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2
Transport Processes and Separation
Process Principles
Fifth Edition
CHRISTIE JOHN GEANKOPLIS

A. ALLEN HERSEL
DANIEL H. LEPEK
3
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ISBN-13: 978-0-13-418102-8
4
ISBN-10: 0-13-418102-6
1 18
5
To my mom, my wife, and my three sons
—Allen
To my family, friends, and the many students that I have taught

—Daniel
6
Contents
Preface to the Fifth Edition

About the Authors
PART 1
TRANSPORT PROCESSES: MOMENTUM, HEAT, AND MASS
Chapter 1 Introduction to Engineering Principles and Units

1.0 Chapter Objectives
1.1 Classification of Transport Processes and Separation Processes
(Unit Operations)
1.1A Introduction
1.1B Fundamental Transport Processes
1.1C Classification of Separation Processes
1.1D Arrangement in Parts 1 and 2
1.2 SI System of Basic Units Used in This Text and Other Systems
1.2A SI System of Units
1.2B CGS System of Units
1.2C English FPS System of Units
1.2D Dimensionally Homogeneous Equations and Consistent
Units
1.3 Methods of Expressing Temperatures and Compositions
1.3A Temperature
1.3B Mole Units and Weight or Mass Units
1.3C Concentration Units for Liquids
1.4 Gas Laws and Vapor Pressure
1.4A Pressure
1.4B Ideal Gas Law
1.4C Ideal Gas Mixtures
1.4D Vapor Pressure and Boiling Point of Liquids
1.5 Conservation of Mass and Material Balances
1.5A Conservation of Mass
7
1.5B Simple Material Balances
1.5C Material Balances and Recycle
1.5D Material Balances and Chemical Reaction
1.6 Energy and Heat Units
1.6A Joule, Calorie, and Btu
1.6B Heat Capacity
1.6C Latent Heat and Steam Tables
1.6D Heat of Reaction
1.7 Conservation of Energy and Heat Balances
1.7A Conservation of Energy
1.7B Heat Balances
1.8 Numerical Methods for Integration
1.8A Introduction and Graphical Integration
1.8B Numerical Integration and Simpson’s Rule
1.9 Chapter Summary
Chapter 2 Introduction to Fluids and Fluid Statics

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Fluid Statics
2.2A Force, Units, and Dimensions
2.2B Pressure in a Fluid
2.2C Head of a Fluid
2.2D Devices to Measure Pressure and Pressure Differences
2.3 Chapter Summary
Chapter 3 Fluid Properties and Fluid Flows

3.1 Viscosity of Fluids
3.1A Newton’s Law of Viscosity
3.1B Momentum Transfer in a Fluid
3.1C Viscosities of Newtonian Fluids
3.2 Types of Fluid Flow and Reynolds Number
3.2A Introduction and Types of Fluid Flow
3.2B Laminar and Turbulent Flow
3.2C Reynolds Number
8
3.3 Chapter Summary
Chapter 4 Overall Mass, Energy, and Momentum Balances

4.1 Overall Mass Balance and Continuity Equation
4.1A Introduction and Simple Mass Balances
4.1B Control Volume for Balances
4.1C Overall Mass-Balance Equation
4.1D Average Velocity to Use in Overall Mass Balance
4.2 Overall Energy Balance
4.2A Introduction
4.2B Derivation of Overall Energy-Balance Equation
4.2C Overall Energy Balance for a Steady-State Flow System
4.2D Kinetic-Energy Velocity Correction Factor α
4.2E Applications of the Overall Energy-Balance Equation
4.2F Overall Mechanical-Energy Balance
4.2G Bernoulli Equation for Mechanical-Energy Balance
4.3 Overall Momentum Balance
4.3A Derivation of the General Equation
4.3B Overall Momentum Balance in a Flow System in One
Direction
4.3C Overall Momentum Balance in Two Directions
4.3D Overall Momentum Balance for a Free Jet Striking a Fixed
Vane
4.4 Shell Momentum Balance and Velocity Profile in Laminar Flow
4.4A Introduction
4.4B Shell Momentum Balance Inside a Pipe
4.4C Shell Momentum Balance for Falling Film
4.5 Chapter Summary
Chapter 5 Incompressible and Compressible Flows in Pipes

5.1 Design Equations for Laminar and Turbulent Flow in Pipes
5.1A Velocity Profiles in Pipes
5.1B Pressure Drop and Friction Loss in Laminar Flow
5.1C Pressure Drop and Friction Factor in Turbulent Flow
5.1D Pressure Drop and Friction Factor in the Flow of Gases
9
5.1E Effect of Heat Transfer on the Friction Factor
5.1F Friction Losses in Expansion, Contraction, and Pipe Fittings
5.1G Friction Loss in Noncircular Conduits
5.1H Entrance Section of a Pipe
5.1I Selection of Pipe Sizes
5.2 Compressible Flow of Gases
5.2A Introduction and Basic Equation for Flow in Pipes
5.2B Isothermal Compressible Flow
5.2C Adiabatic Compressible Flow
5.3 Measuring the Flow of Fluids
5.3A Pitot Tube
5.3B Venturi Meter
5.3C Orifice Meter
5.3D Flow-Nozzle Meter
5.3E Variable-Area Flow Meters (Rotameters)
5.3F Other Types of Flow Meters
5.3G Flow in Open Channels and Weirs
5.4 Chapter Summary
Chapter 6 Flows in Packed and Fluidized Beds

6.1 Flow Past Immersed Objects
6.1A Definition of Drag Coefficient for Flow Past Immersed
Objects
6.1B Flow Past a Sphere, Long Cylinder, and Disk
6.2 Flow in Packed Beds
6.3 Flow in Fluidized Beds
6.4 Chapter Summary
Chapter 7 Pumps, Compressors, and Agitation Equipment

7.1 Pumps and Gas-Moving Equipment
7.1A Introduction
7.1B Pumps
7.1C Gas-Moving Machinery
7.1D Equations for Compression of Gases
7.2 Agitation, Mixing of Fluids, and Power Requirements
10
7.2A Purposes of Agitation
7.2B Equipment for Agitation
7.2C Flow Patterns in Agitation
7.2D Typical “Standard” Design of a Turbine
7.2E Power Used in Agitated Vessels
7.2F Agitator Scale-Up
7.2G Mixing Times of Miscible Liquids
7.2H Flow Number and Circulation Rate in Agitation
7.2I Special Agitation Systems
7.2J Mixing of Powders, Viscous Materials, and Pastes
7.3 Chapter Summary
Chapter 8 Differential Equations of Fluid Flow

8.1 Differential Equations of Continuity
8.1A Introduction
8.1B Types of Time Derivatives and Vector Notation
8.1C Differential Equation of Continuity
8.2 Differential Equations of Momentum Transfer or Motion
8.2A Derivation of Equations of Momentum Transfer
8.2B Equations of Motion for Newtonian Fluids with Varying
Density and Viscosity
8.2C Equations of Motion for Newtonian Fluids with Constant
Density and Viscosity
8.3 Use of Differential Equations of Continuity and Motion
8.3A Introduction
8.3B Differential Equations of Continuity and Motion for Flow
Between Parallel Plates
8.3C Differential Equations of Continuity and Motion for Flow in
Stationary and Rotating Cylinders
8.4 Chapter Summary
Chapter 9 Non-Newtonian Fluids

9.1 Non-Newtonian Fluids
9.1A Types of Non-Newtonian Fluids
9.1B Time-Independent Fluids
11
9.1C Time-Dependent Fluids
9.1D Viscoelastic Fluids
9.1E Laminar Flow of Time-Independent Non-Newtonian Fluids
9.2 Friction Losses for Non-Newtonian Fluids
9.2A Friction Losses in Contractions, Expansions, and Fittings in
Laminar Flow
9.2B Turbulent Flow and Generalized Friction Factors
9.3 Velocity Profiles for Non-Newtonian Fluids
9.4 Determination of Flow Properties of Non-Newtonian Fluids Using a
Rotational Viscometer
9.5 Power Requirements in Agitation and Mixing of Non-Newtonian
Fluids
9.6 Chapter Summary
Chapter 10 Potential Flow and Creeping Flow

10.1 Other Methods for Solution of Differential Equations of Motion
10.1A Introduction
10.2 Stream Function
10.3 Differential Equations of Motion for Ideal Fluids (Inviscid Flow)
10.4 Potential Flow and Velocity Potential
10.5 Differential Equations of Motion for Creeping Flow
10.6 Chapter Summary
Chapter 11 Boundary-Layer and Turbulent Flow

11.1 Boundary-Layer Flow
11.1A Boundary-Layer Flow
11.1B Boundary-Layer Separation and the Formation of Wakes
11.1C Laminar Flow and Boundary-Layer Theory
11.2 Turbulent Flow
11.2A Nature and Intensity of Turbulence
11.2B Turbulent Shear or Reynolds Stresses
11.2C Prandtl Mixing Length
11.2D Universal Velocity Distribution in Turbulent Flow
11.3 Turbulent Boundary-Layer Analysis
11.3A Integral Momentum Balance for Boundary-Layer Analysis
12
Chapter 12 Introduction to Heat Transfer

12.1 Energy and Heat Units
12.1A Joule, Calorie, and Btu
12.1B Heat Capacity
12.1C Latent Heat and Steam Tables
12.1D Heat of Reaction
12.2 Conservation of Energy and Heat Balances
12.2A Conservation of Energy
12.2B Heat Balances
12.3 Conduction and Thermal Conductivity
12.3A Introduction to Steady-State Heat Transfer
12.3B Conduction as a Basic Mechanism of Heat Transfer
12.3C Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction
12.3D Thermal Conductivity
12.4 Convection
12.4A Convection as a Basic Mechanism of Heat Transfer
12.4B Convective Heat-Transfer Coefficient
12.5 Radiation
12.5A Radiation, a Basic Mechanism of Heat Transfer
12.5B Radiation to a Small Object from Its Surroundings
12.6 Heat Transfer with Multiple Mechanisms/Materials
12.6A Plane Walls in Series
12.6B Conduction Through Materials in Parallel
12.6C Combined Radiation and Convection Heat Transfer
Chapter 13 Steady-State Conduction

13.1 Conduction Heat Transfer
13.1A Conduction Through a Flat Slab or Wall (Some Review of
Chapter 12)
13.1B Conduction Through a Hollow Cylinder
13.1C Multilayer Cylinders
13.1D Conduction Through a Hollow Sphere
13
13.2 Conduction Through Solids in Series or Parallel with Convection
13.2A Combined Convection, Conduction, and Overall
Coefficients
13.2B Log Mean Temperature Difference and Varying
Temperature Drop
13.2C Critical Thickness of Insulation for a Cylinder
13.2D Contact Resistance at an Interface
13.3 Conduction with Internal Heat Generation
13.3A Conduction with Internal Heat Generation
13.4 Steady-State Conduction in Two Dimensions Using Shape Factors
13.4A Introduction and Graphical Method for Two-Dimensional
Conduction
13.4B Shape Factors in Conduction
13.5 Numerical Methods for Steady-State Conduction in Two
Dimensions
13.5A Analytical Equation for Conduction
13.5B Finite-Difference Numerical Methods
Chapter 14 Principles of Unsteady-State Heat Transfer

14.1 Derivation of the Basic Equation
14.1A Introduction
14.1B Derivation of the Unsteady-State Conduction Equation
14.2 Simplified Case for Systems with Negligible Internal Resistance
14.2A Basic Equation
14.2B Equation for Different Geometries
14.2C Total Amount of Heat Transferred
14.3 Unsteady-State Heat Conduction in Various Geometries
14.3A Introduction and Analytical Methods
14.3B Unsteady-State Conduction in a Semi-infinite Solid
14.3C Unsteady-State Conduction in a Large Flat Plate
14.3D Unsteady-State Conduction in a Long Cylinder
14.3E Unsteady-State Conduction in a Sphere
14.3F Unsteady-State Conduction in Two- and Three-
Dimensional Systems
14.3G Charts for Average Temperature in a Plate, Cylinder, and
14
Sphere with Negligible Surface Resistance
14.4 Numerical Finite-Difference Methods for Unsteady-State
Conduction
14.4A Unsteady-State Conduction in a Slab
14.4B Boundary Conditions for Numerical Method for a Slab
14.4C Other Numerical Methods for Unsteady-State Conduction
14.5 Chilling and Freezing of Food and Biological Materials
14.5A Introduction
14.5B Chilling of Food and Biological Materials
14.5C Freezing of Food and Biological Materials
14.6 Differential Equation of Energy Change
14.6A Introduction
14.6B Derivation of Differential Equation of Energy Change
14.6C Special Cases of the Equation of Energy Change
Chapter 15 Introduction to Convection

15.1 Introduction and Dimensional Analysis in Heat Transfer
15.1A Introduction to Convection (Review)
15.1B Introduction to Dimensionless Groups
15.1C Buckingham Method
15.2 Boundary-Layer Flow and Turbulence in Heat Transfer
15.2A Laminar Flow and Boundary-Layer Theory in Heat
Transfer
15.2B Approximate Integral Analysis of the Thermal Boundary
Layer
15.2C Prandtl Mixing Length and Eddy Thermal Diffusivity
15.3 Forced Convection Heat Transfer Inside Pipes
15.3A Heat-Transfer Coefficient for Laminar Flow Inside a Pipe
15.3B Heat-Transfer Coefficient for Turbulent Flow Inside a Pipe
15.3C Heat-Transfer Coefficient for Transition Flow Inside a Pipe
15.3D Heat-Transfer Coefficient for Noncircular Conduits
15.3E Entrance-Region Effect on the Heat-Transfer Coefficient
15.3F Liquid-Metals Heat-Transfer Coefficient
15.4 Heat Transfer Outside Various Geometries in Forced Convection
15.4A Introduction
15
15.4B Flow Parallel to a Flat Plate
15.4C Cylinder with Axis Perpendicular to Flow
15.4D Flow Past a Single Sphere
15.4E Flow Past Banks of Tubes or Cylinders
15.4F Heat Transfer for Flow in Packed Beds
15.5 Natural Convection Heat Transfer
15.5A Introduction
15.5B Natural Convection from Various Geometries
15.6 Boiling and Condensation
15.6A Boiling
15.6B Condensation
15.7 Heat Transfer of Non-Newtonian Fluids
15.7A Introduction
15.7B Heat Transfer Inside Tubes
15.7C Natural Convection
15.8 Special Heat-Transfer Coefficients
15.8A Heat Transfer in Agitated Vessels
15.8B Scraped-Surface Heat Exchangers
15.8C Extended Surface or Finned Exchangers
Chapter 16 Heat Exchangers

16.1 Types of Exchangers
16.2 Log-Mean-Temperature-Difference Correction Factors
16.3 Heat-Exchanger Effectiveness
16.4 Fouling Factors and Typical Overall U Values
16.5 Double-Pipe Heat Exchanger
Chapter 17 Introduction to Radiation Heat Transfer

17.1 Introduction to Radiation Heat-Transfer Concepts
17.1A Introduction and Basic Equation for Radiation
17.1B Radiation to a Small Object from Its Surroundings
17.1C Effect of Radiation on the Temperature Measurement of a
Gas
16
17.2 Basic and Advanced Radiation Heat-Transfer Principles
17.2A Introduction and Radiation Spectrum
17.2B Derivation of View Factors in Radiation for Various
Geometries
17.2C View Factors When Surfaces Are Connected by
Reradiating Walls
17.2D View Factors and Gray Bodies
17.2E Radiation in Absorbing Gases
Chapter 18 Introduction to Mass Transfer

18.1 Introduction to Mass Transfer and Diffusion
18.1A Similarity of Mass, Heat, and Momentum Transfer
Processes
18.1B Examples of Mass-Transfer Processes
18.1C Fick’s Law for Molecular Diffusion
18.1D General Case for Diffusion of Gases A and B plus
Convection
18.2 Diffusion Coefficient
18.2A Diffusion Coefficients for Gases
18.2B Diffusion Coefficients for Liquids
18.2C Prediction of Diffusivities in Liquids
18.2D Prediction of Diffusivities of Electrolytes in Liquids
18.2E Diffusion of Biological Solutes in Liquids
18.3 Convective Mass Transfer
18.3A Convective Mass-Transfer Coefficient
18.4 Molecular Diffusion Plus Convection and Chemical Reaction
18.4A Different Types of Fluxes and Fick’s Law
18.4B Equation of Continuity for a Binary Mixture
18.4C Special Cases of the Equation of Continuity
Chapter 19 Steady-State Mass Transfer

19.1 Molecular Diffusion in Gases
19.1A Equimolar Counterdiffusion in Gases
17
19.1B Special Case for A Diffusing Through Stagnant,
Nondiffusing B
19.1C Diffusion Through a Varying Cross-Sectional Area
19.1D Multicomponent Diffusion of Gases
19.2 Molecular Diffusion in Liquids
19.2A Introduction
19.2B Equations for Diffusion in Liquids
19.3 Molecular Diffusion in Solids
19.3A Introduction and Types of Diffusion in Solids
19.3B Diffusion in Solids Following Fick’s Law
19.3C Diffusion in Porous Solids That Depends on Structure
19.4 Diffusion of Gases in Porous Solids and Capillaries
19.4A Introduction
19.4B Knudsen Diffusion of Gases
19.4C Molecular Diffusion of Gases
19.4D Transition-Region Diffusion of Gases
19.4E Flux Ratios for Diffusion of Gases in Capillaries
19.4F Diffusion of Gases in Porous Solids
19.5 Diffusion in Biological Gels
19.6 Special Cases of the General Diffusion Equation at Steady State
19.6A Special Cases of the General Diffusion Equation at Steady
State
19.7 Numerical Methods for Steady-State Molecular Diffusion in Two
Dimensions
19.7A Derivation of Equations for Numerical Methods
19.7B Equations for Special Boundary Conditions for Numerical
Method
Chapter 20 Unsteady-State Mass Transfer

20.1 Unsteady-State Diffusion
20.1A Derivation of a Basic Equation
20.1B Diffusion in a Flat Plate with Negligible Surface Resistance
20.1C Unsteady-State Diffusion in Various Geometries
20.2 Unsteady-State Diffusion and Reaction in a Semi-Infinite Medium
20.2A Unsteady-State Diffusion and Reaction in a Semi-Infinite
18
Medium
20.3 Numerical Methods for Unsteady-State Molecular Diffusion
20.3A Introduction
20.3B Unsteady-State Numerical Methods for Diffusion
20.3C Boundary Conditions for Numerical Methods for a Slab
Chapter 21 Convective Mass Transfer

21.1 Convective Mass Transfer
21.1A Introduction to Convective Mass Transfer
21.1B Types of Mass-Transfer Coefficients
21.1C Mass-Transfer Coefficients for the General Case of A and
B Diffusing and Convective Flow Using Film Theory
21.1D Mass-Transfer Coefficients under High Flux Conditions
21.1E Methods for Experimentally Determining Mass-Transfer
Coefficients
21.2 Dimensional Analysis in Mass Transfer
21.2A Introduction
21.2B Dimensional Analysis for Convective Mass Transfer
21.3 Mass-Transfer Coefficients for Various Geometries
21.3A Dimensionless Numbers Used to Correlate Data
21.3B Analogies among Mass, Heat, and Momentum Transfer
21.3C Derivation of Mass-Transfer Coefficients in Laminar Flow
21.3D Mass Transfer for Flow Inside Pipes
21.3E Mass Transfer for Flow Outside Solid Surfaces
21.4 Mass Transfer to Suspensions of Small Particles
21.4A Introduction
21.4B Equations for Mass Transfer to Small Particles
21.5 Models for Mass-Transfer Coefficients
21.5A Laminar Flow and Boundary-Layer Theory in Mass
Transfer
21.5B Prandtl Mixing Length and Turbulent Eddy Mass
Diffusivity
21.5C Models for Mass-Transfer Coefficients
19
PART 2
SEPARATION PROCESS PRINCIPLES
Chapter 22 Absorption and Stripping

22.1 Equilibrium and Mass Transfer Between Phases
22.1A Phase Rule and Equilibrium
22.1B Gas–Liquid Equilibrium
22.1C Single-Stage Equilibrium Contact
22.1D Single-Stage Equilibrium Contact for a Gas–Liquid System
22.1E Countercurrent Multiple-Contact Stages
22.1F Analytical Equations for Countercurrent Stage Contact
22.1G Introduction and Equilibrium Relations
22.1H Concentration Profiles in Interphase Mass Transfer
22.1I Mass Transfer Using Film Mass-Transfer Coefficients and
Interface Concentrations
22.1J Overall Mass-Transfer Coefficients and Driving Forces
22.2 Introduction to Absorption
22.2A Absorption
22.2B Equipment for Absorption and Distillation
22.3 Pressure Drop and Flooding in Packed Towers
22.4 Design of Plate Absorption Towers
22.5 Design of Packed Towers for Absorption
22.5A Introduction to Design of Packed Towers for Absorption
22.5B Simplified Design Methods for Absorption of Dilute Gas
Mixtures in Packed Towers
22.5C Design of Packed Towers Using Transfer Units
22.6 Efficiency of Random-Packed and Structured Packed Towers
22.6A Calculating the Efficiency of Random-Packed and
Structured Packed Towers
22.6B Estimation of Efficiencies of Tray and Packed Towers
22.7 Absorption of Concentrated Mixtures in Packed Towers
22.8 Estimation of Mass-Transfer Coefficients for Packed Towers
22.8A Experimental Determination of Film Coefficients
22.8B Correlations for Film Coefficients
22.8C Predicting Mass-Transfer Film Coefficients
22.9 Heat Effects and Temperature Variations in Absorption
20
22.9A Heat Effects in Absorption
22.9B Simplified Design Method
Chapter 23 Humidification Processes

23.1 Vapor Pressure of Water and Humidity
23.1A Vapor Pressure of Water
23.1B Humidity and a Humidity Chart
23.1C Adiabatic Saturation Temperatures
23.1D Wet Bulb Temperature
23.2 Introduction and Types of Equipment for Humidification
23.3 Theory and Calculations for Cooling-Water Towers
23.3A Theory and Calculations for Cooling-Water Towers
23.3B Design of Water-Cooling Tower Using Film Mass-Transfer
Coefficients
23.3C Design of Water-Cooling Tower Using Overall Mass-
Transfer Coefficients
23.3D Minimum Value of Air Flow
23.3E Design of Water-Cooling Tower Using the Height of a
Transfer Unit
23.3F Temperature and Humidity of an Air Stream in a Tower
23.3G Dehumidification Tower
Chapter 24 Filtration and Membrane Separation Processes (Liquid–

Liquid or Solid–Liquid Phase)
24.1 Introduction to Dead-End Filtration
24.1A Introduction
24.1B Types of Filtration Equipment
24.1C Filter Media and Filter Aids
24.2 Basic Theory of Filtration
24.2A Introduction to the Basic Theory of Filtration
24.2B Filtration Equations for Constant-Pressure Filtration
24.2C Filtration Equations for Constant-Rate Filtration
24.3 Membrane Separations
21
24.3A Introduction
24.3B Classification of Membrane Processes
24.4 Microfiltration Membrane Processes
24.4A Introduction
24.4B Models for Microfiltration
24.5 Ultrafiltration Membrane Processes
24.5A Introduction
24.5B Types of Equipment for Ultrafiltration
24.5C Flux Equations for Ultrafiltration
24.5D Effects of Processing Variables in Ultrafiltration
24.6 Reverse-Osmosis Membrane Processes
24.6A Introduction
24.6B Flux Equations for Reverse Osmosis
24.6C Effects of Operating Variables
24.6D Concentration Polarization in Reverse-Osmosis Diffusion
Model
24.6E Permeability Constants for Reverse-Osmosis Membranes
24.6F Types of Equipment for Reverse Osmosis
24.6G Complete-Mixing Model for Reverse Osmosis
24.7 Dialysis
24.7A Series Resistances in Membrane Processes
24.7B Dialysis Processes
24.7C Types of Equipment for Dialysis
24.7D Hemodialysis in an Artificial Kidney
Chapter 25 Gaseous Membrane Systems

25.1 Gas Permeation
25.1A Series Resistances in Membrane Processes
25.1B Types of Membranes and Permeabilities for Separation of
Gases
25.1C Types of Equipment for Gas-Permeation Membrane
Processes
25.1D Introduction to Types of Flow in Gas Permeation
25.2 Complete-Mixing Model for Gas Separation by Membranes
25.2A Basic Equations Used
22
25.2B Solution of Equations for Design of a Complete-Mixing
Case
25.2C Minimum Concentration of Reject Stream
25.3 Complete-Mixing Model for Multicomponent Mixtures
25.3A Derivation of Equations
25.3B Iteration Solution Procedure for Multicomponent Mixtures
25.4 Cross-Flow Model for Gas Separation by Membranes
25.4A Derivation of the Basic Equations
25.4B Procedure for Design of Cross-Flow Case
25.5 Derivation of Equations for Countercurrent and Cocurrent Flow for
Gas Separation by Membranes
25.5A Concentration Gradients in Membranes
25.5B Derivation of Equations for Countercurrent Flow in Dense-
Phase Symmetric Membranes
25.5C Solution of Countercurrent Flow Equations in Dense-Phase
Symmetric Membranes
25.5D Derivation of Equations for Countercurrent Flow in
Asymmetric Membranes
25.5E Derivation of Equations for Cocurrent Flow in Asymmetric
Membranes
25.5F Effects of Processing Variables on Gas Separation
25.6 Derivation of Finite-Difference Numerical Method for Asymmetric
Membranes
25.6A Countercurrent Flow
25.6B Short-Cut Numerical Method
25.6C Use of a Spreadsheet for the Finite-Difference Numerical
Method
25.6D Calculation of Pressure-Drop Effects on Permeation
Chapter 26 Distillation
26.1 Equilibrium Relations Between Phases
26.1A Phase Rule and Raoult’s Law
26.1B Boiling-Point Diagrams and x-y Plots
26.2 Single and Multiple Equilibrium Contact Stages
26.2A Equipment for Distillation
23
26.2B Single-Stage Equilibrium Contact for Vapor–Liquid
System
26.3 Simple Distillation Methods
26.3A Introduction
26.3B Relative Volatility of Vapor–Liquid Systems
26.3C Equilibrium or Flash Distillation
26.3D Simple Batch or Differential Distillation
26.3E Simple Steam Distillation
26.4 Binary Distillation with Reflux Using the McCabe–Thiele and
Lewis Methods
26.4A Introduction to Distillation with Reflux
26.4B McCabe–Thiele Method of Calculation for the Number of
Theoretical Stages
26.4C Total and Minimum Reflux Ratio for McCabe–Thiele
Method
26.4D Special Cases for Rectification Using the McCabe–Thiele
Method
26.5 Tray Efficiencies
26.5A Tray Efficiencies
26.5B Types of Tray Efficiencies
26.5C Relationship Between Tray Efficiencies
26.6 Flooding Velocity and Diameter of Tray Towers Plus Simple
Calculations for Reboiler and Condenser Duties
26.6A Flooding Velocity and Diameter of Tray Towers
26.6B Condenser and Reboiler Duties Using the McCabe–Thiele
Method
26.7 Fractional Distillation Using the Enthalpy–Concentration Method
26.7A Enthalpy–Concentration Data
26.7B Distillation in the Enriching Section of a Tower
26.7C Distillation in the Stripping Section of a Tower
26.8 Distillation of Multicomponent Mixtures
26.8A Introduction to Multicomponent Distillation
26.8B Equilibrium Data in Multicomponent Distillation
26.8C Boiling Point, Dew Point, and Flash Distillation
26.8D Key Components in Multicomponent Distillation
26.8E Total Reflux for Multicomponent Distillation
26.8F Shortcut Method for the Minimum Reflux Ratio for
24
Multicomponent Distillation
26.8G Shortcut Method for Number of Stages at Operating Reflux
Ratio
Chapter 27 Liquid–Liquid Extraction

27.1 Introduction to Liquid–Liquid Extraction
27.1A Introduction to Extraction Processes
27.1B Equilibrium Relations in Extraction
27.2 Single-Stage Equilibrium Extraction
27.2A Single-Stage Equilibrium Extraction
27.3 Types of Equipment and Design for Liquid–Liquid Extraction
27.3A Introduction and Equipment Types
27.3B Mixer–Settlers for Extraction
27.3C Spray Extraction Towers
27.3D Packed Extraction Towers
27.3E Perforated-Plate (Sieve-Tray) Extraction Towers
27.3F Pulsed Packed and Sieve-Tray Towers
27.3G Mechanically Agitated Extraction Towers
27.4 Continuous Multistage Countercurrent Extraction
27.4A Introduction
27.4B Continuous Multistage Countercurrent Extraction
27.4C Countercurrent-Stage Extraction with Immiscible Liquids
27.4D Design of Towers for Extraction
27.4E Design of Packed Towers for Extraction Using Mass-
Transfer Coefficients
Chapter 28 Adsorption and Ion Exchange

28.1 Introduction to Adsorption Processes
28.1A Introduction
28.1B Physical Properties of Adsorbents
28.1C Equilibrium Relations for Adsorbents
28.2 Batch Adsorption
28.3 Design of Fixed-Bed Adsorption Columns
25
28.3A Introduction and Concentration Profiles
28.3B Breakthrough Concentration Curve
28.3C Mass-Transfer Zone
28.3D Capacity of Column and Scale-Up Design Method
28.3E Basic Models for Predicting Adsorption
28.3F Processing Variables and Adsorption Cycles
28.4 Ion-Exchange Processes
28.4A Introduction and Ion-Exchange Materials
28.4B Equilibrium Relations in Ion Exchange
28.4C Use of Equilibrium Relations and Relative-Molar-
Selectivity Coefficients
28.4D Concentration Profiles and Breakthrough Curves
28.4E Capacity of Columns and Scale-Up Design Method
Chapter 29 Crystallization and Particle Size Reduction

29.1 Introduction to Crystallization
29.1A Crystallization and Types of Crystals
29.1B Equilibrium Solubility in Crystallization
29.1C Yields, Material, and Energy Balances in Crystallization
29.1D Equipment for Crystallization
29.2 Crystallization Theory
29.2A Introduction
29.2B Nucleation Theories
29.2C Rate of Crystal Growth and the ΔL Law
29.2D Particle Size Distribution of Crystals
29.2E Model for Mixed Suspension–Mixed Product Removal
Crystallizer
29.3 Mechanical Size Reduction
29.3A Introduction
29.3B Particle Size Measurement
29.3C Energy and Power Required in Size Reduction
29.3D Equipment for Particle Size Reduction
Chapter 30 Settling, Sedimentation, and Centrifugation
26
30.1 Settling and Sedimentation in Particle–Fluid Separation
30.1A Introduction
30.1B Theory of Particle Movement Through a Fluid
30.1C Hindered Settling
30.1D Wall Effect on Free Settling
30.1E Differential Settling and Separation of Solids in
Classification
30.1F Sedimentation and Thickening
30.1G Equipment for Settling and Sedimentation
30.2 Centrifugal Separation Processes
30.2A Introduction
30.2B Forces Developed in Centrifugal Separation
30.2C Equations for Rates of Settling in Centrifuges
30.2D Centrifuge Equipment for Sedimentation
30.2E Centrifugal Filtration
30.2F Gas–Solid Cyclone Separators
Chapter 31 Leaching
31.1 Introduction and Equipment for Liquid–Solid Leaching
31.1A Leaching Processes
31.1B Preparation of Solids for Leaching
31.1C Rates of Leaching
31.1D Types of Equipment for Leaching
31.2 Equilibrium Relations and Single-Stage Leaching
31.2A Equilibrium Relations in Leaching
31.2B Single-Stage Leaching
31.3 Countercurrent Multistage Leaching
31.3A Introduction and Operating Line for Countercurrent
Leaching
31.3B Variable Underflow in Countercurrent Multistage Leaching
31.3C Constant Underflow in Countercurrent Multistage Leaching
Chapter 32 Evaporation
27
32.1 Introduction
32.1A Purpose
32.1B Processing Factors
32.2 Types of Evaporation Equipment and Operation Methods
32.2A General Types of Evaporators
32.2B Methods of Evaporator Operations
32.3 Overall Heat-Transfer Coefficients in Evaporators
32.4 Calculation Methods for Single-Effect Evaporators
32.4A Heat and Material Balances for Evaporators
32.4B Effects of Processing Variables on Evaporator Operation
32.4C Boiling-Point Rise of Solutions
32.4D Enthalpy–Concentration Charts of Solutions
32.5 Calculation Methods for Multiple-Effect Evaporators
32.5A Introduction
32.5B Temperature Drops and Capacity of Multiple-Effect
Evaporators
32.5C Calculations for Multiple-Effect Evaporators
32.5D Step-by-Step Calculation Methods for Triple-Effect
Evaporators
32.6 Condensers for Evaporators
32.6A Introduction
32.6B Surface Condensers
32.6C Direct-Contact Condensers
32.7 Evaporation of Biological Materials
32.7A Introduction and Properties of Biological Materials
32.7B Fruit Juices
32.7C Sugar Solutions
32.7D Paper-Pulp Waste Liquors
32.8 Evaporation Using Vapor Recompression
32.8A Introduction
32.8B Mechanical Vapor-Recompression Evaporator
32.8C Thermal Vapor-Recompression Evaporator
Chapter 33 Drying
28
33.1 Introduction and Methods of Drying
33.1A Purposes of Drying
33.2 Equipment for Drying
33.2A Tray Dryer
33.2B Vacuum-Shelf Indirect Dryers
33.2C Continuous Tunnel Dryers
33.2D Rotary Dryers
33.2E Drum Dryers
33.2F Spray Dryers
33.2G Drying Crops and Grains
33.3 Vapor Pressure of Water and Humidity
33.3A Vapor Pressure of Water
33.3B Humidity and Humidity Chart
33.3C Adiabatic Saturation Temperatures
33.3D Wet Bulb Temperature
33.4 Equilibrium Moisture Content of Materials
33.4A Introduction
33.4B Experimental Data of Equilibrium Moisture Content for
Inorganic and Biological Materials
33.4C Bound and Unbound Water in Solids
33.4D Free and Equilibrium Moisture of a Substance
33.5 Rate-of-Drying Curves
33.5A Introduction and Experimental Methods
33.5B Rate of Drying Curves for Constant-Drying Conditions
33.5C Drying in the Constant-Rate Period
33.5D Drying in the Falling-Rate Period
33.5E Moisture Movements in Solids During Drying in the
Falling-Rate Period
33.6 Calculation Methods for a Constant-Rate Drying Period
33.6A Method for Using an Experimental Drying Curve
33.6B Method Using Predicted Transfer Coefficients for
Constant-Rate Period
33.6C Effect of Process Variables on a Constant-Rate Period
33.7 Calculation Methods for the Falling-Rate Drying Period
33.7A Method Using Numerical Integration
33.7B Calculation Methods for Special Cases in Falling-Rate
Region
29
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to see some people at the Duc d’Harcourt’s, if well enough.
He will not be going away before Wednesday. His address is
55, Welbeck Street. I think you would do well to send your
letter to him by hand, sealed and addressed ‘À Monsieur
Seul,’ enclosed in an outer envelope with his ordinary
address: ‘Son Altesse Royale Monsieur, frère du Roi.’ Send
me a line to tell me what you have done. Adieu.”
It was not till after a long delay that Lady Atkyns at last succeeded
in meeting the Prince at an inn, only to meet with a point-blank
refusal. But she was not to be discouraged. The very next day she
wrote again to the Comte asking for an audience. This time it was
another member of his suite, the Bishop of Saint-Pol de Léon, who
replied to her communication—
“The moment I saw M[onsieur] yesterday, my dear lady, he
told me about your letter, which gave him great pleasure,
though it is a matter for great regret to him that he is quite
unable to do as you wish, and as he himself would wish.
Since his recent attack he has been unable to dress or go out;
he has not been able to receive any ladies, anxious though he
is to welcome those who are here and who were attached to
the Princess. He could not receive one without its being
known, and then he would be expected to receive a number
of others. You know how things get about and what a close
watch is kept on Princes, and how careful our Prince must be
to do nothing that would lay him open to criticism or even to
suspicion. If his stay here were prolonged, and he found he
could see other ladies also, the thing might be managed; but
there would be difficulties even then, in view of your secret
being perhaps of a compromising nature. I am but expressing
to you the Prince’s own views. I hope to see you to-morrow
between midday and three o’clock.”
The great of this world are never at a loss for pretexts for refusing
requests. Monsieur was particularly anxious to evade an interview
which he felt to be undesirable, and therefore confined himself to
sending her these amiable phrases.
About the same time M. de Thauvenay, one of the King’s most
devoted courtiers, who happened to be in London, seems to have
promised to use his good offices with his master on her behalf,
telling him of her record and perhaps of her hopes.
Having exhausted all the means at her disposal in England, Lady
Atkyns saw that she must manage her journey as best she could
from her own resources, and resolved to make yet another sacrifice
to this end. She had obtained a considerable loan already once upon
a mortgage on her beautiful estate of Ketteringham. As this was her
only source of revenue, there was no alternative to raising a further
mortgage on it, and this she managed, though with greater difficulty
than before. (The property was not, in fact, her own at this time,
being entailed on her son Edward.)
She seems to have raised in all about £3000 in this way in 1799
and the three following years.
Some weeks before the “18th Brumaire” and Bonaparte’s coup
d’état, she set out for the Continent. What exactly was her purpose?
What use was she going to make of her money? It is impossible to
say. To clothe her errand in the greater mystery, she decided to land
in France under an assumed name, and to veil her personality under
the designation of the “Little Sailor” (le petit matelot).
“I feel I must again send my good wishes for a pleasant
journey to the charming ‘Little Sailor,’” some unidentified
friend writes to her on September 7, “and I cannot too often
beg him to bear in mind that he leaves behind him in England
friends who take a deep interest in his welfare, and who will
learn with pleasure that he has arrived safely at his
destination, and, above all, that after fulfilling his mission he
has escaped all the unpleasantness and dangers to which his
truly admirable devotion and zeal will expose him. I hope one
day to prove to the ‘Little Sailor’ how he has long filled me
with the most genuine sentiments—sentiments which I have
refrained from expressing for reasons of which the ‘Little
Sailor’ will approve. I cannot say too often to the amiable
‘Little Sailor’ what pleasure I shall have in repeating to him in
France—and in France preferably to elsewhere—the
assurance of eternal and tender attachment that I have vowed
him for ever and ever.”
It is difficult to know what the “Petit Matelot” did on arriving in
Paris. It was a moment of crisis, for the Consulate was being
established. Most of those who had been mixed up in the Temple
affair were inaccessible, and yet it was important to get into touch
with them if anything was to be ascertained about the Dauphin. It
would not have done, however, to provoke suspicion, or Fouché
would have been on her track.
Certain only it is that for several months she seems to have
disappeared from sight. At last she was run to earth and hunted out
by Fouché’s agents, and was obliged to make away to the Loire,
where she had devoted friends.
The Verrière family lived in the country six miles from Saumur, in
Anjou, where many nobles, fleeing from the storm, had found a safe
refuge. The vicinity of the forest of Fontevrault enabled them to gain
the Vendée, and thus escape the fury of the Revolutionists. Mme.
Verrière had met Lady Atkyns in Paris years before, perhaps during
the golden days of Versailles. Recalling their former friendliness,
Lady Atkyns went to them in her trouble. The welcome they
extended to her justified her hopes, and she dwelt with them for
some time, until the police had lost all trace of her.
About this period, vague reports began to be spread about with
reference to the imprisonment of the children of Louis XVI. in the
Temple. The obscurity which had cloaked the last hours of the
Dauphin was still keeping certain brains at work. And a book which
was published in 1800 helped to reawaken public curiosity. In Le
Cimetière de la Madeleine, a romance written by an author until then
little known, Regnault-Warin deliberately questioned the alleged
death of the Dauphin, and, in fact, based a story of adventure upon
the supposition of his being still alive. Written in the fashion of the
time, full of surprising episodes, and bristling with more or less
untrustworthy anecdotes touching on the captivity of the Royal
Family in the Temple, this novel had an immense success. If it came
before Lady Atkyns it must have served to stimulate her anxiety to
solve the problem she had so much at heart.
In the summer of 1801 Lady Atkyns appears to have addressed
herself to Louis XVIII., unwarned by her failure with Monsieur. In this
case also failure was to be her portion.
“Your letter,” ran the reply, signed by M. de Thauvenay
(whom she had met some years before), and addressed, as a
precaution, to Monsieur James Brown, dated October 2,
“would have been enigmatic to me had I not placed it before
my master, who, by a curious series of accidents, had
received only a few days before the communication you sent
him on the 12th of July. In requesting me to reply to you,
monsieur, he charges me to express to you his recognition of
your constant interest and indefatigable zeal for his welfare,
and his regret that he is prevented by his present position
from learning the particulars of the speculation that your heart
has formed, and that he cannot have any share in it.”
Six weeks later Lady Atkyns received a second letter, despatched,
like the first, from Varsovie, reinforcing the above:—
“I wish,” writes M. de Thauvenay, “that I could convey to
you the deep and tender feeling with which my dear and
venerated master has read these new and touching
testimonies of your interest and friendship, and his deep
regret at being unable to enjoy the consolations that your
sympathetic and generous nature has proffered him! No,
monsieur, I swear to you, no other house has offered him any
kind of interest in the speculation you have proposed to him. I
should add that there is no one with whom he would rather
have shared the chances than with you; but his position is
such that, for the moment at least, he can only display
passive courage in the face of misfortune. I need not remind
you, monsieur, that the most appreciative and most generous
of hearts has eternal claim upon a heart such as yours.
Never, I feel convinced, will your noble and moving sentiment
be modified by time or place. This conviction is sweet to me,
and it is with the utmost sincerity that I render you once again
my tender (if I may use the word) and admiring respect.”
It is not easy at first to understand what M. de Thauvenay means
by this “speculation,” in which the King refuses to take part. On
reflection it seems probable that Lady Atkyns’s proposal, thus
described, had reference to the affair of the Temple, for it seems
impossible that she should have flattered herself that she could see
a way to the return of the exiled King.
However that may be, these two letters convinced her that it would
be useless to prolong her stay in France, and she returned to
Ketteringham, after an absence of three years, without having
effected her purpose.
Two tragic events occurred in the year 1804 to startle the French
who were still taking refuge in England. The first was the arrest and
shooting of the Duc d’Enghien at Vincennes. If Bonaparte had
punished one of the many schemers who had plotted against him on
English soil, his action would have found defenders. But this
execution of a Prince, who was absolutely innocent and who had
held apart from all political intrigues, aroused the same kind of horror
that had been evoked eleven years earlier by the death of Louis XVI.
and Marie-Antoinette.
The Prince de Condé, the Duc d’Enghien’s grandfather, was
staying in England at this time, like Monsieur, the King’s brother, and
their residences were naturally the centre of the excitement over this
event. The Baron de Suzannet describes the state of things in their
entourage in a letter to Lady Atkyns:—
“It would seem, madame,” he writes to her on April 14, “that
the murder of the Duc d’Enghien has horrified not merely all
true Frenchmen, as was to be expected, but also Englishmen
of every class, the perfidy as well as the cruelty of it is so
revolting to all in whom the sentiment of justice and honour is
not extinct. I shall not speak of the courageous and heroic
death of this ill-fated Prince, but of the condition of his
unhappy relatives. Since the day when Monsieur carried him
the terrible news, the Prince de Condé (save for two journeys
to London necessitated by his anxiety) has not left his room or
been down to dinner. Plunged in grief, he sees no one, and it
is much feared that his death may follow that of the Duc
d’Enghien. He loved the Duc as his grandson and his pupil,
and perhaps even more as one qualified by Providence to
add still further to the glory of his illustrious name. The sorrow
of the Duc de Bourbon is not less deep and intense.”
At the same moment, the news of the arrest of Cadoudal in Paris,
the discovery of his plot, the sensational trial of his twelve
accomplices, together with a number of insurgents—forty-seven
prisoners in all—and finally the execution of the famous brigand on
the morning of June 25, came to intensify the agitation of the French
in England.
Of these events Lady Atkyns heard particulars from the Comte de
Frotté, father of her friend the General. Throughout five years the
venerable Comte had followed with joy or anguish the career of his
son as a leader of the insurrection in Normandy. Repeatedly he had
come to his aid with money and encouragement. Suddenly the fatal
bullet had ended everything. Henceforth the unhappy father had
followed eagerly everything that could bring back the memory of the
Chevalier, and he had been drawn to Lady Atkyns by his knowledge
of the long-standing friendship that had existed between her and
him.
To add to his sorrow, Charles de Frotté, half-brother to Louis, had
been arrested and imprisoned by Napoleon’s police soon after the
execution at Verneuil. He was kept at the Temple for two years,
without apparent reason, then sent to the Fort of Toux, in Jura.
“I learnt yesterday,” writes the Comte de Frotté to Lady
Atkyns, “that my unhappy son has been transferred from the
Temple to a château in Franche Comté. How cruel is this
persecution! How terrible this imprisonment, not only for
himself, but for us who are bound to him by ties of kinship and
for his friends.”
Thus Lady Atkyns, though in the seclusion of the country, far from
London and the Continent, remained bound in thought to her life of
earlier days. She had no one now to love except her son, who was
an officer in the first regiment of Royal Dragoons. Owing to the
delicacy of his health, young Edward Atkyns had been obliged to go
on leave for a time, and his mother invited the son of Baron de
Suzannet to Ketteringham to keep him company. But the visit did not
come off, and two months later the young soldier died of the malady
from which he had been suffering for some years.
Two years earlier a somewhat strange incident had occurred in
France. On February 17, 1802, the police court at Vitry-le-Françoi
had to sit in judgment upon a young man named Jean-Marie
Hervagault, charged with swindling, passing under a false name, and
vagabondage. This individual, arrested and imprisoned for the first
time in 1799, claimed to be the Dauphin, escaped miraculously from
the Temple. The son of a tailor of Saint-Lo, Hervagault, in the course
of his wanderings, had managed to convince a certain number of
people that he really was the Prince. Public curiosity was aroused.
Many people went to visit the youth in prison. To put a stop to this
movement, the Vitry Tribunal condemned the adventurer to four
years’ imprisonment. His trial disclosed the fact that amongst his
dupes were many persons of distinction, including M. Lafont de
Savines. Some weeks later the Vitry sentence was ratified at Rouen,
and Hervagault was incarcerated in the prison of Bicêtre in Paris. But
the feelings of sympathy and pity that had been called forth,
Hervagault’s assertions and his circumstantial accounts of the way in
which he had been carried off from the Temple—all these things
attracted the more attention by reason of the appearance a short
time before of Beauchamp’s work, Le faux Dauphin actuellement en
France.
Lady Atkyns was quick to secure details as to the story of the
prisoner at Bicêtre. There were many contradictions in it that must
have come home to her. And Hervagault mentions the name of the
General Louis de Frotté as that of one of his liberators, whereas, in
his letters to her, the Chevalier had made it quite clear that this could
not be so. However, it seemed worth her while to write to the old
Comte de Frotté on the subject.
“I have just received your letter,” he replies, August 16,
1804, “and I hasten to send you a line. I have spent a whole
week rummaging among papers. I can assure you that what
is stated in the book you have sent me is all fiction. Louis and
Duchale are mentioned in 1802 because they were both
dead. I am almost certain that in 1795 (in the month in
question) Louis was fighting in Normandy, and that he did not
leave his companions once all that year. But we shall go into
all this on your return, and no doubt will be left in your mind. If
you arrive towards the end of the month, tell me at once. I
shall call on you and tell you all I can, and make you see why
I am convinced that this fellow is a puppet in some one else’s
hands.”
Lady Atkyns was reluctant to give up the faint hope that there
might be something in this Hervagault narrative, but after some
conversations with the Comte de Frotté, and after comparing the
pretender’s statement with documents left by the Chevalier, she was
at last convinced that the whole thing was a fraud.
We hear of her again in October, 1809, taking a prominent part in
the celebrations being held in her neighbourhood in honour of the
jubilee of George III. Then we lose sight of her until 1814, and the
triumphant return to Paris of Louis XVIII. Lady Atkyns hastens now to
secure the good offices of the Duc de Bourbon, with a view to
drawing attention to all her sacrifices and the sums of money she
has expended.
She is delayed, however, over her contemplated journey to France
for this purpose, and Napoleon’s escape postpones for two years
more all hope of accomplishing her return to Paris.
When at last the monarchy is restored once more, she finds that
her aspirations are destined to be disappointed, despite all the kind
words with which she was soothed in England, and we find her
uttering the word “ingratitude,” which is henceforth to be so often on
her tongue. There were so many who held themselves entitled to
gratitude and recognition at the hands of Louis XVIII.—émigrés
returned to France after twenty years of sorrow and indignities, and
now counting upon the recovery of their possessions or on being
reimbursed in some way by the act of the Sovereign. What an
awakening they met with when the time came to formulate their
applications and they found themselves obliged to condescend to
the drafting of innumerable documents, and to put up with
interminable delays!
On September 27, 1816, Lady Atkyns writes to her friend Mme. de
Verrière an account of her disappointing experiences. She had been
well received at Court, but that was all.
“The kind of ingratitude I have been meeting with is not very
consoling. They give me plenty of kind words, but nothing
more. I have written a long letter to the man of business,
begging of him to get the employer to reimburse me a little for
the moment, but I have received nothing yet, and this puts me
out greatly. Perhaps something will turn up between now and
the end of the week. If not I must go and see my poor mother
and beg to get my affairs into order.”
The state of her affairs, for long precarious, was now giving the
poor lady very serious anxiety. By recourse to various expedients
she had managed to hold out until the return of the Bourbons, and to
stave off her creditors. But she was now at her last gasp. If the King
refused to help her, to “reimburse” her, she was ruined. The Comte
de la Châtre had assured her that her application was under
favourable consideration, that the King regarded it approvingly, that
the Comte de Pradel, the head of the King’s household, had it in
hand; but, in spite of this, there was a series of delays.
At last, worn out with waiting, she writes in her naïve style to the
Comte on October 10, 1816—
“I beg of you to be good enough to get the King to decide
this matter as soon as ever possible. I must get away to
England in three weeks to see my mother, who is ill, and I
can’t possibly do this until I know the King’s decision in regard
to me. I know his Majesty is too good to injure one who has
given so many proofs of boundless devotion to the Royalist
cause and to the entire Royal Family. Although I have a
splendid estate in England, I am now in great difficulties by
reason of this devotion. I tell you all this, Monsieur le Comte,
so that, like the good Frenchman you are, you may do me this
kindness of getting the King to give you his orders. I have run
every conceivable kind of evils during these twenty-four
years. I beg of you to excuse all the trouble I am giving you,
and I have the honour to be, Monsieur le Comte,
“Your very obedient servant,
“Charlotte Atkyns.”
This appeal seems to have been no more successful than the
preceding ones, for three months later we find Lady Atkyns still
awaiting the promised audience. To distract her thoughts from the
subject, she goes about Paris—a new city now to her—is present at
sittings of the Chamber of Deputies, and hears the speech from the
Throne. On All Souls’ Day she joins in the solemn pilgrimage to the
Conciergerie. Who could have been more in place on such an
occasion? But with the sad thoughts evoked by the sight of the
Queen’s prison were mingled regrets that the sanctuary had not
been left as it was. The place had been enlarged, and a massive,
heavy-looking tomb stood now where the bed had been.
“I knelt before this tomb,” she writes to Mme. de Verrière,
“but I should have preferred to have seen the prison room
unaltered, and the tomb placed where the Queen used to
kneel down to pray. The place has been made to look too
nice, and a simple elegance has been imparted to it which
takes away all idea of the misfortunes of that time. I would
have left the bed, the table, and the chair. There is a portrait
of the Queen seated on the bed, her eyes raised
heavenwards with the resignation of a martyr. This portrait is
very like, especially the eyes, with that look of angelic
sweetness which she had. There is another tomb with a
crucifix on it, as on hers, upon which are inscribed the words:
‘Que mon fils n’oublie jamais les derniers mot de son père,
que je lui répète expressément; qu’il ne cherche jamais à
venger notre mort.’ You go in by the chapel, and behind the
altar, to get to where the Queen used to be.... I repeated on
the tomb what I vowed to the Queen—never to abandon the
cause of her children. It is true that only Madame remains
now, but she one day will be Queen of France, and if she has
need of a faithful friend she will find one in me.”
These last lines seem a strange avowal. Lady Atkyns seems to be
renouncing her faith. What is the explanation? It is simple enough.
She has realized that as long as she puts forward her inopportune
plea regarding the child in the Temple she must expect to find
nothing but closed doors. Yet she has by her proofs of what she
alleges, and she is prepared in substantiation of her memorials to
hand over a selection of the precious letters from her friends which
she has received in the course of her enterprise. These, doubtless,
would be accepted, but would never be given back. What, then, is
she to do? Threatened on the one side by the distress which is at
her heels; a prey, on the other hand, to her inalterable conviction, the
luckless lady comes for a moment to have doubts about her entire
past. However, this disavowal, as it seems, is but momentary; a
calmer mood supervenes, and she returns to her former point of
view, unable ever to free her mind from doubts as to the real fate of
the Dauphin.
The King’s generosity in this year, 1816, does not appear to have
given her much satisfaction.
“At last I have received a little money,” she writes to Mme. de
Verrière just before Christmas, when preparing to return to England,
“but so little that it is really shameful.”
The following spring she is back again in France, still carrying on
her campaign. From 1817 to 1821 her letters pour in upon the
Ministry of the Royal Household. Did they contain indiscreet
allusions to the affair of the Temple? Perhaps. In any case, with a
single exception, all these letters have disappeared.
We find a curious reference to Lady Atkyns in a letter dated
January 11, 1818, preserved in the archives of the Comte de Lair—
“She is still in Paris,” says the writer. “For the last two
months she has been going every week! She declares now
she will start without fail on Tuesday morning, but the Lord
knows whether she will keep her word.... She is still taken up
with the affair in question, and passes all her time in the
company of those who are mixed up in it. I assure you I don’t
know what to make of it all myself, but it is certain that a
number of people believe it.”
The “affair in question” was the detention at Bicêtre of an
individual about whom the most sensational stories were current. A
maker of sabots, come over—no one quite knew how—from
America, Mathurin Bruneau, playing anew the Hervagault comedy,
had been passing himself off as the Dauphin. Arrested and
imprisoned on January 21, by order of Decazes, the Minister of
Police, Bruneau had for two years been leading a very extraordinary
life for a prisoner.
He was by way of being in solitary confinement, but there was in
reality a never-ending succession of visitors to him in his prison. A
certain Branzon, formerly a customs-house officer at Rouen, who
had been condemned to five years’ imprisonment with hard labour,
had become his inseparable companion. With the support of a
woman named Sacques and a lady named Dumont, Branzon got
together a species of little court round the adventurer, issuing
proclamations, carrying on a regular correspondence with friends
outside, and playing cards until three o’clock in the morning—finally
composing, with the help of large slices out of Le Cimetière de la
Madeleine, a work entitled Mémoires du Prince. Some unknown
painter executed a portrait of the prisoner as “a lieutenant-colonel or
colonel-general of dragoons,” and a mysterious baron, come from
Rouen to set eyes upon his Sovereign, took the oath of fidelity to him
on the Holy Scriptures in the jailer’s own room! On April 29, 1817,
the walls of Maromme, Darnétal, and Boudeville, near Rouen, were
covered with placards calling upon France to proclaim its legitimate
King. And all this happened under the nose of Libois, the Governor
of Bicêtre.
There seems, in fact, to be no room for doubt that, as has been
well said, “in this prison, in which there has been a constant
procession of comtes and abbés, and a whole pack of women, there
has been enacted in the years 1816-1818 a farce of which his
Excellence Decazes is the author.” The object of this mystification
was simply to baffle the Duchesse d’Angoulême in the first instance,
and to prevent public opinion from being led astray in another
direction. Bruneau did not stand alone. Six months earlier another
pretendant, Nauendorff, a clockmaker at Spandau, had written to the
Duchesse d’Angoulême to solicit an interview. It was all important to
put a stop to this dangerous movement. Therefore when on February
9, 1818, the proceedings were opened at Rouen, no pains had been
spared to give the affair the appearance of a frivolous vaudeville. On
February 19 Mathurin was condemned to five years’ imprisonment.
The court was crowded with all kinds of loafers and queer
characters, many of them from Paris, drawn by the rumours so
industriously spread about.
Lady Atkyns would seem to have given some attention to this new
alleged Dauphin without being carried off her feet. She lost no
opportunity of endeavouring to get at the truth, it is clear, and this, as
we learn from a police report, involved a number of visits to the
house in which Gaillon was imprisoned, and to which Bruneau was
transferred after his condemnation. It was even stated that she had
offered sums of money to enable Bruneau to escape. She soon had
her eyes opened, however, to this new fraud.
The accession of Monsieur to the throne, in 1824, does not seem
to have had any favourable result for Lady Atkyns, for we find her at
last reduced in this year to taking a step, long contemplated but
dreaded—the handing over of Ketteringham to her sister-in-law,
Mary Atkyns, in consideration of a life annuity.
She continues, however, to make her way every year to France,
buoyed up by the assurances of interest in her which she has
received from officials of the Royal Household. At first she stays with
friends, the Comte and Comtesse de Loban. Then in 1826, when her
mother dies, aged eighty-six, she establishes herself definitively in
Paris, taking up her abode in a house in the Rue de Lille, No. 65,
where she rents a small appartement on the first floor. Here she gets
together the few souvenirs she has saved from Ketteringham—some
mahogany furniture covered with blue cloth, a sofa covered with light
blue silk, and portraits on the walls of the Dauphin, his father, his
uncle, and the Duc de Berry.
It was while residing here that Lady Atkyns lived through the
revolution of Italy, after witnessing in turn the reign of Louis XVI., the
Terror, the Empire, the Restoration, and the reign of Charles X. What
an eventful progress from the careless, happy days when she played
her part in the dizzying gaieties of Versailles!
Some weeks before the fall of Charles X., Lady Atkyns drew up yet
another petition for presentation to the chief of the King’s household.
She did not mince her words in this document.
“I little thought that lack of funds would be advanced as a
reason for delaying the execution of the King’s orders. I will
not enlarge upon the strangeness of such an avowal,
especially as a reimbursement of so sacred a character is in
question, sanctioned by the Royal will. I would merely point
out to you, Monsieur le Marquis, that I have contrived to find
considerable sums (thereby incurring great losses) when it
was to the interest of France, and of her King, and of her
august family. Failing a sufficiency of money to liquidate this
debt, I have the honour to propose to your Excellency that
you should make out an order for the payment, and I shall find
means of getting it discounted. In your capacity as a Minister
to the King, your Excellency will be able, without delay, to
obtain the amount necessary, minus a discount, from the
Court bankers. Will you not deign, monseigneur, to ask them
to do this, and I shall willingly forego the discount that may be
stipulated for.... Finally, monseigneur, I beg of you to tell me
immediately the day and the hour when I may present myself
at the Ministry to terminate this matter. I must venture to
remind you that the least delay will involve my ruin, and
therefore I cannot consent to it.”
Lady Atkyns’s persistence and the King’s procrastination seem
intelligible enough when one learns that the sums expended by her,
from the time when Louis XVI.’s reign was projected down to the last
year of the Consulate, amounted to more than £80,000. The
Englishwoman might well speak of the sacrifices she had made and
the loss of her fortune at the dictates of her heart.
One other letter we find amongst Lady Atkyns’s papers—a letter
notable for its fine, regular penmanship. It evidently reached her
about this date. The writer was yet another soi-disant Dauphin, the
third serious pretendant. The Baron de Richemont—his real name
was Hebert—had published in 1831 his Mémoires du Duc de
Normandie, fils de Louis XVI. écrits et publiés par lui-même, and he
was not long in convincing a number of people as to his identity. He
probably owed most of his particulars as to his alleged escape from
the Temple to the wife of Simon, whom he had visited at the Hospital
for Incurables in the Rue de Sèvres. Possibly it was through her also
that he heard of Lady Atkyns. At all events, he thought it worth while
to approach her.
“Revered lady,” he writes to her, “I am touched by your kind
remembrance.... The idea that I have found again in you the
friend who was so devoted to my unhappy family consoles
me, and enables me the better to bear up under the ills that
Providence has sent me. I shall never forget your good
deeds; ever present to my memory, they make me cherish an
existence which I owe to you. I cannot tell what the future may
have in store for me, but whatever my fate you may count
upon all my gratitude. May the Lord be with you and send
prosperity to all your enterprises! He will surely do so, for to
whatever country you may take your steps, you will set an
example of all the virtues.
“We shall see you, I hope, in a better world. Then and in the
company of the august and ill-fated author of my sad days,
you will be in enjoyment of all the good you have done, and
will receive your due recompense from the Sovereign
Dispenser of all things.
“There being no other end to look for, I beg of God, most
noble lady, to take you under His protection.
“Louis Charles.”
Richemont shows some aptness and cleverness in the way he
touches the note of sensibility, and attains to the diapason
appropriate to the rôle he is playing. Had his letter the effect
desired? It is hardly likely, but it is the last item in Lady Atkyns’s
correspondence, and we have no means of finding an answer to the
question.
In the night of February 2, 1836, Lady Atkyns died. By her bedside

one person watched—her devoted servant, Victoire Ilh, whose
conduct, according to her mistress’s own statement, “had at all times
been beyond praise.”
The few friends who could attend gathered together in due course
to pay the last honours to the dead. Her remains were conveyed to
England for burial at Ketteringham, in accordance with the wish she
herself had expressed.
Time passed inexorably over her memory, and twenty years later
there was nothing to recall the life of love and devotion of this loyal
and unselfish Englishwoman.
FOOTNOTES:
[76] This is far below the actual figure.
EPILOGUE
Not more than two or three generations separate us from the
period through which we have seen come and go the various actors
involved in the enterprise of which the prisoners in the Temple were
the stake. The rôle that was played by Lady Atkyns and her
confidants, forming as it did a minor episode in the changeful story of
the emigration and of the fortunes of the Royalists during the
Revolution, deserved to be set forth. But the interest attached to
such narratives becomes greatly intensified the more completely the
records of those mentioned in it can be traced to the end. It seems
well, therefore, to see what became of the principal performers who
have passed before our eyes in this slight study.
Of Cormier’s two sons, Achille, the elder, disappears from the
scene completely, and all our efforts to trace him have been in vain.
In the case of his brother we have been more fortunate. Having
served as an officer in the army of Vendée, Patrice de Cormier, from
the moment of the Restoration, sought to return to active service.
Being on terms of intimacy with Prince de la Tremoïlle, Frotté’s old
friend, who was then presiding over the commission inquiring into
the claims of Royalist officers with a view to according recompense
to them, Cormier petitioned for employment in the company of light
horse. His loyalty was not in doubt, for a memorandum supporting
his application recorded that “when the allies entered Paris, he
secured a drum of the National Guard by purchase, and beating it in
front of a white flag, made his way through the streets of Paris.” The
“Hundred Days” interfered with his ambitions, and he was obliged to
betake himself to England, whence he made his way back to France
in July, 1815. The warmth with which Prince de la Tremoïlle
recommended him to the favour of Louis XVIII. showed what value
he attached to his friendship.
“He has accompanied me constantly as my aide-de-camp,”
said the Prince, “on my mission, at the time of my arrest and
during my escape, and he has never failed to give me new
proofs daily of his intelligence and zeal, of his boundless
devotion to the King, and of his capacity. If ever services
rendered could justify me in recommending any one to the
favour of the King, this estimable officer would be the first I
should venture to recommend.”
These words produced their effect. On February 24, 1816,
Cormier was appointed “chef de bataillon” in the first regiment of
infantry of the Royal Guard. Three years later he became a
lieutenant-colonel, and as such he took part in the Spanish
expedition of 1823, under the command of the Duc d’Angoulême.
Charged with the carrying out of an order to the Royal Spanish
troops before Figuières, he fell into an ambuscade of thirty
Constitutional soldiers, and received their volley at a distance of a
few yards. By a miracle he escaped with a wound on the hip, and
succeeded in fulfilling his mission.
Promoted to the rank of colonel, November 1, 1823, Cormier was
stationed at the Garrison at Rochefort at the outbreak of the
Revolution of July. Refusing to serve under the new régime, he sent
in his resignation to the Minister for War, August 5, 1830. This is the
last we hear of him. He died in a suburb of Paris.
His uncle, de Butler, after living for some time in Hamburg, where
he doubtless was regarded by the other émigrés with suspicion by
reason of his intimate relations with Bourrienne, Minister to the
Emperor, returned to England, where he is lost sight of. He died at
Gothenburg in Sweden in 1815.
Bereft of his two sons, Comte Henri de Frotté remained in England
entirely alone for a time, but returned to France on the restoration of
the Bourbons, obtained the rank of maréchal de camp, and died in
Paris, February 28, 1823. An enthusiastic Royalist, active and keen,
the Comte de Frotté had never ceased to interest himself in the
welfare of the émigrés in England, and came to be regarded as their
benefactor.
The career of Jean-Gabriel Peltier was of a more singular
description. This energetic pamphleteer had been editing in London
ever since 1802 a journal entitled L’Ambigu, in which he unceasingly
vented his spleen against the “Premier Consul.” His violence went to
such lengths that in 1803, on the reiterated demand of the incensed
Napoleon, he was brought before an English tribunal. He was
defended by the famous counsel, James Mackintosh, and received
only a mild sentence, with the result that he left the court in triumph,
and attained wide celebrity throughout Europe over the affair. In
addition to his newspaper work, Peltier was interested in a number of
publishing enterprises, which helped to make a livelihood for him.
Some years later the Fates made him chargé d’affaires to the
Emperor of Haïti. The amusement produced by this strange
appointment may be imagined. What made the thing still funnier was
the fact that His Haïtian Majesty paid his representative not in money
but in kind, transmitting to him cargoes of sugar and coffee. Peltier
negotiated these from time to time for the benefit of his creditors.
On the return of the Bourbons, Peltier returned to France, hoping,
like every one else, for his share of recompense, but only to be
disillusioned. He consoled himself with the reflection that if his King
treated him like a nigger, at least his nigger (the Emperor of Haïti!)
treated him like a king—
“Mon roi me traite comme un nègre

Mais mon nègre a son tour me traite comme un roi.”
Unfortunately, the “nègre” soon had enough of his epigrams, and

abandoned him, and this brought about his ruin. Haying lost all his
means of subsistence, he went back once more to Paris to implore
pity from the King, but in vain, and on March 29 he died miserably in
an attic in the Rue Montmartre, aged sixty-five.
APPENDIX
We print here a certain number of letters and documents found for
the most part among the unpublished papers of Lady Atkyns, not
used in the body of this book, yet too interesting to be entirely
omitted. The letters of the Princess de Tarente, in particular, seem to
deserve inclusion in their entirety.
Letter from Jean-Gabriel Peltier to Lady Atkyns.
“London, January 1, 1803.
“I have the honour of sending you, Madame, a letter which I
received yesterday from my friend.[77] The ferment Paris is
now in makes me fear that he may have been obliged to
leave the night of December 27-28, and it must have been
very stormy.
“I have at last managed to get at Mr. Burke in the House of
Commons. He has promised me an interview at as early a
date as possible. I introduced M. Goguelat to him, and he
seemed very glad to make his acquaintance. He had been
driving the evening before with M. de Choiseul, Mr. Pitt, Lord
Grenville, and Lord Loughborough, at Lord Hawkesbury’s. We
had time only for a word.
“I cannot close my letter, January 1, without sending you à
la Française, my good wishes for the New Year. I know well
what the object is that you yourself would wish most to see
achieved.”
Letter from Louis de Frotté to Lady Atkyns.
“London, December 10, 1794.
“Lovers and Ministers who don’t realize their opportunities
often regret them afterwards when they are gone, never to be
found again. This is what I fear is happening to us ... for your

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To my family, friends, and the many students that I have taught

Preface to the Fifth Edition

Chapter 1 Introduction to Engineering Principles and Units

Chapter 2 Introduction to Fluids and Fluid Statics

Chapter 3 Fluid Properties and Fluid Flows

Chapter 4 Overall Mass, Energy, and Momentum Balances

Chapter 5 Incompressible and Compressible Flows in Pipes

Chapter 6 Flows in Packed and Fluidized Beds

Chapter 7 Pumps, Compressors, and Agitation Equipment

Chapter 8 Differential Equations of Fluid Flow

Chapter 9 Non-Newtonian Fluids

Chapter 10 Potential Flow and Creeping Flow

Chapter 11 Boundary-Layer and Turbulent Flow

Chapter 12 Introduction to Heat Transfer

Chapter 13 Steady-State Conduction

Chapter 14 Principles of Unsteady-State Heat Transfer

Chapter 15 Introduction to Convection

Chapter 16 Heat Exchangers

Chapter 17 Introduction to Radiation Heat Transfer

Chapter 18 Introduction to Mass Transfer

Chapter 19 Steady-State Mass Transfer

Chapter 20 Unsteady-State Mass Transfer

Chapter 21 Convective Mass Transfer

Chapter 22 Absorption and Stripping

Chapter 23 Humidification Processes

Chapter 24 Filtration and Membrane Separation Processes (Liquid–

Chapter 25 Gaseous Membrane Systems

Chapter 27 Liquid–Liquid Extraction

Chapter 28 Adsorption and Ion Exchange

Chapter 29 Crystallization and Particle Size Reduction

Chapter 30 Settling, Sedimentation, and Centrifugation

In the night of February 2, 1836, Lady Atkyns died. By her bedside

“Mon roi me traite comme un nègre

Unfortunately, the “nègre” soon had enough of his epigrams, and

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