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Textbook Minerals and Coal Process Calculations 1St Edition Subba Rao Ebook All Chapter PDF
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Minerals and Coal Process Calculations
Minerals and Coal Process
Calculations
CRC Press/Balkema is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2016 Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK
Typeset by MPS Limited, Chennai, India
Printed and Bound by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY
All rights reserved. No part of this publication or the information contained
herein may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any
form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, by photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without written prior permission from the publishers.
Although all care is taken to ensure integrity and the quality of this publication
and the information herein, no responsibility is assumed by the publishers nor
the author for any damage to the property or persons as a result of operation
or use of this publication and/or the information contained herein.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Applied for
Published by: CRC Press/Balkema
P.O. Box 11320, 2301 EH Leiden,The Netherlands
e-mail: Pub.NL@taylorandfrancis.com
www.crcpress.com – www.taylorandfrancis.com
ISBN: 978-1-138-62662-1 (Hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-22552-4 (eBook)
Dedicated to
Preface xi
Acknowledgements xiii
List of tables xv
List of figures xix
3 Sampling 27
4 Size analysis 29
4.1 Sieve analysis 34
4.2 Testing method 34
viii Table of contents
5 Screening 55
5.1 Purpose of screening 55
5.2 Screen 55
5.3 Screen action 57
5.3.1 Factors affecting the rate of screening 58
5.4 Material balance 59
5.5 Screen efficiency 61
5.6 Tromp curve 68
5.7 Problems for practice 73
6 Density 75
6.1 Solids and pulp 78
6.2 Retention time 86
6.3 Miscible liquids 87
6.4 Problems for practice 88
7 Liberation 91
8 Comminution 95
8.1 Objectives of comminution 95
8.2 Laws of comminution 95
8.3 Types of comminution operations 97
8.4 Problems for practice 104
9 Crushing 105
9.1 Types of crushers 106
9.2 Crushing operation 113
9.3 Open and closed circuit crushing operations 115
9.3.1 Open circuit crushing operation 116
9.3.2 Closed circuit crushing operation 118
9.4 Problems for practice 124
10 Grinding 127
10.1 Grinding action 128
10.2 Wet and dry grinding 132
10.3 Grinding circuits 132
10.4 Problems for practice 141
12 Classification 163
12.1 Classifiers 163
12.2 Efficiency of separation in hydrocyclone 180
12.3 Problems for practice 187
This book Minerals and Coal Process Calculations has been conceived with an inten-
tion to provide a book exclusively on process calculations, the most vital part of mineral
and coal processing operations. The aim of the process calculations is to evaluate the
performance of mineral and coal processing operations in terms of the efficiency of
the operation and recovery of the required constituents. The primary requirement to
evaluate the performance is to measure different parameters like flow rates of the pro-
cess streams and percent solids, size assay analysis, float and sink analysis of solids in
each stream. The process calculations are also necessary to understand the principles
of separation processes.
This book is designed to illustrate all the process calculations. The first chapter
introduces the minerals and coal and grade calculations. The second chapter explains
the material balancing method, the heart of the majority of process calculations. Three
chapters sampling, liberation and beneficiation operations have been included for the-
oretical explanations necessary to understand process calculations easily. Size analysis,
graphical representations, partition, washability, Mayer and Tromp curves, calcula-
tions of screen efficiency, density and percent solids, energy for comminution, open
and closed circuit crushing and grinding operations, classification efficiency, float and
sink analysis, and metallurgical accounting are illustrated in subsequent chapters. In
the last chapter varieties of process plant circuits have been considered.
Majority of the calculations are performed by using two basic material balance
equations without using derived formulae. However, calculations with derived formu-
lae are also performed in few calculations simultaneously. Every effort has been put in
to illustrate the calculations in simple way and self explanatory manner with an aim
to familiarize the reader with different types of process calculations and to develop
the abilities to evaluate the performance of the process with confidence. So far as I am
aware, this is the first book entirely devoted to process calculations by way of worked
out examples and problems for practice.
With in-depth detailed process calculations, this book is very useful for stu-
dents, teachers, operating personnel, engineers, researchers, designers, equipment
manufacturers and plant auditors concerned to mineral and coal processing.
D.V. Subba Rao
Formerly Head, Department of Mineral Beneficiation,
S D S Autonomous College, Garividi,
Vizianagaram District, Andhra Pradesh, India
dvsubbarao3@rediffmail.com
dvsubbarao3@gmail.com
Acknowledgements
I thank Dr. C. Raghu Kumar, Head, Ore Beneficiation, Process Technology group,
Tata Steel Ltd., Jamshedpur, Sri G.V. Rao, DGM, NMDC, Hyderabad, for the valuable
discussions I had with them in identifying certain process calculations.
xiv Acknowledgements
I do not have words to express my gratitude for the continuous support and help
received from Dr. T.C. Rao, former Director, Regional Research Laboratory, Bhopal,
and Professor and Head of the department of Fuel and Mineral Engineering, Indian
School of Mines, Dhanbad. I had many useful discussions with him while concep-
tualizing and writing this book. His guidance in completing this book successfully is
invaluable.
I am indebted to Sri A.L. Mohan, former Principal, S D S Autonomous College,
Garividi, for his constant encouragement and blessings.
I acknowledge my gratitude to my colleagues Sri Y. Ramachandra Rao and
Sri K. Satyanarayana for sharing their knowledge and experience which helped me
in writing this book.
Much of the theoretical principles explained in this book have been taken from the
books “Mineral Beneficiation – A Concise Basic Course’’ and “Coal Processing and
Utilization’’ written by me.
I am thankful to Taylor & Francis group, its editorial and production staff for their
excellent cooperation in bringing out this book.
Without the understanding and support of my wife Krishna Veni, and daughters
Radha Rani and Lalitha Rani, writing this book would not have been possible.
List of tables
15.7.1.1 Float and sink analysis data for example 15.7.1 218
15.7.1.2 Calculated values for example 15.7.1 218
15.7.2.1 Float and sink test data for example 15.7.2 219
15.7.2.2 Float and sink test results for example 15.7.2 219
15.7.2.3 Calculated values of NGM & DW for example 15.7.2 220
15.7.3.1 Float and sink analysis for example 15.7.3 222
15.7.3.2 Calculation of Weight% and Ash% 222
15.7.3.3 Calculation of Cumulative Weight%, Ash% and NGM 223
15.7.4.1 Float and sink analysis for example 15.7.4 224
15.7.4.2 Calculation of Weight% and Ash% for example 15.7.4 225
15.7.4.3 Calculation of Cumulative Weight% and Ash% 225
15.7.5.1 Washability test data for example 15.7.5 226
15.7.5.2 Calculated values for example 15.7.5 226
15.8.1.1 Washability test data for example 15.8.1 232
15.8.1.2 Cumulative percentages for example 15.8.1 232
15.9.1 Float and sink test data for problem 15.9.1 235
15.9.2 Float and sink analysis for problem 15.9.2 235
15.9.3 Float and sink data for problem 15.9.3 235
15.9.4 Washability test data for problem 15.9.4 236
15.9.5 Washability test data for problem 15.9.5 236
16.1.1 Quantities and assay values 240
16.1.9 Analyses of the streams of flotation circuit 245
16.2.1 Results of flotation test 251
16.2.1.1 Percent distribution of lead and zinc for example 16.2.1 252
16.3.2 Data of Iron ore concentration operation 257
16.5.1 Data of Iron ore concentration operation for problem 16.5.1 263
17.1.1.1 Float and sink test of raw coal 268
17.1.1.2 Calculated values for example 17.1.1 269
17.1.4.1 Float and sink experiment data for example 17.1.4 271
17.1.4.2 Calculated values for example 17.1.4 271
17.1.5.1 Float and sink analysis data for example 17.1.5 272
17.1.5.2 Calculated values for example 17.1.5 273
17.2.1 Float and sink analyses of clean coal and refuse 275
17.2.2 Calculated values for drawing Tromp Curve 276
17.2.3 Values of Independent criteria for different washing units 280
17.2.1.1 Float and sink analyses of clean coal and refuse for example 17.2.1 280
17.2.1.2 Calculated values for Tromp curve for example 17.2.1 281
17.2.2.1 Float and sink analyses of clean coal and refuse for example 17.2.2 282
17.2.2.2 Calculated values for Tromp curve for example 17.2.2 283
17.3.1 Float and sink analysis of raw coal for problem 17.3.1 284
17.3.2 Float and sink analysis for problem 17.3.2 284
17.3.5 Float and sink analyses of clean coal and refuse for problem 17.3.5 285
18.1.1 Results of tests for samples for example 18.1.1 288
18.1.2 Circuit sampling results for example 18.1.2 291
18.1.3 Analyses of samples for example 18.1.3 294
18.1.5 Results of tests for samples for example 18.1.5 300
18.2.3.1 Composition of each stream of flotation circuit 306
xviii List of tables
Minerals and Coal are non-renewable natural resources that occur in the earth’s crust.
As defined by Dana, a well known physicist, mineral is a substance having defi-
nite chemical composition and internal atomic structure and formed by the inorganic
processes of nature [1].
All minerals contain one or more metals or metalloids. Minerals are broadly classified
as metallic and non-metallic minerals.
Metallic minerals are the minerals from which a metal is extracted. Bauxite
(Al2 O3 · 2H2 O), Hematite (Fe2 O3 ), Ilmenite (FeO TiO2 ), Pyrolusite (MnO2 ), and
Chromite (FeO Cr2 O3 ) are few of the important metallic minerals.
Non-metallic minerals are the minerals used for industrial purposes for making
cement, refractories, glass & ceramics, insulators, fertilizers etc. These minerals are
also called industrial minerals. Metals are not extracted from these minerals. Some
metallic minerals are also used for industrial purposes like Bauxite, Chromite and
Zircon for refractory industry, Pyrolusite for dry battery cells and Ilmenite for pigment
industry etc. Table 1.1.1 shows few non-metallic minerals, their chemical formulae and
chief uses.
The following are the important terms used in describing the mineral deposits.
Rock is an aggregation of several minerals as occurred in the earth’s crust. Granite,
an aggregation of orthoclase, quartz and mica, is an example for the rock.
Ore is also an aggregation of several minerals from which one or more minerals
can be exploited/separated at profit. Today’s rock due to unavailability of technology
to use it may become tomorrow’s ore if technology is available to utilize it for our
purpose. Similarly, at a place if the technology is available to separate required minerals
profitably it is called ore. The same ore with the same characteristics in all respects
is present in a place where it cannot be exploited at profit, it is called rock. Hence it
should be understood that the term ore is used to represent its economic viability so
that it can be attempted to exploit/separate for the required minerals.
Ore Minerals or Valuable Minerals (also called Economic Minerals) are those
minerals of economic value and contain an economically exploitable quantity of some
metal or non-metal.
2 Minerals and coal process calculations
Gangue Minerals are usually the non-metallic minerals associated with ore min-
erals which are worthless as a source for that metal or otherwise. These are usually
unwanted or waste or useless minerals. These gangue minerals occasionally may find
use as source of by-products. For example, pyrite present in Lead and Zinc ores is a
gangue mineral but it is separated as by-product for extraction of sulphur after lead
and zinc minerals are separated.
Ore Deposits are the natural deposits of ore minerals. These are also called
economic mineral deposits.
Ore is an aggregation of valuable and gangue minerals.
Simple Ore is one from which a single metal can be extracted. For example,
only Iron is extracted from Iron ore, Aluminium is extracted from Aluminium ore,
Chromium is extracted from Chrome ore, etc. Such ores are called simple ores.
Complex Ore is one from which two or more metals can be extracted. Lead
and zinc metals are extracted from lead zinc ore; Lead, Zinc and Copper metals are
extracted from Lead-Zinc-Copper Ore. Such ores are called complex ores.
Minerals and coal 3
Example 1.1.1: Calculate percent iron present in Hematite (Fe2 O3 ). Atomic weights
of Iron and Oxygen are 55.85 and 16.00 respectively.
Solution:
Given
Atomic weight of Iron = 55.85
Atomic weight of Oxygen = 16.00
Chemical formula of Hematite is Fe2 O3
Molecular weight of Hematite = 55.85 × 2 + 16 × 3 = 159.7
55.85 × 2
Iron present in Hematite = × 100 = 69.94%
159.7
It means that 69.94% Fe (Iron metal) by weight is present in mineral Hematite.
Similarly, percent metal present in any metallic mineral can be calculated. Some
of the metallic minerals, their chemical formulae, metal extracted from them and
the percent metal present in respective minerals by similar calculation are shown in
Table 1.1.2.
Assay Value or tenor is the percent metal, percent valuable mineral, or ounces
precious metal per ton of the ore depending upon the type of ore involved.
In case of ores of metallic minerals, percent metal present in the ore is the assay
value. For an ore of precious metal like gold, ounces or gram precious metal per ton
of the ore is the assay value as the precious metal is present in little quantities. An
assay value of an ore of non-metallic minerals is represented by the percent valuable
or required constituent of the ore. For example, lime (CaO) is the required constituent
in the limestone (predominantly CaCO3 ) for use in making cement. The assay value
of the limestone is represented as %CaO. Example 1.1.2 illustrates this calculation.
4 Minerals and coal process calculations
Example 1.1.2: Determine percent lime (CaO) present in limestone of CaCO3 com-
position. Atomic weights of Calcium, Carbon and Oxygen are
40.08, 12.01 and 16.00 respectively.
Solution:
Given
Atomic weight of Calcium = 40.08
Atomic weight of Carbon = 12.01
Atomic weight of Oxygen = 16.00
Chemical formula of Limestone is CaCO3
Example 1.1.3: Calculate %Al2 O3 and %SiO2 present in china clay (Al2 O3 · 2SiO2 ·
2H2 O). Atomic weights of Aluminium, Silica, Hydrogen and
Oxygen are 26.98, 28.09, 16.00 and 1.00 respectively.
Solution:
Given
Atomic weight of Aluminium = 26.98
Atomic weight of Silicon = 28.09
Atomic weight of Oxygen = 16.00
Atomic weight of Hydrogen = 1.00
Chemical formula of China Clay is Al2 O3 · 2SiO2 · 2H2 O or (Al2 Si2 H4 O9 )
Grade of an ore signifies the quality of the ore in general. An ore having high
assay value is termed as high grade ore or rich ore and an ore of low assay value is
termed as low grade ore or lean ore. The terms low grade and high grade are relative
Minerals and coal 5
to the specific ore of acceptable tenor. As for example, Iron ore of around 60% Fe is
acceptable for extraction of Iron whereas Lead ore of around 10% Pb is acceptable
for extraction of Lead. Hence Iron ore of more than 60% Fe is rich ore and Lead ore
of more than 10% Pb is rich ore.
The grade is expressed in terms of metal content in case of metallic ores like iron
ore, manganese ore, base metal ores etc.; in terms of percentage of oxides in case of
many metallic and non-metallic ores e.g. Cr2 O3 in chrome ore, Al2 O3 in Aluminium
ore, CaO in limestone and P2 O5 in apatite and rock phosphate. In some cases impurities
also determine the grade, for example, the presence of sulphur and phosphorus in iron
ore, manganese ore, and coal. Again in some cases, the strength of the material and
colour are taken into account for grading purpose. Spinning and non-spinning types
in case of asbestos; snow white, white and off colour in case of barites; and friable,
compact or massive and crystalline in case of limestone are some of the examples.
Rubber manufacturers specify absolutely copper free china clay as even small trace of
copper results in early decay of rubber. Yet, in other case, the physical properties and
the size are the only two factors considered for grading, the chemical composition does
not come into the picture at all; as for example in case of mica and asbestos. Grading
of Iron ore and coal are also done based on size as fines, lumps, etc.
Specification of an ore is intimately related with the grade. It pinpoints the toler-
ance limits of all constituents present in it. Individual consumers may prescribe different
specifications for the same grade of mineral which is dependent upon two factors:
Different ores are classified commercially based on their use for particular purpose.
For example manganese ore is classified as first grade, second grade, medium grade and
low grade having manganese percent as 46–48%, 44–46%, 40–44% and <35% Mn
respectively wherein manganese metal is extracted. Manganese ore of minimum 78%
MnO2 is classified as battery grade. Similarly Chrome ore of minimum 48% Cr2 O3
is a metallurgical grade used for extraction of chromium metal. Chrome ore of 38–
48% Cr2 O3 is classified as refractory grade. If the chrome ore is used for extraction of
chromium metal, %Cr in the ore is required to know whereas if it is used for making
refractory bricks, %Cr2 O3 in chrome ore is required to know. Hence in example 1.1.4,
%Cr and %Cr2 O3 are calculated in chromite mineral.
Example 1.1.4: Determine %Cr2 O3 and %Cr in Chromite FeO · Cr2 O3 . Atomic
weights of Iron, chromium and Oxygen are 55.85, 52.00 and 16.00
respectively.
Solution:
Given
Atomic weight of Iron = 55.85
Atomic weight of Chromium = 52.00
Atomic weight of Oxygen = 16.00
Chemical formula of Chromite is FeO · Cr2 O3
6 Minerals and coal process calculations
Solution:
Given
Atomic weight of Lead = 207.19
Atomic weight of Sulphur = 32.06
Chemical Formula of Galena is PbS
Molecular weight of Galena = 207.19 + 32.06 = 239.25
207.19
Lead present in galena = × 100 = 86.60%
239.25
%Pb in Galena (PbS) = 86.60%
%Pb in Lead Ore = 2%
2
∴ % Galena (PbS) in Lead Ore = × 100 = 2.31%
86.60
% gangue in Lead Ore = 100 − 2.31 = 97.69%
∴ Weight of gangue per ton of lead ore = 97.69/100 = 0.9769 ton
Example 1.1.6: A sample contains Ilmenite (FeO TiO2 ), Rutile (TiO2 ) and other
minerals containing no Ti and Fe. Chemical analysis of the sample
results the percent Fe and Ti as 28.57 and 20.87. Calculate the
percent Ilmenite, rutile and other minerals in the sample. Atomic
weights of Titanium, Iron, and Oxygen are 47.90, 55.85 and 16.00
respectively.
Solution:
Given
Atomic weight of Titanium = 47.90
Atomic weight of Iron = 55.85
Atomic weight of Oxygen = 16.00
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