 2015. BMA Data center http://
203.155.220.230/bmainfo/esp/. Accessed 4 May 2018
6. Atlas of Urban Expansion. http://atlasofurbanexpansion.org/cities/view/Bangkok
7. Tuntaopas, S.: Application for green area change detection in Nongchok District, Bangkok.
Master thesis of Environmental Management. National Institute of Development Admin-
istration (NIDA), Bangkok (2008)
8. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). https://www.epa.gov/green-infrastructure/what-
green-infrastructure
9. Modern urban has recently turn their attention into life with green environment like
environment-friendly constructions or urban agriculture [Berger thesis 2013]
10. Sutton, R.K.: Introduction to green roof ecosystem. In: Green Roof Ecosystems, pp. 1–25.
Springer, Heidelberg (2015)
11. Larsen, L.: Urban climate and adaptation strategies. Front. Ecol. Environ. 13(9), 486–492
(2015)
12. Berardi, U., GhaffarianHoseini, A., GhaffarianHoseini, A.: State-of-the-art analysis of the
environmental benefits of green roofs. Appl. Energy 115, 411–428 (2014)
13. Sun, T., Grimmond, C.S.B., Ni, G.-H.: How to green roofs mitigate urban thermal stress
under heat waves? J. Geophys. Res.: Atmos. 121, 5320–5335 (2016)
14. Teemusk, A., Mander, Ü.: Temperature regime of planted roofs compared with conventional
roofing systems. Ecol. Eng. 36, 91–95 (2010)
15. VanWoert, N.D., Rowe, D.B., Andresen, J.A., Rugh, C.L., Fernandez, R.T., Xiao, L.: Green
roof stormwater retension: effects of roof surface, slope, and media depth. J. Environ. Qual.
34(3), 1036–1044 (2005)
16. Heusinger, J., Weber, S.: Surface energy balance of an extensive green roof as quantified by
full year eddy-covariance measurements. Sci. Total Environ. 577, 220–230 (2017)
17. Wong, K.W., Lau, L.S.-K.: From the ‘urban heat island’ to the green island? A preliminary
investigation into the potential of retrofitting green roofs in Mongkok district of Hong Kong.
Habitat Int. 39, 25–35 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2012.10.005
18. Tian, Y., Jim, C.Y.: Factors influencing the spatial pattern of sky gardens in the compact city
of Hong Kong. Landscape Urban Plan. (2011). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2011.
02.035
19. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). https://www.epa.gov/water-research/best-
management-practices-bmps-siting-tool
20. Cook-Patton, S.C., Bauerle, T.L.: Potential benefits of plant diversity on vegetated roofs: a
literature review. J. Environ. 106, 85–92 (2012)
21. Grunwald, L., Heusinger, J., Weber, S.: A GIS-based mapping methodology of urban green
roof ecosystem services applied to a Central European city. Urban Forest. Urban Greening
22, 54–63 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2017.01.001
Land Use and Land Cover Change
of Chanthaburi Watershed Following 1999,
2006 and 2013 Floods
Chuti Chatewutthiprapa(&), Srilert Chotpantarat,

and Sombat Yumuang
Department of Geology, Faculty of Sciences, Chulalongkorn University,

254 Phayathai Road, Pathumwan, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
cuchaleck@gmail.com
Abstract. The application of remote sensing (RS) and Geographic Information

System (GIS) have become an effective tool, which is labor, cost and time
effective to assess and widely used in detecting, monitoring environmental
change on the earth surface. Moreover, it can be used to study a pattern of land
use and land cover (LULC) in the past, present and future. For this study,
Landsat imageries were used as a data to deal with the assessment of land use
and land cover changes (LULCC) before and after 3 flooded periods in 1999,
2006 and 2013. The images were used to create a false color composite and
classified by supervised classification process, it can be identified as 9 LULC
types, which consist of paddy field, field crop, para rubber, orchard, aquaculture,
forest, mangrove, urban and built-up area, including water body. According to
the result of this study, LULC types which mainly cover in the watershed are
forest and orchard. After that, LULC were reclassified into 4 main classes for
change detection, comprising of agricultural, forest, urban and built-up, and
water bodies. The results showed LULC transformation mainly occur among
agricultural land into the urban built-up area in the period 1999, 2006, and 2013.
As a result, this study found that the socioeconomics factor plays an important
role in LULC in Chanthaburi watershed. The results of this study can be used as
data for making decision and planning LULC management, also in disaster
response planning and flood risk management.
Keywords: Land use and land cover change (LULCC) Flood

Geoinformatics Chantaburi
1 Introduction
Watershed is an area which catches the water from precipitation and then drained by a
river and its tributaries. It is a resource region where the ecosystem is closely inter-
connected around a basic resource – water, soil, vegetation etc. The watershed or river
basin is therefore an ideal management unit and it is the place where we live and play.
Everyone relies on water and other natural resources for living. Every activity in
watershed is connected to each other so if some part was disturbed or encroached, it
will affect to another part of watershed area [1]. So, the watershed is the logical unit for

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-33900-5_3
Another random document with
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aside; and what was a greater Misfortune, the Prince and his
Retinue beheld with winking Eyes, all their Hovels on fire ashore:
The Occasion this; we happening to have all our Colours flying, and
some Guns let off in honour of the 28th of May, another Leader on
shore misinterpreting it as a particular Respect to Jacobus, grew
jealous, seized his House during the Revel, his Wives, and his
Dashees, drank up all his Brandy, eat all his Victuals, cudgelled his
People, and set both his Houses on fire.
Next Morning, on unravelling the Mystery, the Surprize was over,
and all became good Friends again. They have very little Knowledge
or Use of Fire-Arms, because no Trade scarce; their Weapons being
Spears, Arrows, and Clubs, and it is a bloody Battle among them,
when half a dozen of a side are knocked down.
A
V O YA G E
TO
Brasil, and the West-Indies.
From Cape Lopez (parting with the Coast) we came in sight of the
Island Annabona, the Breezes small at South, and Calms
alternatively; hereabout we cruised three or four days, for our
Consort the Swallow, that some how or other was separated; and
missing her, bore away for Brasil.
In the Passage it may be first observed, that when we had sailed
ninety Leagues to the Westward, and got into 3°° S. the Winds that
were at South veered, so as to become a true S E. Trade, that
carried us four or five Knots.——And still as we advanced farther
Westward, it blew fresher at E S E. 7, 8, and 9 Knots constantly, with
neither Thunder nor Lightning. Quære, whether this distance is not a
proper Medium to allow for the Attraction of all Exhalations by the
Land; at least that they considerably abate after that length from all
Shores, allowing for Latitude, and as they are Montainous or Plain.
We see within this Dimension, (plainly) that it takes off the Influence
of the Sun, and varys the Trade Wind towards itself: Nor is it so
astonishing, since Animals themselves obey; several sorts of Fish
and Fowl have a periodical return to such and such places, and not
so of those inhabiting the more stable Element of Land: Wherefore it
is highly rational to think, that as the fluid Elements they live in yield
to the attractive Power of the Earth and Planets, so also their
Inhabitants have their Instinct more sensibly fated by them.
Secondly, in this Trade-Wind sailing, we are every day diverted
with flying Fish, Bonetos, and Sea-Fowl; the Sails require little labour
in trimming, the Ship goes steady, and the Bowl unslung; so that at
leaving such a Country we might cheerfully sing,
How happy were we, when the Wind blew abaft!

One of these cheerful Evenings, eleven at night, the full Moon
became totally eclipsed, a Darkness surprizing, as it was
unexpected; when she had recovered her Light, we repeated our
Sacrifice in Bowls, and fell into Reflections and Admiration of that
Power which supports the Regularity of the planetary Motions, and
the Sublimity of that Art which can so exactly calculate them: They
demonstrate the Sphericity of the Earth, because Countries, as they
are farther East or West, observe them hours sooner or later,
according to their Longitude, which could not be on a Plain, but
visible to all at once.
This Longitude therefore in a general View, is the same thing as
Time, the difference of it being the distance East and West of any
two places, allowing 15 Degrees, or 300 Leagues to an Hour; the
whole 24 being lost or gained in a Circum-navigation of the Globe,
West or Eastward.
A natural, tho’ hitherto incorrect way of estimating the Parts of
Longitude in those Runs, till Instruments and Rules are discovered,
is, I think, First, to make exact Tables of the Sun’s Risings and
Settings, at Places commonly departed from, and those we go to for
every day in the year: and then, Secondly, to carry two proved
Watches of equal Goodness, kept in equal Warmth, and freest from
Motion and Weather, to measure the difference of time where you
are, by the same edge of the Sun the Tables were made from; the
Minutes sooner or later, according as you go East or West, is so
many Leagues of Longitude for that day. I would insinuate by this
only my Opinion, that those literal Improvers of Time, the Watch
Makers, bid as fair for the Discovery of Longitude as the Astronomer;
for if Watches can be made not to err above two or three Minutes in
the time a Ship is running 1000 Leagues, or if they do err more, a
Rule could be found how much, (like as an Azimuth corrects the
common Compass;) or if any Movement could be depended on only
from Observation to Observation, then the Error would be no greater
than what is met in different Quadrants, observing Latitude. As it is, it
seems a proper Method to correct or assist the present Rules of
calculating meridional Distance.
We made this Passage of 8 or 900 Leagues to Brasil in three
Weeks; but having elsewhere given my Observations on the Country,
I shall only take notice that the Trade blowing very fresh, and
bringing in a great Swell, we hastened from the Coast to our
intended Ports in the West-Indies.
In our Progress thither, a Remark or two: First, that in the
Navigation from Brasil, we crossed the Æquinoctial, two or three
Degrees W. of Cape Roque, keeping on with a pleasant S E. Trade
that gradually lessened, and in 4°° North Latitude, left us in Calms,
Rains, and uncertain Squalls, (varying round the Compass;) That
this continued for several days, till we drew in or near the Parallel of
Barbados, and then we as gradually had obtained the Trade to
Northward of the East, running 150 Leagues with it, that is, to
Barbados.
Secondly, The reason of Calms, and Rains met in Latitudes
between 4°° and 11°° N. (with a little Variation, as the Sun is of this
or that side the Equinoctial) is probably from a Contest between the
N E. and S E. Trade; but whether the passing them be more
favourable far to the Eastward or Westward, I am uncertain.
BARBADOS.
Barbados was discovered by Sir William Carter, in King James I’s
time, planted to little purpose until 1627; since which, the Crops have
been so advantageous, as to have raised the Price of Ground thirty
fold.
We anchored here in Carlisle-Bay the beginning of August, the
resort of most Shipping who load at this Island. The Bay is made by
Needham and Pelican Points; the Anchorage 20 Fathom, so clear
Water that you may see to the bottom; but so foul and rocky, that the
Cables are always buoy’d up with Cask. In the bottom of the Bay
stands Bridgetown, the principal of the Island, and is the Residence
of the Governor, Factors, and Merchants, who transact their
Business here and at their Plantations alternately. There is only one
large Church, with an Organ, and about twenty Chappels at different
parts of the Island, all Episcopal, there having been no Dissenters
these many years. The People are for the most part polite and well-
bred, promoting Trade by a magnificent way of living; the chief of
them are Colonels, or Captains of Militia, and in the Assembly are
divided into a Party-Interest, on the civil Affairs of the Island, their
chief Distinction; murmuring, or elate, just as they are in or out of the
Governor’s Favour, who can abate in the Customs, or imploy in the
Application: (tho’ by the way the fewer Officers, and those Menials,
the better advantage to him.)
The whole is a sweet Spot of Earth, not a Span hardly uncultivated
with Sugar-Canes; all sides bend with an easy Declivity to the Sea,
and is ever green: This delight to the Planter has its Inconveniencies,
that there is no Recreation out of Business, but in Drinking or
Gaming.
The Propriety was given by King James I. to the Earl of Carlisle;
and Anno 1661, King Charles II. purchased it back of Lord Kinoul,
that Earl’s Heir, allowing him 1000l. per Ann. Acknowledgment.
Anno 1663, an Act passed by the President (who acts as
Governor in their absence) the Council and Assembly, for 4½ in
Specie Duty of all Commodities, the Produce of the Island, which it’s
computed will amount to 10000l. per Annum.—Madeira Wines
imported, at 4l. 10s. per Pipe, raises 7000l. and this, with one Pound
of Gunpowder per Tun on each Ship, is appropriated for Stores, and
Repairs to Forts.
The Governor is appointed by the King, his Salary formerly used to
arise at an uncertain Sum of 4 or 5000l. per Ann. from Presents and
Perquisites, since fixed at 1200l., 2000l. and now is 6000l. And as
the Council, a part of their Constitution, is in a manner of his own
Nomination, being appointed by Letters of Mandamus, as they have
Power to make Demands on ancient Perquisites, and sway in the
Application of the publick Money; there are various ways of obliging,
and his Party will always be uppermost in the Legislature, which
consists of him, the Council of twelve, and an Assembly of twenty
two, chose at the several Parishes by a Majority of Votes.
One Law is, That no Inhabitant shall be carried off the Island
without Leave; whoever engages in the Project, is liable to the
Debts; so that when a Family sees Ruin approaching, (a frequent
Case of late years) their Remedy is stealing away in Boats to some
other Place of Subsistence; and if they cannot this way escape a
hard Creditor, they comfort themselves in dying, that it may be their
Lot next. Those who depart fairly, are obliged to give publick notice
at the Secretary’s Office; and no body objecting in twenty one days,
are at liberty.
Another Act in 1676, passed against the Industry of the Quakers,
whose Conversion of the Negroes, it was pretended, hazarded the
Safety of the Island. They are computed at 80 or 90000, and are
countenanced in Polygamy; yet not dangerous, because no
Mountains to fly to, Detections and Executions would soon follow
their Rebellions. The English are reckoned 20000, the Women
among them most Scotch and Irish, very homely, and great
Swearers. The Men, contrarily, are very gay, clean, and handsome,
from mean Originals, often succeeding with rich Widows; it being but
Justice to link a fat Plantation to the truely nauseous Draught of
Matrimony.
The way of feeding such a Multitude, and providing Necessaries in
an Island yielding little besides Sugar, is principally by their Fisheries
and Importations.
The Sea gives them great plenty of flying Fish, Dolphins,
Barricuda and King Fish, particularly the first; they bait with their own
Specie, which thrown about, the Fish fly in such numbers to the
Boats, that they take them up with Dip-nets, and sometimes the
Dolphins with them; the Season goes off at the Autumnal Equinox.
Their Importations by Ships from England, Ireland, New-England,
Pensylvania, Carolina, or New-York, constantly supplying any Defect
of Food or Necessaries, every Vessel bringing them something or
other of this kind, which the Merchants keep in store and sell the
Planters occasionally, who give their Sugars, Rum, and Molosses in
return. The Price in what I was acquainted is, viz.
Bought,
Rum at 1s. 2d. per Gallon.
Citron Water 40 0
Pickled Pepper 10 0
Preserved Ginger 5 0 per lb.
Sugar, twenty Shillings a hundred; and before
our Improvements (says Gee) the
Portuguese sold for 7 and 8l. a hundred.
Cocoa, 3 or 4l.
Aloes 4d. per lb.
Sold,
Salt Beef and Pork, 40 Shillings for a
Cask of 2 Cwt.
Bisket, 17s. per hundred
Candles, 6½ per lb. &c.
Exchange 30 per Cent. or more.
I have heard that the Custom-house Books had one year 35000
Hogsheads of Sugar entred, which at 10l. per Hogshead, amounts to
350000l. Every Acre was supposed 10s. a year Profit to the national
Stock of England, besides what the Planter got, and Mouths fed by
it; but I must observe, the Crops of late years have very much failed,
and put many of them under great Necessities. The Soil fertile in the
Age past, seems now growing old, and past its teeming-time; they
endeavour to mend this by a few Cattle kept for the sake of Manure;
few, I say, because Land imploy’d this way, gives not 1/10 its Value.
Wherefore when a thoughtless Man has joined to unlucky Events
and Seasons an inadvertent way of living, he falls a Prey to the more
astronomical Heads of Factors, who supply him with Food and
Necessaries. The Hardships of many Planters at this time, through
such Inclemencies, cannot be better laid open to the Reader, than in
transcribing part of a Sermon, that I am informed was preached by
Command of his Excellency the Governor, May 1734.
A Charity S e r m o n at Bridgetown,
for the two Parishes, St. Philip, and Christ-Church.
“Here I should have left off, but I am commanded by his Excellency

the Governor, to exhort you to that Charity, the Necessity of which
has been laid before ye.
“Remember therefore, that one of the ways observed of seeking
God is, by obeying the Dictates of his Holy Spirit, that Humanity and
Charity undepraved Nature feels towards all that are poor and
distressed.
“What an excellent Grace of Christianity this is, St. Paul from the
Spirit of God teacheth, (1 Cor. xiii.) saying, that when the Gift of
Tongues, of Prophecies, of Miracles shall cease, a greater, even that
of Charity, shall never cease in the Church militant, never in the
Church triumphant; nor can there be any greater Inducements to
provoke us to Charity, than first, it covers a Multitude of Sins, and
next, bringeth God himself (as he is pleased to esteem it) in debt to
us; for he who giveth to the Poor lendeth to the Lord, and look, what
he layeth out shall be paid him again; paid in Blessings here, and
hereafter eternal Life, if no mortal Sin continue in the Giver, to hinder
these blessed Effects.—I need say no more to ye who read the
Bible, how dear to God those Christians are, who according to their
Ability are liberal to poor Persons and Families; so that what remains
for me to say, is to expatiate a little upon the miserable State of the
Poor of these two Parishes, and leave the whole to your pious
Consideration.
“In one of these, St. Philip’s, mine Eyes beheld all the Signs of an
approaching Famine; the Face of the Earth appeared as it were a
dry Crust, burnt up and gaping for its watry Nutriment; hardly any
thing green appeared, and I am told, the Face of the Country is
much the same in Christ-Church Parish. Now how miserable must it
be with the single Poor, and with Families! I assure you, several are
come into ours, and others are gone farther Leeward to seek for
Work and Food. You who are tender Parents, consider how terrible it
must be for Families with nothing in their House, nothing growing on
their Land, not a grain of any thing to support themselves and dear
helpless Children: No Money, and no Credit, no Relief from without,
and no Bread, nor Water either, hardly within or without. I have heard
of poor Men going about for Work, to sustain their own Bodies,
forced to leave Wife and Children at home to starve; sure your
Hearts must relent, and every one of you give according as you are
able, with a free Mind, and willing Heart. But here some may object,
Why should I give to those two Parishes, when our own Poor may be
in as great Want? I answer, some may be so; but the Calamity
(blessed be God) is not so general here; it is not so bad with us in
that one necessary Article of Water. Thirst is terrible, let us then pity
our poor Brethren, their Wives and Children, who go so far for Water
that they have not due time to get their Bread, were there Work for
them to earn it by.
“I believe, you know we have here poor Families in great want,
and I could wish our Vestry would meet, particularly to consider it;
but in the mean time, let us not forget the poorer People of these two
Parishes, as now perishing for want of Food; yea, his L——p and the
Council’s Belief is, (you hear) that some have already died for want
of Bread.
“What Christian Man or Woman then in Affluence and Plenty, can
have an Heart so hard as not to bestow liberally on so great, so sad,
so calamitous a Necessity and Misery? and what poorer Christian,
who has somewhat, tho’ little above his daily Wants, but will fling his
Mite to stop so dread an Evil?
“What Christian Woman, who has young and helpless Children of
her own, and Bread to give them, but whose Bowels must yearn and
Heart ake to hear, that in these two Parishes are many Infants crying
at the empty Breasts of their Mothers, and their Mothers weeping
and languishing at the same time for Bread to sustain themselves.
“What compassionate Fathers or Brothers but must grieve to
understand, that grown Children too young to work, are now starving
in these Parishes, and their Parents and Brothers nothing to relieve
them.
“What good Children but must bleed at heart to see their Parents
starving? yet such is the Fate of some in these Parishes.
“Christians consider, that one way of keeping Famine from us of
this Parish, is to bestow our Charity in a Proportion to their Wants,
and our Ability: That is the likeliest Method to move God to give us
fruitful Seasons, to renew our Springs, and bring a cheerful Green
over the Face of our Plants and Seeds.
“May the blessed Spirit, &c.”
The Consequence of this Distress now among the Barbadians, is

shifting their old Habitations; several impelled by Necessity, and
Wants, (stronger Motives than Religion;) are stealing away to mend it
where they can.
The Sufferings of these Islanders, I think, will carry some
Similitude to larger Countries; where the remarkable Decay, or Loss
of one single Branch of Trade, it’s observed, will sensibly affect
Multitudes, not only those immediately concerned in the retailing,
who must change Trades, infringing on others, or seek other
Countries, but also those not concerned; because as an
extraordinary Trade stamps an extraordinary Value on Land, and that
on Provisions, when the one fails, or changes hands, as it has and
will do, (Venice, the Hans Towns, Antwerp, Holland, and which by
the way, shews all Countries bordering on the Sea, within 50°° of
Latitude, equally advantageous for Trade) the other ought to give
way for the lowering of Provisions, and Charge of Subsistence to the
Poor, (some ways of it being supposed now to be cut off or
curtailed:) and if Landlords do it slowly, the Law should oblige;
because, as publick Virtue is no private Man’s Profession, he will
take his Lands into his own hands, tho’ with Loss, rather than submit
to the Reduction of his Rents; and because he can afford it, will
hoard, and suffer Grain to decay and spoil, before he will fall the
Price.
In our Plantations, the inferior sort of Merchants are not unlike
Sharpers in Gaming; they by a better Skill, know how to prey on the
Wants, the Weakness, and Passions of their Customers (the
Planters and Artificers) chaining them down by degrees to their
Service; many of the Inconsiderate being ruined without knowing it,
till the very Day they want Victuals.
SUGAR-CANES.
In the Wars between Holland and Portugal in Brasil, a Dutch-Man
arrived here from thence, who taught them the way of Planting and
making Sugars. They are set out between August and December, six
Inches deep, and do not come to Maturity until one year and a
quarter: when ripe, which is known by their Colour, they cut them up
with a Bill, and send them to the Wind-mills, which presses out the
Juice so clean, the Canes by being an hour or two in the Sun,
become fit for Fuel.
The Liquor must not remain in the Cistern above a day, for fear of
souring; it is therefore by a Gutter conveyed to the Copper or Boyler,
and in the boiling, the Filth scummed off; thence it’s conveyed into
the second and third, and in the last, called the Tack, is boiled to a
Consistency, and turned into a Grain by throwing in of Temper, which
is only the Infusion of Lime and Water made strong according to the
Goodness of the Cane. Nine Pounds of Juice makes one of
Muscovado, and one of Molossus.
From hence it is carried to the cooling Cistern, till fit to put in Pots,
which have Holes at Bottom to drain off the Molossus.
Of these Molossus again, they sometimes make another worse
Sugar, called Paneels. Of the Scum, coarse Molossus, Washings of
the Boilers and Pots, fermented together, is made Rum.
To refine Sugar, is to boil it over again, and clarify with the same
Lime-Water and Eggs, reckoned better than the clayed Sugars of
this Region, made by putting a clayey Earth mixed with Water to the
thickness of a Batter upon them, and repeated three or four times
according to the degree of Whiteness design’d; both ways carry the
Treacle and Molossus downwards, but the former most esteemed,
as mixing less, and purging to better purpose. Lime refines from
Impurities, and imparts a softer Taste, experienced in throwing it into
Wells of hard Water; the best refin’d in Loaves comes back to the
Sugar-Colonies from England, sell at 50 or 100 per Cent. Advance,
and are of common Use; they must be kept dry, a hot and moist Air
dissolving them.
From Molossus, Distillers make a clean Brandy, and it gives a
pretty tasted Spirit to Malt Liquors, boiled and worked in the Tun.
Besides Rum and Sugars, they have Quantities of Ginger, Aloes,
Tamarinds, Citron, Cassia, Coloquintida, Cassava, Limes, Oranges,
Guavas, Pine-Apples, Mastick, Cedar, Cotton and Palmeto Trees,
prickled Pear; but our Apples and Pears, nor any of our Shrub-Fruits,
Goose-berry or Currant, will thrive. Of the Potato they make a brisk
Small-beer, called Mobby.
About two or three years ago, the low Price of Sugars, that had
reduced and beggar’d the Planters, brought on a Complaint, and Bill
in Parliament in their favour. They urged, according to the best of my
Remembrance, that the northern Colonies, especially New-England,
being suffered to trade with the French Islands, was in a great part
the Occasion of this, and a Loss to the Nation; for they took off all
the French Molossus, which before they had no use for, but sold it
our Islands at very low Prices.
The French therefore were helped by this Sale, to afford their
Sugars cheaper, and still more enabled by a nearer Way of Living;
by the Customs being taken off, allowing them to go thence to any
Market, and other Encouragements to undersell, and take the foreign
Markets from us, who were clogged with all those Inconveniencies.
The New-England People alledged, their Trade seemed the least
essential Article in the Injury complained of; for unless our Islands
found means to take off the other Impediments, and bring their
Sugars to as cheap, or cheaper Price than the French and Dutch,
they would be the same in respect to foreign Markets; and if new
Grounds are better, or more wanted in Plantations, there are enough
at Jamaica, St. Christopher’s, &c. to redress the Evil. But this is not
in their View, say they; the more Lands are employed, the less will
be the Value of the present Estates, an impolitick Reduction of all
prodigal Expences; for every Island singly, reckon their Happiness in
part, not from the flourishing Condition of another, but from
Casualties, and bad Seasons; the less quantity there is to answer
the Demand, the higher the Price.
Barbados formerly used to buy the French and Dutch Sugars,
making all that Trade go through their own hands, till in 1715, laying
a Duty turned the Channel, and they would now make up that
oversight by imposing their own Price on us.
The Northern Colonies deserve Favour, they think, as vastly
superior in Number and Trade, take off more of the Manufactures of
England for themselves, and their Trade with the Indians, who
exchange Furrs and Pelfry to make Hats; for the same Reason, they
want more Molossus to manufacture among themselves, than our
Islands can sell, or if they could, cannot take off one quarter of the
Lumber, Horses, and refuse Fish, with which we trade with the
French, not only for Rum and Molossus (which may as well come to
us this way, as through their hands) but sometimes also Money; and
without which we have no means of purchasing, nor could get rid of
our Produce and Industry, which is very unreasonable.
To lay a Tax of six-pence a Gallon on French Molossus, is the
same as a Prohibition, which their Country cannot so easily bear.
They take 20000 Hogsheads a year (each 100 Gallons) from the
Dutch and French, which is 50000l. whereas they have no Specie to
pay it, their Currency being all Paper, and that but 30000l. Besides, it
would be the first Tax on a charter’d Colony from England, where
they have no Representatives.
Lastly, it was said, the French buy their Negroes, and Sugar-
Materials (Mills, Coppers, &c.) 40 per Cent. dearer than us; therefore
for our Islands to say they cannot afford as cheap, is to say, they will
not abate of their Pride and Luxury, but help to maintain it by a Tax
on our more humble Industry.
T h e W E S T- I N D I E S .
For a general Idea of the West-Indies, we may understand by that
Term, all the Continent, Sea, and Islands, from Terra Firma to
Florida, or from near the Equinoctial to 28°° of N. Latitude; and if you
include Bermudas, to 32°°. The main Land in this Circuit divided into
Spanish Provinces, is more peculiarly called the Spanish West-
Indies, they possessing all, unless to the Southward in Guiana and
Paria, where there are a few English, Dutch, and French,
interspersed on the Rivers and Coast of Oronoko, Surinam, and
Amazons.
They import hence to Europe, besides Rum and Sugars, great
quantities of Cocoa, Indigo, Cotton, Logwood, Ginger, Lignum-vitæ,
Cochineel, Snuff, Cassia, Aloes, Pimento, Tortoise-shell, Dyers, and
other Wood, a Variety of Drugs, and above all, prodigious Quantities
of Plate, and some Gold.
The Islands in this Sea are the Charibbees, Sotovento, Antilles,
and Bahama.
Charibbees were the lesser Antilles, about 30 in number, whereof
the French have Martinico, St. Lucia, Bartholomew, Deseada,
Granada, Marigalant, Guadalupe, and Santa Cruz. To the Dutch
belong in whole or part, Saba, Eustatia, St. Vincent, and Tobago, or
Tobacco Island; so called, from the Plenty of that Weed there, or the
Weed so called, as first transplanted thence. The rest are English,
and of them Barbados is chief. Others next of Note are Antegoa,
Nevis, St. Christopher’s, and Montserrat; which have a separate
Governor, stiled General of the Leeward Islands, their principal
Produce with us, is Rum and Sugars; but the French, besides these,
cultivate Cocoa, and Indigo: and as the managing of more Lands
naturally gives Plenty, and makes room for an Increase of People,
the French Policy of late years has considerably increased their
Colonies at Martinico and Hispaniola; some say 40000 settled there
at the French King’s Expence, with the Addition of a year’s
Maintenance, to countenance their Mississipi Settlements, and these
further Views of drawing over Men’s Affections, by affording
Europeans the West-India Commodities, at the cheapest rate, and
strengthning themselves against the Resentment of any who dislike
it.
In some are found large Caves that run half a Mile under ground,
supposed the Dwelling-places of the old Natives, who quickly
forsook them to the new Inmates; tho’ Dampier says, he met some of
these Charibbees at St. Lucia, and St. Vincent, and others say the
like of Curasao: The Name imports Cannibals, an Inhumanity
charged on them at the Discovery, as a proper Accusation for
Dispossessors.
Sotovento Isles lie E S E. and W N W. along the Terra Firma,
called so because the Spaniards in their Voyages to Mexico, make
them one after another sub vento (to Leeward.) Of these, the Dutch
have Curasao, Oruba, and Berraire. The Spaniard the others, (La
Trinidad, and Margarita, chief;) from whence, and the Antilles, they
have of late years very much infested this Navigation, with their
Guard le Costas, confiscating the English Effects in Reprisal, it is
supposed, for the Loss of their Fleet near Messina, 1718.
The greater Antilles are, Cuba, Hispaniola, Portorico, and
Jamaica; the three former, Spanish.
Cuba is principal; a very pleasant and flourishing Island, the
Spaniard building and improving for Posterity, without dreaming, as
the English Planters do, of any other Home. They make the best
Sugars in the West-Indies. It was from this Island, (Velasquez
Governor,) that Cortez in 1518, made his Expedition and Conquest
of Mexico.
The Havana, its chief Port and Town, is esteemed the richest in
America; for besides its own valuable Produce, the Spanish Fleets
from all parts on the Main, make up here in their return to Europe.
The Islands on the South Side of it, and the Camaines, are
resorted to for the largest and best Turtle.
Porto-Rico, and Hispaniola (the diminutive of Hispania) are Islands
we make, in our Passage to Jamaica, famous of late for their Guard
le Costas. These Privateering Fellows, when they are not acting by
lawful Commission, they know the Governor’s Mind, and bring in
Ships on a pretence they are trading with the King of Spain’s
Subjects in a clandestine and prohibited manner; if they find any
Pieces of Eight, it is a Condemnation; an Encouragement in
searching a Ship, to deposite some there themselves: Or if this Trick
fails, they are yet detained, and on various Pretences lengthned out
with Law-suits, till ruined. We called, after weighing from Barbados,
at Sancto Domingo, the chief Town of Hispaniola, where we found
three English Masters of Ships under these Hardships. They had got
the better in Law, but with such Charge and Delay, that it had spoiled
their Ships and Voyages; and lest that should not do it effectually,
their Damages are against the Captains of the Privateers, who are
perhaps the Governor’s servile Dependants, and not worth a Groat.
Sancto Domingo Harbour has 15 Fathom Water at the Bar, and
the Entrance defended by several Batteries. The Town is the
Residence of an Arch-Bishop, and a President from Spain, who lives
in a House that is said to have been built and occupied by
Christopher Columbus himself. To this Officer (on account of its prior
Settlement) Appeals come from all the Spanish West-India Islands,
whose Sentence is definitive, unless called by a particular
Commission to Old Spain. They buy their Places, it seems, and
consequently execute them oppressively.
The Island is diminished of its Inhabitants, for this, or a securer
and better Settlement on the Continent; so that the French now,
about Petit Guavas, equal, if not outnumber them, tho’ both together
are vastly short of what its Extent and Fertility deserves. A Soil that
produces any thing; their Sea and Rivers full of Fish, and the
Country spread with Forests of Cabbage and Palm-Trees, in which
are prodigious Numbers of wild Hog and Beef, which the Hunters of
different Nations at certain Seasons shoot, the latter for their Hides;
and the Pork, they jerk (as they call it) that is, strip it from the Bones,
and then salting the Flesh a little, dry it in the Sun.
Bahamas, so called from the Principal, or Lucayes from Lucayone
(new Providence, the largest of them) where the English have a
Governor: They are noted for a dangerous and rapid Chanel,
commonly called the Gulph of Florida, through which the Spanish
Fleets always take their Passage to Europe, and are frequently
shipwrecked.
The Pyrates often take their rise here, or if not, seldom fail in the
Course of their Adventures to visit these Seas. There are Multitudes
of little Islands and Kays, besides this Division above, that afford
Refreshments of wild Hog, Cow, Goat, Sheep, Parrots, Guanas,
Turtle, and Fish; many of them uninhabited, and seldom visited but
on that account, whereby they are a natural and good Security. The
Sailor, when he would express the Intricacy of any Path-way, stiling it
the Caribbees.
They commonly make their Beginning here after this manner;
when any Spanish Ship is wrecked in Florida, the Jamaicans fit out
Vessels to fish upon her, (the best I believe, being always pleas’d
with going shares in such Voyages, which may be judged of by their
Treatment of the Galleon cast away on Jamaica, a very few Years
ago) and dispute a Right of Plunder with the Spaniard himself, who
is also fitted from the Havana on these Accidents, to recover what
they can; the Contest therefore is with various Fortune, and
sometimes turns to a bad account.
Our Logwood-Cutters from Campechy and Honduras, who have
been unfortunate by the frequent Visits of the Spaniards to destroy
that Trade, remove hither, or those to them, to consult of Reparations
to their broken Fortunes. Saunterers also, who are turtling from
different Parts, do all together make a considerable Resort
sometimes, and being prompted to Revenge for the Injuries
sustained, they combine and furnish out a little Sloop perhaps
against them at first, who finding little come by confining their Ways
and Means to the Spaniards only, who sail in Fleets, they fall at last
on any Nation; the Transition being easy from a Buccanier to a
Pyrate; from plundering for others, to do it for themselves.
These Logwood-Cutters, (since mentioned) I must observe, were
originally settled at the Bay of Campechy, but with a contested Right
that made it hazardous, the Spaniard opposing the Legality, and
when uppermost, treating them as Pyrates, which our People have
frequently returned again with Interest. It was taken 1659, by Sir
Christopher Mins. In 1678 again, by the English and French
Privateers; and what Licence the Peace of Utrecht gave, I am
uncertain, but they are since drove out, and now support themselves
with their Arms at the Bay of Honduras.
They are about 500 (Merchants and Slaves,) and have taken up
their Residence at a Place called Barcaderas, about 40 Miles up a
narrow River full of Alligators; and what is a greater Inconvenience
against transporting their Effects, is a strong Current in it from the
Freshes up Land, and the Banks being covered with Shrubs, that
makes it difficult to walk and tow the Boats; covered also with infinite
Numbers of Sand-Flies, and Muskitos. They live in Pavilions; a
Servant at their time of lying down to rest, shaking them till cleared of
these Vermin, that are an unsufferable Plague and Impediment to
Sleep.
At the Season (once a year) they move their Pavilions from the
pleasurable Spots, the better to attend the Logwood cutting, which
carries them sometimes many Miles from this principal Residence, to
follow the Wood, which runs in a Line or Vein (like Minerals in the
Earth) of some Miles perhaps, and then as many, without a Stick of
it. They cut it into large Pieces, and leave it on the Ground till the
Land-Flood favours their bringing it into the River, and then Canoos
are laden away with it, to lay in store at Barcaderas, where the Chief
are still left residing.
They have all good Arms, and knowing the Spanish Clemency,
defend themselves desperately, if attacked; which has happened
seldomer than at Campechy, and always by Sea.
A Servant, which is the first Step with Seamen into the Trade, is
hired at a Tun of Logwood per Month, and has one Day in seven for
himself, making together about 10l. a Month to him; hence, if
thoughtful and sober, they in time become Masters, join Stock, and
trade independently. They have a King, chose from among their
Body, and his Consort is stiled Queen, agreeing to some Laws by
common Consent, as a Guide to them.
The Ships that come into the Bay, are on their Guard also, fetch it
down in flat-bottomed Boats, each Crew being allowed on the
Voyage, a Bottle of Rum and some Sugar, and row generally in the
Night, as freest from those stinging Flies, and rest in the Day.
The Exchange with Ships is for Money, Beer, Flower, or any sort of
Provisions and Necessaries; these, the cunningest reserve in Store
against the Wants and Demands of the Inconsiderate, and so make
extraordinary Returns.
It may not be improper to conclude this Head with an Observation
or two on the Channel and Current of Florida, which I submit to the
more Skilful.
This Gulph is as dangerous a Navigation as any known; the
Spaniards often experience it, because it’s an Addition to the
Danger, that they have unwieldy Ships, and lubberly Seamen. We
commit Errors, I imagine, by our common Charts, which lay down the
Channel double the Breadth it is; the most intelligent in the Passage
having assured me, it is not above 16 or 18 Leagues over; and
therefore when a Storm happens, build on a false Supposition.
The Spaniard is likewise over-careful to be safe; the nicer
Observations made on Shoals, Currents, or Winds, either here or in
the Bay, when and how to make them advantageous, are from an
imagined Security against any maritime Power, committed only to
their Admiral (according to common Report) whose Light the Fleet
are to follow; and for their better Recovery of any shipwrecked Cargo
in the Gulph, (frequent in losing the Admiral,) they have a Garrison at
St. Augustine, on the Florida Shore, a barren Spot where they are
almost starved, and which would not be worth keeping but for this.
Ships and Vessels may, and often have sailed through this Channel
from the N End to Cuba, or the Bay of Mexico, notwithstanding the
common Opinion, on account of the Current, that is against it. They

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Geoinformatics for Sustainable

Development in Asian Cities Sathaporn

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Fig. 2. Observed scene on 21 May 2015

Fig. 3. The framework of the study

Preparing the Dataset

Creating the Model for SAR Image Classiﬁcation

Fig. 6. Fine-tuning VGG16 for Single-band SAR image classiﬁcation

Fig. 7. 25 25 window sliding to the whole image

Table 2. Class details and number of training and testing data

3.2 Loss and Accuracy of the Classiﬁed Model

Fig. 8. Loss and accuracy of the model

Fig. 9. Results of prediction from the testing dataset

3.3 The Result of Classiﬁed SAR Image

The beneﬁts of Deep convolutional neural networks could be well-performed in the

Table 3. Confusion matrix reference data (tiles)

Fig. 11. Misclassiﬁed results

Geography Department, Faculty of Social Sciences,

Abstract. Bangkok, a capital city of Thailand, is a life destination of people not

Keywords: Green rooftop Best management practice Geographic

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

2 Materials and Methods

2.1 Study Area and Available Spatial Data

2.2 Data Preparation

Table 1. The input layer of ArcMap-BMPs tool.

Fig. 5. Public and private land ownership in a study area

3 The Green Rooftop in Expanded Urban

Chuti Chatewutthiprapa(&), Srilert Chotpantarat,

Department of Geology, Faculty of Sciences, Chulalongkorn University,

Abstract. The application of remote sensing (RS) and Geographic Information

Keywords: Land use and land cover change (LULCC) Flood

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

How happy were we, when the Wind blew abaft!

“Here I should have left off, but I am commanded by his Excellency

The Consequence of this Distress now among the Barbadians, is

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