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Introductory Chemistry Corwin Seventh Edition
Introductory Chemistry
Concepts and Critical Thinking
Charles H Corwin
Seventh Edition
ISBN 978-1-29202-060-0
9 781292 020600
Introductory Chemistry
Concepts and Critical Thinking
Charles H Corwin
Seventh Edition
Pearson Education Limited
Edinburgh Gate
Harlow
Essex CM20 2JE
England and Associated Companies throughout the world
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© Pearson Education Limited 2014
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted
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All trademarks used herein are the property of their respective owners. The use of any trademark
in this text does not vest in the author or publisher any trademark ownership rights in such
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book by such owners.
ISBN 10: 1-292-02060-1

ISBN 13: 978-1-292-02060-0
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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Printed in the United States of America

P E A R S O N C U S T O M L I B R A R Y
Table of Contents
1. Introduction to Chemistry
Charles H. Corwin 1
2. Prerequisite Science Skills
Charles H. Corwin 13
3. The Metric System
4. Matter and Energy
5. Models of the Atom
6. The Periodic Table
7. Language of Chemistry
8. Chemical Reactions
9. The Mole Concept
10. Chemical Equation Calculations
11. Gases
12. Liquids and Solids
13. Chemical Bonding
I
14. Solutions
15. Acids and Bases
16. Advanced Problem Solving
17. Chemical Equilibrium
18. Oxidation and Reduction
19. Nuclear Chemistry
20. Organic Chemistry
Index 639
II
Introduction
to Chemistry
1 Evolution of
Chemistry
2 Modern Chemistry
3 Learning Chemistry
Sodium in the Environment Sodium (shown left) is a very reactive metal and must be stored
in mineral oil to prevent its reaction with oxygen in air. Sodium metal is not found in the
environment, but is found combined with chlorine in ordinary table salt, sodium chloride
(shown right).
“There are in fact two things, science and opinion; the
former begets knowledge, the latter ignorance.”
Hippocrates, Greek Physician (ca. 460–377 B.C.)
I n the United States, Canada, and other developed countries, we enjoy a standard
of living that could not have been imagined a century ago. Owing to the evo-
lution of science and technology, we have abundant harvests; live in comfortable,
climate-controlled buildings; and travel the world via automobiles and airplanes.
We also have extended life spans free of many diseases that previously ravaged
humanity.
The development of technology has provided machinery and equipment to per-
form tedious tasks, which gives us time for more interesting activities. The arrival of
the computer chip has given us electronic appliances that afford ready convenience
From Chapter 1 of Introductory Chemistry, Seventh Edition. Charles H. Corwin.

Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY
and dazzling entertainment. We can select from a multitude of audio and video
resources that offer remarkable sound and brilliant color. We can access these audio
and video resources from the Internet, satellite, a compact disc, or a smartphone that
can communicate wirelessly while surfing the Internet (Figure 1).
Our present standard of living requires scientists and technicians with educational
training in chemistry. The health sciences as well as the life sciences, physical sciences,
and earth sciences demand an understanding of chemical principles. In fact, chemis-
try is sometimes referred to as the central science because it stands at the crossroads of
biology, physics, geology, and medicine. Just as personal computers and smartphones
are indispensable in our everyday activities, chemistry plays an essential role in our
daily lives.
▲ Figure 1 Apple iPhone
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1 EVOLUTION OF CHEMISTRY

▸ To describe the early
practice of chemistry. The earliest concept of science began with the ancient Chinese, Egyptian, and Greek
civilizations. The Chinese believed that the universe was created from the interaction
▸ To identify the three
of two forces. Yin, the feminine force, was manifested in darkness, cold, and wetness.
steps in the scientific
method. Yang, the masculine force, was manifested in light, heat, and dryness. When the yin
and yang forces interacted, they brought the earthly world into existence and were
responsible for everything in nature.
As early as 600 b.c., the Greeks began to speculate that the universe was com-
posed of a single element. Thales, the founder of Greek science, mathematics, and
philosophy, suggested that water was the single element. He claimed that Earth was
a dense, flat disc floating in a universe of water. He also believed that air and space
were less dense forms of water.
A few years later, another Greek philosopher proposed that air was the basic
element. This theory was followed by the proposals that fire, and later earth, was
the basic element. About 450 b.c., the Greek philosopher Empedocles observed
that when wood burned, smoke was released (air), followed by a flame (fire). He
also noticed that a cool surface held over a fire collected moisture (water) and
that the only remains were ashes (earth). Empedocles interpreted his observations
as evidence for air, fire, water, and earth as basic elements. The conclusion was
logical based on his observations and he further speculated other substances were
examples of these four elements combined in varying proportions, as illustrated in
Figure 2.
In about 350 b.c., Aristotle adopted the idea that air, earth, fire, and water were
basic elements. In addition, he added a fifth element, ether, that he believed filled all
space. Aristotle’s influence was so great that his opinions dominated other Greek phi-
Fire losophers and shaped our understanding of nature for nearly 2,000 years.
Hot Dry
The Scientific Method
Air Earth In 1661, the English scientist Robert Boyle (1627–1691) published The Sceptical Chymist.
In his classic book, Boyle stated that theoretical speculation was worthless unless it
Wet Cold
was supported by experimental evidence. This principle led to the development of the
Water scientific method, which marked a turning point in scientific inquiry and the begin-
ning of modern science.
Science can be defined as the methodical exploration of nature followed by a logi-
cal explanation of the observations. The practice of science entails planning an inves-
▲ Figure 2 The Four Greek
Elements The four elements
tigation, carefully recording observations, gathering data, and analyzing the results.
proposed by the Greeks: air, In an experiment, scientists explore nature according to a planned strategy and make
earth, fire, and water. Notice observations under controlled conditions.
the properties hot, cold, wet, The scientific method is a systematic investigation of nature and requires propos-
and dry associated with each ing an explanation for the results of an experiment in the form of a general principle.
element. The initial, tentative proposal of a scientific principle is called a hypothesis.

After further experimentation, the initial hypothesis may be rejected, modified, or

elevated to the status of a scientific principle. However, for a hypothesis to become a
scientific principle, many additional experiments must support and verify the original
proposal. Only after there is sufficient evidence does a hypothesis rise to the level of a
scientific theory. We can summarize the three steps in the scientific method as follows:
Applying the Scientific Method

Step 1: Perform a planned experiment, make observations, and record data.
Step 2: Analyze the data and propose a tentative hypothesis to explain the
experimental observations.
Step 3: Conduct additional experiments to test the hypothesis. If the evidence
supports the initial proposal, the hypothesis may become a scientific
theory.
▲ Robert Boyle This stamp
honors Boyle for his invention
of the vacuum pump in 1659.
We should note that scientists exercise caution before accepting a theory. Experi- Boyle’s classic textbook, The
ence has shown that nature reveals its secrets slowly and only after considerable prob- Sceptical Chymist, laid the
ing. A scientific theory is not accepted until rigorous testing has established that the foundation for the scientific
hypothesis is a valid interpretation of the evidence. For example, in 1803, John Dal- method.
ton (1766–1844) proposed that all matter was composed of small, indivisible particles
called atoms. However, it took nearly 100 years of gathering additional evidence before
his proposal was universally accepted and elevated to the status of the atomic theory.
Although the terms theory and law are related, there is a distinction between the
two terms. A theory is a model that explains the behavior of nature. A natural law does
not explain behavior, but rather states a measurable relationship. To illustrate, it is a
law that heat flows from a hotter object to a cooler one because we can measure experi-
mentally the change in temperature if we drop an ice cube into water. It is a theory that
the transfer of heat is due to changes in the motion of molecules in the ice and water.
We can distinguish between a theory and a law by simply asking the question, “Is
the proposal measurable?” If the answer is yes, the statement is a law; otherwise, the
statement is a theory. Figure 3 summarizes the relationship of a hypothesis, a scientific
theory, and a natural law.
Scientific theory Natural law ◀ Figure 3 The Scientific

Method The initial observa-
tions from an experiment are
analyze additional data analyzed and formulated into
a hypothesis. Next, additional
Hypothesis data is collected from experi-
ments conducted under vari-
ous conditions and the data
is analyzed. If the additional
data supports the initial pro-
analyze initial observations posal, the hypothesis may be
elevated to a scientific theory
or a natural law.
Experiment
2 MODERN CHEMISTRY LEARNING OBJECTIVE
▸ To describe the modern

In the a.d. eighth century, the Arabs introduced the pseudoscience of alchemy. practice of chemistry.
Alchemists conducted simple experiments and believed in the existence of a magic
potion that had miraculous healing powers and could transmute lead into gold.

Although alchemy did not withstand the test of time, it preceded the planned,
systematic, scientific experiments that are the cornerstone of modern chemical
research.
In the late eighteenth century, the French chemist Antoine Lavoisier (1743–1794)
organized chemistry and wrote two important textbooks. Lavoisier also built a mag-
nificent laboratory and invited scientists from around the world to view it; his many
visitors included Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson. Lavoisier was a prolific
experimenter and published his work in several languages. For his numerous contri-
butions, he is considered the founder of modern chemistry.
Today, we define chemistry as the science that studies the composition of matter
and its properties. Chemists have accumulated so much information during the past
two centuries that we now divide the subject into several branches or specialties. The
branch of chemistry that studies substances containing the element carbon is called
organic chemistry. The study of all other substances, those that do not contain the ele-
ment carbon, is called inorganic chemistry.
▲ Antoine Lavoisier This The branch of chemistry that studies substances derived from plants and ani-
stamp honors Lavoisier for
mals is biochemistry. Another branch, analytical chemistry, includes qualitative
his numerous achievements,
including the establishment
analysis (what substances are present in a sample) and quantitative analysis (how
of a magnificent eighteenth- much of each substance is present). Physical chemistry is a specialty that proposes
century laboratory that theoretical and mathematical explanations for chemical behavior. Recently, environ-
attracted scientists from mental chemistry has become an important specialty that focuses on the safe dis-
around the world. posal of chemical waste. Green chemistry, also termed sustainable chemistry, refers
to the design of chemical products and processes that reduce or eliminate hazardous
substances.
Chemistry plays a meaningful role in medicine, especially in the dispensing of
pharmaceutical prescriptions. Chemists help ensure agricultural harvests by formu-
lating fertilizers and pesticides. Chemistry is indispensable to many industries includ-
ing the manufacture of automobiles, electronic components, aluminum, steel, paper,
and plastics. One of the largest industries is the petrochemical industry. Petrochemi-
cals are chemicals derived from petroleum and natural gas. They can be used to man-
ufacture a wide assortment of consumer products including paints, plastics, rubber,
textiles, dyes, and detergents.
In this text you will have example exercises that put learning into action. Each ex-
ample exercise poses a question and shows the solution. There is also a practice exercise
and a concept exercise to further your understanding. Example Exercise 1 illustrates a
question, practice exercise, and concept exercise.
Example Exercise 1 Introduction to Chemistry
What is the difference between ancient chemistry and modern chemistry?

Solution
The principal difference is that modern chemistry is founded on the scientific method.
Ancient chemistry was based on speculation, whereas modern chemistry is based on planned
experiments.
Practice Exercise
What question can we ask to distinguish a scientific theory from a natural law?
Answer: We can distinguish a theory from a law by asking the question, “Is the proposed
statement measurable?” If we take measurements and verify a relationship by a mathemati-
cal equation, the statement is a law; if not, it is a theory.
Concept Exercise
Alchemists believed in a magic potion that had what miraculous power?
Answer: See answers to Concept Exercises.

CHEMISTRY CONNECTION “Worth Your Salt?”
Q: What are the sources of ordinary table salt?

The uses for salt predate modern history. In the ancient world, (1) salt mining, (2) solution mining, and (3) solar evaporation
towns and settlements were near salt reservoirs, as salt is a of salt water. The United States and Canada have extensive
dietary necessity and a food preservative. Hippocrates, the deposits of salt, and the Great Salt Lake in Utah is so concen-
Greek founder of medicine, urged physicians to soak their trated and dense that humans easily float.
patients in salt water as treatment for various ailments. Be- (1) In salt mining, salt is obtained by drilling shafts deep
cause most natural salt is not suitable for consumption, pure into the earth. The salt is excavated using a “room and pillar”
salt was a rare and valuable commodity. So-called “salt roads” system of mining that offers support while the salt is removed.
were used by caravans of camels to transport salt long dis- After crushing, the salt is hauled to the surface on conveyor
tances in trade for gold and textiles. belts. (2) In solution mining, wells are placed over salt beds and
The familiar phrases “salt of the earth” and “worth your water is injected to dissolve the salt. The resulting salt solu-
salt” refer to people who are deserving of respect. The origin of tion is pumped to a nearby plant for evaporation. The brine is
“worth your salt” goes back to Roman times when soldiers were then evaporated to dryness and refined. (3) Salt can also be ob-
given rations of salt and other necessities. These rations were re- tained by the solar evaporation of seawater and salt lakes. The
ferred to as sal (Latin, meaning “salt”), and when soldiers were wind and sun evaporate the water in shallow pools, leaving
paid money, the stipend was called a salarium. Our modern term solid salt. The salt is collected when the crust reaches a certain
salary is derived from the phrase meaning “salt money.” thickness; the salt is then washed and allowed to recrystallize.
Salt is a necessity in the diet of humans and animals, but Table salt (99% sodium chloride) is necessary in the human
toxic to most plants. Table salt comes from three sources: diet; however, too much sodium has been linked to high blood
pressure that can lead to diabetes and heart prob-
lems. A teaspoon of salt contains approximately
2,400 mg of sodium. Surprisingly, most salt in the
human diet does not come from table salt, but from
processed foods, especially ketchup, pickles, snack
foods, and soy sauce. Table salt contains iodine in
the form of potassium iodide. Humans require io-
dine in small quantities for proper function of the
thyroid gland. The hormone thyroxine, which con-
tains iodine, is largely responsible for maintain-
ing our metabolic rate. The amount of iodine in
one teaspoon of iodized table salt is about 0.3 mg,
which is twice the minimum recommended daily
allowance (RDA).
◀ The Great Salt Lake was created in prehistoric times and

contains far more salt than seawater. Although it provides
habitat for brine shrimp and aquatic birds, it is called
“America’s Dead Sea.”
A: Table salt is obtained from mining rock salt, dissolving salt beds, and evaporating salt water.
CHEMISTRY CONNECTION A Student Success Story
Q: Which common inexpensive metal was more valuable than gold in the nineteenth century?
In 1885, Charles Martin Hall (1863–1914) was a 22-year-old most abundant metal in Earth’s crust, it is not found free in
student at Oberlin College in Ohio. One day his chemistry nature; it is usually found combined with oxygen in miner-
teacher told the class that anyone who could discover an in- als such as bauxite.
expensive way to produce aluminum metal would become After graduation, Charles Hall set up a laboratory in a
rich and benefit humanity. At the time, aluminum was a woodshed behind his father’s church in Oberlin, Ohio. Us-
rare and expensive metal. In fact, Napoleon III, a nephew of ing homemade batteries, he devised a simple method for
Napoleon Bonaparte, entertained his most honored guests producing aluminum by passing electricity through a molten
with utensils made from aluminum while other guests dined mixture of minerals. After only 8 months of experimenting,
with utensils of silver and gold. Although aluminum is the he invented a successful method for reducing an aluminum

mineral to aluminum metal. In February 1886, Charles Hall

walked into his former teacher’s office with a handful of me-
tallic aluminum globules.
Just as his chemistry teacher had predicted, within a
short period of time, Hall became rich and famous. In 1911,
he received the Perkin Medal for achievement in chemistry,
and in his will, he donated $5 million to Oberlin College. He
also helped to establish the Aluminum Company of America
(ALCOA), and the process for making aluminum metal gave
rise to a huge industry. Aluminum is now second only to steel
as a construction metal.
It is an interesting coincidence that the French chem-
ist Paul Héroult, without knowledge of Hall’s work, made
a similar discovery at the same time. Thus, the industrial
method for obtaining aluminum metal is referred to as the
Hall–Héroult process. In 1886, owing to the discovery of
this process, the price of aluminum plummeted from over
$100,000 a pound. Today, the price of aluminum is less than
$1 a pound.
▲ Aluminum Globules The notebook of Charles Hall

along with globules of aluminum.
A: Before 1885, aluminum was an extremely rare and expensive metal.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE 3 LEARNING CHEMISTRY

▸ To appreciate that
chemistry is interesting In a survey published by the American Chemical Society, entering college students
and relevant in our daily were asked to express their attitudes about science courses. The students rated chem-
lives. istry as the most relevant science course, and as highly relevant to their daily lives.
Unfortunately, 83% of the students thought chemistry is a difficult subject. In view of
the results of the student survey, perhaps we should take a moment to consider per-
ceptions in general, and attitudes about chemistry in particular.
You are probably familiar with the expression that some people see a glass of water
as half full, while others see the same glass as half empty. This expression implies that
different people can respond to the same experience with optimism or pessimism. More-
over, experimental psychologists have found that they can use abstract visual images to
discover underlying attitudes regarding a particular perception. A practical lesson involv-
ing two perceptions obtained from the same image is revealed by the following picture.

What do you see? Some students see a white vase on a dark background; oth-
ers see two dark profiles facing each other. After a short period of time, one image
switches to the other. If you concentrate, can you view only one of the images? Can
you choose to switch the images back and forth? This exercise is an example of our
brains registering dual perceptions from the same image.
Your experience of learning chemistry may be somewhat like the preceding exercise
that tests your perspective. Sometimes your perception may be that chemistry is chal-
lenging, whereas a short time later your attitude may be that chemistry is easy and fun.
Perception is often affected by unconscious assumptions. Let’s consider a type of
problem that is slightly different from the vase perception. In the following problem
try to connect each of the nine dots using only four straight, continuous lines.
We can begin to solve the problem by experimenting. For example, let’s start with
the upper-left dot and draw a line to the upper-right dot. We can continue to draw
straight lines as follows:
4 5 2
Notice that we connected the nine dots, but that it was necessary to use five
straight, continuous lines. If we start with a different dot, we find that five lines are re-
quired no matter where we start. Perhaps we are bringing an underlying assumption
to the nine-dot problem. That is, we may be unconsciously framing the nine dots, thus
limiting the length of the four straight lines.
What will happen if we start with the upper-left dot and draw a line through the
upper-right dot? If we continue, we can complete the problem with four straight, con-
tinuous lines as follows:
3 2
The “secret” to solving this nine-dot problem is to recognize that we may be un-
consciously confining our thinking and making it impossible to solve. Similarly, we

should not confine our concept of chemistry to a preconceived attitude that learning
chemistry will be difficult. Or better yet, we should choose positive associations for
our concept of chemistry.
relevance to
daily life
interesting fun
topics experiments
CHEMISTRY
career benefits to
opportunities society
biomedical
applications
Summary
LEARNING OBJECTIVES SEC EXERCISES
To describe the early practice of chemistry. 1 Exercises 1–4

To identify the three steps in the scientific method. 1 Exercises 5–12
To describe the modern practice of chemistry. 2 Exercises 13–16
To appreciate that chemistry is interesting and relevant in our daily lives. 3 Exercises 17–18
Section 1 This chapter traces the development of chemistry whereas a natural law states a relationship under different
from a historical point of view. Beginning in the period 600– experimental conditions and is often expressed as a math-
350 b.c., the early Greeks used reason and thoughtful mental ematical equation.
exercises to understand the laws of nature. Although they of-
ten arrived at conclusions based on speculation, they did un- Section 2 The pseudoscience of alchemy introduced the
veil some of nature’s secrets and had a profound influence on practice of laboratory experimentation and was the forerun-
Western civilization that lasted for 20 centuries. ner of modern chemistry. Today, chemistry is quite diverse
The term science implies a rigorous, systematic inves- and has several branches, including inorganic chemistry,
tigation of nature. Moreover, a scientist must accumulate organic chemistry, and biochemistry. The impact of chemis-
significant evidence before attempting to explain the re- try is felt in medicine and agriculture, as well as in the elec-
sults. In the seventeenth century, Robert Boyle founded the tronics, pharmaceutical, petrochemical, and other industries.
scientific method, and laboratory experimentation became
essential to an investigation. After an experiment, scien- Section 3 In this section we examined some dual percep-
tists use their observations to formulate an initial proposal, tions and pointed out that our brains have the ability to re-
which is called a hypothesis. However, a hypothesis must spond to the same image in two ways. Before beginning to
be tested repeatedly before it is accepted as valid. After a learn chemistry, most students have already made associa-
hypothesis has withstood extensive testing, it becomes ei- tions with the subject. It is hoped that you will be able to focus
ther a scientific theory or a natural law. A scientific the- on chemistry as being an interesting and relevant subject and
ory is an accepted explanation for the behavior of nature, put aside any preconceived limiting attitudes.
Key Terms See answers to Key Terms.
Select the key term that corresponds to each of the following definitions.
1. the methodical exploration of nature and the logical explanation of the observations (a) alchemy (Sec. 2)
2. a scientific procedure for gathering data and recording observations under (b) biochemistry (Sec. 2)
controlled conditions (c) chemistry (Sec. 2)

3. a systematic investigation that entails performing an experiment, proposing a (d) experiment (Sec. 1)
hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, and stating a theory or law (e) green chemistry
(Sec. 2)
4. a tentative proposal of a scientific principle that attempts to explain the meaning of
(f) hypothesis (Sec. 1)
a set of data collected in an experiment
(g) inorganic chemistry
5. an extensively tested proposal of a scientific principle that explains the behavior of (Sec. 2)
nature (h) natural law (Sec. 1)
6. an extensively tested proposal of a scientific principle that states a measurable (i) organic chemistry
relationship under different experimental conditions (Sec. 2)
7. a pseudoscience that attempted to convert a base metal, such as lead, to gold; a (j) science (Sec. 1)
medieval science that sought to discover a universal cure for disease and a magic (k) scientific method
potion for immortality (Sec. 1)
(l) theory (Sec. 1)
8. the branch of science that studies the composition and properties of matter
9. the study of chemical substances that contain the element carbon
10. the study of chemical substances that do not contain the element carbon
11. the study of chemical substances derived from plants and animals
12. the design of products and processes that reduce or eliminate hazardous chemical
substances
Exercises See answers to odd-numbered Exercises.
Evolution of Chemistry (Sec. 1)

1. According to the Greek philosopher Thales in 600 b.c., what Modern Chemistry (Sec. 2)
single element composed earth, air, and space?
13. Who is generally considered the founder of modern
2. According to ancient Chinese beliefs, what two forces were
chemistry?
responsible for bringing the earthly world into existence?
14. Why is chemistry considered the central science?
3. According to the Greek philosopher Aristotle in 350 b.c.,
what five basic elements composed everything in nature? 15. Name five industries in which chemistry plays an
important role.
4. According to the Greek philosopher Empedocles in 450 b.c,
what four basic elements composed everything in nature? 16. Name five professions that require a training in chemistry.
5. Who is considered the founder of the scientific method? Learning Chemistry (Sec. 3)
6. What is the first step in the scientific method?
17. It is possible to solve the nine-dot prob-
7. What is the second step in the scientific method?
lem with one straight, continuous line.
8. What is the third step in the scientific method? Solve the problem and identify the uncon-
9. What is the difference between a hypothesis and a theory? scious assumption.
10. What is the difference between a scientific theory and a
natural law? 18. It is possible to solve the nine-dot prob-
lem with three straight, continuous lines.
11. Which of the following statements is a scientific theory?
Solve the problem and identify the uncon-
(a) The energy in an atomic nucleus is found by E = mc 2.
scious assumption.
(b) There is the same number of molecules in equal volumes
of gases. Challenge Exercises
(c) If the temperature of a gas doubles, the pressure doubles.
(d) The region surrounding the nucleus of an atom contains 19. Stare at the image
electrons. at right and attempt
12. Which of the following statements is a natural law? to “flip” the stack of
(a) The total mass of reacting substances remains constant blocks upside down.
after reaction. (Hint: If you can-
(b) The total energy of two gas molecules remains constant not see the second
after colliding. perception, stare at
(c) The volumes of two gases combine in the ratio of small the point where the
whole numbers. three blocks come
(d) The nucleus of an atom contains protons and neutrons. together and men-
tally pull the point
toward you.)

20. Which of the line segments in the image below appears to A B C

be longer, AB or BC?
Online Exercises
Research each of the following using an Internet search engine (e.g., Google.com or Yahoo.com) and cite your URL reference.
21. Distinguish between the educational requirements for the BSN and AARN degrees.
22. List a few examples of the benefits of “green chemistry.”
Chapter Self-Test See answers to Self-Test.
1. What is the difference between a scientific theory and a 2. Petrochemicals are derived from which of the following
natural law? (Sec. 1) resources? (Sec. 2)
(a) a theory is a tentative proposal and a law is a tested (a) atmosphere (b) petroleum
proposal (c) seawater (d) trees
(b) a law is a tentative proposal and a theory is a tested (e) none of the above
proposal 3. In a survey by the American Chemical Society, what percent
(c) a theory explains behavior and a law states a of entering college students thought that chemistry is a
measurable relationship difficult subject? (Sec. 3)
(d) a law explains behavior and a theory states a (a) 1% (b) 10%
measurable relationship (c) 50% (d) 83%
(e) none of the above (e) 100%
Key Concept
4. Stare at the box until your first perception changes to a sec-
ond view. (Hint: If you cannot see the second perception,
stare at the red dot and mentally “push and pull” the dot.)
Critical Thinking
5. Chemists note the periodic table is arranged by the number 6. Biologists note Darwin’s principle of natural selection
of protons in an atom (that is, hydrogen (1), helium (“survival of the fittest”) and propose the biological evolu-
(2), lithium (3), etc.) and propose the chemical evolution of tion of species. Is biological evolution an example of a sci-
elements. Is chemical evolution an example of a scientific entific theory or a natural law?
theory or a natural law?

Answers
Concept Exercises
1. Alchemists believed in a magic potion that had the power 19. Stare at the point where the blocks intersect. “Flip” the
to heal and to transmute lead into gold. image to view the blocks stacking upward, or downward.
21. The BSN degree typically requires three years of nursing
Key Term Exercises school to earn a diploma and the AARN requires two years.
To apply to either program, it is necessary to complete pre-
1. j, 2. d, 3. k, 4. f, 5. l, 6. h, 7. a, 8. c, 9. i, 10. g, 11. b, 12. e
requisite chemistry and biology classes.
Odd-Numbered Exercises Self-Tests

1. water
1. (c); 2. (b); 3. (e)
3. air, earth, fire, water, and ether
Key Concepts
5. Robert Boyle
4. The image of a cube creates a dual perception. By mentally
7. Analyze the data and propose a tentative hypothesis. pulling the red dot, the front face of the cube appears to be
9. A hypothesis is an initial proposal that is tentative, whereas down and to the right. By mentally pushing the red dot, the
a theory is a proposal that has been tested extensively. front face of the cube appears to be up and to the left.
11. (b) and (d) Critical Thinking
13. Antoine Lavoisier 5. Chemical evolution is a scientific theory because it is not
15. agriculture, medicine, and the pharmaceutical, electron- measurable, and the relationship between elements is not
ics, paper, construction, transportation, and petrochemical expressed as a mathematical equation.
industries 6. Biological evolution is a scientific theory because it is not
17. A solution to the nine–dot problem with only one straight measurable, and the relationship between species is not ex-
line is to use a very wide line; the unconscious assumption pressed as a mathematical equation.
regards the thickness of the line.
Glossary
science The methodical exploration of nature and the logical experimental conditions. A natural law is often expressed as an
explanation of the observations. (Sec. 1) equation; for example, P1V1 = P2V2. (Sec. 1)
scientific method A systematic investigation that involves alchemy A pseudoscience that attempted to convert a base
performing an experiment, proposing a hypothesis, testing the metal, such as lead, into gold; a medieval science that sought
hypothesis, and finally, stating a theory or law that explains a to discover a universal cure for disease and a magic potion for
scientific principle. (Sec. 1) immortality. (Sec. 2)
experiment A scientific procedure for collecting data and chemistry The branch of science that studies the composition
recording observations under controlled conditions. (Sec. 1) and properties of matter. (Sec. 2)
hypothesis An initial, tentative proposal of a scientific prin- inorganic chemistry The study of chemical substances that do
ciple that attempts to explain the meaning of a set of data col- not contain the element carbon. (Sec. 2)
lected in an experiment. (Sec. 1) organic chemistry The study of chemical substances that
theory An extensively tested proposal of a scientific principle contain the element carbon. (Sec. 2) The study of carbon-
that explains the behavior of nature. A theory offers a model, for containing compounds. (Sec. 1)
example the atomic theory, to describe nature. (Sec. 1) biochemistry The study of chemical substances derived from
natural law An extensively tested proposal of a scientific plants and animals. (Sec. 2) The study of biological compounds.
principle that states a measurable relationship under different (Sec. 1)
Photo Credits
Dorling Kindersley Media Library (L); NASA (R) Gary J. Shulfer/C. Marvin Lang
Pumkinpie/Alamy Eric Broder Van Dyke/Shutterstock
Gary J. Shulfer/C. Marvin Lang Alcoa Technical Center

Prerequisite
Science Skills
1 Measurements
2 Significant Digits
3 Rounding Off
Nonsignificant
Digits
4 Adding and
Subtracting
Measurements
5 Multiplying
and Dividing
Measurements
6 Exponential
Numbers
7 Scientific Notation
Lithium in the Environment Lithium metal is very reactive and is not found naturally. The
main source of the element is rich deposits of lithium chloride in Bolivia. The metal is used
in lithium batteries; and lithium carbonate is prescribed for medical treatment of gout,
rheumatism, and bipolar disorder.
“I never notice what has been done. I only notice

what remains to be done.”
Marie Curie, Polish/French Physicist (1867–1934)
1 MEASUREMENTS
In chemistry, we express a measurement using the metric system. A unit of length is a
centimeter (cm), a unit of mass is a gram (g), and a unit of volume is a milliliter (mL).
Figure 1 shows metric estimates for length, mass, and volume.
Measurements require the use of an instrument. The exactness of the measure-
ment depends on the sensitivity of the instrument. For instance, an electronic balance
can measure mass to 0.001 g. However, an exact measurement is not possible because
no instrument measures exactly. An instrument may give a very sensitive reading, but
every measurement has a degree of inexactness termed uncertainty.
Length Measurements
To help you understand uncertainty, suppose we measure a metallic rectangular solid.
We have two metric rulers available that differ as shown in Figure 2. In this example
Ruler B provides a more exact measurement than Ruler A.
From Chapter PSS of Introductory Chemistry, Seventh Edition. Charles H. Corwin.
Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
PREREQUISITE SCIENCE SKILLS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
▸ To explain why Notice that Ruler A has ten 1-cm divisions. Because the divisions are large,
measurements are never we can imagine 10 subdivisions. Thus, we can estimate to one-tenth of a division,
exact. that is, {0.1 cm. On Ruler A, we see that the rectangular solid measures about
▸ To identify instruments 4.2 cm. Because the uncertainty is {0.1 cm, a reading of 4.1 cm or 4.3 cm is also
for taking measurements. acceptable.
Notice that Ruler B has ten 1-cm divisions and ten 0.1-cm subdivisions. On
Ruler B, the subdivisions are smaller. So, with Ruler B we can estimate to one-half of a
subdivision, that is, we can estimate to {0.05 cm. On Ruler B, we see that the rectan-
gular solid measures about 4.25 cm. Because the uncertainty is {0.05 cm, a reading of
4.20 cm or 4.30 cm is also acceptable.
We can compare the length of the rectangular solid measured with Rulers A and B
as follows:
Ruler A: 4.2 { 0.1 cm Ruler B: 4.25 { 0.05 cm
In summary, Ruler A has more uncertainty and gives less precise measurements.
Conversely, Ruler B has less uncertainty and gives more precise measurements. Ex-
ample Exercise 1 further illustrates the uncertainty in recorded measurements.
about 5 g
2 cm
20 drops
about 1 mL
▲ Figure 1 Estimates for Length, Mass, and Volume The diameter of a 5¢ coin is about 2
cm, and its mass is about 5 g. The volume of 20 drops from an eye dropper is about 1 mL.
Metallic rectangular solid
Ruler A 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 cm
Ruler B 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 cm
▲ Figure 2 Metric Rulers On Ruler A, each division is 1 cm. On Ruler B, each division is 1 cm
and each subdivision is 0.1 cm.

Example Exercise 1 Uncertainty in Measurement
Which measurements are consistent with the metric rulers shown in Figure 2?
(a) Ruler A: 2 cm, 2.0 cm, 2.05 cm, 2.5 cm, 2.50 cm
(b) Ruler B: 3.0 cm, 3.3 cm, 3.33 cm, 3.35 cm, 3.50 cm
Solution
Ruler A has an uncertainty of {0.1 cm, and Ruler B has an uncertainty of {0.05 cm. Thus,
(a) Ruler A can give the measurements 2.0 cm and 2.5 cm.
(b) Ruler B can give the measurements 3.35 cm and 3.50 cm.
Practice Exercise
Which measurements are consistent with the metric rulers shown in Figure 2?
(a) Ruler A: 1.5 cm, 1.50 cm, 1.55 cm, 1.6 cm, 2.00 cm
(b) Ruler B: 0.5 cm, 0.50 cm, 0.055 cm, 0.75 cm, 0.100 cm
Answers:
(a) 1.5 cm, 1.6 cm
(b) 0.50 cm, 0.75 cm
Concept Exercise
What high-tech instrument is capable of making an exact measurement?
Mass Measurements
The mass of an object is a measure of the amount of matter it contains. Although
the term weight is often used instead of mass, the two terms are different, as weight
is affected by gravity and mass is not. The weight of an astronaut on Earth may be
150 pounds, whereas in space the astronaut is weightless. The mass of the astronaut is
the same on Earth and in space.
The measurement of mass always has uncertainty and varies with the balance. A
typical balance in a laboratory may weigh a sample to 0.1 of a gram. Thus, the mass
has an uncertainty of {0.1 g. An electronic balance may weigh a sample to 0.001 of a
gram. Thus, its mass has an uncertainty of {0.001 g. Figure 3 shows three common
laboratory balances.
Volume Measurements
The amount of space occupied by a solid, gas, or liquid is its volume. Many pieces of
laboratory equipment are available for measuring the volume of a liquid. Three of the
most common are a graduated cylinder, a pipet, and a buret. Figure 4 shows common
laboratory equipment used for measuring volume.
A graduated cylinder is routinely used to measure a volume of liquid. The most
common sizes of graduated cylinders are 10 mL, 50 mL, and 100 mL. The uncertainty
of a graduated cylinder measurement varies, but usually ranges from 1/10 to 1/2 of a
milliliter ( {0.1 mL to {0.5 mL).
There are many types of pipets. The volumetric pipet shown in Figure 4 is used
to deliver a fixed volume of liquid. The liquid is drawn up until it reaches a cali-
bration line etched on the pipet. The tip of the pipet is then placed in a container,
and the liquid is allowed to drain from the pipet. The volume delivered varies, but
the uncertainty usually ranges from 1/10 to 1/100 of a milliliter. For instance, a
10-mL pipet can deliver 10.0 mL ({0.1 mL2 or 10.00 mL ( {0.01 mL2, depending on
the uncertainty of the instrument.
A buret is a long, narrow piece of calibrated glass tubing with a valve called a
“stopcock” near the tip. The flow of liquid is regulated by opening and closing the

(a)
(b) (c)
▲ Figure 3 Laboratory Balances (a) A balance having an uncertainty of {0.1 g.
(b) A balance having an uncertainty of {0.01 g. (c) An electronic balance having an
uncertainty of {0.001 g.
mL
0
1
2
3
4
45
46
47
48
49
50
Graduated Syringe Buret Pipet Volumetric

cylinder flask
▲ Figure 4 Laboratory Instruments for Volume A graduated cylinder, a syringe, and a buret
deliver a variable amount of liquid, whereas a volumetric pipet and a volumetric flask contain
fixed amounts of liquid, for example, 10 mL and 250 mL.

stopcock, and the initial and final liquid levels in the buret are observed and re-
corded. The volume delivered is found by subtracting the initial buret reading from
the final buret reading. Burets usually have uncertainties ranging from 1/10 to 1/100
of a milliliter. For instance, the liquid level in a buret can read 22.5 mL 1 {0.1 mL2 or
22.55 mL ({0.01 mL2, depending on the uncertainty of the instrument.
2 SIGNIFICANT DIGITS LEARNING OBJECTIVE
▸ To identify significant
In a recorded measurement, all numbers are significant digits, which can be referred digits in a measurement.
to as a “significant figures” or “sig. figs.” For instance, if we weigh a 5¢ nickel coin
on different balances, we may record the mass of the coin as 5.0 g, 5.00 g, or 5.000 g.
Although the uncertainty varies for the three balances, every digit is significant in all
three measurements. Removing the last digit changes the uncertainty of the measure-
ment. In this example, the measurements of mass have two, three, and four significant
digits, respectively.
In every measurement, the significant digits express the uncertainty of the instru-
ment. By way of example, refer to Figure 5, which shows a chemical reaction that
requires about 35 seconds (s).
◀ Figure 5 Significant Digits

and a Timed Reaction The
data demonstrates uncertainty
of three different stopwatches.
Although each of the measure-
ments is correct, Stopwatch
A has the most uncertainty,
and Stopwatch C has the least
uncertainty.
Colorless Solution Blue Solution

Stopwatch A: 0 s 35 s
Stopwatch B: 0.0 s 35.1 s
Stopwatch C: 0.00 s 35.08 s
To determine the number of significant digits in a measurement, we simply count

the number of digits from left to right, starting with the first nonzero digit. Therefore,
35 s has two significant digits, 35.1 s has three significant digits, and 35.08 s has four
significant digits. We can summarize the rules for determining the number of signifi-
cant digits with the following rules.
Determining Significant Digits

Rule 1: Count the number of digits in a measurement from left to right.
(a) Start with the first nonzero digit.
(b) Do not count placeholder zeros.
(0.11 g, 0.011 g, and 110 g each have two significant digits.)
Rule 2: The rules for significant digits apply only to measurements and not to
exact numbers. Exact numbers can be derived from the following:
(a) counting items, such as 6 test tubes.
(b) exact relationships, such as 1 meter = 100 centimeters.
(c) an equation such as 1 diameter = 2 radii.

Example Exercise 2 illustrates the number of significant digits in a measurement.
Example Exercise 2 Significant Digits
State the number of significant digits in the following measurements:

(a) 12,345 cm (b) 0.123 g
(c) 0.5 mL (d) 102.0 s
Solution
In each example, we simply count the number of digits. Thus,
(a) 5 (b) 3
(c) 1 (d) 4
Notice that the leading zero in (b) and (c) is not part of the measurement but is inserted to call
attention to the decimal point that follows.
Practice Exercise
(a) 2005 cm (b) 25.000 g
(c) 25.0 mL (d) 0.25 s
Answers:
(a) 4 (b) 5
(c) 3 (d) 2
Concept Exercise
What type of measurement is exact?
Significant Digits and Placeholder Zeros

A measurement may contain placeholder zeros to properly locate the decimal point,
for example, 500 cm and 0.005 cm. If the number is less than 1, a placeholder zero is
never significant. Thus, 0.5 cm, 0.05 cm, and 0.005 cm each contain only one signifi-
cant digit.
If the number is greater than 1, we will assume that placeholder zeros are not
significant. Thus, 50 cm, 500 cm, and 5000 cm each contain only one significant digit.
Example Exercise 3 illustrates how to determine the number of significant digits in a
measurement with placeholder zeros.
Example Exercise 3 Significant Digits

(a) 0.0025 cm (b) 0.2050 g
(c) 250 mL (d) 2500 s
Solution
In each example, we count the number of significant digits and disregard placeholder zeros.
Thus,
(a) 2 (b) 4
(c) 2 (d) 2
Practice Exercise
(a) 0.050 cm (b) 0.055 g
(c) 50.00 mL (d) 1000 s

Answers:
(a) 2 (b) 2
(c) 4 (d) 1
Concept Exercise
What type of measurement has infinite significant digits?
Note If a placeholder zero is significant, we can express the number using a power of 10. For
example, if one zero is significant in 100 cm, we can express the measurement as 1.0 * 102 cm. If
both zeros are significant, we can write 1.00 * 102 cm. If neither zero is significant, we can write
1 * 102 cm. The power of 10 does not affect the number of significant digits; thus, 1.1 * 105 cm
has two significant digits, and 1.11 * 10 - 5 cm has three significant digits.
Significant Digits and Exact Numbers ▲ Exact Numbers We count

seven coins in the photo,
All measurements have uncertainty, so a measurement is never an exact number. which is an exact number. This
However, we can obtain exact numbers when counting items. For instance, a chemis not a measurement; thus, the
istry laboratory may have 24 pipets. Because we have simply counted items, 24 is an concept of significant digits
exact number. Significant digits do not apply to exact numbers, only to measurements. does not apply.
3 ROUNDING OFF NONSIGNIFICANT DIGITS LEARNING OBJECTIVE
▸ To round off
All digits in a correctly recorded measurement, except placeholder zeros, are significant. nonsignificant digits
However, we often generate nonsignificant digits when using a calculator. These non- from a calculation.
significant digits should not be reported, but they frequently appear in the calculator
display and must be eliminated. We eliminate nonsignificant digits through a process of
rounding off. We round off nonsignificant digits by following three simple rules.
Rounding Off Nonsignificant Digits

Rule 1: If the first nonsignificant digit is less than 5, drop all nonsignificant digits.
Rule 2: If the first nonsignificant digit is greater than 5, or equal to 5, increase the
last significant digit by 1 and drop all nonsignificant digits.*
Rule 3: If a calculation has several multiplication or division operations, retain
nonsignificant digits in your calculator display until the last operation.
Not only is it more convenient, it is also more accurate.
*If the nonsignificant digit is 5, or 5 followed by zeros, an odd–even rule can be
applied. That is, if the last significant digit is odd, round up; if it is even, drop the
nonsignificant digits.
If a calculator displays 12.846239 and three significant digits are justified, we must
round off. Because the first nonsignificant digit is 4 in 12.846239, we follow Rule 1,
drop the nonsignificant digits, and round to 12.8. If a calculator displays 12.856239
and three significant digits are justified, we follow Rule 2. In this case, the first nonsig-
nificant digit is 5 in 12.856239, so we round to 12.9.
Rounding Off and Placeholder Zeros

On occasion, rounding off can create a problem. For example, if we round off 151 to
two significant digits, we obtain 15. Because 15 is only a fraction of the original value, ▲ Scientific Calculator A
we must insert a placeholder zero; thus, rounding off 151 to two significant digits calculator display often shows
gives 150. Similarly, rounding off 1514 to two significant digits gives 1500 or 1.5 * 103. nonsignificant digits, which
Example Exercise 4 further illustrates how to round off numbers. must be rounded off.

Example Exercise 4 Rounding Off
Round off the following numbers to three significant digits:

(a) 22.250 (b) 0.34548 (c) 0.072038 (d) 12,267
Solution
To locate the first nonsignificant digit, count three digits from left to right. If the first nonsig-
nificant digit is less than 5, drop all nonsignificant digits. If the first nonsignificant digit is 5
or greater, add 1 to the last significant digit.
(a) 22.3 (Rule 2) (b) 0.345 (Rule 1) (c) 0.0720 (Rule 1) (d) 12,300 (Rule 2)
In (d), notice that two placeholder zeros must be added to 123 to obtain the correct decimal
place.
Practice Exercise
Round off the following numbers to three significant digits:
(a) 12.514748 (b) 0.6015261 (c) 192.49032 (d) 14652.832
Answers:
(a) 12.5 (Rule 1) (b) 0.602 (Rule 2) (c) 192 (Rule 1) (d) 14,700 (Rule 2)
Concept Exercise
How many significant digits are in the exact number 155?
4 ADDING AND SUBTRACTING

LEARNING OBJECTIVE MEASUREMENTS
▸ To add and subtract
measurements correctly. When adding or subtracting measurements, the answer is limited by the value with the
most uncertainty; that is, the answer is limited by the decimal place. Note the decimal
place in the following examples:
5 g
5.0 g
+ 5.00 g
15.00 g
The mass of 5 g has the most uncertainty because it measures only {1 g. Thus, the
sum should be limited to the nearest gram. If we round off the answer to the proper
significant digit, the correct answer is 15 g. In addition and subtraction, the unit (cm,
g, mL) in the answer is the same as the unit in each piece of data. Example Exercise 5
illustrates the addition and subtraction of measurements.
5 MULTIPLYING AND DIVIDING

LEARNING OBJECTIVE MEASUREMENTS
▸ To multiply and divide
measurements correctly. Significant digits are treated differently in multiplication and division than in addition
and subtraction. In multiplication and division, the answer is limited by the measurement
with the least number of significant digits. Let’s multiply the following length measurements:
5.15 cm * 2.3 cm = 11.845 cm2
The measurement of 5.15 cm has three significant digits, and 2.3 cm has two. Thus,
the product should be limited to two digits. When we round off to the proper number
of significant digits, the correct answer is 12 cm2. Notice that the units must also be
multiplied together, which we have indicated by the superscript 2. Example Exercise 6
illustrates the multiplication and division of measurements.

Example Exercise 5 Addition/Subtraction and Rounding Off
Add or subtract the following measurements and round off your answer:
(a) 106.7 g + 0.25 g + 0.195 g (b) 35.45 mL - 30.5 mL
Solution
In addition or subtraction operations, the answer is limited by the measurement with the
most uncertainty.
(a) Let’s align the decimal places and perform the addition.
106.7 g
0.25 g
+ 0.195 g
107.145 g
Because 106.7 g has the most uncertainty ( {0.1 g2, the answer rounds off to one decimal
place. The correct answer is 107.1 g and is read “one hundred and seven point one
grams.”
(b) Let’s align the decimal places and perform the subtraction.
35.45 mL
-30.5 mL
4.95 mL
Because 30.5 mL has the most uncertainty ( {0.1 mL 2, we round off to one decimal place.
The answer is 5.0 mL and is read “five point zero milliliters.”
Practice Exercise
Add or subtract the following measurements and round off your answer:
(a) 8.6 cm + 50.05 cm (b) 34.1 s - 0.55 s
Answers:
(a) 58.7 cm (b) 33.6 s
Concept Exercise
When adding or subtracting measurements, which measurement in a set of data limits the answer?
Example Exercise 6 Multiplication/Division and Rounding Off
Multiply or divide the following measurements and round off your answer:
(a) 50.5 cm * 12 cm (b) 103.37 g/20.5 mL
Solution
In multiplication and division operations, the answer is limited by the measurement with the
least number of significant digits.
(a) In this example, 50.5 cm has three significant digits and 12 cm has two.
150.5 cm 2 112 cm 2 = 606 cm2
The answer is limited to two significant digits and rounds off to 610 cm2 after inserting a
placeholder zero. The answer is read “six hundred ten square centimeters.”
(b) In this example, 103.37 g has five significant digits and 20.5 mL has three.
103.37 g
= 5.0424 g/mL
20.5 mL
The answer is limited to three significant digits and rounds off to 5.04 g/mL. Notice that
the unit is a ratio; the answer is read as “five point zero four grams per milliliter.”
Practice Exercise
Multiply or divide the following measurements and round off your answer.
(a) (359 cm) (0.20 cm) (b) 73.950 g/25.5 mL

Answers:
(a) 72 cm2 (b) 2.90 g/mL
Concept Exercise
When multiplying or dividing measurements, which measurement in a set of data limits the
answer?
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 6 EXPONENTIAL NUMBERS

▸ To express an ordinary
number as a power of 10. When a value is multiplied times itself, the process is indicated by a number written
as a superscript. The superscript indicates the number of times the process is repeated.
▸ To express a power of 10
For example, if the number 2 is multiplied two times, the product is expressed as 22.
as an ordinary number.
Thus, (2) (22 = 22. If the number 2 is multiplied three times, the product is expressed
as 23. Thus, (2) (2) (22 = 23.
A superscript number indicating that a value is multiplied times itself is called an
exponent. If 2 has the exponent 2, the value 22 is read as “2 to the second power” or
“2 squared.” The value 23 is read as “2 to the third power” or “2 cubed.”
Powers of 10
A power of 10 is a number that results when 10 is raised to an exponential power.
You know that an exponent raises any number to a higher power, but we are most
interested in the base number 10. A power of 10 has the general form
exponent
10n
base number
The number 10 raised to the n power is equal to 10 multiplied times itself n times.
For instance, 10 to the second power (102 2 is equal to 10 times 10. When we write 102 as
an ordinary number, we have 100. Notice that the exponent 2 corresponds to the num-
ber of zeros in 100. Similarly, 103 has three zeros (1000) and 106 has six zeros (1,000,000).
The exponent is positive for all numbers greater than 1. Conversely, the exponent
is negative for numbers less than 1. For example, 10 to the negative first power (10 - 1 2
is equal to 0.1, 10 to the negative second power (10 - 2 2 is equal to 0.01, and 10 to the
negative third power (10 - 3 2 is equal to 0.001. Table 1 lists some powers of 10, along
with the equivalent ordinary number.
TABLE 1 POWERS OF 10
EXPONENTIAL ORDINARY
NUMBER NUMBER
1 × 106 = 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 1,000,000
1 × 103 = 10 × 10 × 10 1000
1 × 102 = 10 × 10 100
1 × 101 = 10 10
1 × 100 =1 1
1
1 × 10-1 = 10 0.1
1 1
1 × 10-2 = 10 × 10 0.01
1 1 1
1 × 10-3 = 10 × 10 × 10 0.001
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 × 10-6 = 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 0.000 001

Although you can easily carry out operations with exponents using an inexpen-
sive scientific calculator, you will have greater confidence if you understand expo-
nents. Example Exercises 7 and 8 illustrate the relationship between ordinary numbers
and exponential numbers.
Example Exercise 7 Converting to Powers of 10
Express each of the following ordinary numbers as a power of 10:

(a) 100,000 (b) 0.000 000 01
Solution
The power of 10 indicates the number of places the decimal point has been moved.
(a) We must move the decimal five places to the left; thus,
1 * 105.
(b) We must move the decimal eight places to the right; thus,
1 * 10 - 8.
Practice Exercise
Express each of the following ordinary numbers as a power
of 10:
(a) 10,000,000 (b) 0.000 000 000 001
Answers:
(a) 1 * 107
(b) 1 * 10 - 12
Concept Exercise ▲ Earth A positive power
Which of the following lengths is less: 1 * 103 cm or of 10 can be used to
1 * 10 - 3 cm? express very large
numbers; for example, the
Answer: See answers to Concept Exercises. diameter of Earth is about
1 * 107 meters.
Example Exercise 8 Converting to Ordinary Numbers
Express each of the following powers of 10 as an ordinary number:

(a) 1 * 104 (b) 1 * 10 - 9
Solution
The power of 10 indicates the number of places the decimal point has been moved.
(a) The exponent in 1 * 104 is positive 4, and so we must move the decimal point four places
to the right of 1, thus, 10,000.
(b) The exponent in 1 * 10 - 9 is negative 9, and so we must
move the decimal point nine places to the left of 1, thus,
0.000 000 001.
Practice Exercise
Express each of the following powers of 10 as an ordinary
number:
(a) 1 * 1010 (b) 1 * 10 - 5
Answers:
▲ Red Blood Cells
(a) 10,000,000,000 (b) 0.000 01 A negative power of 10 can
Concept Exercise be used to express very small
Which of the following masses is less: 0.000 001 g or 0.000 01 g? numbers; for example, the
diameter of a red blood cell
Answer: See answers to Concept Exercises. is about 1 * 10 - 6 meter.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 7 SCIENTIFIC NOTATION

▸ To express an ordinary
number in scientific Science often deals with numbers that are very large or very small. These numbers
notation. may be awkward and incomprehensible when written with many zeros. The mass
of an iron atom, for example, is 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 093 g. To overcome this
▸ To express scientific
notation as an ordinary problem, a standard notation has been devised that places the decimal after the first
number. significant digit and sets the size of the number using a power of 10; this method is
called scientific notation. The scientific notation format is
power of 10
D . D D × 10n
significant digits
To use scientific notation, write down the significant digits (D) in the number.
Then, move the decimal point to follow the first nonzero digit. Indicate the number of
places the decimal is moved using power-of-10 notation. For instance, you can write
555,000 in scientific notation by first moving the decimal five places to the left to give
5.55 and then adding the appropriate power of 10, which is 105. Thus, you can express
555,000 in scientific notation as 5.55 * 105.
You can also express numbers smaller than 1 in scientific notation. For example,
you can write 0.000 888 in scientific notation by first moving the decimal four places
to the right to give 8.88 and then adding the appropriate power of 10, which is 10 - 4.
Thus, 0.000 888 is expressed in scientific notation as 8.88 * 10 - 4.
Regardless of the size of the number, in scientific notation the decimal point is al-
ways placed after the first nonzero digit. The size of the number is indicated by a power
of 10. A positive exponent indicates a very large number, whereas a negative exponent
indicates a very small number. To express a number in scientific notation, follow these
two steps.
Applying Scientific Notation

Step 1: Place the decimal point after the first nonzero digit in the number,
followed by the remaining significant digits.
Step 2: Indicate how many places the decimal is moved by the power of 10. When
the decimal is moved to the left, the power of 10 is positive. When the
decimal is moved to the right, the power of 10 is negative.
Example Exercise 9 illustrates the conversion between ordinary numbers and ex-
ponential numbers.
Example Exercise 9 Scientific Notation
Express each of the following values in scientific notation:

(a) There are 26,800,000,000,000,000,000,000 helium atoms in a 1-liter balloon filled with he-
lium gas.
(b) The mass of one helium atom is 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 006 65 g.
Solution
We can write each value in scientific notation as follows:
(a) Place the decimal after the 2, followed by the other significant digits (2.68). Next, count
the number of places the decimal has moved. The decimal is moved to the left 22 places,
so the exponent is +22. Finally, we have the number of helium atoms in 1.00 L of gas:
2.68 * 1022 atoms.
(b) Place the decimal after the 6, followed by the other significant digits (6.65). Next, count
the number of places the decimal has shifted. The decimal has shifted 24 places to the
right, so the exponent is - 24. Finally, we have the mass of a helium atom: 6.65 * 10 - 24 g.
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boys asked for a Mannen dagh in which to repay the girls’ stinging
lashes. I hazard a “wide solution,” as Sir Thomas Browne says, that
this custom is a commemorative survival of an event in the life of
Saint Valentine, one of the two traditions which are all we know of his
life, that about the year 270 he was “first beaten with heavy clubs
and then beheaded.”
The English brought a political holiday to New York. In the code of
laws given to the province in 1665, and known as “The Duke’s
Laws,” each minister throughout the province was ordered to preach
a sermon on November 5, to commemorate the English deliverance
from Guy Fawkes and the Gunpowder Plot in 1605.
From an early entry in the “New York Gazette” of November 7,
1737, we learn how it was celebrated that year, and find that
illuminations, as in England, formed part of the day’s remembrance.
Bonfires, fantastic processions, and “burning a Guy” formed, in fact,
the chief English modes of celebration.
“Saturday last, being the fifth of November, it was observed
here in Memory of that horrid and Treasonable Popish Gun-
Powder Plot to blow up and destroy King, Lords and
Commons, and the Gentlemen of his Majesty’s Council; the
Assembly and Corporation and other the principal Gentlemen
and Merchants of this City waited upon his Honor the
Lieutenant-Governor at Fort George, where the Royal Healths
were drunk, as usual, under the discharge of the Cannon, and
at the Night the city was illuminated.”
All through the English provinces bonfires were burned, effigies
were carried in procession, mummers and masqueraders thronged
the streets and invaded the houses singing Pope Day rhymes, and
volleys of guns were fired. In some New England towns the boys still
have bonfires on November 5th.
In the year 1765 the growing feeling with regard to the Stamp Act
chancing to come to a climax in the late autumn, produced in New
York a very riotous observance of Pope’s Day. The demonstrations
really began on November 1st, which was termed “The Last Day of
Liberty.” In the evening a mob gathered, “designing to execute some
foolish ceremony of burying Liberty,” but it dispersed with noise and
a few broken windows. The next night a formidable mob gathered,
“carrying candles and torches in their hands, and now and then firing
a pistol at the Effigy which was carried in a Chair.” Then the effigy
was set in the Governor’s chariot, which was taken out of the Fort.
They made a gallows and hung on it an effigy of the Governor and
one of the Devil, and carried it to the Fort, over which insult soldiers
and officers were wonderfully patient. Finally, gallows, chariot and
effigies were all burnt in the Bowling Green. The mob then
ransacked Major James’s house, eating, drinking, destroying, till
£1500 of damage was done. The next day it was announced that the
delivery and destruction of the stamps would be demanded. In the
evening the mob started out again, with candles and a barber’s block
dressed in rags. The rioters finally dispersed at the entreaties of
many good citizens,—among them Robert R. Livingstone, who wrote
the letter from which this account is taken. In 1774, November 5th
was still a legal holiday.
There still exists in New York a feeble and divided survival of the
processions and bonfires of Guy Fawkes Day. The police-prohibited
bonfires of barrels on election night, and the bedraggled parade of
begging boys on Thanksgiving Day are our reminders to-day of this
old English holiday.
There was one old-time holiday beloved of New Yorkers whose
name is now almost forgotten,—Pinkster Day. This name was
derived from the Dutch word for Pentecost, and must have been
used at a very early date; for in a Dutch book of sermons, written by
Adrian Fischer, and printed in 1667, the title of one sermon reads:
Het Eersts Tractact; Van de Uystortnge des Yeyligen Geests over de
Apostelen op ben Pinckster Dagh,—a sermon upon the story of the
Descent of the Holy Ghost on the Apostles on Pinkster Day.
The Jewish feast of Pentecost was observed on the fiftieth day
after the celebration of the Passover, and is the same as the
Christian holy-day Whitsunday, which is connected with its Jewish
predecessor historically (as is so beautifully told in the second
chapter of Acts), and intrinsically through its religious signification.
The week following Whitsunday has been observed with great honor
and rejoicing in many lands, but in none more curiously, more
riotously, than in old New York, and to some extent in Pennsylvania
and Maryland; and, more strangely still, that observance was chiefly
by an alien, a heathen race,—the negroes. It was one of our few
distinctively American folk-customs, and its story has been told by
many writers of that day, and should not now be forgotten. Nowhere
was it a more glorious festival than at Albany, among the sheltered,
the cherished slave population in that town and its vicinity. The
celebration was held on Capitol Hill, then universally known as
Pinkster Hill. Munsell gives this account of the day:—
“Pinkster was a great day, a gala day, or rather week, for
they used to keep it up a week among the darkies. The
dances were the original Congo dances as danced in their
native Africa. They had a chief,—Old King Charley. The old
settlers said Charley was a prince in his own country, and was
supposed to have been one hundred and twenty-five years
old at the time of his death. On these festivals old Charley
was dressed in a strange and fantastical costume; he was
nearly barelegged, wore a red military coat trimmed profusely
with variegated ribbons, and a small black hat with a pompon
stuck on one side. The dances and antics of the darkies must
have afforded great amusement for the ancient burghers. As
a general thing, the music consisted of a sort of drum, or
instrument constructed out of a box with sheepskin heads,
upon which old Charley did most of the beating, accompanied
by singing some queer African air. Charley generally led off
the dance, when the Sambos and Phillises, juvenile and
antiquated, would put in the double-shuffle heel-and-toe
break-down. These festivals seldom failed to attract large
crowds from the city, as well as from the rural districts.”
Dr. Eights, of Albany, wrote still further reminiscences of the day.
He said that, strangely enough, though all the booths and sports
opened on Monday, white curiosity-seekers were, on that first day,
the chief visitors to Pinkster Hill. On Tuesday the blacks all
appeared, and the consumption of gingerbread, cider, and applejack
began. Adam Blake, a truly elegant creature, the body-servant of the
old patroon Van Rensselaer, was master of the ceremonies. Charley,
the King, was a “Guinea man” from Angola,—and I have noted the
fact that nearly all African-born negroes who became leaders in this
country, or men of marked note in any way, have been Guinea men.
He wore portions of the costume of a British general, and had the
power of an autocrat,—his will was law. Dr. Eights says the Pinkster
musical instruments were eel-pots covered with dressed sheepskin,
on which the negroes pounded with their bare hands, as do all
savage nations on their tom-toms. Their song had an African refrain,
“Hi-a-bomba-bomba-bomba.” Other authorities state that the dance
was called the “Toto Dance,” and partook so largely of savage
license that at last the white visitors shunned being present during its
performance.
These Pinkster holidays became such bacchanalian revels in
other ways that in 1811 the Common Council of Albany prohibited
the erection of booths and all dancing, gaming, and drinking at that
time; and when the negroes could not dance nor drink, it was but a
sorry holiday, and quickly fell into desuetude.
Executions were held on Pinkster Hill, and other public
punishments took place there.
In the realm of fiction we find evidence of the glories of Pinkster
Day in New York. Cooper, in his “Satanstoe,” tells of its observance
in New York City. He calls it the saturnalia of the blacks, and says
that they met on what we now know as City Hall Park, and that the
negroes came for thirty or forty miles around to join in the festivities.
On Long Island Pinkster Day was widely observed. The blacks
went, on the week previous to the celebration, to Brooklyn and New
York to sell sassafras and swingling-tow, to earn their scanty
spending-money for Pinkster. They were everywhere freely given
their time for rioting, and domestic labor was performed by the
masters and mistresses; but they had to provide their own spending-
money for gingerbread and rum. They gathered around the old
market in Brooklyn near the ferry, dancing for eels, blowing fish-
horns, eating and drinking. The following morning the judge’s office
was full of sorry blacks, hauled up for “disorderly conduct.”
On Long Island the Dutch residents also made the day a festival,
“going to pinkster fields for pinkster frolics,” exchanging visits, and
drinking schnapps, and eating “soft-wafels” together. About twelve
years ago, while driving through Flatlands and New Lots one
beautiful day in May, I met a group of young men driving from door to
door of the farm-houses, in wagons gayly dressed with branches of
dogwood blossoms, and entering each house for a short visit. I
asked whether a wedding or a festival were being held in the town,
and was answered that it was an old Dutch custom to make visits
that week. I tried to learn whence this observance came, but no one
knew its reason for being, or what holiday was observed. Poor
Pinkster! still vaguely honored as a shadow, a ghost of the past, but
with your very name forgotten, even among the children of those
who gave to you in this land a name and happy celebration!
Various wild flowers were known as Pinkster flowers. The beautiful
azalea that once bloomed—indeed does still bloom—so plentifully
throughout New York in May, was universally known as “pinkster
flower” or “pinkster bloom,” and along the banks of the Hudson till
our own day was called “pinkster blummachee.” The traveller Kalm
noted it in 1740, and called it by that name. Mrs. Vanderbilt calls it
“pinkster bloomitze.” I was somewhat surprised to hear a Rhode
Island farmer, in the summer of 1893, ask me whether he should not
pick me “some pinkster blossoms,” pointing at the same time to the
beautiful swamp pink that flushed with rosy glow the tangles of vines
and bushes on the edge of the Narragansett woods. It is interesting
to know that by many authorities the name “pink,” of our common
garden flower, is held to be derived from the Dutch Pinkster, German
Pfingsten, and owes its name, not to its pink color, but to the season
of its blooming. In other localities in New York and New Jersey the
blue flag or iris was known as “pinkster bloom.”
Throughout New England the black residents, free and in
bondage, held high holiday one day in May, or in some localities
during the first week in June; but the day of revelry was everywhere
called “Nigger ’Lection.” In Puritandom the observance of
Whitsunday was believed to have “superstition writ on its forehead;”
but Election Day was a popular and properly Puritanical May holiday;
therefore the negro holiday took a similar name, and the “Black
Governor” was elected on the week following the election of the
white Governor, usually on Saturday.
There was some celebration of days of thanksgiving in New
Netherland as in Holland; they were known by a peculiar double
name, fast-prayer and thank-day. These days did not develop among
the Dutch in the new world into the position of importance they held
among English colonists. In 1644 the first public Thanksgiving Day
whose record has come down to us was proclaimed in gratitude for
the safe return of the Dutch warriors after a battle with the
Connecticut Indians on Strickland’s Plains near Stamford. A second
Thanksgiving service was announced for the 6th of September,
1645, whereon God was to be “specially thanked, praised, and
blessed for suffering” the long-wished-for peace with the Indians.
This service was held on Wednesday, which was usually the chosen
day of the week. In 1654, at a Thanksgiving ordered on account of
the peace established between England and the Netherlands,
services were to be held in the morning; the citizens were to be
permitted “to indulge in all moderate festivities and rejoicings as the
event recommends and their Situation Shall permit.” That these
festivities were not always decorous is shown by the fining and
punishment of some young lads for drunkenness on one
Thanksgiving Day.
Various were the causes of the commemorative services: peace
between Spain and the Fatherland; the prosperity of the province, its
peace, increased people, and trade; a harvest of self-sown grain (the
fields having been deserted for fear of Indians). In 1664 Domine
Brown, of Wyltwyck, asked for an established annual Thanksgiving;
but there are no records to show that this desire was carried out,
though from 1690 to 1710 they were held almost every year.
CHAPTER XI
AMUSEMENTS AND SPORTS
Daniel Denton, one of the original settlers of Jamaica, Long Island,

wrote “A briefe Description of New York” in 1670. When he speaks of
the “fruits natural to the island” of Long Island, he ends his account
thus:—
“Such abundance of strawberries is in June that the fields
and woods are dyed red; which the country people perceiving,
instantly arm themselves with bottles of wine, cream, and
sugar, and instead of a coat of Mail every one takes a Female
upon his Horse behind him, and so rushing violently into the
fields, never leave till they have disrobed them of their red
colors and turned them into the old habit.”
“Rushing violently into the fields” seems to have been the normal
condition of all the colonists as soon as the tardy American “spring
came slowly up the way.” On every hand they turned eagerly to
open-air outings. Houses chafed them; gipsy-like were they in their
love of fresh air and the country wilds.
In New York were the bouweries close at hand; and Nutten Island
(now Governor’s Island), “by ye making of a garden and planting
severall walks of fruit trees in it,” made a pretty outing-spot. Mrs.
Grant wrote at length of the Albany youth and their love of out-of-
door excursions:—
“In spring, eight or ten of the young people of one company,
or related to each other, young men and maidens, would set
out together in a canoe on a kind of rural excursion, of which
amusement was the object. Yet so fixed were their habits of
industry that they never failed to carry their work-baskets with
them, not as a form, but as an ingredient necessarily mixed
with their pleasures. They had no attendants, and steered a
devious course of four, five, or perhaps more miles, till they
arrived at some of the beautiful islands with which this fine
river abounded, or at some sequestered spot on its banks,
where delicious wild fruits, or particular conveniences for
fishing, afforded some attraction. There they generally arrived
by nine or ten o’clock, having set out in the cool and early
hour of sunrise.... A basket with tea, sugar, and the other
usual provisions for breakfast, with the apparatus for cooking
it; a little rum and fruit for making cool weak punch, the usual
beverage in the middle of the day, and now and then some
cold pastry, was the sole provision; for the great affair was to
depend on the sole exertions of the boys in procuring fish,
wild ducks, &c., for their dinner. They were all, like Indians,
ready and dexterous with the axe, gun, &c. Whenever they
arrived at their destination, they sought out a dry and beautiful
spot opposite to the river, and in an instant with their axes
cleared so much superfluous shade or shrubbery as left a
semicircular opening, above which they bent and twined the
boughs, so as to form a pleasant bower, while the girls
gathered dried branches, to which one of the youths soon set
fire with gunpowder, and the breakfast, a very regular and
cheerful one, occupied an hour or two. The young men then
set out to fish, or perhaps to shoot birds, and the maidens sat
busily down to their work. After the sultry hours had been thus
employed, the boys brought their tribute from the river or the
wood, and found a rural meal prepared by their fair
companions, among whom were generally their sisters and
the chosen of their hearts. After dinner they all set out
together to gather wild strawberries, or whatever other fruit
was in season; for it was accounted a reflection to come
home empty-handed. When wearied of this amusement, they
either drank tea in their bower, or, returning, landed at some
friend’s on the way, to partake of that refreshment.”
Suburban taverns were much resorted to at a little later date by all
town-folk, and “ladies and gentlemen were entertained in the
genteelest manner.” New Yorkers specially liked the fish-dinners
furnished at an inn perched on Brooklyn Heights; and twice a week
they could drive to a turtle-feast at a beloved retreat on the East
River, always taking much care to return over the Kissing Bridge,
where, says with approval a reverend gentleman, a traveller of ante-
Revolutionary days, “it is part of the etiquette to salute the lady who
has put herself under your protection.” More idyllic still was the
rowing across the river to Brooklyn, to the noble tulip-tree near the
ferry, with its great spreading shadowy branches, so cool in summer
suns, and glorious with tropical blooms, and hospitable with a vast
shining hollow trunk which would hold six or eight happy summer
revellers within the sheltering walls. Would I could sing The Tulip-
Tree as Cowper did The Sofa; with its happy summer groups, its
beauty, its pathetic end, and the simple joys it sheltered,—as extinct
as the species to which the tree itself belongs!
Occasional glimpses of pretty country hospitality in country homes
are afforded through old-time letters. One of the Rutherfurd letters
reads:—
“We were very elegantly entertained at the Clarks’, and
everything of their own production. By way of amusement
after dinner we all went into the garden to pick roses. We
gathered a large basket full, and prepared them for distilling.
As I had never seen Rose-water made, Mrs. Clark got her still
and set it going, and made several bottles while we were
there. They were extremely civil, and begged us whenever we
rode that way in the evening to stop and take a syllabub with
them.”
This certainly presents a very dainty scene; the sweet June rose-
garden, the delicate housewifery, the drinking of syllabubs make it
seem more French than plain New York Dutch in tone and color.
The Dutch were no haters of games as were the Puritans; games
were known and played even in the time of the first settlers. Steven
Janse had a tick-tack bort at Fort Orange. Tick-tack was a
complicated kind of backgammon, played with both men and pegs.
“The Compleat Gamester” says tick-tack is so called from touch and
take, for if you touch a man you must play him though to your loss.
“Tick-tacking” was prohibited during time of divine service in New
Amsterdam in 1656. Another Dutch tapster had a trock-table, which
Florio says was “a kind of game used in England with casting little
bowles at a boord with thirteen holes in it.” A trock-table was a table
much like a pool table, on which an ivory ball was struck under a
wire wicket by a cue. Trock was also played on the grass,—a
seventeenth-century modification of croquet. Of bowling we hear
plenty of talk; it was universally played, from clergy down to negro
slaves, and a famous street in New York, the Bowling Green,
perpetuates its popularity. The English brought card-playing and
gaming, to which the Dutch never abandoned themselves.
By the middle of the eighteenth century we find more amusements
and a gayer life. The first regularly banded company of comedians
which played in New York strayed thence from Philadelphia in
March, 1750, where they had been bound over to good behavior,
and where their departure had given much joy to a disgusted Quaker
community. It was called Murray and Kean’s company, and sprung
up in Philadelphia like a toadstool in a night, from whence or how no
one knows. The comedians announced their “sitting down” in New
York for the season. They opened with King Richard III., “written by
Shakespeare and improved by Colley Cibber.” They also played
“The Beau in the Sudds,” “The Spanish Fryer,” “The Orphan,” “The
Beau’s Stratagem,” “The Constant Couple,” “The Lying Valet,” “The
Twin Rivals,” “Colin and Phœbe,” “Love for Love,” “The Stagecoach,”
“The Recruiting Officer,” “Cato,” “Amphitryon,” “Sir Harry Wildair,”
“George Barnwell,” “Bold Stroke for a Wife,” “Beggar’s Opera,” “The
Mock Doctor,” “The Devil to Pay,” “The Fair Penitent,” “The Virgin
Unmasked,” “Miss in her Teens,” and a variety of pantomimes and
farces. This was really a very good series of bills, but the actors were
a sorry lot. One was a redemptioner, Mrs. Davis, and she had a
benefit to help to buy her freedom; another desired a benefit, as he
was “just out of prison.” They were in town ten months, and seem to
have been on very friendly terms with the public, borrowing single
copies of plays to study from, having constant benefits, ending with
one for Mr. Kean, in which one Mrs. Taylor was “out so much in her
part” that she had to be apologized for afterwards in the newspapers.
She had a benefit shortly after, at which, naturally and properly, there
“wasn’t much company.” Miss George at her benefit had bad
weather and other disappointments, and tried it over again. At last
Mr. Kean, “by the advice of several Gentlemen having resolv’d to quit
the stage and follow his Employment of writing and hopes for
Encouragement,” sold his half of “his cloaths” and the stage effects
for a benefit, at which if the house had been full to overflowing the
whole receipts would not have been more than two hundred and fifty
dollars. John Tremain also “declined the stage” and went to cabinet-
making,—“plain and scallopt tea-tables, etc.,”—which was very
sensible, since tea was more desired than the drama. A new
company sprung up, but “mett with small encouragement,” though
the company “assured the Publick they are Perfect and hope to
Perform to Satisfaction.” Perhaps the expression “the Part of Lavinia
will be Attempted by Mrs. Tremain” was a wise one. All this was at a
time when a good theatrical company could easily have been
obtained in England, where the art of the actor was at a high
standard.
We gain a notion of some rather trying manners at these theatres.
The English custom of gentlemen’s crowding on the stage increased
to such an extent, and proved so deleterious to any good
representation of the play, that the manager advertised in “Gaines’
Mercury,” in 1762, that no spectators would be permitted to stand or
sit on the stage during the performance. And also a reproof was
printed to “the person so very rude as to throw Eggs from the Gallery
upon the stage, to the injury of Cloaths.”
For some years a Mr. Bonnin, a New York fishmonger, entertained
his fellow-citizens and those of neighboring towns with various
scientific exhibits, lectures, camera obscuras, “prospects” and
“perspectives,” curious animals, “Philosophical-Optical machines”
and wax-works, and manifold other performances, which he
ingeniously altered and renamed. He was a splendid advertiser. The
newspapers of the times contain many of his attempts to catch the
public attention. I give two as an example:—
“We hear that Mr. Bonnin is so crouded with company to
view his Perspectives, that he can scarce get even so much
time as to eat, drink or say his Prayers, from the time he gets
out of bed till He repairs to it again: and it is the Opinion of
some able Physicians that if he makes rich, it must be at the
Expense of the Health of his Body, and of some Learned
Divines it must be at the Expense of the Welfare of His Soul.”
“The common topics of discourse here since the coming of
Mr. Bonnin are entirely changed. Instead of the common chat
nothing is scarce mentioned now but the most entertaining
parts of Europe which are represented so lively in Mr.
Bonnin’s curious Prospects.”
Mr. Bonnin is now but a shadow of the past, vanished like his
puppets into nowhere; in his own far “perspective” of a century and a
half, he seems to me amusing; at any rate, he was all that New
Yorkers had many times to amuse them; and I think he must have
been a jolly lecturer, when he was such a jolly advertiser.
Also in evidence before the public was one Pachebell, a musician.
The following is one of his advertisements in the year 1734:—
“On Wednesday the 21st of January instant there will be a
Consort of music, vocal and instrumental for the benefit of Mr.
Pachebell, the harpsicord parts performed by himself. The
songs, violins and German flutes by private hands. The
Consort will begin precisely at six o’clock in the house of
Robert Todd vintner. Tickets to be had at the Coffee House at
4 shillings.”
Amateurs often performed for his benefit, and even portions of
oratorios were “attempted.” His “consorts” were said to be ravishing,
and inspired the listeners to rhapsodic poesy, which is more than can
be said of many concerts nowadays. Those who know the “thin
metallic thrills” of a harpsichord—an instrument with no resonance,
mellowness, or singing quality—can reflect upon the susceptibility of
our ancestors, who could melt into sentiment and rhyme over those
wiry vibrations.
The favorite winter amusement in New York, as in Philadelphia,
was riding in sleighs, a fashion which the Dutch brought from
Holland. The English colonists in New England were slower to adopt
sleighs for carriages, and never in early days found sleighing a sport.
The bitter New England weather did not attract sleighers.
Madam Knights, a Boston visitor to New York, wrote in 1704:—
“Their diversion in winter is riding in sleighs about three
miles out of town, where they have houses of entertainment
at a place called the Bowery; and some go to friends’ houses,
who handsomely treat them. I believe we mett fifty or sixty
sleighs one day; they fly with great swiftness, and some are
so furious that they turn out for none except a loaded cart.”
An English parson, one Burnaby, visiting New York in 1759, wrote
of their delightful sleighing-parties; and Mrs. Anne Grant thus adds
her testimony of similar pleasures in Albany:—
“In winter the river, frozen to a great depth, formed the
principal road through the country, and was the scene of all
those amusements of skating and sledge races, common to
the north of Europe. They used in great parties to visit their
friends at a distance, and having an excellent and hardy
breed of horses, flew from place to place over the snow or ice
in these sledges with incredible rapidity, stopping a little while
at every house they came to, and always well received
whether acquainted with the owners or not. The night never
impeded these travellers, for the atmosphere was so pure and
serene, and the snow so reflected the moon and star-light,
that the nights exceeded the days in beauty.”
William Livingstone, when he was twenty-one years old, wrote in
1744 of a “waffle-frolic,” which was an amusement then in vogue:—
“We had the wafel-frolic at Miss Walton’s talked of before
your departure. The feast as usual was preceded by cards,
and the company so numerous that they filled two tables;
after a few games, a magnificent supper appeared in grand
order and decorum, but for my own part I was not a little
grieved that so luxurious a feast should come under the name
of a wafel-frolic, because if this be the case I must expect but
a few wafel-frolics for the future; the frolic was closed up with
ten sunburnt virgins lately come from Columbus’s
Newfoundland, besides a play of my own invention which I
have not room enough to describe at present. How’ever,
kissing constitutes a great part of its entertainment.”
Kissing seemed to constitute a great part of the entertainment at
evening parties everywhere at that time.
As soon as the English obtained control of New York, they
established English sports and pastimes, among them fox-hunting.
Long Island afforded good sport. During the autumn three days’
hunting was permitted at Flatbush; in other towns the chase was
stolen fun. A woman-satirist, with a spirited pen, had her fling in
rhyme at fox-hunting. Here are a few of her lines:—
“A fox is killed by twenty men,

That fox perhaps had killed a hen.
A gallant art no doubt is here,
All wicked foxes ought to fear,
When twenty dogs and twenty men
Can kill a fox that killed a hen.”
Fox-hunting was never very congenial, apparently, to those of

Dutch descent and Dutch characteristics; nor was cock-fighting, the
prevalence of which I have noted in the preceding chapter.
Occasionally we hear of the cruel sport of bull-baiting, though not till
the latter half of the eighteenth century. In 1763 the keeper of the
DeLancey Arms on the Bowery Lane gave a bull-baiting. Brooklyn
was specially favored in that respect during the Revolution, when the
British officers took charge of and enjoyed the barbarism, and
Landlord Loosely of the King’s Head Tavern helped in the
arrangements and advertising. Good active bulls and strong dogs
were in much demand. The newspapers of the times contain many
advertisements of the sport. One in poor rhyme begins:—
“This notice gives to all who covet

Baiting the bull and dearly love it.” etc.
I frequently recall, as I pass through a quiet street near my home,

that in the year 1774 a bull-baiting was held there every afternoon for
many months, and I resolutely demolish that hollow idol—the good
old times—and rejoice in humane to-day.
As early as 1665 Governor Nicholls announced that a horse-race
would take place at Hempstead, “not so much for the divertissement
of youth as for encouraging the bettering of the breed of horses
which through great neglect has been impaired.” In 1669 Governor
Lovelace gave orders that a race should be run in May each year,
and that subscriptions should be sent to Captain Salisbury, “of all
such as are disposed to run for a crown in silver or the value thereof
in wheat.” This first course was a naturally level plain called
Salisbury Plains, and was so named after this very Captain Silvester
Salisbury, Commander of Royal Troops in the province, and an
enthusiastic sportsman. Its location was near the present Hyde Park
station of Long Island.
Daniel Denton, one of the early settlers of Jamaica, Long Island,
wrote in 1670 thus:—
“Towards the middle of Long Island lieth a plain sixteen
miles long and four broad, upon which plain grows very fine
grass that makes exceeding good hay; where you shall find
neither stick nor stone to hinder the horse-heels, or endanger
them in their races, and once a year the best horses in the
island are brought hither to try their Swiftness and the swiftest
rewarded with a silver Cup, two being Annually procured for
the Purpose.”
The “fine grass” was what was known as secretary grass, and,
curiously enough, this great plain was abandoned to this growth of
secretary grass for more than a century after the settlement and
cultivation of surrounding farms; this was through a notion that the
soil was too porous to be worth ploughing. Even a clergyman sent
out by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts
testified to the beauty of Salisbury Plain, calling it “an even
delightsome plain, most sweet and pleasant.” Delightsome it
certainly proved to lovers of horse-racing.
On February 24, 1721, a race was held on this plain which
attracted much attention. The winning horse was owned by Samuel
Bayard. The race was given by “the inhabitants of Queens County
on Nassau Island.” The name of the course had by this time been
changed to Newmarket. In 1764 a new course was laid out; and in
1804 the racing moved to a field east of the Old Court House, and in
1821 it was transferred to the Union Course on the western border of
Jamaica. The story of this course is familiar to sportsmen.
Frequent newspaper notices call attention to the races held at this
Hempstead Newmarket. From the “New York Postboy” of June 4,
1750, I quote:—
“On Friday last there was a great horse race on Hempstead
Plains which engaged the attention of so many of the city of
New York that upwards of seventy chairs and chaises were
carried over Brooklyn Ferry the day before, besides a far
greater number of horses. The number of horses on the
plains exceeded, it is thought, one thousand.”
In 1764 we find the Macaroni Club offering prizes of £100 and £50.
At those races Mr. James De Lancey’s bay horse Lath won. On
September 28, 1769, the same horse Lath won a £100 race in
Philadelphia.
In October, 1770, Jacob Hiltzheimer, a well-known lover and
breeder of horses in Philadelphia, went to the races on Hempstead
Plains, and lodged at a “public house” in Jamaica, with various other
gentlemen,—lovers of races. Two purses of £50 were given, but Mr.
Hiltzheimer’s chestnut horse Regulus did not win.
A London racing-book of 1776 says of this Hempstead course:—
“These plains were celebrated for their races throughout all
the Colonies and even in England. They were held twice a
year for a silver cup, to which the gentry of New England and
New York resorted.”
Another famous race-course of colonial days was the one-mile
course around Beaver Pond in Jamaica. This was laid out before the
year 1757, for on June 13 of that year a subscription plate was won
by Lewis Morris, Jr., with his horse American Childers. Another
course was at Newtown in 1758, and another at New Lots in 1778.
I find frequent allusions in the colonial press to the Beaver Pond
course. The “New York Mercury” of 1763 tells of a “Free Masons’
Purse”—for best two in three heats, each heat three times round
Beaver Pond—free-masons were to be “inspectors” of this race.
At the time of the possession of Brooklyn and western Long Island
by the British during the Revolutionary War, there constantly went on
a succession of sporting events of all kinds under the direction of the
English officers and a notorious tavern-keeper Loosely, already
named, who seemed to devote every energy to the amusement of
the English invaders. An advertisement in “Rivington’s Gazette”
November 4, 1780, reads thus:—
“By Permission Three Days’ Sport on Ascot Heath formerly
Flatlands Plain on Monday. 1. The Noblemen’s and
Gentlemen’s Purse of £60 free for any horse except Mr.
Wortman’s and Mr. Allen’s Dulcimore who won the plate at
Beaver Pond last season. 2. A Saddle, bridle, and whip, worth
£15 for ponies not exceeding 13¹⁄₂ hands. Tuesday. 1. Ladies’
Subscription Purse of £50. 2. To be run for by women, a
Holland smock and Chintz Gown full-trimmed; to run the two
in three quarter-miles; first to have the smock and gown of
four guineas value; second, a guinea; third half a guinea.
Wednesday. Country Subscription Purse of £50. No person
will erect a booth or sell liquor without subscribing 2 guineas
to expenses of races. Gentlemen fond of fox-hunting will meet
at Loosely’s Kings Head Tavern at day break during the
races. God Save the King played every hour.”
It will be seen by this advertisement that the rough and rollicking
ways of English holidays were introduced in this woman’s-race. The
women who ran those quarter-miles must have been some camp-
followers, for I am sure no honest Long Island country-girls would
have taken part. At other races on this freshly named “Ascot Heath”
hurling-matches and bull-baitings and lotteries added their zest, and
on April 27, 1782, there was a three hundred guineas sweep-stakes
race. These races were held at short intervals until October, 1783,
when English sports and English cruelties no longer held sway on
Long Island.
At these races, given under martial rule, some rather crooked
proceedings were taken to recruit the field and keep up the interest;
and good horses for many miles around were watched carefully by
their owners; and when a gentleman attending the races viewed with
surprised and indignant recognition his own horse which had been
stolen from him, he promptly applied for restitution to Mr. Cornell, of
Brooklyn, who had entered the horse; and when the race was
finished, the horse was returned to its rightful owner.
Other localities developed race-courses. “At Captain Tim Cornell’s
Poles, on Hempstead Plains,” Eclipse and Sturdy Beggar ran for
“Fifty Joes” on March 14, 1781. In 1783 Eclipse and Young Slow and
Easy ran for a purse of two hundred guineas. At Far Rockaway, in
1786, Jacob Hicks, “from a wish to gratify sportsmen,” laid out a mile
course and offered prizes where no “trussing, jostling, or foul play
were countenanced; if detected, the rider will be pronounced
distanced.”
On Manhattan Island were several other race-courses. In 1742, a
race was run on the Church Farm, just a stone’s throw north-west of
where the Astor House now stands. I have seen many notices of
races on this Church Farm which was the valuable Trinity Church
property. In October, 1726, a Subscription Plate of twenty pounds
was run for “on the Course at New York.” The horses were entered
with Francis Child on Fresh Water Hill. Entrance fee was half a
pistole. Admission to the public, sixpence each. In the 1750 October
runs, Mr. Lewis Morris, Jr.’s horse won on the Church Farm course.
The chief racing stables in the province of New York were those of
Mr. Morris and of Mr. James De Lancey. The former won a reputation
with American Childers; the latter with his imported horse Lath. The
De Lancey stables were the most costly ones in the north; their
colors were seen on every course for ten years previous to the
Revolution, and they were patrons of all English sports. A famous
horse of James De Lancey’s was True Briton. It is told of this horse
that Oliver De Lancey would jump him back and forth from a
standstill over a five-barred gate. There was a course at Greenwich
Village on the estate of Sir Peter Warren, and one at Harlem,
another at Newburgh.
Many advertisements of other races with names of horses and
owners might be added to this list; but I think I have given a sufficient
number to disprove the vague assertions of Frank Forester and other
writers of the history of the horse in America, that little attention was
paid to horse-raising in the northern provinces, and that there were a
few races on Long Island previous to the Revolution, but it is not
known whether taking place regularly, or for given prizes. There was
no racing-calendar in America till 1829, but there are other ways of
learning of races.
CHAPTER XII
CRIMES AND PUNISHMENTS
The court records of any period in our American history are an

unfailing source of profit and delight to the historian. In the town or
state whose colonial records still exist there can ever be drawn a
picture not only of the crimes and punishments, but of the manners,
occupations, and ways of our ancestors and a knowledge can be
gained of the social ethics, the morality, the modes of thought, the
intelligence of dead-and-gone citizens. We learn that they had daily
hopes and plans and interests and harassments just such as our
own, as well as vices and wickedness.
In spite of Chancellor Kent’s assertion of their dulness and lack of
interest, the court records of Dutch colonial times are not to me dull
reading; quaint humor and curious terms abound; the criminal
records always are interesting; even the old reken-boeks (the
account-books) are of value. These first sources give an unbiassed
and well-outlined picture, sometimes a surprising and almost
irreconcilable one; for instance, I had always a fixed notion that the
early women-colonists of Dutch birth were wholly a quiet, reserved,
even timid group; not talkative and never aggressive. It was
therefore a great thrust at my established ideas to discover, when
poring over an old “Road Book” at the Hall of Records in Brooklyn,
containing some entries of an early Court of Sessions, an account of
the trial of two dames of Bushwyck, Mistress Jonica Schampf and
Widow Rachel Luquer, for assaulting the captain of the Train-Band,
Captain Peter Praa, on training-day in October, 1690, while he was
at the head of his company. These two vixens most despitefully used
him; they beat him, pulled his hair, assaulted and wounded him, and
committed “other Ivill Inormities, so that his life was despaired of.”
And there was no evidence to show that any of his soldiers, or any of
the spectators present, interfered to save either Peter’s life or his

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From Chapter 1 of Introductory Chemistry, Seventh Edition. Charles H. Corwin.

▲ Figure 1 Apple iPhone

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 1 EVOLUTION OF CHEMISTRY

After further experimentation, the initial hypothesis may be rejected, modified, or

Applying the Scientific Method

Scientiﬁc theory Natural law ◀ Figure 3 The Scientific

2 MODERN CHEMISTRY LEARNING OBJECTIVE

▸ To describe the modern

Example Exercise 1 Introduction to Chemistry

What is the difference between ancient chemistry and modern chemistry?

CHEMISTRY CONNECTION “Worth Your Salt?”

Q: What are the sources of ordinary table salt?

◀ The Great Salt Lake was created in prehistoric times and

CHEMISTRY CONNECTION A Student Success Story

mineral to aluminum metal. In February 1886, Charles Hall

▲ Aluminum Globules The notebook of Charles Hall

LEARNING OBJECTIVE 3 LEARNING CHEMISTRY

To describe the early practice of chemistry. 1 Exercises 1–4

Key Terms See answers to Key Terms.

Exercises See answers to odd-numbered Exercises.

Evolution of Chemistry (Sec. 1)

20. Which of the line segments in the image below appears to A B C

Chapter Self-Test See answers to Self-Test.

Odd-Numbered Exercises Self-Tests

“I never notice what has been done. I only notice

Metallic rectangular solid

Example Exercise 1 Uncertainty in Measurement

Graduated Syringe Buret Pipet Volumetric

2 SIGNIFICANT DIGITS LEARNING OBJECTIVE

◀ Figure 5 Significant Digits

Colorless Solution Blue Solution

To determine the number of significant digits in a measurement, we simply count

Determining Significant Digits

Example Exercise 2 illustrates the number of significant digits in a measurement.

Example Exercise 2 Significant Digits

State the number of significant digits in the following measurements:

Significant Digits and Placeholder Zeros

Example Exercise 3 Significant Digits

State the number of significant digits in the following measurements:

Significant Digits and Exact Numbers ▲ Exact Numbers We count

3 ROUNDING OFF NONSIGNIFICANT DIGITS LEARNING OBJECTIVE

Rounding Off Nonsignificant Digits

Rounding Off and Placeholder Zeros

Example Exercise 4 Rounding Off

Round off the following numbers to three significant digits:

4 ADDING AND SUBTRACTING

5 MULTIPLYING AND DIVIDING

Example Exercise 5 Addition/Subtraction and Rounding Off