Forest Surveying and Engineering

FOREST ENGINEERING
Paper - 2 | Section - A
EDITION : 2019
TELEGRAM : https://t.me/forestryopt
YouTube : https://bit.ly/2NSWF4E
Contact : +917223970423 Upscbotany05@gmail.com
SYLLABUS
 SURVEYING AND FOREST ENGINEERING : (1) Forest surveying - different methods of surveying,
maps and map reading. (2) Basic principles of forest engineering - Building materials and
construction. (3) Roads and Bridges - General principles, objects, types, simple design and
construction of timber bridges.
QUESTIONS & MARKS DISTRIBUTION
Subjects 2018 2017 2016 2015 2014 2013 2012

Forest surveying (Q) 1 - 1 4 1 1 3
Forest Engineering (Q) - 1 - - - 2 -
Roads & bridges (Q) 1 - 1 - - - -
Marks 16 10 25 41 15 25 30
CONTENTS
SN Topic Page No
1. Forest roads & Bridges 5 - 11
2. Surveying : introduction 13 - 14
3. Linear measurement 15 - 16
4. Chain survey 17 – 20
5. Compass survey 21 - 24
6. Plane table survey 25 – 32
7. Laveling 33 - 38
8. Forest engineering 39
Paper 2 | Section (A) : Forest surveying & engineering (Telegram : https://t.me/forestryopt)

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FOREST ENGINEERING
PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS
 What is the importance of surveying in forestry ? Discuss different methods of

surveying to solve the forestry field problems (8m).
2018
 Give the classification of forest roads. What features are required for a
reconnaissance for forest roads? (8m).
 Describe the dead and live loads and how they are calculated on the roof trusses over
2017
buildings? (10 m).
 Enumerate the methods of direct linear measurements. Discuss in brief the

application of prismatic compass in forest survey (10 m).
2016
 Distinguish the irish bridge, Simple wooden bridge and suspension bridge with
details and neat sketches (15 m).
 Topographic surveys are found useful in forest management. Discuss (8 m).

 Which are the basic factors you have to look for before running out a survey lines in
chain survey ? (8 m).
2015  How will you fined the reduced levels of the given points by height of collimation
methods and rise and fall method and then check arithmetically ? (15 m).
 In a forest survey, you are provided a prismatic compass. How will you accomplish
the bearings of line AB ? (10 m).
 How is Compass survey done ? what are the advantages of compass surveying ? (15
2014 m).
 Define the arches used in construction. What are the different characteristics
required in an arch ? (10 m).
 Describe all the 5 kinds of chains used in survey and advantages and disadvantages
of chain surveys (8 m).
 Write down the chemical constituents of earth (chemical formula and percentage
2013 range of contents) for manufecture of good quality of bricks (7 m).
 Find out the maximum and minimum pressures of a wall which is 60 ft long and 4.5 ft
wide at the base of its footing, carrying loads at the following distances from the left
hand side : 20 tons at 10 ft, 30 tons at 25 ft, 40 tons at 28 ft, 48 tons at 50 ft and 12
tons at 55 ft (15 m). { NOTE – Many times you get these kind of questions in exam
paper, these are not questions but jokes that are made to annoy you, i think so }

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 Describe the structure of Dumpy level through a well labelled diagram (10 m).
 Discuss the ''Two-Point Problem" - the special case of resection in Plain Table Survey
2012
(12 m).
 Describe the limitations and advantages of Plane Table Survey (8 m).
2011  How is remote sensing advantageous as compare to ground survey ?

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Topic 1 FOREST ROADS & BRIDGES
IMPORTANCE : Yes, because easy to learn in 1 reading (excellent cost-benefit if it comes in the
exam). Usually they asked (i) Definition, (ii) Types, (iii) structure with drawings, (iv) its construction
and (v) advantages/disadvantages of both forest roads and bridges.
1.1 | FOREST ROADS
 DIFINATION : Road is an open and wide way connecting one place to another and makes easy to
move for vehicles and people. It there road constructed in or around the forest areas are called
Forest road.
 TYPES :-
(a) On the BASIS OF TIME PERIOD they will used
TEMPORARY PERMANENT
Usable only for few seasons All weathered and motorable road
(b) On the BASIS OF LOCATION : (i) in side of forest and (ii) peripheral road
(c) On the BASIS OF USE :-
(i) Main motorable road : main road connected HQ to the forest block, important rest
houses and forest depots.
(ii) Branch Jeepable road : these are the feeder road connecting interior forest areas with
the main road.

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(iii) Bridle paths
(iv) Inspection paths :narrow path of ≈ 1 to 2 meter width, usually construct in and around
each sub-compartment make assessable them.
 ROAD DESIGN or often used term ‘road prism’ for this :

Forest roads should be designed to meet management objectives and optimise harvest
system and transportation efficiency while minimising environmental impacts. The forest road
engineer can use specific design techniques to achieve all these goals by horizontal and vertical
alignments of a road to provide the appropriate geometry for the vehicle sizes and traffic as well
as timber transportation.
PART OF ROADS :-
1) Road crown or Running surface or carriageway
2) Shoulders
3) Draingge ditch
4) Gradient
5) Chamber
 ROAD CONSTRUCTION : before construction of a forest road we have to take a roconnaisance

survey -
₋ To draw a rough map of an area in which all reasonable points through which the road must
pass are highlighted.

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₋ To bring out number of trails alignments on the basis of which a more detailed preliminary
survey is done.
₋ Produce contour map
₋ To astimate its alignment, suitable design, construction cost, importance and its effect on
forest.
Main features (Points) that sould be consider during reconnaissance survey of an forest area for
planning to construct a forest road :- mean - factors that required to be considered and solved
before designing and construction of a forest road.
RELATED TO THE AREA :
1) Obstacles from which road will pass away i.e. ridge, steep, river valley etc.
2) Rough elevation of the hills, saddles, passes, valleys and the other important geographical
positions and locations like water holes, well and river.
3) Among the number of routes that have been selected
4) Climate and precipitation regime
5) Environment & Social impact on proposed location
RELATED TO THE ROAD :
6) Gradients of the road.
7) Horizontal and vertical alignment of road, drainage system and supporting walls
8) Road widths
9) Cut and fill slope angles
10) Soil types
11) Availability of materials for constructions and labour cost
RELATED TO ITS USES :
12) Intended use of the road, requirements of local traffics & market places.
13) Intended season of use
14) Permanent or temporary use
15) How can it helps in controlling Soil erosion & forest fire.
 IMPORTANCE :
1) Makes accessible to remote deep forest localtion – support effectiveness of forest

management, policies & Programmes, forest monitoring and forest exploitation.
2) Medium of connectivity to tribal society – empower them in education, economic
development, health, cultural linkage and local governance.
3) Foundation of new economic activities based on ecotourism.

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4) Forest fire and Erosion Control : work as a blockade to cross forest fire (Surface) from one
block to anather as well as stop and tream runoff to minimize soil erosion.
5) Other use : Military, agriculture, trade or even as wildlife corridor
 CHALLANGES :
1) It also makes ways to transport illegal tree felling, over exploitation of forest resources,
death of wild life through accidents, Noice pollution in silent zone area and most important
it become the main source of spreading pollution like polythin, glass, lastic bottle, Noise
and thermal (engine heat) in these area.
2) Medium of connectivity + new information + mobile / internet = migration = breaking of
tribal society, culture and traditional knowledge.
3) Erosion, heavy felling and damages during its construction.
2018 : Give the classification of forest roads. What features are required for a reconnaissance for
forest roads? (8m).
1.2 | BRIDGES
 DIFINATION : A bridge is a structure built to cross a gorge, valley, road, railroad track, river, body
of water, or any other physical obstacle for the purpose of providing passage over the obstacle.
Designs of bridges will vary depending on the function of the bridge and the nature of the
terrain where the bridge is to be constructed.
 TYPES :
1. Ford 5. Simple wooden bridge

2. Road dam 6. Trussed bridge
3. Irish bridge 7. Suspension bridge
4. Cause way 8. Cantilever bridge
1. FORD : Ford is used for taking the road across a dry river
which has very little water or no water during most of
the year. Here riverbed is used as carriageway, all
potholes on the bed are filled up and bank of the strem
cut down to provide gentle slop to the vehicles. FORD

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2. ROAD DAMS : Small dam that is constructed for crossing small shallow streams.
3. IRISH BRIDGE : The Irish bridge is a paved dip
surface of the road having a span of more than 7
m. They are preferred to culverts where there are
chances of debris blocking the roads (usually hilly
areas). IRISH BRIDGE
Materials used : Dry stones or stone in lime or
cement mortar lime or cement concrete.
Advantages : Cheap as it used locally available materials, Don't require high level of
technical knowledge.
4. CAUSE WAYS : These are structures providing dips
in the road surface as it passes over river or
stream bed. It is the most commonly constructed
from of cross-drainage for roads, particularly in
the interior areas.
NOTE : Difference with Ford is that here road base
goes some down.
5. SIMPLE WOODEN BRIDGE : madeup of wood + iron cables. Important – simple to construct,
used locally available material
6. SUSPENSION BRIDGE : bridge of this types constructed over large openings which do not
permit to erect intermediate piers due to swift water or any other reasons and the main
footing of bridge suspended in air by iron cables.
Structure : draw this picture
Parts of brigde :
₋ Cables : usually made up of iron
₋ Piers or tower
₋ Anchors : solid concrete
structures
₋ Transem : horizontal beams
₋ Suspenders : wire ropes
2018 : Describe, with sketches a suspension bridge (10 m).

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7. CANTILEVER BRIDGE : bridge is made up of two system of counterpoised beams buit out
from the abundents supporting the road bearers in the middle. here the span gap should be
shorter when both part connected.
Stability of bridge depends upon : length of beams, counter weight, centre of gravity, size of
beam etc.
Issues with this types of Bridges : Difficult and very heavy construction structure, wastage
of material and require very heigh level of technical knowledge.
LIVING ROOT BRIDGE : in Meghalaya, People of

khasi and jaintia tribe have tradition to connect
aerial roots of fig tree that growing on the both
edges of river or small gully/george to form a
suspension bridges like structure called root
bridge.
8. CULVERTS : culverts are the small bridge with a span of less

than 4 meter, construct ot carry road over small cross
streams or channels. Remaining all principles are similar to
bridges.
DESIGN :
₋ They are of a single span expecting when pipes
are used.
₋ The gradient underneath a culvert is kept as high
as possible.
₋ In hilly areas, walls at inlets and outlets are
provided for as they act as cushions and prevent Figure 1: Pipe culvert
scour.
₋ For culverts having a span of up to 2 m, pipe or slab culverts are the most economical.
TYPES :

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(a) Pipe Culverts : This type of culvert is constructed where the span gap is 0.6 to 1.2 mts
and water drain out from one side of the road to the other. For construction we used
stone, cement and iron. (Picture given above)
(b) Box Culvert : culvert having 3 to 4 m of waterway, may be built of square stones set
dry in mortar and spanned by stone slabs.
(c) Arched Culvert : Arched culverts are constructed as cross-drainage when the span is
more the 1.6mts but less than 6.5 m. This type of culverts can be made of stones,
bricks in cement or lime mortar or cement concrete The arch may be semi-circular or
segmental
BOX CULVERT ARCHED CULVERT
2016 : Distinguish the irish bridge, Simple wooden bridge and suspension bridge with details and
neat sketches (15 m).
2010 : Distinguish b/w Irish bridge, Suspension bridge and cantilever bridge (8m).

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Topic 2 SURVEYING : INTRODUCTION
 SURVEYING : Surveying is the art of determining the relative positions of different objects on the
surface of the earth by measuring the horizontal distances between thein, and by preparing a
map to any suitable scale. (in this branch, the measurements are taken only in the horizontal
plane).
 LEVELLING is the art of determining the relative vertical distances of different points on the
surface of the earth. Therefore, in levelling, the measurements are taken only in the vertical
plane.
 OBJECTIVES OF SURVEYING : Map preparation and knowing the distance and direction b/w
points.
 USE OF SURVEYING : (2018)
1) To preparation of topographic map of a forest areas which shows the hills, valleys, rivers
and forest villages of a forest area.
2) To prepare a cadastral map showing the boundaries of compartment, blocks etc.
3) To prepare plantation, stock and management maps
4) Determining the direction and distance b/w different offices, plantation site, water
available sources like rivers, streams etc.
5) Construction of forest roads and bridges
6) To map out fire burnt areas
7) To detect encroachments on the forest land, forest resources allocation etc.
 CLASSIFICATION :
A. BASED ON SHAPE OF EARTH OR PRIMARY CLASSIFICATION:
(i) Plane surveying : We know that the shape of the earth

is spheroidal. so, the earth surface is obviously curved.
But in plane surveying, we didn’t considered earth
curvature during measurement because our study
area is very small (less than 250 km2). Means,
technically we considered earth as a flat surface and the line joining any two points is to
be a straight. Plane surveying is conducted by state agencies like Irrigation Department,
Railway Department etc.

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(ii) Geodetic surveying : here the survey area is larger than 250 km²
so ve have to considered earth curvature during distance
measurement to findout real distance. That means the line
joining any two points is considered as a curved line. This survey
is conducted by the Survey of India department and our Forest
survey of India.
B. BASED ON INSTRUMENTS :
(i) Chain surveying

(ii) Compass surveying
(iii) Plane table surveying
(iv) Theodolite surveying
(v) Photographic surveying Triangulation
C. BASED ON METHODS :
(i) Triangulation surveying : Devide whole area into

various size trianles
(ii) Traverse surveying : Open & Close
Traverse
D. BASED ON OBJECTIVES :
(i) Geological surveying

(ii) Mine surveying
(iii) Archaeological surveying
(iv) Military surveying
E. BASED ON NATURE OF FIELD :
(i) Land surveying

(ii) Marine surveying
(iii) Astronomical surveying
2016 : What is the importance of surveying in forestry ? Discuss different methods of surveying to
solve the forestry field problems (8m).
2015 : Topographic surveys are found useful in forest management, Discuss (8 m).
2011 : How is remote sensing advantageous as compare to ground survey ?

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Topic 3 LINEAR MEASUREMENTS
3.1 | METHODS
 by pacing or stepping – a walking step is considered ≈ 80 cm or 2.5 ft
pacing or stepping Speedometer Passometer Chaining
3.2 | REQUIRED INSTRUMENTS
 RANGING ROD : a rod of bamboo or metal, used for making ranging

line straight and marking boundaries.
 TAPE : cloth or lenin tape, metalic tape, steel tape etc.
 ARROWS : a steel wire, used for counting number of chains while
measuring a chain line by marking the spot.
2013 : Describe all the 5 kinds of chains used in survey and

advantages and disadvantages of chain surveys (8 m).
 CHAINS : Chain is a galvanised rings of steel wire peaces linked together

upto 100 to 150 pieces.
1) Metric chain : 20 to 30 m long chain devided into 100 links.
2) Steel band : ribbon of steel
3) Engineers chain : 100 feet long with 100 links, tallies at every 10
links
4) Gunters chain : 66 ft longs devided into
100 links, each link = 0.66 ft
5) Revenue chain : 33 feet long with 16
links

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3.3 | RANGING
 The process of establishing intermediate points on a straight line between two points is known
as ranging. ranging must be done before a survey line is chained.
 Types : Direct (when both end visible) and Indirect or reciprocal ranging (when both end not
visible)
2016 : Enumerate the methods of direct linear measurements. Discuss in brief the application of
prismatic compass in forest survey (10 m).
EXPLAINATION :

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Topic 4 CHAIN SURVEY
2015 : Which are the basic factors you have to look for before running out a survey lines in chain
survey ? (8 m)
 PRINCIPLE : Triangulation, this means entire targeted area theat needs to be surveyed is divided
into a number of small triangles. These triangles may be ideal, well conditioned or ill
conditioned.
So, CHAIN SURVEY IS RECOMMENDED WHEN :

₋ More or less levelled ground surface i.e. river flat plains or valley
₋ Surveyed area is small
₋ Formation of well conditioned triangle is easy
₋ When we required small scale map.
CHAIN SURVEY IS UNSUITABLE WHEN :
₋ Area is crowded with vegetations, streams and other constructions

₋ Undulating area
₋ Area is very large
₋ Formation of well – conditioned triangles are very difficult.
 BASIC TERMINOLOGY :
₋ Main stations : the points at the base line that often used during surveying.
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₋ Subsidiary stations : other remaining stations
₋ Base line : the main line on which the framework of survey based
₋ Check lines : to adjust the accuracy of angles as well as distances b/w two small points
₋ Offset : lateral measurement line from the main chain line to locate the reference object. It
may be perpendicular or oblique.
Perpendicular offsetting Oblique offsetting
 EQUIPMENT USED IN CHAIN SURVEY :
₋ Metric chain
₋ Arrows
₋ Ranging rods
₋ Offset rods
₋ Plum bob
₋ Cross staff or Prismatic compass
₋ Wooden pegs
₋ Field book, Pencil, rubber & Eraser
CHAIN WOODEN PEGS CROSS STAFF PLUMB BOB
 PROCEDURE :
1) Reconnaissance : surveyor walk over the whole area, examine and determine the possible
arrangements of framework of survey, where he can established main stations, basic
requirements of labourers, ranging rods, about field boundaries. {also determine which
kinds of survey they require chain survey or any other}

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2) Index sketch : after preliminary inspection of an
area, the surveyor draw a sketch showing the
arrangements and framework of an area, name of
stations & substations, major objects positions
and markings of woodedn pegs.
3) Now start chaining :
OBSTACLE IN CHAINING
1. When chaining is free but vision is obstructed

2. When chaining is obstructed, but vision is free
3. When both chaining and vision are obstructed
1. WHEN CHAINING IS FREE BUT VISION IS OBSTRUCTED : Such a problem arises when a rising
ground or a Forest area (i.e. dense plantation, habitat area of tiger like dangerous animals)
interrupts the chain line. Here the end stations are not intervisible from the intermediate points.
In this case the obstacle may be crossed over by using a random line as explained below :
2. WHEN CHAINING IS OBSTRUCTED, BUT VISION IS FREE : Such a problem arises when a pond or
a river comes across the chain line.
CASE – 1 : when a pond interrupt the chain line, it is possible to go around the obstable

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CD = EF
CASE – 2 : when a river interrupt the chain line
3. WHEN BOTH CHAINING AND VISION ARE OBSTRUCTED : Such a problem arises when a building
comes across the chain line.
2011 : Describe how you would continue the line with the chain only, when : (1) Large
riverinterrupts the chain line, and (2) a Forest area comes across the chain line (20 m).

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Topic 5 COMPASS SURVEY
2016 : Enumerate the methods of direct linear measurements. Discuss in brief the application of
prismatic compass in forest survey (10 m).
2015 : In a forest survey, you are provided a prismatic compass. How will you accomplish the
bearings of line AB ? (10 m).
2014 : How is Compass survey done ? what are the advantages of compass surveying ? (15 m).
2012 : Explain the terms : (i) Whole circle bearing, and (ii) Quadrantal bearing (10 m).
2011 : Describe methods of using prismatic compass in forest surveys (10m).
Linked Q :
solve the forestry field problems (8m)
 ISSUES WITH CHAIN SURVEY : In chain surveying , the area to be surveyed is divided into a
number of triangles. This method is suitable for fairly level ground covering small areas. But
when the area is large, undulating, crowded with many details and a course of a river or a coast
line, triangulation (which is the principle of chain survey) is not possible. In such an area, the
method of traversing is adopted.
In traversing, the framework consists of a number of connected lines. The lengths are
measured by chain or tape and the directions identified by angle measuring instruments like
compass. Hence, the process is known as compass traversing.
 PRINCIPLE : Traversing, which involves a series of connected lines. The distance of lines are
measured by chain
and the angle b/w
lines are measured by
compass.
TRAVERSING TYPES :

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NOTE : TYPES OF COMPASS –
1. PRISMATIC COMPASS : In this compass, the readings

are taken with the help of a prism
Essential parts of this compass :
(a) Compass Box : a circular non-magnetic metallic box

with 8 to 10 cm diameter. A pivot with a sharp
point is provided at the centre of the box.
(b) Magnetic Needle and Graduated Ring : a
magnetised iron bar needle, attached with a
aluminium ring which have markings from 0° to
360° in clockwise, 0° is marked at the south, 90° at
the west, 180° at the north and 270° at the east.
(c) Sight Vane and Prism : both fixed opposite sides to the box. The sight consists of a
horsehair at the centre.
(d) Two dark glasses are provided with the prism
(e) A brake pin at the base of the sight vane, to prevent the oscillations of ring.
(f) Lifting Pin - when the sight vane is folded, it presses the lifting pin then lift pin lifts the
magnetic needle out of the pivot point to prevent damage to the pivot head.
2. SURVEYOR COMPASS : The surveyor's compass is also similar to the prismatic compass
except for the following points -
(a) There is no prism and No mirror, so readings are taken with naked eye.
(b) It consists of an eye-vane (in place of prism) with a fine sight slit.
(c) The marked aluminium ring is attached to the circular box, It is not fixed to the
magnetic needle (as fix in prismatic compass).
(d) The ring is graduated from 0° to 90° in four quadrants. 0° is marked at the north and
south, and 90° at the east and west.

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3. TROUGHT CAMPASS : you read about it in plane table survey
4. POCKET CAMPASS :
2012 : Explain the terms : (i) Whole circle bearing, and (ii) Quadrantal bearing (10 m).
NOTE : MAGNETIC BERING : The angle of a line makes 'with the magnetic maridian, it is known as
the magnetic bearing of the line (Figure 1)
1. WHOLE CIRCLE BEARING (WCB) : In this system, the magnetic bearing of a line is measured
clockwise from the north point up to the line, So the reading can go between 0° and 360°.
The WCB of a line is obtained by prismatic compass.
Examples : Figure (2)
WCB of OA = 60°; WCB of OB = 140°
WCB of OC = 210°; WCB of OD = 329°
2. QUADRANTAL BEARING or REDUCED BEARING : In this

system the bearing is measured clockwise or
counterclockwise either from the north or south towards
the east or west. Here four quadrants are considered and
are denoted as NE, NW, SE and SW. The values of RB may lie
between 0° and 90°, but the quadrants must be mentioned
too. Instrument used to calculate reduced bearing –
surveyor compass. (show in figure 3)
Example :
RB of OA = N 60° E
RB of OB = S 40° E
RB of OC = S 30° W
RB of OD = N 40° W

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NOTE :
1. FORE BEARING : bearing od a line measuring in forward direction of the progress of survey
2. BACK BEARING : measuring the bearing of a line that is opposite to the survey direction.
 PROCEDURE OF COMPASS SURVEY :
1) Reconnaissance : surveyor walk over the whole area, examine and determine the possible
arrangements of framework of survey, where he can ......
2) Index sketching : after preliminary inspection of an area, the surveyor draw a sketch
showing the arrangements and framework of an area............
3) Now start traversing : Open or closed
 ADVANTAGES OF COMPASS SURVEY : write down the point where chain survey failed like it
suitable for large area, in undulating hilly topography, areas crowded with many details and a
course of a river or a coast plains where chain survey failed.
 Challanges : we measure angle by using compass so local variation in magnetic field, presence of
strong magnet near surveyor of its magnetic declination caused instrumental errors.
PRACTICES THESE QUESTION
2011 : Describe methods of using prismatic compass in forest surveys (10m).

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Topic 6 PLANE TABLE SURVEY
2012 : Discuss the ''Two-Point Problem" - the special case of resection in Plain Table Survey (12 m).
2012 : Describe the limitations and advantages of Plane Table Survey (8 m).
 PRINCIPLE : parallelism, meaning that the rays drawn stations to objects on the paper are
parallel to the lines from the stations objects on the ground. The relative positions of the objects
on the ground represented by their plotted positions on the paper.
Plane tabling is a graphical method of surveying Here, the field work and plotting are
done simultaneously and such survey does not involve the use of a field book. Plane table survey
is mainly suitable for filling interior details when traversing is done by theodolite.
 ACCESSORIES :
(a) Plane table : a drawing table of 75 cm by 60 cm dimension with tripode

(b) Alidade : a metallic ruler with sight vane
(c) A sprit level : to levelled plane table
everytime
(d) Traught compass : to fix direction of table
(e) U Fork with plumb bob : for centering
plane table at a targeted point.

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 PROCEDURE :
1) Reconnaisance survey & index skatching
2) Fixing the table on the tripod stand
3) Leveling the table
4) Centring the table
5) Orientation & Marking the North line
 METHODS : (on Next attached page)
1) Radiation method
2) Intersection method
3) Traversing method
4) Resection method
 ADVANTAGES OF PLANE TABLE SURVEY :
(a) It is the most rapid method of surveying.

(b) There is no need for a field book as plotting is done along with the field work. So, the
problem of mistakes in booking field notes does not arise,
(c) Plotted work can be compared with actual object regardless of whether or not they are
properly represented.
(d) There is no possibility of overlooking any important object.
(e) There is no possibility of overlooking any measurement as plotting is done in the field.
(f) Irregular objects may be represented accurately.
(g) It is suitable in magnetic areas.
(h) The map can be prepared easily, and does not require any great skill.
(i) Errors in measurement and plotting can be detected by check lines.
(j) Inaccessible points can be easily located by intersection
 DISADVANTAGES :
(a) The plane table is not suitable for accurate work as the fitting arrangemen is not perfect
(b) Plane table surveying is not suitable in wet climate, in the rainy season, on foggy mornings
and in windy weather.
(c) The number of accessories required in such survey is large, and they are likely to be lost.
(d) The instrument is very heavy and difficult to carry.
(e) The map cannot be replotted to a different scale as there is no field book.

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Topic 7 Lavelling
2015 : How will you fined the reduced levels of the given points by height of collimation methods
and rise and fall method and then check arithmetically ? (15 m).
2012 : Describe the structure of Dumpy level through a well labelled diagram (10 m).
 LEVELLING is the art of determining the relative vertical distances of different points on the
surface of the earth. Therefore, in levelling, the measurements are taken only in the vertical
plane.
 IMPORTANCE /USES :
1. To prepare a contour map for fixing sites for reservoirs, dams, barrages, etc. and to fix the
alignment of roads, railways, irrigation canals, and so on.
2. To determine the altitudes of different important points on a hill or to know the reduced
levels of different points on or below the surface of the earth
3. To prepare a longitudinal section and cross-sections of a project (roads, railways, irrigation
canals, etc) in order to determine the volume of earth work.
4. To prepare a tayout map for new plantation site, water supply and drainage etc.
 RELATED BASIC TERMINOLOGY :
 Levelling & leveler

 Horizontal plane – any plane tangential
to the level surface.
 Datum line* : This is an imaginary level
line from which the vertical distances of
different points (above or below this line) are measured. In India the datum adopted for the
Great Trigonometrical Survey (GTS) is the mean sea level (MSL) at Karachi.
 Reduced level* (RL) : The vertical distance of a point above or below the datum line is
known as the reduced level (RL) of that point. The RL of a point may be positive or negative
according as the point is above or below the datum.
 Line of collimation or Line of Sight : It is an imaginary line passing through the intersection
of the cross hairs at the diaphragm and the optical centre of the object glass and its
continuation. It is also known as the line of sight.
Paper 2 | Section (A) : Forest surveying and engineering (Telegram : https://t.me/forestryopt) 33

 Bench-marks (BM) : These are fixed points or marks
of known Reduced level (RL) determined with
reference to the datum line. These are very
important marks. They serve as reference points for
finding the RL of new points or for conducting
levelling operations in projects involving roads,
railways etc.
TYPES : (a) GTS, (b) permanent, (c) temporary, and (d) Arbitrary bench marks
 Backsight reading : this is the first staff reading taken in any set up of the instrument after
the velelling has been perfectly done.
 Foresight reading : it is the last staff reading in any set up of the instruments and indicates
the sifting of leveler
 Intermediate reading : staff readings b/w these two – Backsight & foresight.
 Change point : point indicates the shifting of instrument level, actuallt at this point we will
take both foresight and backsight
reading.
 Dumpy level :
 Self reading Staff :

2012 : Describe the structure of Dumpy level through a well labelled diagram (10 m).
 TYPES OF LEVELLING :
1) Simple levelling : when level (distance of datum line) difference of two point determined by
setting up of a levelling instrument b/w of these two points.
2) Differential levelling :
3) Check levelling :

4) Reciprocal levelling :
2015 : How will you fined the reduced levels of the given points by height of collimation methods
and rise and fall method and then check arithmetically ? (15 m).
METHODS OF CALCULATION OF REDUCED LEVEL
There are 2 systems of calculating reduced level :
1. The collimation system or height of instrument system (HI).

2. The rise-and-fall system.
1. COLLIMATION SYSTEM : (remember Line of collimation or Line of Sight ).
The reduced level (RL) of the line of collimation is said to be the height of the
instrument. In this system, the height of the line of collimation is find out by adding the
backsight reading (BS) to the RL of the Bench mark on which the BS is taken. Then the RL of the
intermediate points and the change point are obtained by subtracting the respective staff
readings from the height of the instrument (HI). The level is then shifted for the next setup and
again the height of the line of collimation is obtained by adding the backsight reading to the RL
of the change point (which was calculated in the first set up). So, the height of the instrument
is different in different setups of the level. Two adjacent planes of collimation are correlated at
the change point by an FS reading from one setting and a BS reading from the next setting.
RL of HI in 1st setting = 100.000 + 1.255 = 101.255

RL of A = 101.255 - 1.750 = 99.505
RL of B = 101.255 - 2.150 = 99.105
RL of HI in 2nd setting = 99.105 +2.750 = 101.855
RL of C = 101.855 - 1.950 = 99.905
2. THE RISE-AND-FALL SYSTEM : In this system, the difference of level between two.
consecutive points is determined by comparing each forward staff reading with the staff
reading at the immediately preceding point. If the forward staff reading is smaller than the
immediately preceding staff reading, a rise is said to have occurred. The rise is added to the
RL of the preceding point to get the RL of the forward point. If the forward staff reading is
greater than the immediately preceding staff reading, it means there has been a fall. The
fall is subtracted from the RL of preceding point to get the RL of the forward point.

DIFFICULTIES FACED IN LEVELLING
1) Levelling across a large pond or lake : Suppose the levelling is to be done across a very
wide pond or lake. We know that the water surface of a lake or pond is considered to be
level. Therefore, all points on a water surface have the same RL. Two pegs A and B are fixed
on opposite banks of the lake or pond. The tops of the pegs are just flush with the water
surface. The level is set up at O1 and the RL of A is determined by taking an FS on A. The RL
of B is assumed to be equal to that of A. Now the level is shifted and set up at O2. Then by
taking a BS on peg B, levelling is continued.
2) Levelling across a river : In case of flowing water, the surface cannot be considered level.
The water levels on the opposite edges will be different. In such a case, the method of
reciprocal levelling is adopted. Two pegs A and B are driven on the opposite banks of the
river (not flush with the water surface). The RL of A is determined in the usual way. Then
the true difference of level between A and B is found out by reciprocal levelling. Thus the RL
of B is calculated, and levelling is continued.
3) Levelling across a solid wall : When levelling is to be done across a brick wall, two pegs A
and B are driven on either side of the wall, just touching it. The level is set up at O 1 and a
staff reading is taken on A. Let this reading be AC.
Then the height of the wall is measured by staff.
Let the height be AE. The HI is found out by taking
a BS on any BM or CP.
Then, RL of A = HI - AC
RL of E = RL of A + AE = RL of F (same level)
The level is shifted and set up at O2. The staff reading BD is noted and the height BF is
measured.
RL of B = RL of F - BF
HI at O2 = RL of B + BD
The levelling is then continued by working out the HI of the setting

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FOREST ENGINEERING

QUESTIONS & MARKS DISTRIBUTION

Subjects 2018 2017 2016 2015 2014 2013 2012

Forest Engineering (Q) - 1 - - - 2 -

Roads & bridges (Q) 1 - 1 - - - -

1. Forest roads & Bridges 5 - 11

6. Plane table survey 25 – 32

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 What is the importance of surveying in forestry ? Discuss different methods of

 Enumerate the methods of direct linear measurements. Discuss in brief the

 Topographic surveys are found useful in forest management. Discuss (8 m).

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2011  How is remote sensing advantageous as compare to ground survey ?

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1.1 | FOREST ROADS

(a) On the BASIS OF TIME PERIOD they will used

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 ROAD DESIGN or often used term ‘road prism’ for this :

 ROAD CONSTRUCTION : before construction of a forest road we have to take a roconnaisance

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1) Makes accessible to remote deep forest localtion – support effectiveness of forest

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1. Ford 5. Simple wooden bridge

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2018 : Describe, with sketches a suspension bridge (10 m).

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LIVING ROOT BRIDGE : in Meghalaya, People of

8. CULVERTS : culverts are the small bridge with a span of less

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BOX CULVERT ARCHED CULVERT

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 USE OF SURVEYING : (2018)

A. BASED ON SHAPE OF EARTH OR PRIMARY CLASSIFICATION:

(i) Plane surveying : We know that the shape of the earth

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(i) Chain surveying

(i) Triangulation surveying : Devide whole area into

(i) Geological surveying

E. BASED ON NATURE OF FIELD :

(i) Land surveying

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 by pacing or stepping – a walking step is considered ≈ 80 cm or 2.5 ft

pacing or stepping Speedometer Passometer Chaining

3.2 | REQUIRED INSTRUMENTS

 RANGING ROD : a rod of bamboo or metal, used for making ranging

2013 : Describe all the 5 kinds of chains used in survey and

 CHAINS : Chain is a galvanised rings of steel wire peaces linked together

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So, CHAIN SURVEY IS RECOMMENDED WHEN :

CHAIN SURVEY IS UNSUITABLE WHEN :

₋ Area is crowded with vegetations, streams and other constructions

Perpendicular offsetting Oblique offsetting

 EQUIPMENT USED IN CHAIN SURVEY :

CHAIN WOODEN PEGS CROSS STAFF PLUMB BOB

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1. When chaining is free but vision is obstructed

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CASE – 2 : when a river interrupt the chain line

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1. PRISMATIC COMPASS : In this compass, the readings

Essential parts of this compass :