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Sixth Edition e
TEXTBOOK OF

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ANATOMY

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Volume III

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VOLUME I
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Section 1 ................................................................................................................. General Anatomy
Section 2 ................................................................................................................. Upper Limb
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Section 3 ................................................................................................................. Lower Limb
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VOLUME II
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Section 4 ................................................................................................................. Thorax
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Section 5 ................................................................................................................. Abdomen and Pelvis
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VOLUME III
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Section 6 ................................................................................................................. Head and Neck
Section 7 ................................................................................................................. Neuroanatomy
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Section 8 ................................................................................................................. Genetics
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Volume III

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Inderbir Singh's
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TEXTBOOK OF
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ANATOMY
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Sixth Edition
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Revised and Edited by
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Sudha Seshayyan MS PDHM
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Director and Professor
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Upgraded Institute of Anatomy m

Vice Principal, Madras Medical College
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Chennai
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The Health Sciences Publisher

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New Delhi | London | Philadelphia | Panama

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Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P) Ltd
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Headquarters
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Website: www.jaypeedigital.com
© 2016, Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers
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The views and opinions expressed in this book are solely those of the original contributor(s)/author(s) and do not necessarily represent those
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of editor(s) of the book.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
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All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective
owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book.
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Medical knowledge and practice change constantly. This book is designed to provide accurate, authoritative information about the subject matter
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in question. However, readers are advised to check the most current information available on procedures included and check information from
the manufacturer of each product to be administered, to verify the recommended dose, formula, method and duration of administration, adverse
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effects and contraindications. It is the responsibility of the practitioner to take all appropriate safety precautions. Neither the publisher nor the
author(s)/editor(s) assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property arising from or related to use of material in this book.
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This book is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in providing professional medical services. If such advice or services are
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required, the services of a competent medical professional should be sought.

Every effort has been made where necessary to contact holders of copyright to obtain permission to reproduce copyright material. If any have
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been inadvertently overlooked, the publisher will be pleased to make the necessary arrangements at the first opportunity.
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Inquiries for bulk sales may be solicited at: jaypee@jaypeebrothers.com

Textbook of Anatomy
First Edition : 1996
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Second Edition : 1999

Third Edition : 2003
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Fourth Edition : 2007

Fifth Edition : 2011
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Sixth Edition : 2016

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ISBN 978-93-5152-986-6
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Printed at
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Late Professor Inderbir Singh
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(1930–2014)
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Tribute to a Legend
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Professor Inderbir Singh, a legendary anatomist, is renowned for being a pillar in the education of
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generations of medical graduates across the globe. He was one of the greatest teachers of his times. He
was a passionate writer who poured his soul into his work. His eagle's eye for details and meticulous
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way of writing made his books immensely popular amongst students. He managed to become
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enmeshed in millions of hearts in his lifetime. He was conferred the title of Professor Emeritus by
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Maharishi Dayanand University, Rohtak.
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On 12th May, 2014, he was awarded posthumously with Emeritus Teacher Award by National
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Board of Examination for making invaluable contribution in teaching of Anatomy. This award is
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given to honour legends who have made tremendous contribution in the field of medical graduate. He fre
was a visionary for his times, and the legacies he left behind are his various textbooks on Gross Anatomy,
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Histology, Neuroanatomy and Embryology. Although his mortal frame is not present amongst us, his
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genius will live on forever.

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Preface

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Castles of all medical wisdom are anchored to the knowledge of anatomy. Both the learning and the teaching of anatomy
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have undergone masterly changes. Though the limits of human anatomy appear to be confined to the boundaries of the
human body, newer frontiers have constantly appeared due to two primary factors—one, expanding basic medical and
clinical research and two, larger understanding of hitherto unexplained areas.
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The preparation of a textbook on Anatomy should have the scope to adequately accommodate the growing changes.
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At the same time, it also cannot become disproportionately large, considering the time span within which an average

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undergraduate medical student would have to acquire this knowledge.
This edition of Inderbir Singh’s Textbook of Anatomy has been prepared keeping the twin factors of the restructuring
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of medical curriculum and the knowledge expansion in mind. Many of the chapters have been completely revised and
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rewritten. Clinical Correlation has been clearly laid out. Embryological and Histological details have been added so as
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to give the reader a comprehensive picture. Newer features like Multiple Choice Questions and Clinical Problem-solving
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have been appended to each chapter in order to provide the reader with the opportunity of self-assessment.
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A student entering the medical curriculum is faced with a completely new atmosphere. In an attempt to familiarize
the student not only with Anatomy but also with the nuances of the medical world, new sections on General Anatomy
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and Genetics have been added. Professor Inderbir Singh’s eye for details and meticulous writing style have always been
popular amongst generations of medical students. Though many areas of the book have been revisited, the basic spirit
and nature of the book have been retained. Additional features like Added Information and Clinical Correlation in any
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chapter will be of much help not only to the undergraduate students but also to the postgraduates.
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At this juncture, I would like to place on record my appreciation and gratitude to Dr Hannah Sugirthabai Rajila Rajendran,
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Professor, Department of Anatomy, Chettinad Hospital and Research Institute, Kanchipuram District, Tamil Nadu, India;
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Dr M Nirmaladevi, Associate Professor, PSGIMS & R, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India and Dr J Sreevidya, Assistant
Professor-cum-Civil Surgeon, Madras Medical College, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India for their painstaking editorial
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assistance. I would like to thank Dr Indumathi. S, Professor and HOD, Department of Anatomy, Chettinad Hospital
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and Research Institute, Dr T Anitha, Dr Elamathi Bose and Dr Bhuvaneswari, Assistant Professors of Anatomy, Madras
Medical College, Chennai for their help during the preparation and review of the manuscripts and formulation of
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chapters.
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I would be failing in my duty if I do not acknowledge the contributions of Dr Lakshmi, Dr Kanagavalli, Dr Arrchana,
Assistant Professors, Department of Anatomy, Madras Medical College, Chennai and Dr Dharani, Assistant Professor,
Villupuram Government Medical College, Villupuram, Tamil Nadu, India towards the completion of this edition. Shri
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RAC Mathews, Shri Ranganathan and Shri Sashikumar were instrumental in providing the necessary assistance, and
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Shri E Senthilkumar provided some of the illustrations for the book and I would like to extend my thanks to each of them.
Special thanks to Shri Jitendar P Vij (Group Chairman) and Mr Ankit Vij (Group President), Jaypee Brothers Medical
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Publishers (P) Ltd., without whom this edition would not have seen the light of the day. I am extremely thankful to
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them for reposing their confidence in me and providing the opportunity to revise Inderbir Singh’s Textbook of Anatomy. fre
Dr Sakshi Arora (Director, Content and Strategy) has been the driving force behind all efforts and deserves a very special
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thanks. She has provided insights and innovative ideas which have gone a long way in consolidating this book to best
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meet the needs of the taught and the teacher alike. We are thankful to her entire Development and Content Strategy
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team consisting of Ms Nitasha Arora (Project Manager), Mr Bunty Kashyap, Mr Phool Kumar, Mr Puneet Kumar Das,
Mr Vikas Kumar, Mr Prabhat Ranjan, Mr Neeraj Choudhary, Mr Sanjeev Kumar and Mr Sandeep Kumar (Designers and
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Operators), and Ms Ankita Singh, Ms Sonal Jain, Ms Neelam Kakariya, Mr Prashant Soni (Editorial) for their constant
technical support throughout the project.
This book is the combined effort of a number of people who have contributed in myriad ways and it may not be
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humanly possible to list down the many; however, I take this opportunity to extend my thanks to all of them.
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Sudha Seshayyan
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Contents

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Section 6 Head and Neck
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1. Overview of Head and Neck..................................................................................................................................................................... 3

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2. Bones and Joints of Head and Neck....................................................................................................................................................10
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3. Scalp and Face (Including Lacrimal Apparatus and Parotid Region).......................................................................................43
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4. Temporal and Infratemporal Regions (Including Temporomandibular Joint).....................................................................69
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5. Submandibular Region and Tongue...................................................................................................................................................82

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6. Cranial Cavity............................................................................................................................................................................................ 100
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7. Vertebral Canal......................................................................................................................................................................................... 113
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8. Muscles and Triangles of the Neck.................................................................................................................................................... 120
9. Oral and Nasal Regions......................................................................................................................................................................... 147
10. Viscera of the Neck (Including Pharynx and Larynx).................................................................................................................. 165
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11. Orbit and Eye............................................................................................................................................................................................ 184
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12. Ear and the Organs of Hearing and Balance.................................................................................................................................. 213
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13. Endocrine Glands of Head and Neck, Carotid Sinus and Carotid Body............................................................................... 232
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14. Blood Vessels of Head and Neck........................................................................................................................................................ 245
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15. Nerves of Head and Neck..................................................................................................................................................................... 274
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16. Cross-Sectional, Radiological and Surface Anatomy of Head and Neck............................................................................. 316
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Section 7 Neuroanatomy
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17. Introduction to Central Nervous System........................................................................................................................................ 331 m

18. Spinal Cord—Gross Anatomy and Internal Structure................................................................................................................ 337
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19. Brainstem—Gross Anatomy and Internal Structure................................................................................................................... 348
20. Tracts of the Spinal Cord and Brainstem......................................................................................................................................... 363
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21. Cranial Nerves—Nuclei and Functional Aspects......................................................................................................................... 378

22. Cerebellum—Gross Anatomy and Internal Structure................................................................................................................ 393
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23. Cerebrum, Thalamus and Hypothalamus—Gross Anatomy and Internal Structure...................................................... 402
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24. Ventricles of the Brain............................................................................................................................................................................ 428

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25. Special Senses and Their Pathways................................................................................................................................................... 438

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26. Blood Supply of the Central Nervous System............................................................................................................................... 444

Section 8 Genetics
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27. Introduction to Genetics...................................................................................................................................................................... 457

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28. Important Terms in Genetics............................................................................................................................................................... 459

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29. Chromosomes.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 461

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30. DNA and RNA............................................................................................................................................................................................ 468

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Textbook of Anatomy

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31. Mendelian Laws of Inheritance.......................................................................................................................................................... 471

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32. Alleles.......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 474
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33. Genotype and Phenotype.................................................................................................................................................................... 477
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34. Codominance (Features, Significance and Clinical Implications).......................................................................................... 481
35. Incomplete Dominance and Overdominance.............................................................................................................................. 484
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36. Lethal Alleles............................................................................................................................................................................................. 487
37. Sex Determination by Chromosomes.............................................................................................................................................. 490
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38. Twinning—Monozygotic and Dizygotic Twins............................................................................................................................ 494
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39. Inheritance of Genetic Disorders....................................................................................................................................................... 499

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40. Mutation and Recombinance............................................................................................................................................................. 502
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Appendix 505
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Index 519
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Section
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6
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Head and Neck

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1
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Chapter
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Overview of Head and Neck
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impulse reception also developed in the same region so
Frequently Asked Questions
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that coordination between senses and the neural elements
‰‰Give a brief account of the various regions of the head and would be maximal. As selection of food is related to the
neck. senses, organs of ingestion also developed in the anterior
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‰‰Write notes on: (a) Deep cervical group of lymph nodes,
part of the body. Compact spatial arrangement of all the
(b) Surface features of face.
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structures resulted in cephalisation (concentration of
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important structures in the head region).
A distinct neck was not required as long as the organisms
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Head and neck are both important regions of the body. It
lived in water or on the surface of land. When they had to
is hard to separate the two of them because structures of
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move their heads up to some levels above the surface (as
the head are in anatomical and functional continuity with
in birds and mammals unlike the reptiles), ‘neck’ became
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structures of the neck and vice versa.
a necessity. The head had to move/turn/rotate separate
The human head can be described as the superior part of
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from the movements of the rest of the body; neck provided
the body that houses the brain and gives accommodation
‘freedom’ to the head, all the time keeping the latter in
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for organs of special senses. The term cephalon is used
contact with the rest of the body.
to denote the head region in several lower organisms. In
Head and neck, which are anterior in the quadrupeds,
humans, the term is not directly used; however, cephalic,
ascended up to become superior in humans.
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a derivative of cephalon (Old French.cephalique; Latin.
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cephalicus; Greek.kephele=head, related to head), is
regularly used. Brain and parts of brain are indicated by
REGIONS OF HEAD AND NECK
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the term encephalon (in the head). Though the head appears a compact ‘whole’ and the neck
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The neck is that portion which attaches the head to the fre
looks like a stalk holding the head up, several regions are
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rest of the body. It actually serves as a conduit transmitting described for purposes of study. The regions are:
various structures from and to the head. ‰‰Scalp (regio epicranius): It is the skin that covers the
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Presence of head and neck can be attributed to an ‘top’ of the head. Extending from the forehead to the
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evolutionary and developmental process called cephali­ back of head, this region forms an important landmark
sation. Several lower organisms do not have a distinct in the external morphology of the individual.
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head; even those which seem to have a separate and ‰‰Face (regio facies): It is the anterior portion of the head
identifiable head do not possess a distinct neck. However, that serves as a communication tool. The main receptor
organisms and animals belonging to more and more of organs of the special senses (eyes, ears, mouth and
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higher levels of evolution do have distinct and specialised nose) are located on the face making the latter both a
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heads and necks. Development of a distinct head followed region of reception and a region of expression.
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the development of bilateral symmetry in animals. As ‰‰Parotid region (regio parotideus): It is the region
bilateral symmetry made the organism more and more on the sides of the face, near and a little lower to the
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compact, the nervous elements of the organism’s body got ear (hence the name; parotid=beside ear). It consists
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concentrated in the anterior region. Structures related to of a major salivary gland called the parotid gland.
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Section 6 Head and Neck

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Important vessels and nerves of head and neck traverse
Added Information contd...

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through this gland making it a zone of neurovascular
significance. ‰‰In the neurocranial area:
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‰‰Temporal region (regio temporale): It is the region on Median (unpaired) Lateral (paired)
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the sides of the face, behind the eye and above the ear. Frontal region Temporal region
It is also the lateral region of the scalp. Parietal region Auricular region
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‰‰Infratemporal region (regio infratemporale): It is the Occipital region Mastoid region
area that is deep to the parotid region and the mandible. ‰‰In the viscerocranial area:

It is not seen from the exterior and houses important Median (unpaired) Lateral (paired)
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neurovascular structures.    – Orbital region
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‰‰Submandibular region (regio submandibulare): It is    – Infraorbital region

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Nasal region Zygomatic region
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the area beneath the lower jaw. Since the area is below
the maxillary bone, in the olden times, it was referred to Oral region Parotid region
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as the submaxillary region. The submandibular triangle Mental region Buccal region
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and the submental triangle form part of this region.
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‰‰Posterior cervical region (regio postcollum or regio

‰‰Suboccipital region (regio suboccipitale): It is the
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area at the back of the head below the prominence of colli posterior): It is the posterior portion of the neck
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the bone. It extends inferiorly into the back of neck.
‰‰Anterior cervical region (regio antecollum or regio
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consisting mainly of the fasciae, ligaments and muscles
on the posterior aspect of the cervical vertebral column.

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‰‰Lateral cervical region (regio sternomastoidale or
colli anterior): It is the anterior portion of the neck
and consists of the structures contained within the regio colli lateralis): It is the lateral portion of the neck
neck anterior to the larynx and trachea. The muscular consisting mainly of the posterior triangle of the neck.
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‰‰Prevertebral region (regio prevertebralis): It is the
triangle and the carotid triangle form part of this region.
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area consisting of structures which lie on the anterior
Added Information aspect of the cervical vertebral column. The prevertebral
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muscles form the major bulk of this region.
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It is customary to mark regions of head and neck on the surface
‰‰Tracheo-oesophageal region (regio tracheo-oeso­
during clinical work. Since many of the internal structures have
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no superficial relation, these markings (except for a few) are phagialis): It is the area related to the trachea and the
done on the basis of skeletal and superficial features. These oesophagus and the space between them. Important
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regions are (Fig. 1.1): neurovascular structures are related to this area.
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Several other regions like the sternocleidomastoid
region, temporozygomatic region, parotideomasseteric
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region, temporoparietal region, frontonasal region,
oromaxil­lary region and orbital region have been descri­
bed. These are the areas which form part of the major
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regions mentioned above.
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Added Information
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The cheek region or the regio buccalis, though part of the
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facial region, has special anatomical and cultural significance.
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It is bounded anteriorly by the lips and chin, superiorly by
the zygomatic region, posteriorly by the parotid region
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and inferiorly by the inferior border of the mandible. The

prominence of the cheek, caused by the zygomatic bone, is
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actually at the junction of the zygomatic and buccal regions.

The prominence of the cheek is an evolutionary human
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characteristic; it developed as a compensation for the retraction

of the snout. In many quadrupeds, the protruding snout bears
the brunt of exposure to the surrounding. In the human beings,
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as the snout portion receded, the midface is exposed and tends

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to bear the brunt. In order to withstand forces of attack (which

may come from predators and extraneous natural causes alike),
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the midface develops a stronger region in the form of cheek

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prominence. The prominence gives symmetry to the face. It is

Fig. 1.1: Regions of head and neck also considered an index of beauty both in males and females
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in almost all cultures of the world.

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Chapter 1 Overview of Head and Neck

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SURFACE LANDMARKS AND FEATURES ‰‰Mental protuberance: This is the prominence of the

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chin. It is separated from the lower lip by a shallow
It is essential to know some of the important surface
trans­verse groove called the mentolabial sulcus.
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landmarks of head and neck before a detailed study of the
‰‰Nasolabial sulci: These are the right and left grooves
internal structures is commenced.
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which run from the alae of the nose to the angles of
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Surface Features of Cranium the mouth and become prominent while smiling or
laughing.
‰‰Frontal bossing: These are the right and left prominences
seen at the upper part of the forehead, a little below
Surface Features of Neck
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where the forehead curves to join the hairy part of the
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‰‰Sternocleidomastoid: This muscle can be made promi­
scalp. These are also called the frontal tubera.

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‰‰Pinnae and ear apertures: These are the external ear nent in a living individual by asking the individual to
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auricles and the openings of the external acoustic meati. rotate the face towards the contralateral side and elevate
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‰‰Mastoid processes: These are the prominences seen the chin. The muscle stands out as a broad band and its
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and well felt behind the auricles. They are well formed anterior and posterior borders can be well made out.
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in adults but are not present in infants. ‰‰Jugular notch: This depression can be palpated in the
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‰‰External occipital protuberance: This is the prominent median plane of the root of neck between the sternal
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point that can be felt in the midline on the occipital heads of the two sternocleidomastoid muscles.
region at the point where the neck commences. It may ‰‰Spine of the vertebra prominens: This is the spine of
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sometimes not be felt clearly, especially in females. the seventh cervical vertebra which can be palpated at
the junction of the nape of the neck with the back.
Surface Features of Face ‰‰Greater and lesser supraclavicular fossae: These are
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‰‰Supercilia: These are the eyebrows, one on either side. two depressions found above the clavicle. The lesser
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‰‰Superciliary arches: These are the arched bony fossa is between the clavicular and sternal heads of
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prominences seen above the eyebrows. sternocleidomastoid and the greater fossa is between
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‰‰Glabella: This is the hairless midline area between the the clavicular head and the trapezius.
eyebrows.
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‰‰Palpebrae: These are the eyelids which are fascio-fibro-
FASCIAE
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muscular folds overlying the eyeball and protecting the
latter. The head and the neck accommodate important structures.
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‰‰Palpebral fissures: These are the openings of the eyes In order to give protection to these structures, the fasciae
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on either side.
‰‰Superior and inferior palpebral sulci: These are the
shallow depressions seen above and below the eyes on
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of both head and neck have undergone specialisation.
In the scalp, the subcutaneous connective tissue
forms a richly vascularised and a richly innervated layer

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both sides. beneath the skin. Another layer of loose connective tissue
‰‰Nose or external nose: This is the pyramidal structure
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lies beneath the aponeurotic layer of the occipitofrontalis
that projects anteriorly and downward in the median muscle; this layer has potential spaces which may distend
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part of the face. with fluid.
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‰‰Apex of nose: This is the pointed anterior angular tip of fre

Several fascial layers and planes exist in the face; these
the nose.
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layers merge and separate in varied combinations to create
‰‰Bridge of nose: This is the slightly depressed area that
spaces of different dimensions. Details of these fasciae
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overlies the junction of the nose and the forehead. It is are dealt with in chapters on face, parotid and temporal
also called the root of nose.
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regions. The superficial fascia of face gains importance by

‰‰Dorsum of nose: This is the anterior border of nose that
the presence of the muscles of facial expression within and
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runs from the root to the apex.

attached to it.
‰‰Alae of nose: These are the rounded wing-like projec­
The superficial fascia of neck has no special features.
tions, one on either side, each around the anterior nasal
However, the deep fascia of the neck forms clear sheets.
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opening of its corresponding side.

One of these sheets forms a complete sleeve around the
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‰‰Philtrum: This is the vertical shallow groove seen in the

median region of the upper lip. deeper structures of the neck and is called the investing
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‰‰Oral fissure: This is the opening of the mouth. layer of deep cervical fascia. Another sheet forms the
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‰‰Angles of the mouth: These are the right and left edges pretracheal fascia while the third forms the prevertebral
of the oral fissure. fascia.
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Section 6 Head and Neck

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CUTANEOUS INNERVATION ophthalmic division of trigeminal nerve. The skin of the

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temporal region is supplied by the zygomaticotemporal
The cutaneous innervation of the head can be conveniently
branch of the maxillary division and the auriculotemporal
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divided into that of the face and that of the scalp. The sensory branch of the mandibular division.
supply of the skin of both these regions is predominantly
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The posterior part of scalp is taken care of by the cervical
subserved by the trigeminal nerve and its branches. The spinal nerves.
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cutaneous innervations of the neck can be studied as a whole. The great auricular nerve, a branch of the cervical
plexus and deriving fibres from the ventral rami of C2
Cutaneous Innervation of Face and C3 spinal nerves, supplies the skin over the angle of
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The trigeminal nerve has three branches—ophthalmic, mandible, inferior lobe of auricle and the parotid sheath.
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maxillary and mandibular divisions. These three divisions The lesser occipital nerve, again a branch of the cervical

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take care of the cutaneous supply of the face in three broad
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plexus and deriving fibres from the ventral rami of C2 and
areas with posterosuperior wings, one below the other. C3 spinal nerves, supplies the skin of the scalp posterior to
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the auricle.
Branches of Ophthalmic Division
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The median portion of the skin of scalp is supplied by
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The cutaneous branches of the ophthalmic division of the branches from the dorsal rami of C2 and C3 spinal nerves.
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trigeminal nerve take care of the supply of the upper eyelid, The greater occipital nerve supplies the skin of the occipital
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forehead and the anterior part of scalp. The external nasal region. The third occipital nerve supplies the skin of the
nerve supplies the strip along the dorsum of the nose. The lower occipital and suboccipital regions.
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infratrochlear nerve supplies the glabella and the medial
part of the upper eyelid. The supratrochlear nerve supplies Cutaneous Innervation of Neck
the region above the glabella. The supraorbital nerve The skin of neck derives its supply from the branches of
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supplies a wide area on the forehead and scalp extending the cervical plexus and from the cutaneous branches of
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almost till the level of lambdoid suture. The lacrimal nerve the posterior rami of cervical spinal nerves.
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supplies a small area in the lateral part of the upper eyelid. Three cutaneous branches of the cervical plexus supply
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Branches of Maxillary Division the anterior and lateral portions of the neck. The lesser
occipital nerve supplies the small area of skin of neck
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The cutaneous branches of the maxillary division take care behind the auricle. The great auricular nerve supplies
of the lower eyelid, upper lip, cheeks and some parts of the
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the skin over the mastoid, skin in the space between the
nose. The infraorbital nerve supplies the skin from near the mastoid and the angle of mandible and a small area below
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lateral part of the root of nose, lower eyelid, cheek, upper it. The transverse cervical nerve supplies the skin covering
lip and ala of nose (including the skin of the vestibule).
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the anterior cervical region.
The zygomaticofacial nerve supplies the prominence of The supraclavicular nerves, which are also branches of
the cheek. The zygomaticotemporal nerve supplies the the cervical plexus, supply the skin over the lower part of
hairless skin of the anterior aspect of temporal region. the neck and above the clavicle.
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The skin of the posterior aspect of the neck is supplied
Branches of Mandibular Division
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by the cutaneous branches of the posterior rami of C4 to
These branches take care of the lower lip, lower jaw and
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C8 spinal nerves.
a band of skin that passes up from the lower jaw through
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the auricular area to the posterior aspect of the temporal DERMATOMAL MAP OF HEAD AND NECK
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region. The mental branch supplies the skin of chin,
mentolabial sulcus and the overhanging lower lip. The The dermatomal map of the face and scalp reveals the
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buccal nerve (buccal branch of mandibular division) interesting coordination that can be witnessed in the
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supplies the inferolateral aspect of the cheek. The cutaneous supply of these areas. The cutaneous distribution
auriculo­temporal nerve supplies the skin of preauricular of the face follows the developmental distribution of the
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area, auricle, external acoustic meatus and posterior part latter. Viewed from front, the distribution can be likened to
of temporal region. three cups fitted in the sequence of the upper cup pushed
into the next lower cup. The uppermost cup is actually full
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Cutaneous Innervation of Scalp to the brim and also has a linear central stalk that runs
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The skin of scalp is supplied by the branches of trigeminal along the dorsum of the nose.
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nerve and branches of cervical spinal nerves. The cutaneous distribution of the scalp follows a clear
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The skin of forehead and that of the anterior portion division between the branches of the ventral and dorsal
of scalp till the level of the lambdoid suture are supplied rami of spinal nerves. The posterior part of the scalp, as
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by the supraorbital and supratrochlear branches of the should be anticipated, is supplied by branches from the
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Chapter 1 Overview of Head and Neck

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dorsal rami (greater occipital from C2 and third occipital Outer Circle of the Outlying Group

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from C3). The lateral part of the scalp is supplied by The outer circle of the outlying group is arranged around
branches from the ventral rami (lesser occipital and great
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the junction of head and neck from the occiput posteriorly
auricular nerves from C2,C3).
to the chin anteriorly. The constituent lymph nodal groups
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The dermatomal map of the neck recapitulates the
are as follows:
segmental pattern of nervous distribution. The upper part
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‰‰The nodes of the occipital group lie along the attach­
of neck derives supply from C2,C3 segments while the
ment of trapezius to the occipital bone.
lower part from C3,C4 segments.
‰‰The nodes of the retroauricular group (also called the
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mastoid group) lie superficial to the upper attachment
LYMPH NODES
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of sternocleidomastoid muscle.

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Lymph nodes which drain the structures of head and neck ‰‰The parotid lymph nodes are in two groups, superficial
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are distributed in terminal and outlying groups. and deep. The nodes of the superficial parotid group
re

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‰‰The terminal group is related to the carotid sheath and (also called the preauricular group) lie over the
sf

f
ks

ks

ks
lies along the internal jugular vein; it is called the deep parotid gland and those of the deep parotid group are
k

cervical group of lymph nodes. All the lymph vessels of

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embedded within the gland.
the head and neck drain into these nodes either directly ‰‰The nodes of the submandibular group lie over the
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or indirectly through the outlying group.
submandibular gland. Some of them are embedded
‰‰The outlying group is, in turn, arranged into an
m

m
within the gland.
outer circle and an inner circle. The outer circle of
‰‰The submental nodes lie below the chin overlying the
lymph nodes extends from the chin to the occiput as
mylohyoid muscle, between the anterior bellies of the
a cervical collar at the junction of head and neck and
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right and left digastric muscles.
is superficially placed. The inner circle surrounds the
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upper part of the respiratory and alimentary passages. Apart from these lymph nodes, the following nodes are
also part of the outer circle:
e.

e.

e.

e.
Deep to the inner circle, a submucosal ring of lymphoid
‰‰The buccal nodes which lie along the facial vein,
tissue, the Waldeyer’s ring, is present.
fre

fre

fre

fre
Lymphatics from the lower part of deep cervical lymph ‰‰The superficial cervical nodes which lie along the
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ks

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nodes are collected together to form the descending external jugular vein, superficial to the sternocleido­
jugular lymph trunks. The left jugular lymph trunk mastoid muscle, and
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terminates at the junction of the left subclavian and ‰‰The anterior cervical nodes which lie along the anterior
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internal jugular veins after joining with the thoracic duct. jugular vein.
The lymphatics from these lymph nodes drain into the
m

The right jugular trunk opens at the junction of the right
subclavian and right internal jugular veins either directly
or after joining with the right lymphatic duct.
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deep cervical lymph nodes either directly or through the
inner circle of outlying group of lymph nodes (Fig. 1.2).

m
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Fig. 1.2: Lymph nodes draining superficial tissues of the head and neck
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7
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Chap 1.indd 7 20-07-2015 12:06:34

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Section 6 Head and Neck

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Inner Circle of the Outlying Group

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The lymph nodes of the inner circle consist of the
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prelaryngeal, pretracheal, paratracheal, retropharyngeal,
lingual and infrahyoid nodes.
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‰‰The prelaryngeal nodes are located in front of the
m

m
cricovocal membrane.
‰‰The pretracheal nodes are in front of the trachea, above
the isthmus of thyroid gland.
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‰‰The paratracheal nodes are present on either side of
the trachea and oesophagus.
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c
All these nodes drain lymph from the larynx below the
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e.

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vocal folds, the trachea, the oesophagus and the thyroid
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gland.
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‰‰The retropharyngeal nodes occupy the retropharyngeal
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space and receive afferents from the pharynx, palate,

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palatine tonsils, posterior part of nasal cavity, auditory
tube, tympanic cavity, sphenoidal and posterior
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ethmoidal air sinuses.
Fig. 1.4: Outlying members of the deep cervical group
m

m
‰‰The infrahyoid nodes are located over the thyrohyoid of lymph nodes
membrane.
‰‰The lingual nodes are situated over the hyoglossus.
the facial vein. These nodes are called the jugulodigastric
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Deep Cervical Nodes nodes and are mainly associated with the drainage of the
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tongue and also the palatine tonsils. Efferents from the
The deep cervical lymph nodes are located along the
e.

e.

e.

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upper deep cervical group either drain into the lower deep
internal jugular vein and lie mostly under cover of sterno­
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cervical or directly into the jugular lymph trunk.
cleidomastoid. The deeper tissues of the head and neck
The inferior deep cervical lymph nodes lie along the
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ks

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ks
drain into these nodes. They also receive afferents from
lower part of internal jugular vein and are also located deep
the outlying group of lymph nodes—both inner and outer
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to the sternocleidomastoid. One node of the inferior group
circles. They are further subdivided into the superior and
lies just above the intermediate tendon of the omohyoid
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inferior groups (Fig. 1.3).
muscle and is called the jugulo-omohyoid node. It is also
The superior group of deep cervical lymph nodes are
m

m
associated with the drainage of the tongue. A few nodes
located near the upper part of internal jugular vein. Though
of the deep cervical group also extend in front of scalenus
most of the nodes lie deep to the sternocleidomastoid, one
anterior muscle. Enlargement of the left scalene node is
subgroup of nodes lie in a triangle bounded behind by the
om

m
a common finding in carcinoma of stomach (Virchow’s
internal jugular vein, above and in front by the posterior
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node). Efferents from the lower deep cervical group drain
belly of the digastric muscle, and below and in front by
into the jugular lymph trunks (Fig. 1.4).
e.

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Clinical Correlation fre

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‰‰Lymph nodes in the head and neck may be enlarged
in various diseases. The most important of these are
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tuberculosis and malignancy. Physical examination of

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the neck involves systematic palpation of the nodes. The

surgeon stands behind the patient whose neck is slightly
m

flexed to relax the muscles to palpate the lymph nodes.

‰‰The lymph nodes in the neck may be involved in carcinoma
at various sites. The primary growth may lie in the thyroid,
larynx, base of the tongue, laryngopharynx or paranasal
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sinuses. Rarely secondaries from carcinoma of the breast, the

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bronchi, the stomach or testis can also reach these nodes.

‰‰Block dissection of the neck is sometimes done for removal
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of cervical lymph nodes along with some adjacent structures

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in malignancies to arrest the metastasis. Usually, the

submandibular gland and a segment of the internal jugular
s

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Fig. 1.3: Scheme to show the deep cervical lymph nodes

8 contd...
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Chap 1.indd 8 20-07-2015 12:06:34

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Chapter 1 Overview of Head and Neck

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f re
Clinical Correlation contd...
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vein are also removed in block dissection. Removal of the vein on one side is compensated by drainage through the vein of the
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other side. However, if bilateral removal is required, an interval of a few weeks is given between operations on the two sides to
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allow collateral venous channels to open up.
‰‰In block dissection, special care is taken not to injure the carotid arteries, the vagus nerve, spinal accessory nerve, the mandibular
m

m
branch of the facial nerve, phrenic nerve,hypoglosssal nerve and the cervical part of sympathetic trunk. However, sometimes the
vagus, spinal accessory and hypoglossal nerves may have to be removed depending on the extent of the malignancy. Nerves lying
deep to the prevertebral fascia namely the cervical plexus, brachial plexus and their branches usually remain intact. If necessary,
the sternocleidomastoid muscle is divided for better access.
om

om
‰‰Various other tumours may also be seen in the neck.
co

co

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In infancy, a swelling of the sternocleidomastoid may be seen which later leads to torticollis.

c
Tumours may form in remnants of the thyroglossal duct or in the carotid body.
e.

e.

e.

e.
‰‰Enlarged lymph nodes (submental or suprasternal nodes) may cause midline swellings which forms a differential diagnosis for
re

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other midline swellings like thyroglossal cysts, enlargements of thyroid gland and carcinoma of the larynx.
sf

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Multiple Choice Questions
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1. The lingual nodes of the inner outlying group are related to: c. Frontal tuber
m

m
a. Mylohyoid d. Mastoid process
b. Hyoglossus 4. The medial boundary of the lesser supraclavicular fossa is:
c. Genioglossus a. Clavicular head of sternocleidomastoid
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m
d. Styloglossus b. Sternal head of sternocleidomastoid
2. The skin over the angle of mandible is supplied by the: c. Anterior margin of trapezius
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a. Great auricular nerve d. Anterior midline of neck
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e.

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b. Lesser occipital nerve 5. The muscular triangle is a component of:
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c. Greater occipital nerve a. Anterior cervical region
d. Third occipital nerve b. Posterior cervical region
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3. The bony prominence not found in infants is: c. Lateral cervical region
a. External occipital protuberance d. Suboccipital region
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b. Parietal tuberosity
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ANSWERS
1. b 2. a 3. d 4. b 5. a
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Clinical Problem-solving
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Case Study 1: A 67-year-old woman complained of altered sensations over the dorsum of her nose.
fre

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‰‰Which nerve is affected? fre

‰‰What is the disposition of the dermatomal innervation of the face?
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‰‰Can you relate this disposition to developmental factors?
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Case Study 2: The jugulodigastric lymph nodes are enlarged in an 11-year-old boy.
‰‰Which organ/structure is likely to be involved/affected?
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‰‰Where do the efferents of this group of nodes go to?

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(For solutions see Appendix).

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9
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Chap 1.indd 9 20-07-2015 12:06:34

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2
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Chapter
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Bones and Joints of
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Head and Neck
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The parts of the cranium are:
Frequently Asked Questions
‰‰Cranial cavity: The large space that contains the brain;
‰‰Write notes on: (a) Norma basalis, (b) Mandible, (c) Occiput ‰‰Cranial vault: The upper dome like part (also called
bone, (d) Atypical cervical vertebrae. the skull cap or calvaria);
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‰‰Write in detail about the mandible. Give a neat diagram.
‰‰Cranial base: The portion that forms the floor of the
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‰‰Explain very briefly the following terms: (a) Jugum
sphenoidale, (b) Sella turcica, (c) Basiocciput, (d) Mastoid.
cranial cavity;
e.

e.

e.

e.
‰‰Write notes on: (a) Hyoid bone, (b) Hypophyseal fossa, ‰‰Facial skeleton: The portion that forms the frame for
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(c) Foramen ovale, (d) Foramen lacerum. the face.
‰‰Write notes on: (a) Jugular foramen, (b) Foramen magnum, The usual way of classifying the parts of skull is to group
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(c) Superior orbital fissure, (d) Cribriform plate. them into two—the neurocranium and the viscerocrani-
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‰‰Write notes on: (a) Crista galli, (b) Pterygoid processes,
um. Neurocranium (otherwise called cranium cerebrale)
(c) Vidian canal, (d) Pterion, (e) Fontanelles.
is that part of the skull that houses the brain and organs of
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special senses. Viscerocranium (otherwise called cranium
m

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BONES OF HEAD AND NECK viscerale) is that part of the skull that is associated with
face and organs of aerodigestive tract.
The bones of the head and neck comprise the skull,
mandible, hyoid and the cervical vertebrae. Added Information
m

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The correct way of examining the skull would be to do so with
SKULL
c

the skull in the Frankfort plane (or Frankfort horizontal plane).

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The decision was taken at a convention of anthropologists
Whole Skull
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at Frankfort in 1882 and so the name. In this plane, the lower

margins of the orbital apertures and the upper margins of the fre
f

Skull forms the skeleton of the head. It forms a protective

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external acoustic meati lie on the same horizontal plane (also
ok

frame for the brain, organs of special senses and the upper
called orbitomeatal plane). This is almost the same position
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parts of the aerodigestive system. It also gives attachments

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in which the skull would be when an individual stands in the

to several muscles. The skull consists of 28 individual bones,
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normal anatomical position. To achieve this in an isolated skull,

many of which are paired. In general, bones in the median place a two-inch block under the foramen magnum. The chin
m

plane are single. The individual skull bones are of varying should rest on the table. The elevation of the posterior part of
shapes and sizes. Bones which are covered by muscles tend to the skull takes it to the required plane.
be thinner. Flat skull bones have two plates of compact bone—
m

inner and outer plates. Between the two plates is a narrow

Superior View (Skull seen from Above) (Fig. 2.1)
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layer of cancellous bone that houses bone marrow. The layer

of cancellous bone is called diploe (Greek.diplous=double). Other names: Norma verticalis, norma superior.
e.

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The bone forming the lower jaw is called the mandible. ‰‰The contour is modified ovoid and the greatest width is
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Other bones of the skull are firmly united to each other near the occipital end. Four bones are seen separated
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at joints called sutures. These bones collectively form by three prominent sutures.
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the cranium (Cranium=skull minus mandible; Greek. ‰‰The bone forming the anterior part of the vault is the
oo

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kranion=head). frontal bone. The greater part of the roof and side walls
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Chapter 2 Bones and Joints of Head and Neck

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Fig. 2.1: Skull viewed from above Fig. 2.2: Features seen on the skull when viewed from behind

of the cranial cavity are formed by the right and left

Added Information contd...
parietal bones.
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The two parietal bones meet in the midline at the ‰‰Cephalic index is calculated by the measurements of the
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sagittal suture. superior view. The proportion of the maximum width to
maximum length of the norma verticalis gives this index.
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Their anterior margins join the frontal bone at the
When the width is less than 75% of the length, it is ‘long
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coronal suture that runs transversely across the head’—dolicocephaly. When the width is more than 80%
vault. of the length, it is ‘broad head’—brachycephaly. When the
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‰‰The posterior part of the vault is formed by the occipital width is between 75 to 80% of the length, it is ‘mid head’—
oo

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bone. The occipital bone is joined to the parietal bone at mesaticephaly.
the lambdoid suture. It is so called because it is shaped
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like the Greek letter ‘lambda’ (that is like an inverted ‘Y’). Posterior View (Skull seen from behind) (Fig. 2.2)
m

m
‰‰The point where the coronal and sagittal sutures meet
Other names: Norma occipitalis, norma posterior.
is called the bregma (Greek.bregma=forepart), while
‰‰The occipital bone (Latin.occipitis=back of head) is the
the point where the sagittal suture meets the lambdoid
most prominently seen bone in this view. Small parts
m

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suture is called the lambda. In the foetal skull (and for

of the parietal bones are seen superolaterally and those
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a few months after birth), there are gaps in the bones
c

of the temporal bones inferolaterally. Near the middle

e.

e.

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of the skull at bregma and lambda. Membranes fill the of the occipital bone, a median projection called the
gaps. These gaps are called the anterior and posterior
re

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fontanelles (Latin.fontaine=fountain) respectively.

external occipital protuberance is present. Extending
fre
f

laterally from the protuberance, on either side, is a

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‰‰One area of the parietal bone is more convex than the curved ridge called the superior nuchal line (French.
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oo

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rest of the bone. This area is called the parietal tuber nuque=nape of neck). This line runs to a point above the
o

(or parietal eminence). The convexities of both sides mastoid process. Extending downwards (and forwards)
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appear prominent. from the protuberance is a median ridge called the

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external occipital crest (also called the median nuchal

Added Information line). Extending laterally from the crest is the inferior
‰‰When the skull is viewed from above, the face (or some part nuchal line, which runs parallel to but below the
m

of it except the nose) is usually not seen. If any part of the superior nuchal line. A little above the superior nuchal
face, especially the lower jaw, is seen in this view, such a skull
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lines (and parallel to them), the highest nuchal lines

is termed the prognathic (Greek.gnathion=jaw) skull.
(or supreme nuchal lines) may sometimes be noted.
e.

e.

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e.

‰‰The zygomatic arches are not seen in many races. In some,

‰‰The parietal bones articulate with the occipital bone at
they may be seen. Skulls where the zygomatic arches are
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hidden (from the superior view) are called cryptozygous the lambdoid suture. The lambdoid suture meets the
sf

skulls. parietomastoid and the occipitomastoid sutures on the

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contd... lateral aspect.

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11
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Section 6 Head and Neck

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Frontal/Anterior View (Skull seen from front) (Fig. 2.3)
f ‰‰On either side a little above the orbit, the frontal bone
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is more convex than elsewhere. This area is the frontal

ok
Other names: Norma frontalis, norma anterior, norma
oo

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facialis. eminence (also called the frontal tuber or frontal

o
tuberosity). Superomedial to the orbit, a rounded
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eb

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Foramina seen in norma frontalis and structures passing prominence is seen; it is well marked in males; it
m

m
through: is the superciliary arch. There is a small smooth
‰‰Supraorbital notch (and foramen)—supraorbital vessels and elevation in the midline (also the point where the
nerve two superciliary arches meet); it is called the glabella
‰‰Orbital opening
m

m
‰‰Anterior nasal aperture
(Latin.glaber=smooth). Sometimes, the remnants of a
co

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‰‰Infraorbital foramen—infraorbital vessels and nerve midline suture may be found at the glabella. If present,
‰‰Zygomaticofacial foramen—zygomaticofacial vessels and the midline suture is called the interfrontal or metopic
e.

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nerve suture (Greek.metopon=forehead).
fre

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‰‰The upper margin of the orbit (supraorbital margin) is

f
‰‰The region of the forehead is formed by the anterior part formed entirely by the frontal bone. Near its medial end
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of the frontal bone. A small part of the parietal bone can the margin shows the supraorbital notch. Medial to it,
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be seen lateral to the frontal bone. Just below the frontal there is a smaller frontal notch (or foramen). The lateral
bone (on either side of the midline), the large openings
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margin of the orbit is formed by the zygomatic process
of the orbit (aditus orbitae) are seen. Lateral to the of the frontal bone above; and by the frontal process
m

orbit a part of the temporal bone and the zygomatic
bone are seen. Inferior to the orbit is the maxilla (upper
jaw) bearing the upper teeth. At the midline is the nasal
m
m
of the zygomatic bone below. The medial margin of
the orbit is formed by the nasal process of the frontal
bone above; and by the frontal process of the maxilla

m
aperture (piriform aperture) that leads into the nasal inferiorly. The inferior margin of the orbit (infraorbital
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cavity. Just above the nasal aperture are the right and margin) is formed by the zygomatic bone that is joined
by the zygomatic process of the maxilla.
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left nasal bones.
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Fig. 2.3: Skull as seen from the front

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12
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Chapter 2 Bones and Joints of Head and Neck

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f midline are the ethmoid bone and the vomer. These
Development
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form part of the nasal septum. Laterally two curved

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‰‰Developmentally, the norma frontalis is bisected into the plates, the middle and inferior nasal conchae

o
right and the left halves. The bisection is seen at birth. projecting into the nasal cavity are seen.
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The parietal, nasal and maxillary bones remain separate
‰‰Each maxilla bears eight teeth. Beginning from the
and paired. The two halves of the mandible fuse by the
m

second year of life (symphysis menti). The two halves of
the frontal bone fuse by the second year (interfrontal or
metopic suture). The interparietal (sagittal) suture usually
m
m
midline these are the two incisors, one canine, two
premolars and three molars. The part of the maxilla that
bears teeth is called the alveolar process.

m
tends to fuse by the fourth decade of life.
‰‰The bones of the skull ossify in membrane. Ossification Added Information
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first commences in the frontal and parietal bone areas
The three foramina—supraorbital, infraorbital and mental
e.

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e.
at points of their greatest fullness during the second
foramina are in almost the same vertical line that passes
intrauterine month. These points develop into the frontal
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between the two premolar teeth.
and parietal tuberosities.

f
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‰‰A little below the orbital margin, the anterior surface
Lateral View (Skull seen from Lateral Side) (Fig. 2.4)
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of the maxilla shows the infraorbital foramen.
Other names: Norma lateralis, norma temporalis.
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On the lateral surface of the zygomatic bone, a
zygomaticofacial foramen is found. ‰‰The frontal bone forms the region of the forehead.
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‰‰Below the glabella, the frontal bone and the two
nasal bones articulate at the frontonasal suture. The
(midline) suture between the two nasal bones is the
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THe parietal bone is seen forming the vault behind
the frontal bone. THe occipital bone is at the posterior
end. THe maxilla forms the upper jaw and bears the

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internasal suture. The junction of the frontonasal and upper teeth. A fan like portion of the temporal bone is
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the internasal sutures is the nasion. seen below the parietal bone. In front of the temporal
‰‰The anterior nasal aperture is the prominent feature of bone, the greater wing of sphenoid can be made out.
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the midface. The lower border and the lower part of the Below the orbital opening and above the upper jaw,
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lateral border of the anterior nasal aperture is formed the quadrangular zygomatic bone can be seen. This
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by the nasal notch of the maxilla. The intermaxillary prominent bone makes up most of the cheek’s elevation.
suture is marked by the anterior nasal spine at the lower ‰‰The temporal and infratemporal fossae are the most
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margin of the anterior nasal aperture. The anterior marked features of the lateral view. Temporal fossa is
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nasal aperture is piriform in shape and its boundaries related to the temple of the head (Latin.tempus=time;
are superiorly, the nasal bones, laterally and inferiorly, named after the fact that greying of hair first occurs at
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the maxillae. Through the nasal aperture, some bones this place and indicates passage of time). It is defined
which lie within the nasal cavity are noted. In the by the temporal lines.
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Fig. 2.4: Skull as seen from lateral side

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13
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Section 6 Head and Neck

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‰‰Running across the frontal, parietal and temporal the mastoid part of the temporal bone and is also called
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bones are the two C-shaped temporal lines. Anteriorly, the temporal apophysis or the mastoid bone. A little

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there is only one line, but over the parietal bone, two below the external acoustic meatus, but a little internal

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lines, namely the superior and inferior lines can be is a pin-like process directed downwards and forwards.
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distinguished. At the anterior end, the unified (single) This is the styloid process (Latin.stylus=pen; indicating
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temporal line becomes continuous with the sharp
lateral edge of the zygomatic process of the frontal bone.
As they arch across, the two lines are prominently seen.
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a pointed structure), which is also a part of the temporal
bone. The base of the styloid process is sheathed by the
tympanic plate of the temporal bone but the length of

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The superior temporal line, however, fades away over the process is very variable. Running medially into the
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the posterior part of the parietal bone. The inferior base of the skull (seen from below), yet another part of
temporal line becomes more distinct as it curves the temporal bone is seen. This is called the petrous
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down the squamous part of temporal bone, forms the part, as it is stone like (Latin.petrosus=rock). The
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supramastoid crest at the base of the mastoid process greater part of the ear lies within the petrous part of the

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and runs forward to join the zygomatic arch. temporal bone (it can be noted that the temporal bone
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‰‰The temporal fossa is actually the area enclosed by the has a squamous part, a petromastoid part, a tympanic
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temporal line(s). Its floor is formed by: part and the styloid process).
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Squamous part of temporal bone
Parietal bone Foramina seen in the norma lateralis and structures passing
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through:
Frontal bone and
‰‰External acoustic meatus
Greater wing of sphenoid.
‰‰Zygomaticotemporal foramen—zygomaticotemporal
‰‰These four bones meet in the shape of ‘H’ within a small vessels and nerve
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area. This junctional area is called the pterion and ‰‰Mastoid foramen—emissary vein from sigmoid sinus
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forms an important landmark on the side of skull. It lies ‰‰Parietal foramen—emissary vein from superior sagittal sinus
over two important intracranial structures, the anterior ‰‰Pterygomaxillary fissure—pterygopalatine fossa and
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branch of the middle meningeal artery and the lateral infratemporal fossa communicate through this.
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cerebral fissure. The lateral cerebral fissure is otherwise
‰‰The mastoid process articulates superiorly with
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called the Sylvian fissure, for which reason the pterion
the posteroinferior angle of the parietal bone at the
is also called the Sylvian point. Pterion corresponds to
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parietomastoid suture and posteriorly with the occipital
the anteroinferior or sphenoidal fontanelle of the foetal
bone at the occipitomastoid suture. The lateral end of the
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and neonatal skull; this fontanelle closes about three
lambdoid suture meets these two sutures. The junctional
months after birth.
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point of the three sutures is called the asterion (Greek.
‰‰The parietal and the temporal bones articulate at
asterios=starry). Asterion is the place of the posterolateral
the curved suture called the squamosal suture. The
anteroinferior extension of the squamosal suture is or the mastoidal fontanelle of the neonatal skull; this
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the sphenosquamosal suture where the greater wing fontanelle closes by the second year of life.
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‰‰A little in front of the external acoustic meatus is a
of sphenoid and squamous part of temporal bone
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depression called the mandibular fossa (or the glenoid

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articulate with each other.
fossa), into which the head of the mandible fits, to form
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‰‰The zygomatic arch is a bar of bone lying horizontally
over the lateral aspect of the skull. There is a gap between the temporomandibular joint. The fossa is bounded
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it and the floor of the temporal fossa. The temporal and anteriorly by a small inferior projection called the
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articular eminence.
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the infratemporal fossae communicate with each other

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through this gap. The posterior part of the zygomatic ‰‰The shape of the zygomatic bone is best appreciated
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arch is formed by the zygomatic process of the temporal from the lateral side. It articulates with the frontal
bone, the temporal bone and the maxilla. In addition
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bone and the anterior part by the temporal process of

the zygomatic bone. to the lateral surface the bone also has a temporal
‰‰Just below the posterior end of the zygomatic arch surface directed towards the temporal fossa. The term
zygomatic arch is usually restricted to the bony rod
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is a large oval aperture. This is the external acoustic

meatus. It leads into the ear. The meatus is surrounded formed by the temporal process of the zygomatic bone
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by a plate of bone with an irregular surface. This plate and the zygomatic process of the temporal bone.
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belongs to the tympanic part of the temporal bone. ‰‰Some parts of the sphenoid bone are also visible in
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‰‰Just behind the external acoustic meatus is a thick this view. The greater part of this bone lies in the base
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downward projection called the mastoid process of skull. However, the greater wing forms part of the
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(Greek.masto=nipple, eidos=resembling; named after floor of the temporal fossa. Another part of the sphenoid
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14 the resemblance of the process to a nipple). It forms bone that is seen from the lateral side is the pterygoid
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Chapter 2 Bones and Joints of Head and Neck

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process, which is made up of the medial and lateral ptery-
f ‰‰The inferior surface of the skull can be subdivided into
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goid plates (Greek.pteryx=wing). The pterygoid process the anterior, middle and posterior parts. The posterior

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comes into contact with the posterior aspect of the max- limit of the anterior part is the posterior border of the

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illa (because of the general resemblance of the sphenoid hard palate. The posterior limit of the middle part is the
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bone to a bird with wings, several of its parts have been anterior margin of the foramen magnum.
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given names which mean wings and wing-like; it is the
same reason that the pterion has also been so named).
Anterior Part of Cranial Base
‰‰The infratemporal fossa, another marked area seen The anterior part consists of the hard palate and the
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in the lateral view, is a space that lies lateral to the upper teeth. It lies at a lower level than the rest of the
norma basalis. The alveolar processes of the right and the
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pterygoid process. Its roof is formed by the infratemporal
surface of the greater wing of sphenoid and its anterior left maxillae bear the upper teeth and form the superior
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wall by the posterior surface of the maxilla. The fossa alveolar arch.
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communicates with the temporal fossa through the ‰‰Within the superior alveolar arch is the hard palate (or

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gap between the zygomatic arch and the side of the the bony palate). Anterior part of the bony palate is
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skull. A gap can be seen between the lateral pterygoid formed by the palatine processes of maxillae and the
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plate and the posterior aspect of maxilla. This is the posterior part by the horizontal plates of the right and
left palatine bones. The articulation between the two
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pterygomaxillary fissure.
palatine processes is the intermaxillary suture and that
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Added Information
‰‰On a cursory glance, three contour lines can be defined on the
norma lateralis. The three lines are concentric—outermost line
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between the two horizontal plates is the interpalatine
suture. The articulation between the palatine process of
one side and the horizontal plate of the palatine bone of

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is the outline of the skull in this view, middle is the temporal the same side is the palatomaxillary suture.
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line and the innermost is the line of squamosal suture.
‰‰The alveolar process of the maxilla projects downwards
‰‰The cerebrum lies above the level of the inion (which can be
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seen in this view as the most prominent point of the external and provides attachment to the upper teeth. The
posterior end of each alveolar process forms a backward
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occipital protuberance). The cerebellum lies below the level
of the inion. projection called the maxillary tuberosity. The part
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of the alveolar process bearing the incisor teeth and
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including the adjoining part of the palate is called the
Inferior View (Skull seen from below) (Fig. 2.5)
pre-maxilla. The incisive fossa lies behind the central
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Other names: Norma basalis, norma basilaris, norma incisor teeth; lateral incisive foramina open into the
ventralis, norma inferior, base of skull, basis crania externa,
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lateral walls of the incisive fossa. The lateral incisive
norma basalis externa. foramina lead to the incisive canals which pass to the
‰‰Bones seen in an inferior view of the skull are the maxilla
nasal cavity. If the median incisive foramina are present,
(pink), sphenoid (purple), temporal (green) and occipital
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they open into the anterior and posterior walls of the

(blue), zygomatic bone, vomer and palatine bones.
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incisive fossa. Lateral to the alveolar arch, the inferior
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aspect of the zygomatic process of the maxilla is seen as

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it passes laterally to meet the zygomatic bone.
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‰‰The posterior borders of the horizontal plates of the

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palatine bones are free and form the posterior margin

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of the hard palate. A little in front of the posterior border

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is seen a curved ridge called the palatine crest. The

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part of the palate formed by the palatine bone shows

the greater and lesser palatine foramina. The greater
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palatine foramen lies on the most lateral part of the

horizontal plate, just medial to the last molar tooth. It
is the lower opening of the canal of the same name. The
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lesser palatine foramina, usually two, are present just

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behind the greater palatine foramen.

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‰‰Just above the posterior margin of the hard palate are

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the two posterior nasal apertures. Each aperture (also

called choana or postnaris or posterior naris; Greek.
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choane=funnel) is bounded, below, by the posterior

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Fig. 2.5: Skull as seen from below edge of the horizontal plate of the palatine bone; 15
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Section 6 Head and Neck

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laterally, by the perpendicular plate of the palatine the young and growing skull. It contributes largely to
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bone; and medially, by the vomer. the anteroposterior growth of the skull and ossifies by

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25 to 30 years of age.

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Foramina in anterior norma basalis and structures passing ‰‰The pterygoid process projects down from the junction
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through: of the body and the greater wing of sphenoid and
‰‰Incisive fossa—nasopalatine nerve and the termination of
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consists of the medial and lateral pterygoid plates. The
the greater palatine vessels
‰‰Median incisive foramina (if present)—left nasopalatine
two plates are fused anteriorly except inferiorly where
nerve through the anterior and right nasopalatine nerve the pyramidal process of the palatine bone intervenes
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through the posterior between the two. The two plates are separated posteriorly
‰‰Greater palatine foramen—greater palatine nerve and vessels by the pterygoid fossa. On its lateral aspect, the lateral
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‰‰Lesser palatine foramina—lesser palatine nerves and vessels pterygoid plate is separated from the maxilla by the
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‰‰Posterior nasal apertures
pterygomaxillary fissure (which was already seen in
‰‰Palatovaginal canal—pharyngeal branch of pterygopalatine
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the norma lateralis). The posterior border of the medial
ganglion and pharyngeal branch of maxillary artery

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pterygoid plate is sharp. Superiorly, the plate expands
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‰‰Vomerovaginal canal (if present)—pharyngeal branch of the
maxillary artery to the anterior part of the palatovaginal canal to enclose the scaphoid fossa. Inferiorly, the plate has a
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rounded projection called the pterygoid hamulus.
‰‰The vomer is a flat plate of bone that forms part of the ‰‰On the lateral aspect, the posterior surface of the maxilla
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nasal septum. The superior border of vomer is applied is separated from the greater wing of the sphenoid
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to the inferior aspect of the sphenoid. At this point, the
vomer gives out an extension on either side that is also
closely applied to the inferior aspect of sphenoid. This
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by the inferior orbital fissure. The greater wing of
sphenoid, squamous and tympanic parts of temporal
bones constitute the lateral aspect of the midcranial

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wing-like expansion of the vomer is called the ala of base. The petrous part of the temporal bone wedges
itself between the sphenoid and the occipital bones.
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vomer. A similar expansion projects medially from the
medial pterygoid plate towards the ala of vomer. This The mandibular fossa and the articular eminence
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expansion is called the vaginal process. The vomerine (already noted in the norma lateralis) are clearly seen
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ala and the vaginal process may touch each other or in this view. The zygomatic arch is also seen from below.
overlap one another. ‰‰The petrous part of the temporal bone is shaped like a
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‰‰Looking through the posterior nasal aperture, certain pyramid and therefore, is called the petrous process.
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additional intricate details may be noticed. Overlapping Each petrous process meets the basiocciput at the petro-
occipital suture. This suture is incomplete posteriorly
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the vaginal process anteriorly is an expansion that
projects medially from the perpendicular plate of the and the resultant gap forms the jugular foramen. The
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palatine bone. This expansion is called the sphenoidal
process. A slender anteroposterior groove runs on
the inferior aspect of the vaginal process; a reciprocal
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petrosphenoidal suture is formed between the anterior
margin of the petrous process and the greater wing of
sphenoid. The groove for the pharyngotympanic tube

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groove runs on the superior aspect of the sphenoidal is also seen at this junction. The apex of the petrous
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process. The two grooves together form a canal called process does not touch the spheno-occipital junction
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the palatovaginal canal. If the vaginal process overlaps and the gap so produced forms the foramen lacerum.
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the vomerine ala, a canal may be formed between the Though called a foramen, the opening is actually a
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two of them and is called the vomerovaginal canal. short vertical canal of about 1 cm length.
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‰‰The foramen lacerum is bounded:

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Middle Part of Cranial Base
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Anteriorly by the body of sphenoid, root of pterygoid

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‰‰The middle part of the cranial base consists of the process and greater wing of sphenoid;
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Medially by the basilar part of occipital bone and

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sphenoid, temporal and occipital bones. Immediately

behind the vomer, the sphenoid which is an unpaired Posterolaterally by the apex of petrous process.
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bone is seen. It has a median part, the body. On either

Foramina and fissures in the middle norma basalis and
side of the body, is the greater wing (that is seen partly structures passing through:
on the base of skull and partly on the lateral wall). ‰‰Inferior orbital fissure—infraorbital and zygomatic branches
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‰‰Posteriorly, the body of sphenoid is continuous with the of maxillary nerve and accompanying vessels.
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basilar part of the occipital bone. The part of the body ‰‰Pterygomaxillary fissure—leads into the pterygopalatine
fossa.
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of sphenoid seen in the norma basalis is sometimes

‰‰Foramen lacerum—no major structure through and
referred to as the basisphenoid. The basilar part of the
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through; internal carotid artery in the upper part; meningeal

occipital bone is the basiocciput. The basisphenoid
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branches of the ascending pharyngeal artery and emissary

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and the basiocciput meet at the spheno-occipital veins from the cavernous sinus.
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synchondrosis. This is a primary cartilaginous joint in

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16 contd...
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Chapter 2 Bones and Joints of Head and Neck

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contd...
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Foramina in the posterior norma basalis and structures

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‰‰Foramen ovale—mandibular nerve, lesser petrosal nerve, passing through:
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‰‰Foramen magnum—medulla vertebral arteries, spinal

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accessory meningeal branch of maxillary artery, emissary
accessory nerve
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vein from cavernous sinus
‰‰Foramen spinosum—middle meningeal artery and ‰‰Hypoglossal canal—hypoglossal nerve, meningeal branch
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meningeal branch of mandibular nerve of ascending pharyngeal artery, emissary vein from basilar
‰‰Sphenoidal emissary foramen of Vesalius—emissary vein plexus
‰‰Pterygoid canal—nerve of pterygoid canal and ‰‰Posterior condylar canal—emissary vein from sigmoid sinus

accompanying vessels ‰‰Jugular foramen—inferior petrosal sinus, Glossopharyngeal,

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‰‰Petrosphenoidal groove—pharyngotympanic tube vagus and accessory nerves, Internal jugular vein
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‰‰Petrotympanic fissure—chorda tympani branch of facial ‰‰Mastoid canaliculus—auricular branch of vagus nerve.

nerve. ‰‰Canaliculus for tympanic nerve—tympanic branch of the

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glossopharyngeal nerve to the middle ear
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‰‰Stylomastoid foramen—facial nerve and stylomastoid
‰‰Lying lateral to the foramen lacerum, but in the
artery

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greater wing of sphenoid are the foramen ovale and ‰‰Mastoid foramen—emissary vein from sigmoid sinus.
the foramen spinosum. The foramen ovale is near the
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root of the lateral pterygoid plate. Posterolateral to the ‰‰A large bony mass overlaps the anterolateral aspect of
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foramen ovale is the smaller and rounded foramen the foramen magnum on either side of the midline. This
spinosum and posterolateral to the latter is the spine is the occipital condyle. The condyle projects down to
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of sphenoid. If the groove for the pharyngotympanic
tube already noted in the petrosphenoidal junction is
traced posterolaterally, it will be seen that the spine of
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articulate with the superior articular facet of the lateral
mass of atlas. Traversing the condyle and running
laterally and forwards is the hypoglossal canal (also

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sphenoid also forms part of its anterolateral wall. The called the anterior condylar canal). Behind the condyle
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groove, when traced further posterolaterally, leads into is a depression called the condylar fossa. An opening
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the bony part of the pharyngotympanic tube that is may sometimes be present in the condylar fossa. If
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located within the petrous temporal bone. present it is called the (posterior) condylar canal.
‰‰Yet another smaller foramen called the sphenoidal ‰‰The posteromedial border of the petrous process
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emissary foramen of Vesalius may occasionally be seen articulates with the occipital bone at the petro-occipital
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between the foramen ovale and the scaphoid fossa. suture and with the mastoid process at the petromastoid
‰‰A large rounded foramen is found posterolateral to the suture. At the posterior end of the petro-occipital
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foramen lacerum on the inferior surface of the petrous suture is the jugular foramen. The jugular foramen is
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temporal bone. This is the inferior opening of the
carotid canal. If a malleable probe is inserted into the
inferior opening of the carotid canal, it can be pushed
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bounded anteriorly by the jugular fossa of the petrous
temporal bone and posteriorly by the jugular process of
the occipital bone. A small opening called the mastoid

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through the carotid canal that ascends up initially, then canaliculus is seen on the lateral wall of the jugular
fossa. Yet another tiny opening is seen on the ridge
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turns horizontal and runs anteromedially to reach the
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posterior wall of the foramen lacerum. between the carotid canal and the jugular fossa. This
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‰‰Running forward from the anterior margin of the opening is the canaliculus for the tympanic nerve.
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foramen lacerum above and between the two pterygoid ‰‰The stylomastoid foramen is seen between the styloid
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and mastoid processes of the temporal bone. A groove

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plates is the pterygoid canal (or Vidian canal). The
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pterygoid canal leads to the pterygopalatine fossa. called the mastoid notch is seen on the medial aspect
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‰‰A midline tubercle is seen on the inferior aspect of the of the mastoid process. The mastoid and the occipital
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bone articulate at the occipitomastoid suture. A

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basiocciput; it is called the pharyngeal tubercle.

small mastoid foramen may be present near the
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Posterior Part of Cranial Base occipitomastoid suture. The squamous part of the
‰‰The posterior part of the cranial base consists of the occipital bone, the external occipital protuberance and
occipital and temporal bones. the nuchal lines are also seen in this view.
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‰‰Immediately behind the basilar part of the occipital

Cranial Fossae
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bone is a large midline foramen called the foramen

When the top of the skull (skull cap) is removed by a
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magnum. The cranial cavity communicates with the

transverse cut, the floor of the cranial cavity can be seen.
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vertebral canal through this foramen. Posterior to the

foramen magnum, the occipital bone forms a large part It is divided into three depressions called the cranial
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of the base of skull. fossae—anterior, middle and posterior.

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Section 6 Head and Neck

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Fig. 2.6: Cranial fossae as seen from above Fig. 2.7: Parts of the anterior and middle cranial fossae
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Anterior Cranial Fossa ‰‰The posterior part of the floor of the anterior cranial
‰‰The floor of the anterior cranial fossa (Fig. 2.6) is fossa is formed by the sphenoid bone. This part which is
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formed mainly by the orbital plates (right and left) of smooth is called the jugum sphenoidale. The superior
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surface of the body of sphenoid and the superior surfaces
the frontal bone. Anteriorly, the right and left halves of
of the lesser wings form the jugum sphenoidale. The lesser
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the frontal bone are separated by a median projection
wing also forms the sharp posterior edge of the floor of
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called the frontal crest. Just behind the crest, there is
the anterior cranial fossa. The medial edge of each lesser
a depression called the foramen caecum. Between the
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wing projects backwards as the anterior clinoid process.
right and left orbital plates of the frontal bone, there is a
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notch occupied by the cribriform plate of the ethmoid Middle Cranial Fossa
bone. This plate has numerous foramina and bears a ‰‰The middle cranial fossa (Figs 2.7 and 2.8) has a raised
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median vertical projection called the crista galli that median part formed by the body of the sphenoid
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lies immediately behind the foramen caecum. bone and two large deep hollow areas on either side.
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Fig. 2.8: Floor of middle and posterior cranial fossae

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Another random document with
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 CAPITOLO CLXXIX.
Buonaparte ordinatore. Rimpasto di paesi.
Concordato. Pace di Presburgo. Regno d’Italia.

Le paci di Campoformio e di Lunéville ripristinavano dunque il diritto

pubblico, dalla rivoluzione abbattuto; e dopo le radicali dottrine e le
pompose promesse, la Francia stessa immolava popoli e nazionalità
al vecchio sistema dell’equilibrio. Buonaparte, benedetto dall’Europa
come il genio dell’ordine, del buon senso, della pace, ai migrati
restituì la patria e i beni non ancora venduti, schiudeva una società
nuova al calore della sua gloria, e avviavasi alla dittatura: ma non
che ripudiasse i costosi frutti della rivoluzione, li fece ordinare e
sanzionare nel Codice, costruito sull’individuale libertà e
sull’eguaglianza di tutte le persone e tutte le cose sotto leggi e
tribunali identici, pareggiando i cittadini nella società, i figliuoli nella
famiglia; svincolando la proprietà, sicchè ognuno potesse disporne
co’ soli limiti imposti dall’utilità pubblica; secolarizzando l’ordine
politico e il civile.
Alle idee riordinatrici di Buonaparte confacevasi il ripristino della
religione, sentimento che tocca più degli interessi. Il culto era stato
abolito, abolito Dio sotto il Terrore, quasi a dimostrare che una
società non poteva imbrutire a quel segno se non rinnegando Iddio.
Sentì quel vuoto il Direttorio, e mediocre come era, credè surrogarvi
l’assurdo culto teofilantropico, i cui sacerdoti, alla ricorrenza di certe
feste della Virtù, venivano a deporre fiori su quegli altari, donde erasi
eliminato il sacrosanto rito dell’espiazione. Pio VI, cacciato da Roma
poi anche da Firenze, fuggì a Parma e di là a Valenza di Francia,
meglio accompagnato nella nobile miseria da dimostrazioni popolari,
che dalle cortigianesche nel fastoso e umiliante pellegrinaggio a
Vienna. Quando colà morì di ottantun anno (1799 29 agosto), i
filosofi dissero, — Ecco sepolto l’ultimo papa», e Revellière-Lépaux,
inventore del culto teofilantropico, scriveva a Buonaparte impedisse
di eleggere un successore, e profittasse della circostanza per
istabilire a Roma un Governo rappresentativo, e sottrarre l’Europa
dalla supremazia papale.
Ma Buonaparte avea trattato il papa da vincitore bensì, pur con
riguardi, e «come avesse centomila soldati». Rientrato in Milano,
assistette ai Tedeum che qui celebravano le sue vittorie, e potè
chiarirsi che il popolo nostro era e voleva essere cristiano. Onde
raccolti i parroci di Milano disse loro: — Persuaso che la religione
cattolica è la sola che possa procurare felicità vera ad una società
ben ordinata, e assodar le basi di un Governo, volli accertarvi che
metterò ogni cura a proteggerla: avrò come perturbatori del pubblico
riposo e nemici del ben comune, e punirò rigorosamente e fin colla
morte chiunque le farà il minimo insulto: voglio sia conservata nella
sua interezza, pubblicamente esercitata e libera come la prima volta
ch’io entrai in questo felice paese. I cambiamenti posteriori
avvennero contro l’inclinazione e il veder mio, nè potevo oppormi ai
disordini, ad arte eccitati da un Governo, sprezzatore della religione
cattolica. I filosofi vollero dipingerla nemica d’ogni sentimento
democratico e del Governo repubblicano. L’esperienza disingannò i
Francesi; ed io, che pur sono filosofo, so che nessuno potrebbe
passare per virtuoso se non sa donde viene e dove va; nè saperlo si
può che dalla religione, senza di cui la società è vascello privo di
bussola. Dei trattamenti usati al papa defunto, han colpa gl’intrighi di
quelli in cui avea posto confidenza, e la crudele politica del
Direttorio. Col nuovo papa spero tôrre gli ostacoli all’intera
riconciliazione della Francia. Voi so quanto soffriste nella persona e
nei beni, e vi provvederò; e quel che vi dico, desidero sia noto non
solo all’Italia e alla Francia, ma a tutta Europa» [60].
Anche in Francia, se per moda, per idolatria a Voltaire, per rispetto
umano, durava ancora fra la gente colta l’empietà, il popolo tornava
a sentir bisogno del Redentore, che riabbellisse la natura,
benedicesse le cune e i feretri, giudicasse le iniquità de’ forti: i
pensatori disingannati vedeano dover rintracciare un’eguaglianza più
vera, una libertà più salda e meno fallibile, meditavano
melanconicamente sulle ruine che da tre secoli le sêtte religiose e
filosofiche facevano nel cristianesimo senza sostituirvi una legge
generale dell’uomo e del mondo, senza trovare un essere intermedio
fra il gran tutto che rapivano all’umanità, e il nulla in cui la
sobbissavano.
Sarebbesi detto che le vittorie de’ Nordici in Italia s’effettuassero al
solo fine, che all’ombra loro fosse in Venezia (1800 14 marzo)
adunato il conclave [61], dove avendo l’Austria dato l’esclusione al
famoso Gerdil, uscì papa Barnaba Chiaramonti. Stando vescovo
d’Imola, aveva questi pubblicato in una pastorale che «la libertà cara
a Dio ed agli uomini, è la facoltà di poter fare e non fare, ma sempre
sotto la legge divina ed umana; la forma democratica non repugna al
vangelo, anzi esige quelle sublimi virtù che s’imparano soltanto nella
scuola di Cristo; esse faranno buoni democratici, d’una democrazia
retta, forbita da infedeltà e da ambizioni, e intesa alla felicità
comune; esse conserveranno la vera eguaglianza, la quale,
mostrando che la legge si estende su tutti, mostra insieme qual
proporzione deva tenere ogni individuo rispetto a Dio, a sè, agli altri.
Ben più che le filosofie, il vangelo e le tradizioni apostoliche e i
dottori santi creeranno la grandezza repubblicana, gli uomini
rendendo eroi di umiltà e prudenza nel governare, di carità nel
fraternizzare con sè e con Dio. Seguite il vangelo, e sarete la gioja
della repubblica: siate buoni cristiani e sarete ottimi democratici».
Questa moderazione parve attagliata ai tempi; ed egli, assunto il
nome di Pio VII (1800 3 luglio), comparve a Roma, dove la noja della
dominazione forestiera il faceva invocato: scelse a segretario di
Stato il cardinale Consalvi, destro quanto moderato; ricostituì il
governo all’antica, proclamando il perdono, e invitando i sudditi a
imitarlo col sopire gli odj e le querele reciproche. Toltigli
settecentomila sudditi delle Legazioni, gliene aveano lasciato un
milione e settecentomila, ma intero il debito di settantaquattro milioni
di scudi, di cui da tre anni non si pagava l’interesse. Si cercò
sistemare l’imposta in modo d’ottenere una rendita di quattro milioni
di scudi; fu proclamata la libertà di commercio, riconoscendo «che
tutte le leggi proibitive o vincolanti l’industria e il commercio erano
perniciose quanto vane [62]»; il papa diminuì le spese di corte;
condiscese ai teatri; impose una tassa speciale sui terreni incolti,
sciolse i vincoli di fedecommesso, di manomorta, di pascolo; dava
premj a chi piantasse, prometteva edificare casali, via via che la
cultura si estendesse. Secondando le istanze di Paolo I e di
Ferdinando IV, ristabilì i Gesuiti in Russia e nel Napoletano.
Con un papa sì conciliativo e pien d’amore per la Francia,
d’ammirazione per l’eroe che la dirigeva, non sarebbe possibile
ravvicinarla alla Chiesa? Tre giorni dopo la vittoria di Marengo,
Buonaparte ne gittò parola al cardinale Martiniana; poi Consalvi e
Giuseppe Buonaparte ne trattarono a Parigi (1801): ma ricuperare
questo regno primogenito del cristianesimo non poteasi senza grandi
sagrifizj. Voleasi il matrimonio de’ preti: e Pio rispose, potersi
assolvere gli ammogliati, ma autorizzarlo per massima no. Sui
possessi tolti alle manimorte non si fe malagevole, le ricchezze non
essendo essenziali al clero. E così tra cedere e negare si conchiuse
il famoso concordato. La Francia ebbe un ministro pel culto
(Portalis); la pasqua del 1802 i cannoni salutarono di nuovo una
festa cristiana; il Caprara legato a latere cantò messa in Nostra-
donna, mentre l’aerea armonia de’ sacri bronzi richiamava il popolo
ai riti solenni e all’ineffabile gusto della parola divina.
Tutto ciò dava lusinghe di ordine all’Europa: la coalizione regia s’era
sconnessa: anche l’Inghilterra ascoltò proposte di pace, la quale fu
conchiusa ad Amiens (1802 27 marzo). L’Inghilterra si era avventata
alle armi per difendere la minacciata libertà europea, ed ecco neppur
motto ne fa nelle stipulazioni: avea posto come preliminare lo
sgombro di tutt’Italia, poi lasciava al nemico il Piemonte e gl’emporj
di Genova e Livorno; Francia sgombrerebbe il Napoletano e il
Romano, e gl’Inglesi ogni posto nel Mediterraneo e nell’Adriatico, e
Malta che si restituirebbe all’Ordine.
A Buonaparte, volontà ineluttabile, sistematore risoluto, bastava un
atto per riunire un paese che la natura fece uno e le convenzioni
sbranarono: ma già il Piemonte consideravasi fuso colla Francia,
come Venezia coll’Austria; Buonaparte volle fossero distrutte le
fortezze che davano soggezione alla Francia, quali Arona, Bard,
Ceva, Cuneo, Tortona, Serravalle; smurata Torino, come il castello di
Milano, e Forte Urbano sul Bolognese. La Toscana era stata eretta in
regno d’Etruria per un infante di Spagna; al papa riconciliato
bisognava confermare il patrimonio; al regno di Napoli serviva di
scudo la protezione della Russia: e i fantastici Italiani piansero
svanita ancora la speranza che la vittrice spada e la ferrea volontà
d’un loro paesano ricostruisse la patria una e libera.
Ne’ varj Stati furono poste una commissione esecutrice e una
consulta legislativa, ma tutto pendea dai ministri di Francia [63]. Del
bello e forte paese cisalpino, con cinque milioni d’abitanti, settanta in
ottanta milioni d’entrata, e quarantamila uomini in arme, Talleyrand
avrebbe voluto si formasse un regno, da dare a qualche principe
austriaco siccome compenso e pegno di pace: ma Buonaparte
stabilì conservarlo repubblica, estesone il limite fin alla Sesia col
recuperare gli sbrani dell’antico Milanese, cioè Novara, Vigevano, la
Lomellina; buone fortificazioni la difenderebbero dagli Austriaci assisi
di là dall’Adige, e la terrebbero sempre aperta alla Francia, che ne
conservava il protettorato, e ne ricevea venticinque milioni all’anno di
tributo, e di qua manderebbe i suoi ordini al paese meridionale,
aspettando che i casi la elevassero a capo d’una federazione italica.
Per togliere la Cisalpina ai disordini della prima sua età, e
concentrarla sotto una mano vigorosa che la proteggesse di fuori
mentre la reggeva dentro, Buonaparte convocò a Lione una
consulta. Quattrocencinquantadue rappresentanti, scelti fra il clero, i
tribunali, le accademie, le amministrazioni dipartimentali, le quaranta
primarie città, la guardia nazionale e l’esercito, e in essi il cardinale
Bellisomi e nove vescovi, nel cuor del dicembre passarono i monti, e
nella seconda città di Francia ebbero suntuosa ospitalità, adunanze
splendide quanto le antiche sessioni reali, lauto trattamento, e fra
altri spettacoli, quel dell’esercito che tornava d’Egitto, misto di
veterani francesi con arabi e mori e mamelucchi.
Divisi in cinque classi (1802) secondo gli antichi dominj,
presedevano ai Lombardi già austriaci il Melzi, ai Veneti il Bargnani,
ai Pontifizj l’Aldini, ai Modenesi il Paradisi, ai Novaresi e Valtellini il
De Bernardi, a tutti in apparenza il Maniscalchi ambasciadore della
Cisalpina, in fatto Talleyrand, il quale senza quasi lasciarli discutere,
fece che accettassero per acclamazione lo statuto da lui modellato
sul francese dell’anno viii. Portava esso tre collegi elettorali
permanenti e a vita, completatisi da se medesimi: uno di trecento
grossi possessori risedeva a Milano; uno di ducento negozianti a
Brescia; uno di altrettanti dotti ed ecclesiastici a Bologna. Essi
sceglierebbero dal proprio grembo una commissione di censura di
ventun membro, che eleggesse tutte le magistrature dello Stato; otto
consultori, che vegliassero sulla costituzione, deliberassero sui
trattati, e nominassero un presidente della repubblica, decennale e
rieleggibile, con cinquecentomila lire, incaricato del potere esecutivo,
e che eleggerebbe un vicepresidente con centomila lire e ministri [64].
Il ministro del tesoro presenterebbe ogni anno il conto, e non
consentirebbe verun pagamento se non per legge o decreto del
Governo. Un consiglio legislativo di dieci membri compilerebbe le
leggi e i regolamenti, e li sosterrebbe davanti al corpo legislativo.
Questo ha settantacinque membri, quindici de’ quali sono nominati
oratori per discutere le leggi prima di votarle.
La giustizia era resa con sapiente progressione, da arbitri, giudici di
prima istanza, tribunali d’appello e revisione, ed uno di cassazione;
oltre le camere di commercio per le cause mercantili: inamovibili i
giudici e il grangiudice. Eguaglianza fra i cittadini; nessun vincolo
all’industria e al commercio se non quelli dalla legge stabiliti;
uniformità di pesi, misure, catasto, istruzione; dichiarati nazionali i
debiti e crediti delle provincie; lo Stato assegna la congrua a vescovi,
capitoli, seminarj, parroci e alle fabbriche delle cattedrali.
Fatti intesi della volontà del primo console, i nostri, dilungandosi dai
sistemi particolari per osservare l’intera popolazione senza
preoccupazione d’abitudini, lasciaronsi bassamente porre in bocca la
confessione della propria inettitudine, dichiarando non conoscere
alcun italiano valevole ad essere presidente della repubblica (1802
26 gennajo), gli uomini che presero parte ne’ cambiamenti o non
aveano sostenuto funzioni pubbliche, sì da poter reggere lo Stato, o
le aveano sostenute fra l’agitazione delle opinioni e sotto estranee
influenze, in modo da non meritarsi la pubblica fiducia: d’altra parte
la recente repubblica non avere truppe sufficienti ad assicurarsi, nè
poter sperare dagli altri Stati la considerazione necessaria per
consolidarsi dentro e fuori: trovare insomma necessario di essere
retta da Napoleone Buonaparte, due nomi che allora per la prima
volta trovansi uniti. E Buonaparte degnava aggradire, e diceva: — La
repubblica Cisalpina, invasa e omai perduta, fu una seconda volta
dal popolo francese resa all’indipendenza. D’allora che non si tentò
per ismembrarvi? ma la Francia vi protesse, e foste novamente
riconosciuti. A Lunéville cresciuto il territorio d’un quinto, esistete con
maggiore forza e maggiore speranza. Dandovi magistrati, non badai
a terre o a fazioni, ma solo ai vostri interessi. Per le eminenti funzioni
di presidente, non trovando persona fra voi abbastanza reputata,
benemerita e spregiudicata, aderisco al voto espressomi, e
conserverò, quanto fia necessario, il gran pensiero de’ vostri affari».
La repubblica, composta, com’egli diceva, di dieci popoli, cioè
Milanesi, Mantovani, Bolognesi, Novaresi, Valtellini, Romagnuoli,
Veneti, divisi in Bergamaschi, Cremaschi, Bresciani, s’intitolò italiana
(1 febb.), e pensò ad organarsi in modo d’essere, com’egli voleva,
«la prima potenza d’Italia». Restavano sue le artiglierie esistenti
nelle piazze fin al valore di quattro milioni; si doveano preparare armi
e ponti; trentaduemila soldati in tempo di pace, con una riserva che
si porterebbe a sessantamila, coscrivendo dodicimila giovani ogni
anno, oltre due mezze brigate e un reggimento di cavalleria di
Polacchi, ceduti alla nostra dalla repubblica francese; alla tranquillità
vigilavano mille seicento gendarmi, e la guardia nazionale di tutti i
cittadini dai diciotto ai cinquant’anni. La spesa era bilanciata su
novanta milioni di lire milanesi, di cui cinquantadue erano assorbiti
dalla guerra e dal tributo alla Francia. Libera la stampa, sotto la
responsabilità dell’autore e dello stampatore, i quali, avanti
divulgarle, doveano presentare le opere alla revisione, che poteva
sospenderle; soggetti a censura i fogli periodici, le composizioni
teatrali e i libri che si introducevano.
Ai comizj di Lione i preti non aveano potuto ottenere si dichiarasse
unica religione la cattolica, ma solo che si farebbe una legge
organica pel clero, da approvarsi dal papa. Di fatti un concordato
speciale (1803 16 7bre) con questo riconosceva come religione della
repubblica la cattolica; al presidente concessa la nomina de’ vescovi;
libero a questi il comunicare con Roma, il promuover agli Ordini e ai
benefizj i meritevoli, e punire i colpevoli anche col rinchiuderli in
conventi o seminarj: non si sopprimerebbero fondazioni
ecclesiastiche senza approvazione della Sede apostolica; non
sarebbero molestati i compratori di beni ecclesiastici. Tal era quel
concordato: ma come erasi fatto in Francia cogli articoli organici, nel
promulgarlo a Milano si aggiunse che nuove professioni non
potrebbero farsi se non negli Ordini applicati all’educazione o a cura
degl’infermi; e, come all’ordinazione dei preti, volervisi l’assenso del
Governo, e così per dare valore alle bolle e ai brevi della santa
Sede. Di quest’intrusione si dolse invano il pontefice.
Corse allora uno de’ più floridi e quieti tempi per la Lombardia;
lontano il presidente, buono e amato Melzi che ne sosteneva le veci;
distrutto ogni privilegio aristocratico, favorito il sapere; si citavano
ancora i patrj esempj, si ristampavano i nostri classici e i nostri
economisti, come ripigliavasi l’êra cristiana; facili i pagamenti,
prospere l’agricoltura e il commercio, crescente l’esercito, non
febbrili le speranze. La libertà della stampa era sì poco valutata, che
Melzi potè senza difficoltà stabilire la censura preventiva de’ giornali
e de’ libri provenienti di fuori. Gl’interessi materiali eccitavano più
gelosie che non le garanzie della libertà [65]; nè l’iniziativa, nè
l’esame erano liberi, e scarsa capacità mostravano le persone
incaricate del potere. Soprattutto mancava la prima condizione
d’ogni felicità, la fiducia della durata. Da una parte gli accorti
s’avvedeano che questa repubblica era l’embrione d’un regno; tanto
più che, ad ogn’ombra d’opposizione, Buonaparte minacciava dar un
calcio a questo sistema rappresentativo, che pareagli un’organizzata
ostilità: dall’altra il titolo d’italiana inchiudeva una minaccia agli Stati
della penisola. Fra gli stranieri poi i rancori erano stati sopiti non tolti,
e ben presto posero novamente a soqquadro tutt’Europa.
L’Inghilterra, cogliendo gli appigli che troppi offriva il trattato
d’Amiens, ricusa sgomberar Malta, cavilla i patti, e getta in mezzo la
questione italiana, persuasa d’avvilupparvi anche l’Austria.
Questa avea subìto i trattati di Campoformio e Lunéville come una
necessità, e colla fiducia di ripigliare la Cisalpina, donde
padroneggiare la media e la bassa Italia. Unico mezzo a sbarbicarla
sarebbe stato il rendere l’Italia a se stessa: ma Napoleone, che
credeva al potere non alle nazionalità, impose al fratello Giuseppe
che negli accordi di Lunéville non parlasse del papa, del Piemonte,
di Napoli, sicchè lasciava in pendulo gravissime questioni: nè
l’Europa potea soffrire che, con una nominale indipendenza, al
vassallaggio austriaco fosse surrogata la dominazione francese.
Alessandro di Russia, succeduto all’assassinato suo padre, ricusava
ravvicinarsi alla Francia se non ripristinasse il re di Sardegna e
assicurasse quello di Napoli: anche la Prussia chiedeva che Francia
sgombrasse il Napoletano, distaccasse Parma e Piacenza, le Jonie
e Malta si dessero in compenso al re di Sardegna. Austria, col
pretesto di un cordone contro la febbre gialla sviluppatasi a Livorno,
ingrossò sulla frontiera dell’Adige; e viepiù quando Buonaparte
scrisse in persona a Francesco II (31 xbre) voler ridurre la repubblica
italiana a monarchia, distinta dalla Francia. La fede mentita all’Italia
metteva dunque la Francia in guerra coll’Europa, e subito Inghilterra
empì d’armi il Mediterraneo: di rimpatto Buonaparte allestì a
Boulogne un famoso campo per tentare uno sbarco in Inghilterra;
deriso dai più come una sublime follìa, lodato da altri perchè valse di
palestra a’ suoi soldati. A quel campo la repubblica italiana mandò
un corpo sotto il general Pino, e decretò quattro milioni per costruire
due fregate e dodici scialuppe.
Ma non di guerra soltanto erano i divisamenti di Buonaparte, che
credette venuto tempo alle lunghe speranze. Col prestigio della
gloria egli avea fatto credere ancora al rinnegato entusiasmo; coi
comporti in Italia avea mostrato di saper ridestare il passato e le
relazioni consuete fra popoli civili: onde parve l’unico capace di
rimettere Francia nella grande comunanza delle nazioni, senza
sagrificare la libertà e l’orgoglio, come avrebbero fatto i Borboni.
Francia sfiduciata delle libertà promesse da filosofi, da avvocati, da
giornalisti, da legislatori, implorava il despotismo, e nol vedea che
sotto la forma d’un soldato: uscendo dall’oppressione sanguinaria o
ladra di tiranni abjetti e persino vili, meno male pareale la tirannide
della gloria e del genio: cessato di credere alle idee, credea a un
uomo. E Buonaparte racconciava all’obbedienza l’epoca più
indisciplinata; e indotta la ragione a confessare la propria
insufficienza, al ricostruire adoprò gli uomini ch’eransi mostrati più
attivi a demolire. In paese stanco ed abbagliato dalla sua gloria,
pochi ostacoli ebbe ad afferrare la dittatura. Interrogata colla
ciurmeria de’ registri, la nazione prorogò il console per dieci anni:
interrogata se il volesse a vita, disse sì; la costituzione fu modificata
alla monarchica: ma poichè il nome di re facea mal suono a quelli
che, in annuale funzione, giuravano odio sempiterno ai re, fra le
reminiscenze d’Augusto e di Carlo Magno egli ripescò il titolo
d’imperatore dei Francesi (1804 18 maggio).
Al potere nuovo facevano di mestieri tutte le forme che gli
conciliassero rispetto. Dopo che i registri, aperti in tutti i Comuni, gli
diedero la sanzione popolare, Napoleone volle anche quella della
religione, e domandò che Pio VII venisse a coronarlo. Gran
disparere in Roma. Piaceva che un eroe soffogasse nelle proprie
braccia quella repubblica sovvertitrice degli altari e della società, e
che una nuova dinastia all’Europa e alla civiltà assicurasse ordine e
conservazione. Qual trionfo per la Chiesa di vedere questo figlio
della rivoluzione invocare dal pontefice il sacro crisma, e credere
legittimazione della temporale quella potestà pontifizia che dianzi
trascinavasi nel fango! Anche nei possessi il papa potrebbe
altrimenti che ingrandirsene?
Ma gli zelanti, alla cui testa erano il sapiente Antonelli, il severo Litta,
il dotto Di Pietro, l’abile Pacca, avvezzi a credere la nave di Pietro
insommergibile fra le transitorie tempeste, aveano tenuto il
concordato come una dura necessità. — E chi è (rifletteano) questo
Buonaparte? Un soldato di ventura, che a Tolentino strappò alla
Chiesa le più belle provincie e tesori artistici; che tiene il contado
Venesino e i feudi in Piemonte, roba della Chiesa: che colla spada
suggellò il concordato, e pur subito lo eludeva cogli articoli organici;
che stipulò la spogliazione de’ principi ecclesiastici di Germania; che
in Egitto proclamava la tolleranza fino dell’islam. Or domanda la
mano del papa, ma a qual fine: unicamente per sorreggere la
personale ambizione, contentata la quale, si torcerà contro quelli che
adesso accarezza. Che cosa risponderà il papa ai rimproveri degli
Austriaci, da tanto tempo investiti del sacro romano impero? che
cosa ad altri re che lo domandassero a coronarli? E i Borboni, a cui
la violenza non tolse d’essere i cristianissimi, i primogeniti della
Chiesa, con qual occhio vedrebbero il santo padre cingere colla
corona di san Luigi uno, le cui mani stillano ancora del sangue
dell’assassinato duca d’Enghien?
Pio VII aveva attinto nel chiostro virtù semplici e rassegnate, e
l’abitudine di elevare gli occhi al cielo, più che scrutare le cose della
terra. Il recuperare una tale preponderanza sulla Francia, il restituire
alla tiara lo splendore offuscato, e al patrimonio le tre Legazioni
pareangli interesse della religione; e riprometteasi ottenerlo a Parigi
ne’ colloquj col nuovo Cesare, da cui farebbe cassare gli articoli
organici, e ripristinare gli Ordini religiosi. Volle che venti de’ più
creduti cardinali in tutta secretezza e coscienza gli esponessero il
loro sentimento sul quesito «Sua santità deve, può andare a
consacrare e coronare l’imperatore de’ Francesi?» Cinque dissero
un no riciso; gli altri furono pel sì, ma con diverse condizioni, o di
cassare gli articoli organici, o di attendere che il nuovo imperatore se
ne fosse mostrato degno come Carlo Magno, o che venisse egli
stesso di qua dell’Alpi, come aveano usato gli antichi fino a
Clemente VII; o che almeno assicurasse gli atti riverenziali dovuti al
sacro suo carattere, specialmente il bacio del piede: viepiù
s’insisteva contro il giuramento che l’imperatore farebbe d’attenersi
al concordato, di far rispettare la libertà de’ culti.
Pio VII fece dal cardinale Caprara sottomettere tali riserve a
Napoleone; questi le repudiò tutte, e Pio VII si rassegnò, sempre
confidando ottenere in persona quel ch’eragli fallito per intromissione
de’ ministri; tollerò che l’imperadore si mostrasse aridissimo nella
lettera d’invito, e voless’esserne unto sì, non coronato; e di
sessantadue anni si pose in viaggio. Tutti gli ordini dello Stato
vennero a fargli riverenza, come tutti dianzi avevano rinnegato e
papa e Cristo; e Pio li guadagnava colla dolcezza. Dando un giorno
la benedizione al popolo inginocchiato, vide un giovane tenersi ritto e
col cappello in testa: — Giovinotto, se non credete all’efficacia della
benedizione del pontefice, credete almeno che quella d’un vecchio
non porta sventura».
Nella solennità (2 xbre), allestita collo sfarzo teatrale che illude e
cattiva, Napoleone si pose da sè la corona; poi incoronò Giuseppina
sua donna, che il giorno innanzi avea avuto la benedizione nuziale. I
sinceri repubblicanti, che l’aveano proclamato un Camillo, un
Washington redivivo, non sapeano darsene pace; i non sinceri
s’affrettarono a divenire ciambellani, ministri, uffiziali, cavalieri, tutto
quel ch’egli volle, anche più di quel che volle. Napoleone evitò di
trovarsi testa testa con Pio VII, alle cui preghiere dolci e ragionate
non potrebbe opporre le escandescenze; sicchè al papa non restò
che avventurare le sue domande alle solite lungagne degli uffizj, e le
esortazioni al magnanimo perchè imitasse anche in ciò Carlo
Magno, il quale spontaneo restituì alla santa Sede quanto le armi
sue aveano ritolto ai Longobardi.
Napoleone fece rispondere che avea giurato non alterare i confini
della Francia; neppur poteva cincischiare la repubblica italiana, in lui
confidatasi; prometteva però trovare congiunture d’estendere e
consolidare il dominio del santo padre, e intanto presterebbegli
mano soccorrevole per uscire dal caos dove l’hanno trascinato le
presenti vicende, e assicurargli il pacifico godimento de’ beni
rimastigli; e così darebbe all’universo una prova della sua
venerazione al pontefice, della protezione alla capitale della
cristianità, del desiderio costante di vedere la nostra religione non
inferiore a nessuna nella pompa delle cerimonie e in quel decoro che
alle nazioni può ispirare venerazione. Il papa si dovette contentare di
vedersi reso il cadavere del suo predecessore, e la statua della
Madonna di Loreto, spogliata è vero delle gemme.
Carlo Magno era anche re d’Italia, nè questo titolo dovea mancare a
Napoleone, il quale anzi nella nostra patria avea fatto il passo
d’esperimento verso l’impero [66]. Ad assistere alla sua coronazione
invitò dunque il vicepresidente Melzi e la consulta di Stato; e chiesti
di liberamente significare come in pratica riuscisse la costituzione
avuta a Lione, liberamente risposero essere quella evidentemente
provvisoria nè compatibile coi tempi, nè gl’Italiani ancora maturi per
la repubblica; e lo scongiuravano a dare loro un re, foss’egli quello,
erigesse il paese in regno con uno statuto. Rispose: — Ho sempre
pensato a creare indipendente e libera la nazione italiana, ma
capisco la separazione tornerebbe pericolosa or che la perfida
Albione rinnova le minaccie; verrò dunque a Milano a cingermi la
corona di ferro per ritemprarla e rinvigorirla, e perchè l’Italia più non
si spezzi fra le tempeste che la minacceranno: ma affretterò il
momento di deporla s’una testa più giovane».
E venne (1805); e gl’Italiani, con quell’entusiasmo che spesso non è
se non l’esternazione della speranza, e che con quella svanisce,
affaccendaronsi a preparare archi di trionfo con quelli che prima
erano alberi della libertà [67]. Napoleone fissò tutto, sin le divise
teatrali dei magistrati e de’ cortigiani; nel duomo di Milano (1805 16
maggio), con una pompa che più non fu superata, venne unto
dall’arcivescovo Caprara; e ponendosi di propria mano la corona
ferrea esclamò: — Dio me l’ha data, guaj a chi la tocca». Il qual
motto perpetuò sulle insegne d’un nuovo ordine cavalleresco.
Secondo lo statuto, giurò mantenere l’integrità del regno, la religione
dello Stato, l’eguaglianza dei diritti, la libertà politica e civile,
l’irrevocabilità delle vendite de’ beni nazionali; non levar imposizioni
o por tasse che in virtù di legge; governare solo per l’interesse, la
felicità e la gloria del popolo italiano, e non dare impieghi a forestieri.
Eppure destinò vicerè Eugenio Beauharnais, figlio di sua moglie e da
lui adottato, uom mediocre, buon soldato, attivo e intelligente,
sommessissimo all’imperatore, ignaro e non curante del farsi amare
dai popoli, il cui bene perorava. Aprì in persona il corpo legislativo (7
giugno) lodando sè, di quanto avea fatto, e nominò guardasigilli il
Melzi, che poi col pingue assegno e col titolo di duca di Lodi ridusse
alla nullità.
Insieme cogli applausi del popolo, qui ricevette gli omaggi dei re.
Corsini e Fossombroni, deputati dell’Etruria, lo chiarirono come il lor
piccolo paese dopo il 96 avesse consunto in spese straordinarie
cenventi milioni, trovandosi sempre gravato da una guarnigione
francese; Verdier comandante a Livorno erasi prese le casse regie;
le reclute côrse colà sbarcate permetteansi ogni prepotenza.
Napoleone diede parole; ma con un fare soldatesco che trascendeva
le convenienze, soggiungeva: — La regina d’Etruria è troppo
giovane, e il ministro troppo vecchio per governare a dovere».
Insultò l’ambasciadore di Napoli e la sua regina; a quel della
repubblica Ligure disse: — M’era accorto ch’era impossibile i Liguri
facessero cosa degna del loro padri»; a quello di Lucca: — Sarete
meglio governati da un principe francese». Insomma nè re egli
risparmiava nè popoli; e sebbene avesse rassicurato e il senato di
Francia e i principi nostrali che non dilaterebbe i confini, trovava
necessarie Genova, Lucca, Livorno, onde impedire gli sbarchi de’
perfidi Inglesi.
A Genova, multata da’ Tedeschi che se n’andavano e da’ Francesi
che vi venivano, afflitta in conseguenza dell’assedio da un’epidemia,
per cui l’ordinaria mortalità di tremila settecento crebbe a dodicimila
cinquecento, fu dai Francesi trattata come vinta, pur affidata
dell’indipendenza; ma riformasse la propria costituzione sul modello
consueto. Buonaparte nel 1802 la approvò eleggendo doge
Girolamo Durazzo, ma aveva detto: — Genova è destinata a formare
marinarj; ha seimila uomini sulle squadre, ed io n’ho bisogno», e la
volle. I patrizj, spinti dal Saliceti che dimostrava impossibile
sostenere l’immenso lor debito [68], gliel’offersero, si aprirono
gl’ingannevoli registri, dove pochissimi ebbero coraggio di votare per
l’antico stato, e il doge Girolamo Durazzo andò a Milano a supplicare
Napoleone «accordasse ai Genovesi il bene di divenire suoi sudditi».
Metteva alcune condizioni a cui non si badò. L’arcitesoriere Lebrun
mandato a sistemarli, era uomo moderato e prudente; ma quando
egli palesò lo scontento de’ Genovesi e le loro ragioni, Napoleone
rispose: — Ho riunito Genova per avere de’ marinarj. Chi può
governare popoli senza scontentarli in sulle prime? In fatto di
Governo, giustizia vuol dire forza: sarei io così barbogio d’avere
paura del popolo di Genova? La sola risposta che vi fo è Marinari,
marinari» [69].
Lucca, sovvertita nel 1800, dagli avvicendati conquistatori spogliata
di denaro e d’armi, nel 1801 fu ordinata in repubblica democratica
dal Saliceti, al quale in più volte quel tesoro sborsò brevi manu
618,750 lire [70]. Così pagavasi la libertà. Divenuto imperatore
Buonaparte, que’ cittadini furono tratti a domandargli una nuova
costituzione, e col mezzo de’ soliti registri presso le parrocchie, il
corpo degli anziani e il popolo chiesero signore (23 giugno)
Pasquale Baciocchi ed Elisa cognato e sorella di Napoleone, ai quali
parea poco il già attribuito principato di Piombino; avrebbero la lista
civile di quattrocentomila franchi; un consiglio di Stato, un senato di
trentasei membri: faceasi l’unica riserva di restare esenti dalla
coscrizione, ma tutti i cittadini sarebbero sistemati militarmente. E
così quest’aristocrazia di jeri trangugiavasene un’altra di
seicentotrentanove anni. A Lucca furono annesse per
l’amministrazione la Lunigiana ed anche Massa e Carrara, feudo
ducale dell’Impero; caricavansi due milioni di lire al piccolo
principato; il quale però, per ordine di Napoleone abolendo i quindici
conventi d’uomini e diciassette di donne, i capitoli, le confraternite, i
luoghi pii e fino i semplici benefizj laici, acquistava un patrimonio di
venti milioni. Con questi la vivace ed ingegnosa Elisa, oltre
tesoreggiare per sè, dotava spedali, soccorreva a poveri e invalidi,
aprì strade, incoraggiò artisti e studiosi e l’Accademia, che cominciò
l’importantissirna pubblicazione dei documenti della storia patria;
provvide d’acque la città, riformò le leggi penali e la procedura [71].
Nella pace coi Borboni di Spagna, Buonaparte avea stipulato che il
duca di Parma divenisse re d’Etruria: ma egli non accettò il baratto; e
quando morì nel 1802, Francia fece occupare il ducato, serbandolo
come un allettativo sia al papa che chiedeva un compenso alle
rapitegli Legazioni, sia alla Casa di Sardegna, sia all’Etruria che,
incorporando questo paese, sarebbe divenuta la seconda potenza
d’Italia. La rottura colla Russia avendo poi dispensato dai riguardi, fu
aggregato alla vigesimottava divisione militare della Francia, poi
ridotto a dipartimento del Taro. La repubblica Etrusca convertita in
regno, fu investita a Lodovico infante di Spagna, figlio del duca di
Parma, il quale ne trovava sconfitte le finanze, esorbitanti le
imposizioni, interrotto il commercio perchè gl’Inglesi minacciavano
da Porto Ferrajo; abbandonata l’agricoltura, soldati da costare un
milione al mese, eppure necessaria ancora la guarnigione francese;
nel 1801 l’entrata portava dodici milioni contro la spesa di sedici, e la
Corte fu sin ridotta a far coniare i proprj argenti. La vera regnante era
Luigia figlia del re di Spagna, tanto più quando, al morto padre,
succedette Carlo Lodovico (1803 27 maggio) di quattro anni. Ai
liberali costei metteva i brividi ripristinando le fraterie, le libertà
clericali, di coscienza, di corrispondenza col papa, l’indipendenza de’
vescovi coll’ispezione sui libri e sui luoghi pii; la deploravono
santocchia e raggirata, e le apponevano di avere «spezzato il suo
scettro, e buttatone la metà nel Tevere».
L’isola d’Elba rimase alla Francia, spogliandone la famiglia
Buoncompagni, i cui avi n’aveano compro il dominio nel 1634 per un
milione e cinquantamila fiorini, e che allora ne ritraeva
ducensettantatremila l’anno.
Vittorio Emanuele, succeduto re di Piemonte (1802 4 giugno), si
tenne in Sardegna, e avendo gl’Inglesi offertagli guarnigione e’ la
ricusò per non dare appicco di querela a Napoleone. Eppure questi
non cessava di lamentarsi perchè ricoverasse navi britanniche, e
servisse al contrabbando. Secondo gli accordi di Tilsitt colla Russia,
avrebbe dovuto riavere gli Stati di terraferma o un compenso, e
Napoleone glielo esibì sulle coste d’Africa; poi guastatosi colla
Russia, neppure a questa celia badò, e tenne il Piemonte come
ventisettesima divisione militare sotto l’amministrazione di Jourdan,
distribuito ne’ dipartimenti di Po, Marengo, Sesia, Dora, Stura.
Concessa amnistia ai fautori degli antichi re; soppressi gli Ordini
religiosi; coscritti quattromila giovani; assettata la taglia fondiaria a
nove milioni di franchi, e la personale a un milione e ducentomila;
soppresse sei abadie e nove vescovadi, restando solo quelli di
Saluzzo, Acqui, Asti, Alessandria, Vercelli, Ivrea, Mondovì e Cuneo,
colla periferia stessa de’ dipartimenti, e suffraganei all’arcivescovo di
Torino, non più a quelli di Genova e Milano.
Il Governo del Piemonte e del Genovesato fu più tardi (1808) eretto
in gran dignità dell’impero, a favore del principe Borghese, cognato
dell’imperatore; il quale così traeva la Francia dai limiti naturali, e
stabiliva un altro dominio forestiero in quell’Italia che dai forestieri
egli avea promesso riscattare [72]. E già col professarsi successore di
Carlo Magno, palesava aspirare a un predominio; e coll’occupare
nuovi Stati anche dopo la coronazione, parve gettare il guanto. Tutti
dunque i dominanti ne protestavano; Pitt, ministro inglese, ottenuti
settantacinque milioni per sostenere la sicurezza delle Potenze
europee, e collegatosi colla Russia propone (1805 aprile) che
Napoleone sgombri il nord della Germania, l’Italia, l’isola d’Elba;
Olanda, Svizzera, Napoli sieno lasciate indipendenti; ripristinato il re
di Sardegna, al quale si aggiungerebbero Genova ed eventualmente
il Lionese e il Delfinato; restituite Firenze e Modena ai prischi dinasti,
e all’Austria la Lombardia, cresciuta col Veneto [73].
Patti simili appena si possono imporre dopo irreparabili sconfitte:
pure fu il programma a cui si attese in dieci anni di guerra. Alla quale
tutta Europa sorgeva, avendo per tesoriere l’Inghilterra, per
retroguardo la Russia; e non più per estinguere la libertà in un paese
che se l’era conquistata, bensì proclamando l’indipendenza dei
popoli contro un’ambizione che la pericolava. Era insomma la
Rivoluzione che proclamava i proprj trionfi per bocca dell’esercito
coalizzato contro di lei.
L’Austria mise in essere trecenventimila guerrieri; e ricevendo
dall’Inghilterra settantacinque milioni per quell’anno, si assunse
l’impresa d’Italia, mandò sull’Adige cenventimila uomini coll’arciduca
Carlo, altri trentacinquemila coll’arciduca Giovanni in Tirolo, per
connetterlo coll’esercito di Germania, a cui gl’imperadori Francesco
e Alessandro farebbero una terribile retroguardia in Moravia e
Gallizia; Russi e Inglesi doveano sbarcare a Malta e Corfù, e uniti co’
Napoletani, opprimere i trentamila Francesi che presidiavano Terra
d’Otranto, e spingersi in su per l’Italia fino a congiungersi cogli
arciduchi. Napoleone sentì che «gli bisognava un altro Marengo, e
subito»; e con uno di quei colpi arditi che solo l’esito giustifica, gira
alle spalle di Mack (1805 8 7bre), famoso per le rotte napoletane, lo
chiude in Ulma, e fa prigionieri trentatremila Austriaci senza stilla di
sangue. Obbrobrio, che fu chiamato tradimento, e il generale
condannato ai lavori in una fortezza.
Il principe Carlo, udita la turpe capitolazione, per proteggere Vienna
abbandona l’Italia; onde Massena, che con trentamila uomini
occupava Verona, cresciuto di coraggio, lo attacca a Caldiero (19
9bre); per tre giorni combattendo con grande strage, e inseguendolo
fin oltre le Alpi, non solo toglie all’Austria tutte le terre italiche eccetto
Venezia, ma occupa Trieste, Gorizia, Gradisca, Villac, e quivi si
congiunge con Ney; i Francesi sono a Vienna, e Napoleone ad
Austerlitz (2 xbre) riporta una vittoria, dove restarono quarantamila
Russi e Austriaci feriti o morti, nove generali e ottocento uffiziali
prigionieri, e a Presburgo obbliga Francesco II alla pace (26 xbre).
Separare l’Italia dalla Francia, ed escluderne l’Austria rimettendo
repubblica Venezia, togliendole il Tirolo e la Svevia, in modo che
fosse discostata dal regno d’Italia, dalla Svizzera e dalla Germania
meridionale, pareva a Talleyrand l’unico modo di spegnere le guerre,
da secoli alimentate per le pretensioni de’ Tedeschi sul bel paese;
l’Austria, padroneggiando tutto il corso del Danubio e parte delle
coste del mar Nero, diverrà vicina e perciò emula della Russia,
quanto allontanata dalla Francia, e perciò sua alleata. Napoleone
non volle nè guadagnarsi il vinto nè distruggerlo, fedele al sistema
suo d’indebolire i territorj, col quale non fece che creare malcontenti,
e condannare se stesso a combattere sempre coloro che non
sempre potrebbe vincere; laonde le sue paci furono quasi tappe
dell’esercito. Dall’Austria fece dunque cedere al regno d’Italia
Venezia colla Dalmazia e l’Albania, alla Baviera il Tirolo, e pagare
cenquaranta milioni per le spese. Tali scambj di dominio scioglievano
i legami tra popoli e re, ed irritavano oltraggiando le nazionalità.
Al cadere della Repubblica veneta, il procuratore Francesco Pésaro,
che n’era stato uno de’ più devoti, vi venne pienipotente dell’Austria,
sicchè gli uni stupivano che l’imperatore ad un patrizio concedesse
piena autorità nel proprio paese; gli altri esecravano il Pésaro d’aver
accettato di comandare a quelli che testè erano suoi pari, e di
rappresentare la straniera dominazione nel paese di cui avea difeso
la libertà; altri invece il glorificavano d’essersi così messo in grado
d’alleviare i mali della patria: ma dopo pochi giorni egli morì. Altri
patrizj non tardarono a conciliarsi coll’Austria e servirla; e Zusto,
Contarini, Erizzo, Gradenigo, Almorò Tiepolo, Giustinian, Quirini
Stampalia accettando alti impieghi, diminuirono il ribrezzo del
dominio forestiero. La guerra dell’800 avea conturbato la terraferma;
e i patimenti, gli esigli, il mal cibo vi svilupparono il tifo, del quale
molti morirono, fra cui il friulano medico Capretti che l’avea studiato
e curato.
Ora Venezia acquistava un terzo padrone in otto anni; riceveva la
costituzione di Lione (1806 3 febb.) e le altre forme del regno italico;
ed Eugenio vicerè andava ad accogliervi il giuramento e le feste. Vi
venne poi Napoleone stesso (1807 29 9bre), e vi godette lo
spettacolo ond’era più ghiotto, di una vistosa forza marittima; emanò
molti ordini per la salute e il prosperamento di quella città, riconobbe
cento milioni che la Repubblica doveva alla zecca e al banco, un
quarto pagandone con beni demaniali, il resto iscrivendo sul Monte
Napoleone; fece ingrandire il porto, che volea rendere atto a
bastimenti grossi, incaricando Lessau d’una via diretta per trarre
dall’arsenale in mare vascelli da 80; munì le lagune coi forti di
Marghera e e Bróndolo; assegnò centomila lire annue a riparare i
porti e i canali. Allora venne aperto un giardino pubblico, abbattendo
edifizj ricchi di pitture e di sepolcri; si eresse un palazzo regio:
Antonio Selva, scolaro del Temanza, ridusse la Carità ad accademia
di belle arti, a cui fu preposto Leopoldo Cicognara ferrarese.
Malgrado di ciò, e sebbene decorata del titolo di seconda città del
regno e portofranco, Venezia si vide tolto ogni commercio, perito sin
il traffico delle conterie, e i beni nazionali non trovando compratori
che lo Stato o forestieri.
Solo Padova aveva accolto l’imperatore col silenzio, che è la lezione
dei re; ed egli, che non era uomo da inghiottirsela, maturava il
castigo, quando la città spedì il Cesarotti a placarlo: accolto con
amorevolezza, fatto sedere a tavola fra l’imperatore e il vicerè,
blandito con decorazioni e pensioni, il perdono lo ripagò colla
Pronea. Ma Vittorio Barzoni di Lonato già prima nel Solitario delle
Alpi avea posto a dialogare un entusiasto della rivoluzione e un
Veneto, una volta assalì il Villetard con una pistola: fu fatto passare
per pazzo; ora non perdonando a Napoleone il tradimento di
Venezia, lo descrisse sotto il personaggio di Flaminio ne’ Romani in
Grecia, e collocatosi a Malta, perseverò nell’infervorare gli odj contro
di esso [74].
Restava ancora il regno d’Etruria; e la regina Luigia, repugnante da
Napoleone e come borbonica e come devota, lasciava che merci
coloniali e manifatture inglesi, coperte dalla bandiera americana,
affluissero a Livorno, donde si propagavano ai mercati di Roma, di
Napoli, dell’alta Italia, anzi sin alla fiera di Lipsia. Napoleone non
volle soffrire questa disobbedienza, e ordinò al generale Miollis di
marciare sopra Firenze, indi a Livorno, e sorprendervi le merci
inglesi; poi col trattato di Fontainebleau (1807 30 agosto) assegnava
le provincie settentrionali del Portogallo in cambio dell’Etruria, la
quale veniva riunita alla Francia, e divisa nei dipartimenti dell’Arno,
del Mediterraneo, dell’Ombrone.
La pia donna neppure udienza potè avere da Napoleone a Bajona;
fu lasciata prendere e ammobigliare una casa a Passy; poi quando
montava in carrozza per condurvisi, un uffiziale la impedisce; le
vengono assegnate quattrocentomila lire, ma le si stentano, e le
sono usate cento soperchierie. Domanda di passare a Parma suo
dominio, e n’ottiene promessa, poi invece la fermarono a Nizza.
Dopo spossessati i reali di Spagna, mandò a Londra alcuno per far
valere le proprie ragioni: ma il duca di Rovigo ministro di polizia
arrestò Francesco Sassi della Tosa e Ghifenti di Livorno, e come
colpevoli di tale incarico, li fece condannare a morte, eseguita sul
Ghifenti; la regina come rea d’aver tentato fuggire, venne chiusa nel
convento de’ santi Domenico e Sisto a Roma colla figliuola; Miollis le