Process Engineering: Addressing the

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Michael Kleiber
Process Engineering
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A Computer-Aided Approach
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ISBN 978-3-11-061145-8, e-ISBN 978-3-11-061160-1

Product-Driven Process Design.

From Molecule to Enterprise
Zondervan, Almeida-Rivera, Carmada, 2020
ISBN 978-3-11-057011-3, e-ISBN 978-3-11-057013-7

Process Intensification.
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Product and Process Design.

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Reviews in Chemical Engineering

Luss, Brauner and Brauner, Neima (Editors-in-Chief)
ISSN 0167-8299, e-ISSN 2191-0235
Michael Kleiber

Process
Engineering

|
Addressing the Gap between Study and Chemical
Industry

2nd edition
Author
Dr.-Ing. Michael Kleiber
thyssenkrupp Industrial Solutions AG
Friedrich-Uhde-Str. 2
65812 Bad Soden
Germany
michael.kleiber@gmx.net

ISBN 978-3-11-065764-7
e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-065768-5
e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-065807-1

Library of Congress Control Number: 2019953833

Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek

The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie;
detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de.

© 2020 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston

Cover image: Propylene oxide plant in Ulsan / South Korea / thyssenkrupp Industrial Solutions AG
Typesetting: VTeX UAB, Lithuania
Printing and binding: CPI books GmbH, Leck

www.degruyter.com
|
For Claudia and our no more little Timon
Preface
You need only 10 % of the things you learn at the university.
The problem is: You don’t know which 10 %!
(University Sapience)

There are so many good textbooks on process engineering. When you start writing a
new one, you must wonder what might be its identifying feature, making it different
from other textbooks. In fact, I think I have got one.
After having worked in industry for twenty years in process simulation, design,
and development, the author is by no means in a position to give proper answers to any
problem. On the contrary, any new process has its own characteristic problems, and
more or less you start from scratch. But experience and a good network help to develop
an appropriate strategy to get a solution, and to be able to distinguish between impor-
tant and less important knowledge in process engineering. In the academic world,
there is a tendency for over-emphasizing theoretical concepts without integration of
the application aspects. For instance, many phase equilibrium and physical property
data specialists have never simulated a distillation column, which would give a certain
feeling for the importance of an activity coefficient at infinite dilution. On the other
hand, practitioners have a tendency to believe in a solution which worked once, disre-
garding that this might have been related to conditions which are not always available.
The corresponding pieces of software are simply trusted in any case, while nobody can
explain what they are based on and what their limitations are.
Bridging the gap between university and industry is the utmost concern of this
book. The intention is not to write a textbook for beginners in process engineering,
but to help the reader to be prepared with the most essential pieces of knowledge in
practical applications. It tries to answer the so-called silly questions, things that many
students have learned at the university without understanding their implications.
The target of this book is not to generate specialists but to make the reader do
something reasonable and keep the overview. It is not a textbook which gives thorough
explanations for any topic listed in the book; for this purpose, some 400 pages are
by far not enough. In fact, long mathematical and scientific derivations are avoided,
and other existing textbooks are referred to where the reader can acquire an in-depth
knowledge if needed. Instead, we try to explain the meaning of the topics and formulas
so that the reader gets a feeling for the relationship and the interpretation. It should
enable the reader to take part in discussions and to know where it is worth increasing
his knowledge with further literature, and to distinguish between important and less
important topics.
To give an example: the author has often been asked to explain what an activ-
ity coefficient is. People always expect at most two sentences, in the usual manner of
engineers. This is simply not possible. Good textbooks need several pages to explain
phase equilibria of pure substances, the difference between mixtures and pure sub-

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110657685-201
VIII | Preface

stances, the meaning of the Gibbs energy, and the concepts of excess and partial molar
properties. Certainly, this explanation is a requirement for thermodynamists, but it is
not the way for application engineers to understand why he must use activity coeffi-
cients (or an equivalent concept) for nonideal mixtures and how to get them. Instead,
a “recipe” for the usage of a model is required, and in many projects it is important
to explain the necessity of a proper evaluation of the model parameters, and to avoid
that the project manager gets the impression that it is just an accuracy fad.
The author is fully aware that the text reflects his own opinion. For example, equa-
tions of state are currently favored by most scientific authors. Nevertheless, the author
wants the reader to be capable, not perfect and at state of the art in each area. For this
purpose, activity coefficients are the more pragmatic approach and taken as the stan-
dard in this book.
The author is grateful to Jürgen Gmehling, Michael Benje, and Hans-Heinrich
Hogrefe, who eliminated many errors and misprints in my draft. Thanks also to
Hristina and Olaf Stegmann, who helped me a lot to write reasonable texts in Chap-
ters 1 and 11.
I would like the reader, probably a process engineer in his startup phase, to have
a better idea about the 10 % knowledge which will help him in his professional life.
And of course: always have fun in your job!

And remember:

There is always much more to learn than can ever be taught!

(Peter Ustinov)

A fool with a tool is still a fool.

(Grady Booch)
Preface to the 2nd edition
Three years have passed since the first edition. I intended to write a book with the spe-
cial focus on students just after finishing the university and then getting acquainted
with the industrial point of view. The feedback has given me confidence that I suc-
ceeded with this purpose.
Now I was told that it is time to make a review. I had waited for this announcement
for a long time. As always, after a text is finished, you start to find the first mistakes,
and any feedback, although usually positive, reveals room for improvement. My tech-
nique is to create a file containing all suggestions from readers, so that I have a fast
startup when revision comes to the top of the agenda. There were a lot of items to cor-
rect, and I have to thank all the readers who contributed to this list, although I am
angry with myself about every single mistake.
Furthermore, a few chapters have been extended, and a new one on dynamic sim-
ulation has been introduced. As I am not very experienced in dynamic simulation, I
had the good idea to ask Mrs. Verena Haas from BASF SE to write this introductory
chapter. Verena did an impressive master thesis in our company, and I cannot imag-
ine that there is someone more appropriate for this job. She was also the one who
suggested to add a PID chapter, and after it was written, she made a number of valu-
able changes on it. When I met her before her master thesis, I took her as a possible
reader; meanwhile, she has become a valuable partner for writing this book.

Hattersheim, February 2020 Michael Kleiber

And remember:

Experience is a thing you claim to have – until you acquire more of it.
(Harald Lesch in: α-Centauri)

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110657685-202
Contents
Preface | VII

Preface to the 2nd edition | IX

1 Engineering projects | 1
1.1 Process engineering activities | 1
1.2 Realization of a plant | 8
1.3 Cost estimation | 18

2 Thermodynamic models in process simulation | 25

2.1 Phase equilibria | 27
2.2 φ-φ-approach | 32
2.3 γ-φ-approach | 40
2.3.1 Activity coefficients | 40
2.3.2 Vapor pressure and liquid density | 49
2.3.3 Association | 54
2.4 Electrolytes | 56
2.5 Liquid-liquid equilibria | 59
2.6 Solid-liquid equilibria | 62
2.7 φ-φ-approach with gE mixing rules | 64
2.8 Enthalpy calculations | 66
2.9 Model choice and data management | 69
2.10 Binary parameter estimation | 73
2.11 Model changes | 75
2.12 Transport properties | 76

3 Working on a process | 81
3.1 Flowsheet setup | 82
3.2 PID discussion | 92
3.3 Heat integration options | 97
3.4 Batch processes | 105
3.5 Equipment design | 109
3.6 Troubleshooting | 110
3.7 Dynamic process simulation | 113
3.7.1 Basic considerations for dynamic models | 115
3.7.2 Basics of Process Control for Dynamic Simulations | 118

4 Heat exchangers | 127

4.1 Something general | 127
4.2 Shell-and-tube heat exchangers | 129
XII | Contents

4.3 Heat exchangers without phase change | 130

4.4 Condensers | 141
4.5 Evaporators | 143
4.6 Plate heat exchangers | 152
4.7 Double pipes | 154
4.8 Air coolers | 154
4.9 Fouling | 156
4.10 Vibrations | 158

5 Distillation and absorption | 163

5.1 Thermodynamics of distillation and absorption columns | 166
5.2 Packed columns | 168
5.3 Maldistribution in packed columns | 179
5.4 Tray columns | 181
5.5 Comparison between packed and tray columns | 201
5.6 Distillation column control | 203
5.7 Constructive issues in column design | 208
5.8 Separation of azeotropic systems | 211
5.9 Rate-based approach | 214
5.10 Dividing wall columns | 216
5.11 Batch distillation | 219
5.12 Troubleshooting in distillation | 221

6 Two liquid phases | 225

6.1 Liquid-liquid separators | 225
6.2 Extraction | 228
6.2.1 Mixer-settler arrangement | 231
6.2.2 Extraction columns | 232
6.2.3 Centrifugal extractors | 235

7 Alternative separation processes | 237

7.1 Membrane separations | 237
7.2 Adsorption | 245
7.3 Crystallization | 252

8 Fluid flow engines | 257

8.1 Pumps | 257
8.2 Compressors | 265
8.3 Jet pumps | 274
8.4 Vacuum generation | 277

9 Vessels and separators | 283

 Contents | XIII

10 Chemical reactions | 291

10.1 Reaction basics | 291
10.2 Reactors | 299

11 Mechanical strength and material choice | 307

12 Piping and measurement | 313

12.1 Pressure drop calculation | 313
12.1.1 Single-phase flow-through pipes | 313
12.1.2 Pressure drops in special piping elements | 318
12.1.3 Pressure drop calculation for compressible fluids | 318
12.1.4 Two-phase pressure drop | 321
12.2 Pipe specification | 327
12.3 Valves | 329
12.3.1 Isolation valves | 329
12.3.2 Control valves | 332
12.4 Measurement devices | 334

13 Utilities and waste streams | 339

13.1 Steam and condensate | 339
13.2 Heat transfer oil | 346
13.3 Cooling media | 346
13.4 Exhaust air treatment | 348
13.4.1 Condensation | 351
13.4.2 Combustion | 354
13.4.3 Absorption | 359
13.4.4 Biological exhaust air treatment | 361
13.4.5 Exhaust air treatment with membranes | 362
13.4.6 Adsorption processes | 363
13.5 Waste water treatment | 364
13.6 Biological waste water treatment | 367

14 Process safety | 371

14.1 HAZOP procedure | 375
14.2 Pressure relief | 380
14.2.1 Introduction | 380
14.2.2 Mass flow to be discharged | 384
14.2.3 Fire case | 386
14.2.4 Actuation cases | 392
14.2.5 Safety valve peculiarities | 399
14.2.6 Maximum relief amount | 402
14.2.7 Two-phase-flow safety valves | 411
XIV | Contents

14.3 Explosions | 414

Glossary | 419

List of Symbols | 427

Bibliography | 431

A Some numbers to remember | 443

B Pressure drop coefficients | 447

Index | 451
1 Engineering projects
An engineering project is a huge and complex task for usually several hundred people.
Coming from the university and just having finished one’s studies, one has usually no
clue on what is going on beyond the own desk. In fact, the construction of a chemical
plant is often compared to the erection of the pyramids in ancient Egypt. While the
weight of a chemical plant is much lower, its complexity is by far greater, and the
project can usually be completed in approx. three years instead of twenty. The target
for a beginner must be to become a increasingly larger cog in the machine. First, an
overview on the particular phases and activities must be obtained.

1.1 Process engineering activities

A plant always belongs to somebody whose target is to quickly earn money by produc-
ing the substance the plant is designed for. At the beginning, a feasibility study has
to be done. A market analysis is performed, which hopefully shows that it is worth
starting a more detailed project. For a new process, it has to be checked whether it is
possible to overcome the technical difficulties. The legal situation with patents and li-
censes has to be clarified, and possible locations for the plant are compared, whereby
it is often necessary to consider different energy prices or transport costs for raw ma-
terials and products. A realistic production capacity and an impression of investment
(CAPEX) and operation costs (OPEX) must be available before starting a project (Chap-
ter 1.3). For the production capacity, it must be taken into account that no plant is in
operation all the time; usually, 8000 h per year are scheduled, giving approx. 90 %
availability. A corresponding overcapacity must be provided in the design.
It is important to know that an engineering project is not a sequential process,
where e. g. first the reactors are planned and finished, then the product purification,
and so on. This would actually be impossible, because due to recycle streams in the
process a complete engineering design of a single part of the plant could never be
achieved. Instead, all parts of the plant are worked out simultaneously, with increas-
ing accuracy and degree of detailing. The advantage is that possible bottlenecks and
difficulties are detected as early as possible, the interconnections are identified early,
and an appropriate number of project participants can be assigned to work on the var-
ious parts of the plant. Certainly, this is not the way we are used to in everyday life,
and there is often doubt as to whether it makes sense to perform a design of a piece of
equipment while it is clear that the input streams are just preliminary and will change
several times during the project. Nevertheless, as mentioned, it is most important to
get an overview on the process as soon as possible. And with today’s tools, the design
from the previous phase is usually an ideal starting point when the preconditions have
been subject of change.

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110657685-001
2 | 1 Engineering projects

The engineering process is divided into certain phases, which are in principle:
– Conceptual Design
Target: The process is fixed, the feasibility is checked, the risks are identified.
– Basic Engineering, also called FEED (Front End Engineering Design)
Target: Preliminary elaboration of the plant, all documents available as good as
possible
– Detailed Engineering
Target: Complete and accurate description of all parts of the plant and all aspects
of building.

The process engineer should know what the follow-up activities of his calculations
are. The first phase in a project is the conceptual design, where the first mass and
energy balances are prepared, often based on lab trials and estimations.
The mass and energy balance is a key issue for all the following activities up to the
phase of detailed engineering. A change in the mass balance has often a major impact
on all other participants of the project, so it is desirable to make it as exact as possible,
and to update it as soon as it makes sense. There is a certain misunderstanding as to
what a mass and energy balance really is. The term “process simulation” is very com-
mon, and is also used here, but hardly applies. In fact, what the process does in the
steady state for a given set of inlet conditions is calculated, i. e. the streams and the
operating conditions of the particular pieces of equipment. Sometimes, the purpose
is in fact to find out how the plant or the equipment behaves, at least how it reacts,
and what the sensitivities are. However, in most cases, its purpose is to generate the
data for the design of the equipment, applying conservative cases concerning process
conditions or impurities. The exact process conditions that would enable the process
engineer to really “simulate” the plant are usually not known, at least not in the Con-
ceptual Design phase.
Despite these often occurring misunderstandings, “process simulation” is nowa-
days well acknowledged as a useful tool which requires a well-trained process engi-
neer who has a profound knowledge of the process itself, its thermodynamics (Chap-
ter 2), the various pieces of equipment and their peculiarities, and the simulation
experience, in order to achieve convergence in the simulation flowsheet, which of-
ten turns out to be complex. Nowadays, some well-established commercial (ASPEN,
HYSYS, ChemCAD, PRO/II, ProSim) and inhouse process simulators (Chemasim at
BASF, VTPlan at Bayer) are available, performing calculations that would have been
considered to be absolutely impossible 30 years ago. The genuine process simulation
showing the actual plant behavior with respect to the design of the equipment, the
startup-behavior, and the process control is called dynamic simulation (Chapter 3.7).
Nowadays, its application becomes more and more popular, and conventional process
simulation can be used as a starting point for the dynamic version.
Sometimes, single process steps remain unknown and are represented in the mass
balance by simple split blocks. At least, there must be a concept of how to overcome
 1.1 Process engineering activities | 3

this lack of knowledge and what the effort might be. At the beginning of the basic
engineering these points should be completely clarified, and a full mass and energy
balance must be available. How this is done is the subject of Chapters 2 and 3. It is
desirable that pilot plant activities take place to confirm the mass balance and to make
sure of the influence of the recycle streams. The main purpose of such an activity is to
see whether all components are regarded and whether none of them accumulates in
the process.
The particular pieces of equipment are preliminarily designed according to the
current knowledge so that it becomes clear what the critical pieces of equipment are,
either because of their size or because of possible delivery limitations. As well, it must
be considered whether the plant can be operated at reduced or increased capacity,
which might be necessary for a certain period of time. Useful tools are the process
flow diagrams (PFD), where the whole process is visualized, including the main con-
trol loops (Figure 1.1). A PFD is a document to understand the process, operation data
for the important streams and blocks are usually included. The counterpart of the PFD
is process description, which describes the PFD in written form. It should not be exces-
sively detailed, as its main purpose is to enable the reader to understand the essentials
of the process. At the end of the conceptual design phase, equipment and operation
costs and hence the feasibility and their basis are better defined, often with respect to
a possible location.

Figure 1.1: Example for the detailing in a PFD.

In a so-called HAZID (HAZard IDentification) the main issues concerning the safety
of the process are first discussed and listed, often with first recommendations. At a
4 | 1 Engineering projects

later stage, the so-called HAZOP will take place, where all relevant safety issues are
discussed (Chapter 14.1). Finally, lists of utilities, raw products, auxiliary substances
(e. g. catalysts) and emissions (exhaust air, waste water, solid and organic wastes) are
issued. In the conceptual design phase, the design of the equipment can be done in
a preliminary way using rules of thumb. A first optimization of the process should
be performed. In process development, optimization is rarely a mathematical prob-
lem, where an objective function is defined and somehow minimized. Process simu-
lator programs offer such a function; however, the author’s experience is that in most
cases process optimization cannot be translated into an objective function, as many
soft factors have to be regarded (e. g. danger of fouling, increasing complexity, mate-
rial issues, ease of startup etc.). Equipment costs can be estimated by a process engi-
neer as long as only dimension changes are involved; however, it takes a specialist if
the type or the material of the equipment changes. The number of team members in
the conceptual design phase is comparatively low, as the process engineering tasks
are usually complicated but of a limited extent. The complexity of the process devel-
opment is encountered by an iterative procedure, where many options are tested to
achieve a stepwise progress towards an improved process. There is no clear workflow
plan; instead, the creativity of the project members is decisive [1]. Nevertheless, it is
desirable to compose a comprehensible documentation to save the process knowledge
which was gained during the assessment of the various options. As there is no special
structure available for this purpose, the documentation is done with a final report.
A successful and systematic way of optimizing a plant is the so-called value engi-
neering procedure. It starts with a brainstorming session, where all ideas of the pro-
cess team are formulated, collected, and clustered, either old ones as well as com-
pletely new ideas. In the following, these ideas are distributed back to the members
of the team. In a standardized procedure, the impact of an idea on CAPEX and OPEX
is carefully and comprehensibly evaluated, and the team can finally decide whether
the particular ideas are adopted or not.
In the basic engineering phase, the focus of the engineering moves from the pro-
cess design parameters like operating temperatures and pressures, flowrates or com-
positions to the geometric dimensions of the process equipment, design temperatures
and pressures (Chapter 11) and materials as parameters for the mechanical strength,
and the plant layout [2].
First, the design basis must be specified. The design basis is a document which
fixes the constraints of the project, e. g. formal things like capacity, operating hours
per year, the apportionment of the plant into units, a general description of the plant,
consumption figures, and the targeted quality of the product. Discretionary decisions
during the project should be avoided as much as possible. The ranges of meteorologi-
cal data are fixed, i. e. for the barometric pressure, the temperature, the air humidity,
and other data such as possible rainfall and their frequency, wind data, data on solar
radiation, sea water temperature in coastal regions, tidal and geotechnical data such
as the ground carrying capacity or the frequency and strength of earthquakes. The
 1.1 Process engineering activities | 5

minimum and maximum conditions of the utilities (steam, cooling water, demineral-
ized water, process water, brine, instrument air, nitrogen for inertization, natural gas,
electric current, etc.) are set so that the engineer can choose the design cases with the
most unfavorable conditions. The compositions of the raw materials are defined as
well as the ones of the waste streams. The constraints for construction and design are
set, such as the allowed tube lengths and shell diameters of heat exchangers, the foul-
ing factors, and the overdesign to be chosen. The engineering standards and guide-
lines to be applied are listed for the various activities. Often, the client company has its
own standards, which are explained in the so-called typicals, where the arrangement
of standard equipment is illustrated (Figure 1.2). The philosophy of backups should be
defined, e. g. for pumps. If a pump fails, it is possible that the whole plant must be shut
down. A spare pump which is already installed can solve this problem. In cases which
are less urgent it might be sufficient to have a spare pump in the storehouse. Also,
a preventive maintenance strategy is often applied, where devices are maintained or
even exchanged after a certain time when experience indicates that a failure becomes
probable. Any deviation from the design basis must be reported to the client. The de-
sign basis is continuously updated until the engineering is finished.

Figure 1.2: Example for a typical of a con-

trol valve arrangement.

In the basic engineering, the process equipment is designed both with respect to its
function in the process and to the mechanical strength requirements. For each equip-
ment, the first issue of the data sheet is released, containing the data derived from
the process, i. e. the process parameters, the dimensions, the nozzles, the materials of
construction, and a specification of the insulation [2]. From that point on, the piece of
equipment is more or less decoupled from the process itself; the responsibility is taken
by the specialists for construction or machinery, who work out the specifications from
the process, especially the mechanical strength.
Besides the equipment, specifications are also prepared for the measurement and
control devices, the piping, and the safety valves. Detailed lists for equipment, utility
6 | 1 Engineering projects

consumers, electrical consumers, emissions, control equipment, and instrumentation

are compiled. In collaboration between process and instrumentation engineers, the
interlocks are defined. An interlock is an automatic action of the process control sys-
tem due to safety considerations or equipment protection. Examples are the switch-off
of a pump when the liquid level in the vessel downstream falls below the limit (LSLL,
level switch low low) to avoid cavitation or the stop of feed flow and steam to a column
after a pressure high-high switch (PSHH) had actuated.
The most important work of the process engineer in the basic engineering is the
setup of the piping and instrumentation diagrams (PID), which are the most elaborate
documents of the process. While the PFD contains only process relevant lines and
equipment, the PID shows other equipment, e. g. auxiliary lines for startup, safety
devices, and valves, as well. The instrumentation engineers play a decisive role to fix
the concept for measurement and control, which comprises a large part of the PID
work.
The PID is continuously updated in the detailed engineering and should finally
contain the following information [2]:
– all equipment and machinery, including design data and installed spare parts
(e. g. substitute pumps);
– all drives;
– all piping and fittings, nozzles;
– design information for the piping;
– all instruments, control devices and control loops, interlocks with the correspond-
ing signal flow;
– all check valves, safety valves, level gauges, drain lines;
– dimensions and operating data of equipment and machinery, materials of con-
struction, elevations;
– the battery limits, i. e. an illustration of the agreement of the scope of the project;
– the tie-in information, i. e. how the new plant is linked to existing equipment and
utilities.

Figure 1.3 shows the elaborate PID based on the PFD shown in Figure 1.1. Note that
only one column is depicted, because of the increased detailing the second column
is on a separate PID. As a rule of thumb, at most 2–3 pieces of equipment can be rep-
resented on one PID sheet. Thus, it is normal that a major plant documentation com-
prises 100–150 PID sheets. One of the most important tasks of the project management
is the coordination of the various teams and the time schedule for the provision of the
particular pieces of information on the PID. There should always be a “master” PID,
where all the changes are supplemented manually. In fact, there is a guideline for
these changes:
– red color: supplements;
– blue color: omissions;
– green color: comments.
 1.1 Process engineering activities | 7

It is a useful agreement to indicate who has made the various changes. At certain
stages, the PIDs are frozen, and a new issue is printed out. This happens several times
during a project, and minor changes are even made during commissioning. The final
PID set is called the “as built” status.

Figure 1.3: Example of the detailing in a PID.

The basic engineering should contain all the information in a way that the detailed en-
gineering can be performed without difficulty, and possibly without profound knowl-
edge about the process itself. This is an important requirement, as the detailed engi-
neering is not necessarily carried out by the same company as the basic engineering.
One target of the basic engineering is usually a cost estimation of ± 30 %, based on
budget price offers for the most important equipment and on scaled prices for stan-
dard equipment. While in the basic engineering only the essential information like di-
mensions, operating conditions or materials is prepared, in the detailed engineering
the complete specification of the whole static equipment and machinery is generated,
which enables manufacturers to submit bids.
In the detailed engineering the documents of the basic engineering are more elab-
orated and finally fixed, so that the following activities can take place [2]:
– preparation of bid invitations for equipment, materials, civil work, and construc-
tion;
– selection of manufacturers and vendors;
– quality assurance operations on vendors and manufacturers (“expediting”);
– planning of the transport of plant equipment;
8 | 1 Engineering projects

– execution of civil work and plant construction;

– commissioning.

The information from the equipment manufacturers are considered and implemented
in the documentation. In this phase, layout, piping construction, process, electrical
and other types of engineers work closely together.
In the detailed engineering, inconsistencies become less and less permissible. In
[1] an example is described: the process engineer fixes the necessary pipe diameter
with respect to the requirements of the process. Due to reasons of cost and accuracy,
the instrument engineer chooses a smaller diameter for the flow measurement. This
gives a temporary inconsistency, which is tolerable. However, a change is necessary,
either the change of the pipe or the instrument diameter or a reducing adapter. At the
end of the project, this change must have been performed; otherwise, money will be
wasted due to the ordering of wrong materials, not to mention the possible time delay
for the project.

1.2 Realization of a plant

The engineer’s work is a struggle between the pencil and the eraser. If the pencil wins, there is a
chance of getting things finished at some point.
(Dimitar Borisov)

With the ongoing project, the plant layout1 becomes more and more a high-priority
item. Plant layout is a procedure which involves knowledge of the space requirements
for the facilities and also involves their proper arrangement so that continuous and
steady movement of the products takes place [3].
During recent decades, there has been great progress with regard to tools. Previ-
ously the documents were produced with drawing ink, using special pens with differ-
ent line widths. Erasing a mistake was a risky procedure; instead of an eraser, a razor
blade was used to remove the ink.2 The drawings were archived on microfilm. Before
the computer evolution began, the only way to convey a 3D impression were isometric
drawings. While this seems possible for piping illustrations, one can hardly imagine
that this was ever appropriate for equipment drawings, especially if the drawing is
subject to changes.
Three-dimensional (3D) objects can not be effectively described in a two/dimen-
sional (2D) space [4]. At least two views of the object are required (see below). From
the 1980s on, layout models made of plastics were constructed. They were very useful,

1 The author is grateful to Mrs. Hristina Stegmann, who gave the main part of the input to this section.
2 Of course, razor blades do not distinguish between the ink and the skin of the user. The blood losses
of the author during his studies, usually spread on the drawing, were incredible.
 1.2 Realization of a plant | 9

Figure 1.4: Example of a detailed plastic model.

as they conveyed a good impression about the final appearance of the plant [2], and
they still count as objects worth being shown on guided visitor tours in an engineer-
ing company (Figure 1.4). They were set up according to the 2D drawings to verify the
concept or to solve special problems concerning piping. Plastic models gave an im-
mediate overall impression, but from the engineering point of view, they had severe
disadvantages:
– it was practically impossible to implement major changes;
– complete representation of the whole plant was a huge effort;
– the accuracy of such a model was limited.

More details can be found in [4].

In the era of scale models, there were many anecdotal stories of fingers being glued together,
inhalation of noxious fumes from plastic solvents, lacerations from cutting tools, and dissolved
fingerprints. Today, the 3D CAD modellers suffer from carpal tunnel syndrome and e-mail over-
load.
(found in [4])

With increasing computer capacity, 3D documents have become standard, and their
precision is amazing. They can hardly be distinguished from a photograph after the
construction is finished. A number of programs are on the market, usually with a
quite considerable license fee. While the elementary functions can be operated quite
10 | 1 Engineering projects

rapidly, it takes a few months until an engineer can claim to use such a system prop-
erly. The programs are able to show the plant with any level of detail from any point
of view. The required documents can be created automatically, i. e. plot plans, equip-
ment arrangement drawings, piping isometrics, and piping layout drawings. Other
documents such as line lists or equipment lists can be consolidated. Creating a 3D
model can be as time-consuming as manual drawings, but the saving of time and work
occurs downstream in the workflow [4]. Figure 1.5 shows an example.
A possible drawback of 3D models is an overconfidence in them, just because of
their precision and the amazing visualization technology. It is still the engineer whose
abilities are crucial for the quality of the model. The program does not prevent him
from making mistakes.
Nowadays, virtual reality (VR) programs offer the next option: a pair of data gog-
gles enables the user to go through the plant and check, for instance, its operabil-
ity. The system is so close to reality that people like the author who have no head for
heights are quickly led to the limits of their capability. During the recent years, this
technology has become more and more accessible and less expensive. Connected to
a dynamic process simulation, VR is supposed to be a valuable training tool for the
staff, which can be exposed to a large range of training scenarios including hazardous
situations. It increases the process and safety procedure knowledge, improves plant
reliability, and lowers the accident rate [5]. Whether just 3D or VR is applied will prob-
ably be a matter of the cost-benefit ratio. More information can be found in [6].

Figure 1.5: Example of a 3D representation.

Courtesy of AVEVA GmbH.

The layout work already begins in the proposal phase of a project. A first concept must
be set up in order to give a first idea about the appearance of the plant and to confirm
that the proposed area on the site is sufficient.
During the conceptual phase, precise information about the equipment is usually
not known, unless reliable data from a reference plant is available. Only the size of key
equipment such as reactors, large tanks, and silos can at least be estimated accord-
ing to their capacity. Therefore, the particular pieces of process equipment are often
 1.2 Realization of a plant | 11

represented by placeholders with an estimated preliminary size. Their position inside

the battery limits is defined with regard to numerous safety and service requirements,
considering the natural process flow for an efficient arrangement. When new informa-
tion is generated, the layout plan is continuously updated. With the first issues of the
PIDs, it becomes more and more elaborate, and the adjustments to be made become
less significant – and it makes sense to begin with the 3D piping work.
There are a number of 2D documents which are often relevant. The genuine docu-
ments containing the engineering information are drawings which show the top and
the side views. Isometric drawings are often produced to obtain a better imagination
of the plant. The three axes of space are not perpendicular to each other but angled
towards the viewer with 60° angles between them. The lengths are distorted; they ap-
pear foreshortened by a certain factor. Isometric drawings are more useful in architec-
ture. In engineering, they are only produced for illustration and usually not used as
documents containing the information.3 The relevant 2D documents are:
– Overall plot plan:
Shows an overview of a complete plant including the battery limits (Figure 1.6).
– Area plot plan:
Shows the overview of a part of a plant, e. g. a unit.
– Overall plot plan, isometric view:
Shows the view of the complete plant from two opposite directions. It is not really
necessary, but gives a good projection of the plant. Nowadays, there a tools which
can easily provide this.
– Equipment arrangement drawing:
Turns the focus to the particular pieces of equipment. The general rule is that each
piece of equipment must be visible from two sides to have a clear definition; usu-
ally the top view for defining the ground and the side view to define the tangent
line and the center line elevation are required.
– Iso-view of the equipment arrangement drawing:
Again, the iso-view does not provide information for the engineer, but it is easy to
produce and gives a good ide of it.
– Pipe iso (piping isometric drawing):
Isometric representation of a pipe with the coordinates for beginning and end and
the bends (Figure 1.9). It is automatically generated for all lines; it is used for or-
dering the material, the manufacturing, and the fitting into the plant. It is also
useful for process technology if a pipe must be carefully calculated, e. g. for an
exact pressure-drop calculation. Inlet and outlet lines of safety valves are well-
known examples.

3 For piping description, they are essential.

12 | 1 Engineering projects

Figure 1.6: Example for an overall plot plan.

– Piping layout drawings:

Piping layout drawings are equipment arrangement drawings which show not
only equipment and supporting structures but also the pipe lines available in the
represented area. As this kind of drawing is often overloaded with information, it
is being increasingly replaced by the direct use of the 3D model. Nowadays, viewer
programs are available where engineers can use the 3D model without special
knowledge about design.

In basic engineering, the main dimensions of the particular pieces of equipment are
outlined. The goal is that they are as exact as possible, so that other activities like
piping and static calculations for the steel structure can get started in a reasonable
way. Other details of the equipment such as nozzles are still omitted.
Also, the safety distances between the units or the pieces of equipment are worked
out, considering that service and maintenance concepts are set up as well as construc-
tion procedures (e. g. necessity of cranes). Taking into account that later on people will
spend time in the plant, the concepts for fire and explosion protection, the location of
safety showers and escape routes and the removal of flammable liquids in case of an
accident have to be clarified.
 1.2 Realization of a plant | 13

For layout, there are a number of basic principles that should be followed, among
them:
– Follow the process flow to keep the pipe lengths short. For example, if the con-
denser of a distillation column is located on the 2nd floor, put the reflux drum
on the 1st floor and the corresponding pump on the floor. Utility units should be
placed near the corresponding tie-in.
– Consider the minimum safety distances. E. g., compressors or units containing a
compressor such as cooling units need a distance of 9 m to other pieces of equip-
ment, depending on the engineering standard used.
– Estimate the space requirement of the piping around an apparatus and keep it
free! At the beginning, there is no information about this, and it is often underes-
timated. The information is usually generated when it is too late for relocating the
apparatus. It is not a solution to keep some space left in a conservative way; the
waste of space and the increased length of the pipes are expensive. Nevertheless,
some space for unforeseens should always be considered. Insufficient space for
pipe lines and instruments mostly leads to poor operability and personnel safety
issues. The estimation of the space requirement can be done best according to a
reference plant design with a similar capacity. If the reference plant has a signifi-
cantly different capacity, one should be aware that there is no linear relationship
between size and capacity. The process specialists should be able to make a good
first guess. The package units are usually the most challenging tasks. The layout
information is provided by the vendor, who is chosen at a late stage of the project.
Different vendors might use different technologies, and the space demand can
vary considerably.
– First create a concept for all escape and service routes and stick to it! For example,
provide continuous corridors on each level, and in the same way on each level so
that one can orientate oneself even if there is, for example, heavy smoke.
– Peculiarities concerning maintenance and service must be identified and taken
into account. A BEU heat exchanger (Chapter 4, Figure 4.7) will probably be regu-
larly dismantled for cleaning. There must be enough space for this operation, and
the dismantled tube-bundle should show to the road and not to the pipe rack. Es-
pecially, reboilers which can be dismantled are a delicate issue. As well, dip-pipes
(Chapter 9) are useful for directing liquid flow, but the layout engineers have to
consider reserved space for dismantling above the apparatus.
– Any machines with movable parts like pumps and compressors need regular
maintenance, which is convenient to be done on the ground floor. Furthermore,
pumps and compressors cause vibrations, which can be controlled in the best
way on the floor. For pumps, the location on the ground floor (Figure 1.7) makes
sense anyway, as the maximum NPSH value is generated (Chapter 8.1).
– Finally, a sense for symmetry is useful. The vessels should be arranged in a
straight line, as well as the outlet nozzles of the pumps (Figure 1.7). The distances
are even numbers, e. g. 2 m or 1.5 m.
14 | 1 Engineering projects

Figure 1.7: Typical pump arrangement.

Figure 1.8: Fully modularized process blocks.

– Interconnecting pipes are collected on a pipe rack.

A comparably new trend is modularization, which means that the whole system is
divided into units. These units are called modules, and they are dedicated to a certain
process task or unit operation. The modules can be manufactured and assembled in a
frame (Figure 1.8). These frames have defined interfaces and can be joined at the site
in a relatively easy way. This is useful if only a short time slot for construction and
assembly is available. If it takes a long time to get the permission for the construction
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