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Teaching and Researching
Speaking
Applied Linguistics in Action is a series which focuses on the issues and chal-
lenges to teachers and researchers in a range of fields in Applied Linguistics
and provides readers and users with the tools they need to carry out their own
practice-based research.
Rebecca Hughes
with Beatrice Szczepek Reed
Third Edition
Third edition published 2017
by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2017 Taylor & Francis
The right of Rebecca Hughes and Beatrice Szczepek Reed to be
identified as authors of this work has been asserted by them in
accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical,
or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval
system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks
or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and
explanation without intent to infringe.
First edition published 2002 by Pearson Education Limited
Second edition published 2011 by Pearson Education Limited
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Names: Hughes, Rebecca, 1962– author. | Szczepek Reed,
Beatrice, 1973– author.
Title: Teaching and researching speaking / Rebecca Hughes,
Beatrice Szczepek Reed.
Description: Third Edition. | New York, NY : Routledge, [2017] |
“Second edition published 2011 by Pearson Education Limited.”
Identifiers: LCCN 2016024160 | ISBN 9781138911741 (Hardback) |
ISBN 9781138911758 (Paperback) | ISBN 9781315692395
(Master) | ISBN 9781317432999 (Web PDF) | ISBN
9781317432982 (ePub) | ISBN 9781317432975 (Mobipocket/
Kindle)
Subjects: LCSH: Oral communication—Study and teaching. | Oral
communication—Study and teaching—Research.
Classification: LCC P95.3 .H84 2017 | DDC 302.2/242—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016024160
ISBN: 978-1-138-91174-1 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-138-91175-8 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-69239-5 (ebk)
Typeset in Goudy
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
To my mother, Alyna Hughes, 1918–2009.
Contents
List of Figuresx
List of Tablesxi
Series Editor Prefacexii
Acknowledgementsxiv
Publisher Acknowledgementsxv
SECTION I
Issues in Teaching and Researching Speaking1
SECTION II
Issues for Teaching and Assessing Speaking47
SECTION III
Researching Speaking155
SECTION IV
Resources and Further Information197
References219
Index234
Figures
• What does research tell us, what doesn’t it tell us, and what should it tell
us about the field? How is the field mapped and landscaped? What is its
geography?
• How has research been applied, and what interesting research possibilities
does practice raise? What are the issues we need to explore and explain?
• What are the key researchable topics that practitioners can undertake?
How can the research be turned into practical action?
• Where are the important resources that teachers and researchers need?
Who has the information? How can it be accessed?
Each book in the series has been carefully designed to be as accessible as pos-
sible, with built-in features to enable readers to find what they want quickly
and to home in on the key issues and themes that concern them. The structure
is to move from practice to theory and back to practice in a cycle of develop-
ment of understanding of the field in question.
Series Editor Preface xiii
Each of the authors of books in the series is an acknowledged authority, able
to bring broad knowledge and experience to engage teachers and researchers
in following up their own ideas, working with them to build further on their
own experience.
The first editions of books in this series have attracted widespread praise for
their authorship, their design, and their content, and have been widely used
to support practice and research. The success of the series and the realisation
that it needs to stay relevant in a world where new research is being con-
ducted and published at a rapid rate have prompted the commissioning of this
third edition. This new edition has been thoroughly updated, with accounts
of research that has appeared since the previous edition and with the addition
of other relevant material. We trust that students, teachers, and researchers
will continue to discover inspiration in these pages to underpin their own
investigations.
Chris Candlin
David Hall
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank all those who have helped me in the process of writ-
ing this book including my co-author, Beatrice Szczepek Reed. Beatrice and
I have highly complementary areas of research interest in relation to spoken
mode, and I was delighted when she accepted my suggestion that she become
a collaborator on this third edition of my book, which was first published in
2002. It has been a huge pleasure to work with her on this, and my thanks to
her for input, particularly in Chapters 1 and 5. Second, I would like to thank
British Council researcher in international education Heather Lonsdale for
editorial support to a very high standard and complex work on permissions
and copyright for this edition. Heather has been patient, professional, and
good humoured throughout and kept the two busy authors on track and to
deadline (which was not always an inevitable outcome). I would also like to
thank colleagues at British Council, particularly Dr Jo Beall, for the support
given me in finishing this edition alongside other commitments.
British Council English teachers in eight countries gave invaluable input
to the book, and I would like to thank the following in this respect: Lesley
Ashcroft, Rachael Burnham, Riadh Chelly, Katarzyna Chodzko, Ana Garcia-
Stone, Yvonne Leonard, Carolyn Leslie, Katy Simpson, Sheona Smith, and
Lisa Warner.
Rebecca Hughes, November 2016
Publisher Acknowledgements
Figures
Figure 2.1 is provided with the kind permission of the National Institute of
Education, Singapore. The use of Figure 4.2, ‘Categories underlying the speak-
ing construct’ (Xi et al., 2008), is granted by John Wiley and Sons on behalf
of Educational Testing Service. Figure 5.1 (Clark and Krych, 2004), is taken
from ‘Speaking while monitoring addressees for understanding’, Journal of
memory and language, 50(1), pp. 62–81, and is used with the kind permission
of Elsevier.
Tables
Table 4.1 is adapted from http://www.ets.org/Media/Tests/TEOFL/pdf/Inde
pendent_Speaking_Rubrics_2008.pdf (Copyright © 2014 Educational Testing
Service. All rights reserved), and its use has been granted by the Educational
Testing Service. Table 4.2, Top and bottom criteria for the IELTS speaking test,
is adapted from http://www.ielts.org/PDF/OUBDs_SpeakingFinal.pdf (IELTS,
2009), and is supplied with the kind permission of Cambridge English.
Text
Permission for Quotes 1.4 (Biber, D. and Barbieri, F., 2007) and 2.4 (Auer,
2009) is granted by Elsevier.
The use of Quote 3.1 (Yungzhong, 1985) is approved by the Shanghai For-
eign Language Education Press. Quotes 3.2 (Carter and McCarthy, 1997), 3.3
(Wallwork, 1997), 3.4 (Carter and McCarthy, 1998), and 3.17 (Anderson and
Lynch, 1992) are all used with the permission of Cambridge University Press.
Permission for use of Quote 3.8 (Lennon, 1990) is supplied by Wiley. Efforts
have been made to trace the owners of the copyright for Quote 3.13 (Har-
greaves and Fletcher, 1979), since the original publisher liquidated in 2012,
having previously authorised use of this material in earlier editions of this book.
Use of Quote 3.18 is kindly permitted by Barron’s Educational Services, Inc.
xvi Publisher Acknowledgements
Use of Quote 4.5 (Ginther, 2012) is granted by Wiley. Quotes 4.9 (Taylor,
2006) and 4.11 (Gan et al., 2009) are used with the permission of Oxford
University Press. Quote 4.13 (Fulcher, 2003), is kindly permitted by Taylor
and Francis. Quote 4.19 is from http://www.ets.org/toefl/ibt/scores/improve/
speaking_familiar_fai (ETS, 2016b) and is used with the kind permission of
the Educational Testing Service (Copyright © 2008 Educational Testing Ser-
vice. All rights reserved). Quote 4.20 (IELTS, 2016a) is from https://www.
ielts.org/about-the-test/test-format-in-detail and is used by kind permission of
Cambridge English. Quotes 4.21 and 4.22 are kindly permitted by Trinity Col-
lege London.
Quotes 5.1 and 5.2 (Mushin and Gardner, 2009), 5.9 (Morton, 2009), 5.10
(Blake, 2009), 5.11 (Wolf, 2008), and 5.12 and 5.13 (Clark and Krych, 2004)
are all used with the kind permission of Elsevier. Use of Quote 5.3 (Liber-
man, 1998) is permitted by Springer, and Quotes 5.4 (Uppstad and Tonnessen,
2007) and 5.6 (Speer and Ito, 2009) by Wiley. For Quote 5.5 (Gussenhoven,
2002), the author assumes copyright and grants permission for its use here.
Permission for the use of quote in Chapter 5 from Ohala (1994) is kindly per-
mitted by Cambridge University Press.
The use of Quotes 6.2 (Walsh, 2006) and 6.3 (Widdowson, 1972) has
been granted by the kind permission of Oxford University Press and has been
endorsed by the works’ own authors. Permission to use Quotes 6.5 (Ellis et al.,
2002), 7.3 (Hincks, 2010), 7.4 and 7.5 (Cheng and Tsui, 2009), 7.6 and 7.7
(Burns and Moore, 2008), 7.8 (Simpson, 2006), and 7.9 (Straube et al., 2010)
are all granted with the kind permission of Elsevier. Permission to use Quotes
7.1 and 7.2 (Lam, 2010) are granted by the kind permission of Oxford Uni-
versity Press.
Permission for the use of Quote 9.1 (Tyler, Jeffries, and Davies, 1988) is
granted by Wiley. Efforts have been made to establish permission for Quote
9.5 (Haynes, 1992).
In some instances we have been unable to trace the owners of copyright
material, and we would appreciate any information that would enable us to
do so.
Section I
1.1 Introduction
This chapter discusses the status of speech in society at different points in
time and in linguistic theory and practice in particular. A significant issue
which I will be addressing throughout this book is the fact that the spoken
form gained primacy of status in language studies in the twentieth century
to the point where there was, and there remains, a merging in applied lin-
guistic and wider research circles of the concept of ‘speaking’ with ‘language’.
This convergence has had an impact on how the form is assessed, taught, and
researched, as later chapters will show.
The chapter explains this process, why it is significant, and why, paradoxi-
cally, it has led to a lack of explicit attention within linguistic theory to the
faculty of speech in its own right. The conceptual and historical overviews in
this chapter are intended to provide an analysis of some of the implications
of this issue for the practice and theory of language teaching that the later
chapters deal with in detail.
Psycholinguistics
Sociolinguistics
Pragmatics
ORGANISATION Kinesics
AND Discourse Analysis
BEHAVIOUR Conversational Analysis
SOUND
Phonetics
Phonemics
Prosody/Intonation studies
Figure 1.1 Levels and Fields of Research Into Speech and Conversation.
how the more ‘musical’ elements of speech production, such as intonation and
speech rhythm, influence the meaning of words and sentences. These elements
are often referred to as the prosodic aspects of speech. Both the pronunciation
of sounds and the prosodic delivery of utterances are core skills for speaking.
In order to speak meaningfully in real-world conversations, humans not only
need to be able to pronounce sounds, words, and sentences correctly according
to the comparatively static rules of a given language, but they need to be able
to do so in the socially appropriate manner at the time of speaking. This skill
is referred to as communicative, or interactional, competence. In the fields of
spoken discourse analysis and conversation analysis researchers have investi-
gated natural conversation for many decades. Their results show that everyday
talk has its own rules and systematics, which are very different from written
language use (see also Section 1.3). Speaking successfully requires the mastery
of interactional patterns and customs, such as how to show that one has fin-
ished speaking, how to demonstrate to others that one is listening to them,
and when precisely to ask for clarification.
Then she got out of the car all of a sudden like, and this bike hit her right
in the back.
It was a shattering, frightening experience like.
So this bloke came up to me and I’m like ‘Go away, I don’t want to
dance’.
And my mum’s like nonstop three or four times ‘Come and tell your
Grandma about your holiday’.
oral/aural visual/motoric
transient non-transient
dynamic static
unplanned planned
spoken written
discourse discourse
primary secondary
rhetorical logical
stigmatised prestigious
spoken written
discourse discourse
informal formal
inter-personal contractual
Further salient aspects of the way speech is produced again relate to the
transient and situated nature of the spoken channel. The vast bulk of spoken
material is spontaneous, face-to-face, informal conversation. This kind of dis-
course is generally unplanned, dynamic, and context dependent. A conversa-
tion may be led by one speaker or another who wishes to deal with a particular
topic; however, the vagaries of real-time contexts mean that most speech takes
the form of a give and take, not only between speakers but also between the
discourse and the context. The type of interesting study which can arise from
this is how topics and topic changes are managed by speakers, how speakers
accommodate themselves to one another, how misunderstandings between
speakers are ‘repaired’, how activity affects language produced, or how refer-
ence is made to new/old information within a conversation.
The spoken form is very highly valued in linguistics and applied linguistics,
where it is regarded as the primary form of a language and the source of inno-
vation and language change. In the realm of second language teaching there
is also a high degree of attention paid to the skill of speaking. Indeed, to be a
fluent speaker in a language is often the layperson’s goal. The source of input
in highly influential ‘communicative approaches’ is largely the spoken form,
and, as I have previously noted, there has been a conflation in linguistics of
the term ‘language’ with ‘speech’, as if the two are entirely interchangeable.
This is due, in part, to the dominance of theories of first language acquisition
that influenced theories of second language acquisition throughout the twen-
tieth century. The spoken form is the basis for investigations in first language
acquisition. Since no child learns to write before he or she learns to speak,
the spoken mode is the only mode available for consideration and, therefore,
in first language acquisition studies the issue of distinguishing ‘language’ from
‘speech’ is irrelevant. However, paradoxically, there is very little attention
paid to the spoken skill in its own right to be judged by its own criteria in the
12 Teaching and Researching Speaking
world of linguistics, or of language teaching. A survey of respected interna-
tional journals in the field will find many more articles dealing explicitly with
the written form than with the spoken. An Internet search of scholarly activ-
ity using the key terms ‘writing’ and ‘speaking’ in the social sciences, arts, and
humanities suggests that there may be a growing attention to spoken mode but
that the balance of attention given to each form remains strongly in favour of
the written:
Toen het oude rechthuis nog aanwezig was, stond de strafplaats aan
de zyde, maar nu is dezelve van vooren.
REGEERING.
VOORRECHTEN
Nog kan men het een voorrecht noemen, dat de bestuurders der
Meir niet behoeven te gedogen dat des avonds na beslotene stads
poorten, eenig vreemdling zig in dezelve op de openbaare wegen
vertoonen; gelijk men in dat geval dan ook door de nachtwachts
aangehouden wordt, en rekenschap van zijn daarzijn moet geeven;
bij de minste twijfeling aan de waarheid des voorgeevens, of bij
ondervinding van de onwaarheid deszelven, wordt men in
bewaaringe gesteld.
BEZIGHEDEN
GESCHIEDENISSEN
In den jaare 1702, brak de Diemer of Muider Zeedijk weder door, het
geen andermaal niet weinig bekommernis voor eene overstrooming
van de Meir veroorzaakte; doch de ijver waarmede men de handen
aan ’t werk sloeg, om overal waar men het noodig oordeelde den
ringdijk van de Meir te versterken, werd met een gelukkigen uitslag
bekroond; de Meir naamlijk leed geheel geene schade.
BIJZONDERHEDEN,
HERBERGEN,
Rozendaal.
De Schulp.
Het Rechthuis.
De Maliebaan.
Voords nog vier in de Schaagerlaan, die echter sedert eenigen tijd
geene andere tap-actens bekomen dan van bier, coffij en thee.
REISGELEGENHEDEN,
Aan het tolhek vaart ook een geregelde veerschuit naar Amsteldam,
des zomers maandag, woensdag en vrijdag, ’s morgens vroeg, en
van daar te rug, op dezelfde dagen, ’s middags ten 12 uure: des
winters vaart deeze schuit alleenlijk maandags en vrijdags.
LIGGING
Is gelijk gezegd is, in Amstelland, drie uuren gaans ten zuiden van
Ouderkerk; hebbende ten westen en zuiden de Provincie Utrecht, ten
oosten de vrije Heerlijkheid Waveren Botsholl, en ten noorden de
rivieren de Amstel en de Waveren—Verder kan die ligging nader
opgemaakt worden, uit de scheipaalen die men op den gemeenen weg
of zogenaamden Veendijk, als op de Rondeveensche Kade vindt,
welken voor zo veel de Jurisdictien betreffen de scheidingen van deeze
met die der Heerelijkheid Waveren, Botsholl en Ruigewilnisse
aanduiden; edog daar hetzelve voor meer dan ⅞ deelen is uitgeveend,
kan men de strekking in de uitgeveende plassen bezwaarlijk
onderscheiden, schoon de ingezetenen zulks door strooken lands en
rietakkers weeten te bepaalen. [2]
Tot Waverveen behoort nog het district Strooknes aan den Amstel, met
een groote schutsluis ten einde van de vaart, het Bijleveld genaamd,
gelegen.
Van de
NAAMSOORSPRONG
Hebben wij niets kunnen ontdekken, in zo verre het eerste lid des naams
betreft, dat is Waveren, zekerlijk aan het dorp van dien naam gegeven,
naar het water, de Waver geheten, ’t welk het gezegde dorp, (waar van
straks nader,) van Ouderkerk afscheidt; dat er het woord veen
bijgevoegd is geworden, is om dat het bijna geheel uit veenen bestaat,
en den oord derhalven met recht den naam van Veenen van Waveren,
of Waverveen (ook Waverenveen,) mag draagen.
STICHTING en GROOTTE.
Wat het eerste gedeelte van dit artijkel, de stichting naamlijk, betreft,
daaromtrent is wederom niets met volkomen zekerheid te zeggen,
waarschijnelijk zoude het kunnen genoemd worden, zo men stelde dat
de gunstige gelegenheid tot de turfmaakerij hier eenige lieden heen
getrokken, en het wèl slaagen van hunne onderneeming weldra
navolgers verschaft zal hebben. [3]
Het gezegde getal huizen wordt bewoond door 240 menschen, (de
kinderen daaronder begrepen:) van deeze bewooneren zijn bijna 110
van den Gereformeerden Godsdienst, de overigen zijn meest allen
Roomsch.
Het
WAPEN
Tot voor omtrent tien of elf jaaren was het ruim der Kerk alleenlijk door
een groote midden, en aan wederzijde van dezelve twee kleine deuren
in den muur van den buitenweg afgesloten, het geen, dat te begrijpen is,
zijne onaangenaame gevolgen had; doch ten gemelden tijde is die
ingang door een vrij ruim portaal, met twee groote deuren van de
genoemde buitendeuren afgescheiden.
Van binnen is het kerkjen in alle deelen zeer net ingericht; tegen over
den ingang is eene vergaderkamer, voor die geene welken met de
zaaken der kerk belast zijn; boven dezelve is een kleine gaanderij; eene
dergelijke heeft men, om het regelmaatige in de bouwing te bevorderen,
ook boven het nieuwe portaal voornoemd gemaakt.
Vier a vijf minuten gaans van de Kerk staat de Pastorij, dat een zeer
goed ruim en welgelegen gebouw en in den laatstledenen jaare
merkelijk verbeterd is.
Een tolbrug, die te Waverveen gevonden wordt, en den naam draagt van
Bijleveldsche brug, wordt ten voordeele van de kerk verpacht, door
Schout en Kerkmeesters, ten overstaan van Schepenen van Waverveen
en Waveren: nog heeft de Kerk een ander inkomen voor derzelver
onderhoud, naamlijk één duit van iedere roede lands dat onder
Waverveen, Waveren, enz. zal uitgeveend worden; ook moeten de
veenders, boven dien, voor iederen ploeg volks, welken zij te werk
stellen ƒ 1:10 stuivers betaalen, dit echter niet ten voordeele van de
Kerk maar van de algemeene armen, zo wel die van de Roomschen als
van de Gereformeerden, die het gelijklijk deelen: beide gezegde
belastingen op het veenen, beloopen jaarlijks, (de jaaren weder door
elkander gerekend,) eene somme van ƒ 600.
WERELDLIJKE GEBOUWEN.
Onder dit art. hebben wij niet anders te betrekken, dan het Schouts huis,
dat vrij aanzienlijk is, met een vierkant plein met opgaande Linden
boomen beplant, waar achter een redelijk uitgestrekt boschjen, met
diverse wandelwegen doorsneeden, staande hetzelve achter het
Rechthuis, dat een gewoon boeren huis en herberg zonder eenig
aanzien is; men vind er echter een Rechtkamer in, waarvoor in groote
letters geschreven staat: Vivat Justitia, zijnde deeze huizen langs de
vaart het Bijleveld, waardoor de meeste schepen en vaartuigen naar en
van Amsteldam uit de Ronde veenen moeten passeeren gelegen, en
beiden aan het Ambacht van Waverveen behorende. [8]
KERKELIJKE REGEERING.
Deezen bestaat uit den Predikant in den tijd, een Ouderling en Diacon
uit Waverveen, en een Ouderling en Diacon uit Waveren Botsholl en
Ruigewilnisse, waarvan jaarlijks, (indien niet in hunnen diensten werden
gecontinueerd) een Ouderling en Diacon afgaan, en door anderen uit het
Ambacht daar de afgaande onder gehooren, vervangen worden:
staande de verkiezing derzelven, alsmede van den Gaardermeester die
voor beiden de Ambachten fungeert, aan den Kerkenraad.
WERELDLIJKE REGEERING.
Ter eerster aanleg worden de civile zaaken afgedaan door den Schout,
zijnde thans de Heer Jan van Wickevoort Crommelin, die er ook het
amt van Secretaris bekleedt, en vijf Schepenen; het eene jaar gaan
gewoonlijk twee en het andere jaar drie van dezelve af; doch sustineert
de Ambachtsheer of Vrouwe Schepens te continueren of minder getal af
te laaten gaan, zo staat zulks aan hun goedvinden, en worden de
aankomende door den Ambachtsheer of Vrouwe, uit een nominatie van
een dubbel getal door Schepenen te maaken, ten overstaan van den
Schout, geëligeerd; hetgeen mede plaats grijpt ten aanzien van de
Kerkmeesteren, waarvan altoos één van Waverveen en één van
Waveren Botsholl fungeert, als ook van de Gereformeerde en Roomsche
Buiten armmeesteren, alle welke bedieningen in een dubbeld getal
genomineerd, en op voorgemelde wijze geëligeerd of gecontinueerd
worden: de Ambachtsheeren of Vrouwen [9]hebben daarenboven de
aanstellinge van Schout, Secretaris, een Hoogheemraad van
Amstelland, alsmede van de Ronde veensche bepoldering; de Bode,
Koster, Voorleezer, Schoolmeester, Doodgraaver, Eiker, de Veerschipper
op Amsteldam, en de Nachtwacht.