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‘This is the book I wish I had written, synthesizing an enormous literature focused on special needs students.
It is robust, it is readable, and it is your right-hand resource. A stunner of a book.’

–Professor John Hattie, University of Melbourne, author of Visible Learning

‘A timely and useful resource for those committed to adopting an inclusive pedagogical approach, this book
presents a compendium of evidence-based strategies to support inclusive education.’

–Professor Lani Florian, University of Edinburgh

‘Deserves to have widespread influence on theory, research and professional practice. The book is scholarly,
practical and accessible and it definitely sharpened my understanding of the contemporary evidence on many
topics in special and inclusive education. I hope, for students’ sake, that the book reaches a very wide and
varied audience.’

–Emeritus Professor Tony Shaddock, University of Canberra

‘An excellent reader and reference book for teachers, students and researchers of education. Summarizing a
large amount of up-to-date research findings, it lays out an evidence base for the most effective practices for
teaching students with special educational needs. Interestingly, most of the approaches can be used by all
teachers – a good reminder of the inclusive idea that all children benefit from improving the quality of
teaching and learning.’

–Professor Hannu Savolainen, University of Eastern Finland

‘This systematic review of evidence-based methods of teaching is an excellent resource book for the library of
special and general educators.’

–Emeritus Professor Gunnar Stangvik, The Arctic University of Norway

‘What Really Works is a text that all teachers can rely on, with its excellent summary of methods and practices
that have proven to be successful, not only with students with special needs, but with all young people.’

–Professor Ragnar Thygesen, Agder University, Norway

‘This wide-ranging book looks at evidence-based practical aspects of what really works in special and inclusive
education. Having included this book as one of the core readings for my undergraduate and graduate
programmes in several cultures, I can comfortably assert that this is a must-read book for all teachers-to-be
and their trainers.’

–Associate Professor Filiz Polat, Bahçeşehir University, Turkey

‘David Mitchell has updated and added new chapters to the second edition, making it more comprehensive
while maintaining its readability. Teachers, students and others working in the fields of inclusive and special
education will find it an invaluable source of accessible information about research-based strategies for
intervention.’

–Professor Garry Hornby, University of Canterbury, New Zealand

‘This text provides an excellent and evidence-based collection of good ideas, effective strategies and
comprehensive programmes. They are scientific, scholarly, practical and informative for teachers, education
researchers and all those professionals who support the learning of students with special education needs and
promote the culture of inclusion in various settings of schooling.’

–Associate Professor Ming Tak Hue, Hong Kong Institute of Education

2
‘This book gives useful and important suggestions to build up reasonable accom moda tions for children with
educational needs and collaborations with related organizations and schools in Japan.’

–Professor Toshiro Ochiai, Hiroshima University

3
What Really Works in Special and Inclusive Education
As teachers around the world deal with the challenges of inclusive education, they must find effective ways of
enhancing their classroom teaching methods. What Really Works in Special and Inclusive Education presents
teachers with a range of evidence-based strategies they can immediately put into practice in their classrooms.

This unique book will be an invaluable resource for educators who may not have the time or the inclination to
engage with theory-heavy research, but who wish to ensure that their teaching strategies are up-to-the-minute
and proven to be the most effective best practices. Each of the twenty-seven strategies that this book
comprises has a substantial research base, a strong theoretical rationale and clear guidelines on their
implementation, as well as cautionary advice where necessary.

In this second edition, David Mitchell, a leading writer in special and inclusive education, continues to break
new ground with revised and updated strategies based on evidence from the most recent studies in the field.
From the myriad of related research available, only those studies with genuine potential for improving the
practices of teachers and schools have been included, with the aim of facilitating high-quality learning and
social outcomes for all learners in schools.

Updates to this new edition include:

four new chapters, on response to intervention, universal design for learning, interagency cooperation
and one on the Finnish education system;
over 350 new references;
an even wider international focus, including evidence drawn from Asia;
references to recent developments in neuroscience;
a new companion website, with extra case studies, links to further reading, journal articles and videos,
and an interactive quiz.

This book is essential reading for anyone with a vocational or academic interest in evidence-based special
educational needs teaching strategies, whether a student in initial teacher education or a qualified classroom
teacher, teacher educator, educational psychologist, special needs coordinator, consultant or researcher.

David Mitchell is an Adjunct Professor in the College of Education, University of Canterbury, Christchurch,
New Zealand, and a consultant in inclusive education.

4
What Really Works in Special and Inclusive
Education

Using evidence-based teaching strategies

Second edition

David Mitchell

5
Second edition published 2014

by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

and by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2014 David Mitchell

The right of David Mitchell to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance
with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any
electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and
recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the
publishers.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only
for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

First edition published by Routledge 2008

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Mitchell, David.
What really works in special and inclusive education: using evidence-based teaching strategies / David
Mitchell. — Second edition.
pages cm
Includes index.
1. Special education. 2. Inclusive education. 3. Classroom management. 4. Teaching. I. Title.
LC3965.M58 2014
371.9—dc23
2013025437

ISBN: 978–0–415–62322–3 (hbk)

ISBN: 978–0–415–62323–0 (pbk)

ISBN: 978–0–203–10531–3 (ebk)

Typeset in Akzidenz Grotesk and Eurostile by Florence Production Ltd, Stoodleigh, Devon, UK

6
For my mother,

Adelaide Margaret (Addie) Mitchell

(1918–2006)

7
 Contents
Preface
Acknowledgements
Chapter 1 Introduction
Chapter 2 A learning and teaching model
Chapter 3 Strategy 1: Cooperative group teaching: ‘Help learners to learn from each other’
Chapter 4 Strategy 2: Peer tutoring and peer influences: ‘Utilize peers to teach and support each other’
Chapter 5 Strategy 3: Social skills training: ‘Teach learners how to positively interact with others’
Chapter 6 Strategy 4: Collaborative teaching: ‘Become an effective team player’
Chapter 7 Strategy 5: Parent involvement and support: ‘Respect families’ rights, skills and needs’
Chapter 8 Strategy 6: Cognitive strategy instruction: ‘Teach learners ways of thinking’
Chapter 9 Strategy 7: Self-regulated learning: ‘Help learners take control of their own learning’
Chapter 10 Strategy 8: Memory strategies: ‘Help learners to remember important information’
Chapter 11 Strategy 9: Review and practice: ‘Practice makes perfect’
Chapter 12 Strategy 10: Reciprocal teaching: ‘Help learners understand what they read’
Chapter 13 Strategy 11: Behavioural approaches: ‘Control antecedents and consequences to change
behaviours’
Chapter 14 Strategy 12: Functional behavioural assessment: ‘Change problem behaviours by changing their
antecedents and consequences’
Chapter 15 Strategy 13: Cognitive behavioural therapy: ‘Help learners change their negative thinking’
Chapter 16 Strategy 14: Direct instruction: ‘Make lessons highly structured, briskly paced and successful’
Chapter 17 Strategy 15: Formative assessment and feedback: ‘Regularly check and inform learners of their
progress’
Chapter 18 Strategy 16: Assistive technology: ‘Enhance learners’ skills’
Chapter 19 Strategy 17: Augmentative and alternative communication: ‘Utilize all means to develop
communication skills’
Chapter 20 Strategy 18: Phonological awareness and phonological processing: ‘Use a sound reading strategy’
Chapter 21 Strategy 19: Quality of the indoor physical environment: ‘Provide a physical environment that
enables learning’
Chapter 22 Strategy 20: Universal design for learning: ‘Ensure all learners always have access to all aspects of
learning’
Chapter 23 Strategy 21: Response to intervention: ‘Employ a gradation of evidence-based interventions to
take account of the extent of individual needs’
Chapter 24 Strategy 22: Classroom climate: ‘Create a safe, positive and motivating classroom environment’

8
Chapter 25 Strategy 23: School-wide strategies: ‘Create a multi-tiered system to prevent or minimize
problem behaviours’
23.1: School culture
23.2: School-wide positive behaviour support
23.3: Success for all
Chapter 26 Strategy 24: Inter-agency cooperation: ‘Move from fragmented to coordinated services’
24.1: Wraparound intervention
24.2: Full-service schools
Chapter 27 Strategy 25: Inclusive education: ‘Adapt the classroom programme to suit all learners’
Chapter 28 Strategy 26: Case study of an education system: Finland
Chapter 29 Strategy 27: Opportunities to learn: ‘Provide sufficient quantity and quality of time for learning’
Index

9
 Preface
In most countries, children are required to spend 10–15,000 hours in learning spaces we call ‘schools’ and
‘classrooms’. During that significant period of their development they will interact with their families and with
many educators and peers, as well as with a large range of learning materials and be exposed to many different
teaching strategies.
For these experiences to yield effective learning it is essential that the physical and psychological
environments we create are safe, challenging and educative. It is essential that they ensure that all children
actually learn what is expected of them, that their education contributes to enhancing their quality of life, that
they achieve a balance between independence and interdependence, and that they are prepared to lead full and
satisfying lives as citizens and as members of their cultures. In this journey, they have a right to expect that
educators who employ the best available, evidence-based teaching strategies guide their education.
These challenges are no less important for those children who, for a variety of reasons, we consider to have
special educational needs and who face significant barriers to their learning and development. These children
comprise perhaps ten to fifteen per cent of the school population. Their special needs arise from diverse
factors: sensory, physical, intellectual and emotional. They are expressed in difficulties in making academic
progress in the school curriculum, in acquiring the physical and social skills appropriate to their cultures, and
in achieving a fulfilling sense of self-esteem. Their special needs range from major to minor, and they reflect
physiological or environmental factors. These children are the focus of this book, although, as you will
discover, many of the teaching strategies are universally applicable.
In this book I will describe and present the evidence and underlying ideas for a total of twenty-seven
teaching and related strategies. Some of them are to do with arranging the context of learning (e.g., inclusive
education, cooperative group teaching and the classroom climate). Another group looks at cognitive strategies
such as self-regulated learning, memory strategies and cognitive behavioural therapy. A third group focuses on
behavioural strategies such as functional assessment and direct instruction. A fourth group will look at school-
wide strategies and inter-agency cooperation. As well, consideration is given to such strategies as formative
assessment and feedback, assistive technology and opportunities to learn. I will be drawing upon research
across many different disciplines – education, psychology, health and technology – as well as diverse research
methods.
In all of these strategies I have thoroughly examined the research evidence (much of which is not readily
available to classroom educators) and have attempted to interpret it in a user-friendly manner. I am keenly
aware that in most countries the drive for stand ards and accountability means that educators are increasingly
being expected to be responsible not only for the learners’ outcomes, but also for using the most scientifically
valid methods to achieve them. I hope this book helps in this regard.
The book has its origins in several sources. First, I have drawn upon over 2000 research articles on teaching
learners with special educational needs at the primary and secondary school levels. In an endeavour to ensure
that the book is international in scope, I have included reference to studies carried out in countries as diverse
as the USA, the UK, New Zealand, Australia, Canada, Finland, Sweden, Denmark, Germany, Cyprus, Israel,
Hong Kong, Japan, Singapore, Spain and the Netherlands. Second, I have reflected on my experiences in
teacher education programmes and as a consultant in inclusive education in many countries. Third, I have
drawn upon my own research and publications.
As a result of feedback on the first edition and extensive further reading, the current edition of the book has
been significantly changed. It includes four new chapters: uni versal design for learning, response to
intervention, inter-agency cooperation, and one on the Finnish education system. Also, several chapters have
been considerably expanded to take account of new research. I have also taken the opportunity to expand the
evidence base of the book as a whole, taking account of research carried out since 2007, the close-off date for
the first edition. I have added over 350 new references, as well as augmenting the earlier references.
In approaching the task of selecting strategies for inclusion in the book, I resolved from the outset to ‘follow
the evidence’. Apart from this commitment to evidence-based teaching, I had no theoretical axe to grind and
no preconceived ideas about where the evidence might lead me. In some cases, it took me into areas that were

10
initially quite unfamiliar to me (e.g., indoor environmental quality and augmentative and alterna tive
communication), while in others I was on familiar grounds (e.g., cognitive strategy instruction and
behavioural approaches).
Another decision I made very early on was to focus on teaching strategies first, and special educational
needs second, as the framework for the book. I will explain my reasons for this in the introduction.
In writing the book, my primary aim is to help educators (practising and trainee teachers, principals,
teaching assistants/paraprofessionals) and the professionals who advise them (e.g., school psychologists,
special education needs co-ordinators, special education advisers) to become more effective in teaching
learners with special educational needs, whether in a special education setting or in a regular classroom.
I recognize that, as a busy educator, it is virtually impossible for you to keep up with the ever-expanding
research literature, and then translate it into your teaching practices. I hope that this book will go some way
towards helping you to bridge the growing gap between research and practice. I hope, too, that it will help to
familiarize you with some of the cutting-edge research on effective teaching practices that has been, and is
being, carried out around the world.
Finally, let me introduce myself. I am David Mitchell, a New Zealander who has worked as a consultant in
inclusive and special education in many countries. My education career commenced as a primary school
teacher, with a particular focus on gifted and talented children, from which I moved to become an educational
psychologist assisting educators to work with learners with special educational needs. My next career step was
to work in as a teacher educator in universities, mainly in New Zealand, but also as a visiting professor and
UNESCO consultant in countries as diverse as the USA, Canada, the UK, Japan, Singapore, Kazakhstan,
South Africa, Ethiopia and Uzbekistan. I have carried out extensive research into special and inclusive
education and have codirected a professional development programme on inclusive education for teachers and
principals. My most recent publications (also published with Routledge) include a four-volume series, Special
education needs and inclusive education (2004), Contextualizing inclusive education: Evaluating old and new
international perspectives (2005), the first edition of the current book, What really works in special and inclusive
education (2008), and a book I co-edited with Valerie Karr: Crises, Conflict and Disability. I have also prepared
two reviews for the New Zealand Ministry of Education, which form companion pieces for the current book:
Education that fits: Review of international trends in the education of students with special educational needs (2010),
and Joined-up: A comprehensive ecological model for working with children with complex needs and their
families/whanau (2012).1

11
Enhancing Learning: A Personal Manifesto

On the basis of my experiences as a primary school teacher, an educational psychologist, a university academic,
and a father and grandfather, I have arrived at a set of beliefs about human learning, which I would like to
share with you.
I recognize that, from the moment of their birth, human beings actively process the world about them and
find patterns and meaning in their experiences. Thus, they come to learn the language of their cultures and
the appropriate social rules and roles. They learn to walk, to run, and to engage in complex interactions and
games with their family and friends. They learn to be creative, to make new things and to work out new ways
of solving problems. In short, human beings are natural learners.
I recognize that children’s parents, siblings, friends and teachers mediate some of this learning, but much of
it is independent and self-regulated. Much of it is spontaneous and occurs through observation and trial and
error.
I recognize that notwithstanding this common drive to learn, there is considerable variation among
individuals in what and how they learn. Some of this diversity reflects variations in their biological structures
and functions, while some reflects variations in their cultural experiences and such factors as exposure to the
trauma of wars, conflicts, natural disasters, inadequate diet, abuse and poor living conditions.
I recognize, however, that much of the diversity among individuals reflects the fact that human beings are
unique in their individual learning styles, motivation, interests and experiences.
I recognize that all children have a right to receive a quality education appropriate to their needs.
I affirm that, irrespective of such diversity, all individuals can and do learn and are capable of having that
learning extended and enriched by education.
I affirm that it is the school’s task to enhance children’s natural proclivity for learning. This means that
educators should respect children as active constructors of knowledge and, by-and-large, as being capable of
driving their own learning.
I affirm that educators should adopt a child-centred, whole-child approach in their teaching that recognizes
the importance of achieving creativity and emotional goals, as well as cognitive goals.
And, finally, I affirm that educators should see as one of their primary responsibilities, the recognition and
respect for human diversity, with the aim of improving the quality of life of all learners.

David Mitchell
Pegasus, New Zealand

12
Notes
1 URLs: www.educationcounts.govt.nz/publications/special_education;
www.minedu.govt.nz/~/media/MinEdu/Files/TheMinistry/Consultation/JoinedUp.pdf.

13
 Acknowledgements
I should like to acknowledge the crucial and critical role played by my wife, Dr Jill Mitchell, for accessing
sources, acting as a sounding board and giving editorial advice, as well as exercising considerable patience as I
completed the writing of both editions of this book.
Kathy Wilson, Peter Gillies and the late Glennis Ericksen, special education practitioners, also gave me
helpful feedback on early drafts of the first edition.
I also acknowledge with gratitude the ideas I obtained from my class EDPI – 341, Instruction in Inclusive
Schools, which I taught as a visiting professor at McGill University, Montreal, Canada in the Fall of 2004.
More recently, I am indebted to suggestions from my PhD students at Maria Grzegorzewska Academy of
Special Education, Warsaw, Poland in the Spring of 2012: Barbara Majewska, Daniel Makos, Beata Rybka,
Joanna Smogorzewsaka, Arleta Suwalska and Renata Wojtowicz.
I am also grateful to the following reviewers who provided helpful, constructive comments on drafts of this
edition: Ellyn Arwood, Noel Chia, Kathy Evans, Markku Jahnukainen, Julia Lindley-Baker, Linda Mason,
Hue Ming-Tak, Jackie Scruton and Iva Strnadova. Thanks, too, to Hannu Savolainen for reviewing my
Finland chapter and Roger Hornblow for commenting on the Quality of Indoor Physical Environment
chapter. And, finally, I acknowledge with gratitude the team at Routledge, in particular Alison Foyle, Mike
Travers and Emily Pickett, for their sterling help in bringing this and the previous edition to fruition. My
thanks also to Amy Wheeler of Florence Production for her assistance in bringing the second edition to a
conclusion.

14
Chapter 1
Introduction
Along with parents, educators are at the heart of ensuring a good quality of life for learners with special
educational needs, regardless of where their education takes place. The central idea in this book is that, to
enhance their performance, educators could, and should, be drawing upon the best available evidence as they
plan, implement and evaluate their teaching. Indeed, in the United States, the 2001 No Child Left Behind
(NCLB) law requires teachers to use ‘scientific, research-based programs’, defined as: ‘(1) grounded in theory;
(2) evaluated by third parties; (3) published in peer-reviewed journals; (4) sustainable; (5) replicable in schools
with diverse settings; and (6) able to demonstrate evidence of effectiveness’. As well, NCLB requires each
state to ensure that all learners (including those with disabilities) make ‘adequate yearly progress’, i.e.,
‘continuous and substantial improvement’.1 The recent establishment of centres specializing in gathering and
disseminating evidence-based education policies and practices provides further support for the growing
commitment to evidence-based education in the US.2
This commitment is reflected in the UK, as well, where Michael Gove, the Secretary of State for
Education, had this to say in 2010:
I want to see more data generated by the profession to show what works, clearer information about teaching techniques that get results,
more rigorous, scientifically-robust research about pedagogies which succeed and proper independent evaluations of interventions which
have run their course. We need more evidence-based policy-making, and for that to work we need more evidence.3

In keeping with this thinking, in 2012 the UK government introduced Achievement for All, a whole-school
approach to school improvement, focussing on improving the attainment and wider outcomes of all children
and young people and particularly the twenty per cent of the school population identified as disabled or with
special educational needs. The key features of this programme include rigorous tracking of children’s progress
in English and mathematics, with intervention when pupils fall behind, and discussions on educational
outcomes between the teacher who knows the pupil best and the parents.4
In a similar vein, in Australia in 2005, the National Inquiry into the Teaching of Literacy asserted that
‘teaching, learning, curriculum and assessment need to be more firmly linked to findings from evidence-based
research indicating effective practices, including those that are demonstrably effective for the particular
learning needs of individual children’.5
Two supra-national initiatives are also pertinent. First, in 2007, the OECD published a book, Evidence in
education – Linking research and policy, in which it was noted that available information for policy-making in
education is often unsuitable, either because rigorous research relevant to policy needs has not been
conducted, or because available research is contradictory and does not suggest a single course of action.6 The
publication was portrayed as an attempt to effectively broker connections between policy-makers and
researchers. Second, since 2010, there has been a project, Evidence-informed Policy and Practice in Education
in Europe, with thirty-four partner organizations from twenty-four countries, together with four affiliates
from outside Europe.7 his project aims to broker knowledge using common reference tools and approaches, as
well as exchanging good practices, data and evidence from relevant European agencies and national-level
resources.
Although the body of evidence in education is not without problems and much remains to be investigated, I
believe that it has produced a useful and reliable knowledge base about effective teaching practices for learners
with special educational needs. Unfortunately, it is clear that there is a significant gap between what
researchers have found and what educators’ practice,8 with many practitioners frequently identifying barriers
to their adopting evidence-based practices.9 In the USA, for example, the President’s Commission on
Excellence in Special Education bemoaned the lack of emphasis on ‘aggressive intervention using research-
based approaches’.10 Part of the problem may lie in the fact that interventions are rarely implemented as
designed, with the result that variability in implementation leads to variability in the achievement of expected
outcomes.11 At least in part, the gap between research and practice is due to the fact that much relevant

15
research is not available to educators in a readily accessible form – a situation that I hope this book will go
some way to rectifying.
Successful implementation of a range of evidence-based strategies needs to be carefully planned and well-
resourced, and requires changes at the practitioner, supervisory and administrative support levels, as well as the
system level. One implementation framework suggests four stages:12

Stage 1: Exploration and adoption: select the most appropriate programme(s);

Stage 2: Installation: put in place systems to train practitioners in implementing the new programme
with fidelity;
Stage 3: Initial implementation: address all the challenges that the programme brings to individual staff
and the school, using data to inform the process;
Stage 4: Full operation: monitor the programme fidelity and outcomes and adjust it accordingly;

To this framework, other writers have added two more stages13:

Stage 5: Sustainability: secure long-term resourcing and ensure the school culture fosters the new
programme; and
Stage 6: Scale-up: decide whether, and how, to effectively broaden the reach of the programme, by
increasing the number of sites.

Briefly, I define evidence-based teaching strategies as clearly specified teaching methods that have been shown in
controlled research to be effective in bringing about desired outcomes in a delineated population of learners.14
My aim in this book is to assist you, as an educator, to increase your effectiveness by using the best available
evidence to help your students to become effective learners. Ultimately, the effectiveness of your teaching is
judged by:

the value you add to your learners’ store of information, concepts, skills and values:
the degree of independence your learners are able to exercise in managing their own learning now and
in the future; and
the extent to which you develop a sense of well-being in learners.

As an educator you play a vital role in helping learners to develop these attributes. For example, one writer
recently estimated the following influences on learners’ development:
Individual students: who account for about fifty per cent of their own achievement, and possibly more in the case of those with special
educational needs.

Teachers: who account for about thirty per cent of achievement, hence the importance of using well-founded teaching strategies, as
described in this book.15

Schools: which account for about five to ten per cent of achievement. This influence is mediated mainly through principals.

Peers: who account for five to ten per cent of achievement.

Homes: which account for five to ten per cent of the achievement, especially through parents’ expectations and encouragement.16

In drawing up the strategies described in this book, I should like to emphasize from the outset that I am not
arguing for a single strategy or blueprint that all educators should use with learners with special education
needs – or any other learners. Indeed, their needs are so varied (even within particular categories of disability)
that one size will not fit all. Rather, the most effective programmes are those that incorporate a variety of best
practices. My strong advice is that you develop a repertoire of such strategies nested within your own
philosophy, personality, craft knowledge, reflective practice, professional wisdom, and, above all, your
knowledge of the characteristics and needs of your students and your knowledge of local circumstances. Or, as
a UK writer has expressed it, ‘Establishing best practice . . . in education . . . is more than a matter of simply
accessing, critically appraising, and implementing research findings. It also involves integrating such
knowledge with professional judgment and experience.’17
While I have presented a range of separate strategies for your consideration, I recognize that in real life it is

16
quite usual for teachers to simultaneously employ a range of strategies. Several research studies have
investigated the impact of two or more teaching strategies on learners’ academic achievement and social
behaviours, without giving them a programme name. Many of them have combined cognitive strategy
instruction (Strategy 6) with another type of intervention, including direct instruction (Strategy 14),18
information and communications technology (Strategy 16),19 phonological training (Strategy 18)20 and co-
operative group teaching (Strategy 1).21 One Canadian study looked at the combination of three strategies:
co-operative group teach ing (Strategy 1), teacher collaboration (Strategy 4) and parent involvement (Strategy
5).22 Furthermore, recent UK evidence shows that teachers who are effective in teaching disadvantaged
learners demonstrate skills in a ‘bundle’ of strategies. For example, they:

Have excellent organizational skills: teachers have clear learning objectives for lessons and make sure
their learners understand them. They also organize their resources well and have clear, well-
established and smooth classroom routines.
Establish a positive classroom climate: teachers have positive relationships with their learners and create
happy classrooms with mutual respect and positive expectations for achievement.
Personalize their teaching: teachers are sensitive to the needs and interests of their pupils and provide a
variety of resources to suit individual pupils.
Use dialogic teaching and learning: pupils work collaboratively, receive evaluative feedback from their
teachers (and from their peers) and spend more time learning.
Make more frequent use of the ‘plenary’: teachers use whole-class methods to provide feedback and to
allow further discussion.23

17
A Word About Terms and Other Things

In deciding what terminology to use in the book, I had to make three decisions. First, should I refer to
‘students’, ‘children’ or ‘learners’? Since the focus of the book is on children and youth, and ‘students’ can
suggest a narrower focus on academic learning, I have generally opted for learners.
Second, should I refer to learners with ‘disabilities’, ‘special educational needs’ or ‘barriers to learning’? My
main focus in this book is on learners with disabilities (thus excluding gifted learners except where they may
also have a disability). Increasingly, in recent years, a social model of disability has been adopted. This is
reflected, for example, in the 2006 UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, which
recognizes that ‘disability is an evolving concept and that disability results from the interaction between
persons with impairments and attitudinal and environmental barriers that hinder their full and effective
participation in society on an equal basis with others’.24 This is particularly the case in developing countries,
where eighty per cent of people with disabilities live and where only two to three per cent of children with
disabilities attend school.25 Without detracting from an emphasis on disabilities, in the course of the book I
will also be referring to other special needs, such as social disadvantage. While I am very attracted to the
concept of ‘learners with barriers to learning and development’, for ease of reference I have opted for the term
special educational needs. I recognize, however, that internationally this term is interpreted differently and that
in England and Wales it is being replaced with ‘special education needs and disability’. (Please note that when
I summarize the evidence for the various strategies, I will use the terminology employed in the original
articles, even though this sometimes goes against my ‘people first’ sensibilities.)
Third, I had to choose between ‘teachers’ and ‘educators’. Although I will be directing most of my attention
to teachers, I also want to include others who have educative roles, such as school psychologists,
paraprofessionals, teaching assistants, parents and teacher educators, hence my choice of educators. I should
make one further point and that is to acknowledge that there is no universal terminology, a situation that can
lead to some confusion. For example, the term ‘learning disability’ carries different meanings in the UK, where
it is used very generally, whereas in the US it usually refers to a particular group of learners with special
educational needs. For the most part, I will follow the US meaning, except where the context determines
otherwise.
By now you will have noted that I have chosen to write often in the first person, a somewhat unusual style
for someone steeped in academic traditions! My reason for this is simply that I want to connect with you the
reader on a personal level as far as it is possible via the printed word.
Another point I would like to mention is my approach to referencing sources: I have attempted to minimize
possible distractions by including them in endnotes, rather than in the body of the text. Unless you are seeking
further information on the studies I have consulted or wanting technical information, you should be able to
read the text without constantly referring to the endnotes.

18
How Do We Know What Works?

As an educator of learners with special educational needs, I guess that you have come across many teaching
strategies, but that you have been unsure of how effective they are. I would guess, too, that you have been
frustrated by ideas that turn out to be no more than fads and fancies and that you have often asked yourself
what is the evidence that this or that idea really works? As an educator, you are faced with making choices
among an ever-increasing list of intervention options. I hope this book will help you make good choices of
strategies you could use with the learners in your charge.
Ideally, evidence that a particular strategy works should be based on carefully designed research studies that
meet the following criteria:26

Intervention fidelity. The intervention strategy is fully described in a manual (which is available, if not
published in the research article) and there is evidence that the strategy has been closely adhered to. This is
sometimes referred to as ‘treatment fidelity’. Two related issues arise. First, when trying to accumulate
evidence of the effectiveness of particular strategies, one has to ask are they consistent across studies? Second,
are they ‘pure’ strategies or are they combined with other strategies? (With regard to the latter point, this is
not to say that the aim should be to develop some form of a ‘pure’ strategy. It could well be that with some
students a mixed form of intervention may be necessary; if that is the case, the precise mix should be carefully
described.) Behavioural outcomes. The study should include reliable and valid measures of the behavioural
outcomes: after all, we must be sure that a particular strategy has a positive effect on the behaviours we want
to change. Here, I must refer to two technical matters.
First, in my selection of teaching strategies that ‘really work’, I will be relying heavily on various meta-
analyses that have been carried out. Briefly, a meta-analysis synthesizes the results from a range of similar
studies to determine the average effect of a particular intervention.27 Its originator referred to it as ‘the analysis
of analyses’.28
Second, meta-analyses usually produce a numerical indicator, referred to as effect size (ES). This tells you
the magnitude of the effect of the strategy:29 the larger the ES, the greater the impact of the strategy. It is
based on calculating the difference between the mean of an experimental group and the mean of a control
group, after adjusting for any pre-test differences, divided by the standard deviation of the control group.30
In allocating stars to the various strategies I will be describing in this book, I will follow the grading system
outlined below. With the exception of two strategies that I decided not to rate, I have confined myself to
three- and four-star strategies. Here is the distribution of my rankings: four stars: sixteen strategies, three and
a half stars: six strategies, and three stars: five strategies.31

★★★★ Convincing, or strong, evidence of effectiveness. For example, an effect size of 0.7 or greater shows
that learners with special educational needs undoubtedly benefit from the strategy. Such effect
sizes show, for example, that the scores of a learner at the 50th percentile would increase to at least
the 76th percentile.
★★★ Good, or preponderant, evidence of effectiveness. For example, an effect size of 0.31–0.69 shows that
learners with special educational needs probably benefit from the strategy. These effect sizes
indicate that the strategy results in improvements in scores from, for example, the 50th percentile
to a band of the 62nd–75th percentile.

Note: where no effect size data are available, I will use other ways to determine the value of the research,
particularly with regard to the criteria I outline in the rest of this section.

Learner characteristics. Studies should include clear descriptions of the learners’ ages, developmental levels, and

19
the nature and degree of any disabilities they may have. Also, it is desirable that the learners’ family
characteristics such as ethnicity be reported. Ideally, research studies should focus on learners who are as
homogeneous as possible. The more heterogeneous the sample studies, the more difficult it is for educators to
decide which learners would benefit from the strategy.

Control of variables. The research should be designed in such a way as to ensure that the outcomes are due to
the intervention and not to any confounding variables such as the simple passage of time or a placebo effect.
We would also want to be confident that the outcomes were not due to the effects of additional attention to
the learners in the study or to the effects of repeated testing. This can be achieved in several ways, two of
which I will mention here.
First, there are the ‘gold standard’ randomized controlled trials (RCTs) in which learners are randomly
assigned to an experimental group that receives the intervention or to a control group that does not receive the
intervention, but is in all other significant ways similar to the experimental group. Here, it is important that
the two groups should be equivalent at baseline, i.e., before the intervention commences. It is also important
that there be acceptable levels of attrition between the pre- and postintervention phase.
Second, there are single-case studies in which there are repeated measurements of a single learner in different
conditions over time. Here, in order to establish that a strategy changes a target behaviour, a stable baseline
must also be achieved. There are two main designs of single-case studies.
In an ABAB design, the first task is to establish a stable baseline (Time A). This involves repeated
observations of the target behaviour, as it occurs without the new intervention, until there are consistent
scores. The new intervention is then introduced and new measurements of the target behaviour are taken
throughout this phase (Time B). The process is then repeated, with the new intervention taken away and a
return to baseline (second Time A). At this point you might expect to see a reversal or leveling out of the
earlier improvement. The intervention is then re-introduced, and you might expect to see a resumed
improvement (second Time B).
On the other hand, in a multiple-baseline design, variants include multiple baselines across settings,
behaviours or participants. For example, two behaviours of a single subject are selected for study and an
intervention is applied to one of them. The behaviour that is not the focus of intervention serves as a baseline
against which the effects of the strategy can be determined. This approach does not require returning the
target behaviour to baseline, as in the ABAB design, when such a procedure may be undesirable.

Freedom from contamination. There should be no, or minimal, ‘contamination’ that might affect the results of
the study. In other words, it is important that nothing happens (outside of the intervention) that could affect
the outcomes for either the experimental group or the control group. Of course, if events occur that affect both
the experimental and the control groups, that is acceptable.

Acceptable side effects. Possible side effects should be assessed and should be positive, or at least not negative.
For example, coercive means might be used to control certain learner behaviours, but they may cause
heightened anxiety or even fear, and, of course, they are unethical and possibly illegal.

Theory-based. The psychological mechanisms or learning processes underlying the strategy should be clearly
explained, thus enabling us to generalize it to other situations. While I am giving priority to scientifically
conducted research, I also recognize the validity and value of strategies that have a strong theory base (which,
of course, have been based on thorough testing in the first place), but which themselves may not have been
rigorously evaluated.32

Follow-up. There should be adequate follow-up after, say, six months, but preferably longer, to ascertain if the
behavioural gains are maintained over time.

Research versus natural conditions. Ideally, the research should be carried out in everyday teaching
environments, not just in research conditions. This is because it could well be that the research conditions are
dramatically different from the actual conditions you as an educator work in. However, while studies that have
been conducted in real conditions (usually referred to as ‘effectiveness’ studies) usually have higher credibility

20
to educators, those that have been conducted in controlled research settings (‘efficacy’ studies) will not be
overlooked in this book.33

Peer review. The research should have been published in reputable journals after rigorous peer review. It is
worth noting here that, by and large, studies are more likely to be published if significant effects have been
demonstrated than if no effects were found. In other words, there is a bias towards publishing positive results
and we may never know the results of studies that don’t support a particular strategy.34
While I give priority to peer-reviewed academic journals, I do recognize that there are other legitimate
sources of knowledge in the field of education, for example, practitioner journals, student theses, report
literature and, increasingly, internet publications.

Replication. The research should contain at least two high-quality group studies, or four acceptable quality
group studies,35 or a minimum of five single-subject research studies36 that have shown positive effects for the
strategy. Preferably, independent researchers have replicated the research. Even better, there is a wide base of
support for the strategy, as reflected in meta-analyses, described above.

Cost effectiveness. Clearly, for an intervention to be adopted it must not be excessively expensive. For example,
the more the intervention depends on one-to-one attention over a prolonged period, the less likely it is
considered to be cost effective, especially in poorer countries.

Practical significance. It is possible for research to yield statistically significant results, but the actual effects of
the intervention may not be practically meaningful and would have limited appeal to educators looking for
strategies that make a big difference to learner outcomes.37

Accessibility. Finally, it is important that educators can readily access in a usable form those teaching strategies
that have been researched. I see this as my main responsibility in writing this book.

Unfortunately, only relatively few studies can be said to comply with all elements referred to above.38 While I
will be paying close attention to these criteria, I will be including studies that do not meet all of them, but
which, nevertheless, provide credible evidence.39 That is simply the current state of the art of research into
what constitutes effective teaching for learners with special educational needs – indeed for all learners.

21
Critiques of Evidence-Based Practices

Evidence-based practices are not free from debate.40 Some writers criticize the prominence given to
quantitative or positivist research in general and to randomized controlled trials (RCTs), in particular, to test
the outcomes of interventions. For example, in the USA the prestigious What Works Clearinghouse limits
the highest level of commendation to studies using RCTs, with those using single subject experimental design
and qualitative research methodology not currently considered as adequate. This reliance on RCTs has been
attacked from at least four perspectives. First, those who suggest that qualitative research would be more
appropriate in some situations have rejected it as a limited approach to gaining knowledge. Second, because
cognitive and behavioural approaches have been more often the subject of RCTs than have other strategies,
some fear that they are unfairly advantaged.41 Third, it is generally recognized that RCTs are difficult, even
unethical, to undertake in education, and particularly when dealing with learners with low-incidence
disabilities. And, fourth, there is growing evidence that single subject experimental design has utility in
education.42 This has been defined as ‘a research approach in which an outcome variable is measured
repeatedly within and across different conditions that are defined by the presence or absence of an
intervention’.43
While I recognize the value of RCTs, I will also refer to research based on single subject experimental
designs and qualitative studies. I will also include ‘quasi-experimental studies’. These take on many forms, but
may best be defined as lacking key components of an RCT. While an RCT includes (1) pre-post test design, (2)
an intervention group and a control group, and (3) random assignment of study participants, quasi-experimental
studies lack one or more of these design elements.44
The notion of evidence-based practice has also been criticised philosophically, one writer arguing that it
restricts the scope of educational decision-making to questions about effectiveness at the expense of the
democratic contestation of ideas. He claims that ‘The focus on “what works” makes it difficult if not
impossible to ask the question of what it should work for and who should have a say in determining the
latter.’45 I believe that it is possible – and desirable – for both perspectives to be taken into account.

22
Do Learners with Special Educational Needs Require Distinctive Teaching
Strategies?

The answer to this question is both ‘Yes’ and a qualified ‘No’.

First, yes: some learners – especially those with high or very high needs – do require significantly different
teaching strategies to those that educators in regular classes might usually employ. For example:

some learners with visual impairments are reliant on their tactile and auditory senses for learning and
will require specialized techniques such as Braille and orientation and mobility training;
some learners who are deaf will require specific adaptations such as total communication (including
signing), fm systems, and assistance with maintaining hearing aids;
some learners with speech and language difficulties will require specialized speech/language therapy
to deal with such errors as substitutions, distortions and omissions in their speech;
some learners with intellectual disabilities will require tasks to be broken down into very small steps
and will need assistance with such matters as self care;
some learners with physical disabilities will need assistance with positioning and movement normally
provided by specialists such as physiotherapists and occupational therapists, or with personal care
needs.

In most instances, specialist teachers or therapists undertake these specialized teaching strategies and these
will not be discussed further in this book.
Second, no: for the most part, learners with special educational needs simply require good teaching. As
some writers argue, there is little evidence to support the notion of disability-specific teaching strategies, but
rather that all learners benefit from a common set of strategies, even if they have to be adapted to take account
of varying cognitive, emotional and social capabilities.46 What is required is the systematic, explicit and
intensive application of a wide range of effective teaching strategies – day-by-day, minute-by-minute – in
classrooms. As a successful educator of learners with special educational needs, you will have many strategies
at your disposal that are appropriate for all learners, as will become apparent as you read about the strategies I
have selected for this book.

23
How is the Book Structured?

I have selected twenty-seven strategies for you to consider, five of them being embedded in wider strategies.
In doing so, I have taken account of the above criteria and sought strategies that meet as many of them as
possible. I have focussed on those strategies that have been used with learners with special educational needs
at the elementary and secondary school level. I have not included pharmacological treatments (e.g., Ritalin
and anti-depressants), or diets, or highly specialized interventions such as physiotherapy or Braille. Nor have I
included reference to early intervention or the transition from school to post-school education or work,
important though these topics are.
In the next chapter, I will show how most of the strategies fit into an overall learning and teaching model.
This will show the relationship between a learner’s biological functions, motivation, cognition and memory, as
well as indicating how you can create a learning environment that responds to these factors.

For ease of reference, I have structured the presentation of the strategies in a consistent format, as follows:

The strategy: a definition of the strategy.

The underlying idea: the theoretical basis for the strategy and its brief history.

The practice: an outline of the strategy and its variants, with examples. Note that the next section on evidence
also includes examples of strategies used in controlled conditions.

The evidence: a brief review of the research on the strategy, with a discussion of its pros and cons and its
applicability to different categories of learners with special educational needs. Since most of the strategies
presented in this book have an extensive literature, I will outline only a representative sample. Mainly, I have
selected only those that have involved learners with special educational needs.

Addressing risks: an indication of any problems in implementing the strategy, including ethical issues and
contraindications.

Conclusion: a succinct summary of the value of the method.

24
Further reading: suggestions for readings, including websites, which supplement the description.

Key references: the references noted in the text.

25
What Behaviours are Affected by the Strategies?

In each of the twenty-seven strategies I will select a representative sample of supportive evidence. Space
limitations allow me to select only a few such studies – around ten to fifteen per strategy. In each item of
evidence I will describe the research design, the age of the learners involved, their special educational needs,
the nature of the intervention that was employed and the behaviours that were affected.

26
The Context is Important

Although I hope that this book will be a valuable resource for educators in many countries, I do recognize the
importance of different contexts. Most significantly, the vast bulk of the research I will be referring to has
been conducted in developed countries, especially the USA and the UK, and therefore may not be readily
transferable to developing countries with different cultural practices, resources, levels of teacher education and
even models of disablement.47 Such factors as large classes, extreme poverty, cultural and linguistic diversity,
the presence of HIV/AIDS, poor buildings, inadequate teacher education and little or non-existent support
may limit the uptake of evidence-based teaching. Where possible, I will address the challenge of
implementing the strategies in such contexts, but I do recognize that much remains to be researched in how
evidence-based teaching can be incorporated into school systems in different countries, especially in
developing countries.
Since there is no one model of provisions for learners with special educational needs that suits every
country’s circumstances, caution must be exercised in importing particular models from overseas. While every
country can, and should, learn from other countries’ experiences, it is important that each one gives due
consideration to its own social-economic-political-cultural-historical singularities. The challenge is to
determine how far your country’s indigenous philosophies, ideologies and practices should be encouraged,
respected, challenged, overthrown or blended with those from ‘outside’. In this process, care should be taken
to avoid educational neo-colonialism.48
Implementing evidence-based teaching must also take account of the cultural contexts of learners and their
families. In particular, regard should be paid to different world views and the beliefs, values, attitudes that
emanate from them; beliefs about the cause and nature of disability, communication and interaction styles;
language; and degree of acculturation.49

27
How to Use the Book

I am sure you will have your own strategy for using a book such as this one, but here are my suggestions.
Having read this introductory chapter, I strongly suggest that you read the next one on my learning and
teaching model to see how the various teaching strategies are connected. For an overview of many of the
strategies outlined in the book you could then turn to Chapter 29, particularly the section on providing high
quality instruction. After that, I would think it is a matter of exploring strategies that appear most relevant to
the challenges you are facing. If your starting point is your need to know ways of teaching learners with
particular special needs, the index will provide you with some entry points. However, please remember my
earlier caution that, with some exceptions, there are no disability-specific teaching strategies. Most of the
strategies I present in the book are relevant to all learners with special education needs, indeed to all learners.

28
A Final Point: Be Your Own Researcher

I hope that this book will ‘tune’ you into how sound research will enhance your teaching of learners with
special educational needs. I believe that you should consciously reflect on your teaching and its classroom
outcomes for all your learners, show a willingness to be self-critical and continuously seek ways to modify your
practices where this is indicated. This does not mean simply being a ‘consumer’ of research, but also being a
‘producer’. Thus, I hope that you will find opportunities to collaborate with professional researchers to
advance the evidence base for good teaching practice.50 At the very least, I hope that you will bring a scientific
approach to your teaching by designing innovative programmes based on sound evidence, carefully evaluating
their outcomes, re-designing them until their effectiveness is proven, and then disseminating the results
among your colleagues. In other words, you are a data-driven professional.

Notes

1 No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, Pub. L. No. 107–110, 115 Stat. 1425. Part A, Subpart 1, Sec. 1111, 2[c]) URL:
www.ed.gov/legislation/ESEA02/ (accessed 2 January 2013). But note recent criticisms of the extent to which practices occurring since
the passage of NCLB actually follow scientific evidence: Slavin, R.E. (2006). ‘Evidence-based reform and No Child Left Behind: Next
time use what works’. Teachers College Record, December 12, 2006: URL: www.tcrecord.org (accessed 2 January 2013).

2 See, for example, the Best Evidence Encyclopedia. URL: www.bestevidence.org/index.cfm (accessed 15 November 2012); What Works
Clearinghouse. URL: www.whatworks.ed.gov (accessed 14 November 2012); The Coalition for Evidence-Based Policy (URL:
http://coalition4evidence.org (accessed 15 November 2012); the National Autism Center. URL: www.nationalautismcenter.org/
especially the findings of the National Standards Project accessed 23 December 2012); and The Cochrane Collaboration, with an
emphasis on health care (URL: www.cochrane.org (accessed 15 March 2013)).

3 Michael Gove, Speech to the National College Annual Conference, Birmingham, 16 June 2010.

4 URL: www.education.gov.uk/schools/leadership/schoolperformance/a00199926/achievement-for-all (accessed 10 March 2013).

5 National Inquiry into the Teaching of Literacy (2005). Teaching Reading: National Inquiry into the Teaching of Literacy. Canberra:
Department of Education, Science, and Training, p9. URL:
www.curriculum.edu.au/leader/report_of_the_national_inquiry_into_the_teaching_o,12633.html?issueID=9803 (accessed 20 March
2013).

6 OECD (2007). Evidence in education: Linking research and policy. Paris: Author.

7 URL: www.eipee.eu/ (accessed 10 November 2012).

8 See, for example, Volkmar, F.R., Reichow, B. and Doehring, P. (2011). ‘Evidence-based practices in autism: Where we are now and
where we need to go’. In B. Reichow, P. Doehring, D.V. Cicchetti and F.R. Volkmar (eds) Evidence-based practices and treatments for
children with autism (pp365–392). New York: Springer; Heward, W.L. (2003). ‘Ten faulty notions about teaching and learning that
hinder the effectiveness of special education’. The Journal of Special Education, 36(4), 186–205; Mostert, M.P. and Crockett, J.B. (1999–
2000). ‘Reclaiming the history of special education for more effective practice’. Exceptionality, 8(2), 133–143; Mostert, M.P. and Kavale,
K. (2001). ‘Evaluation of research for usable knowledge in behavioural disorders: Ignoring the irrelevant, considering the germane’.
Behavioral Disorders, 27(1), 53–68; and Sasso, G.M. (2001). ‘The retreat from inquiry and knowledge in special education’. The Journal of
Special Education, 34(4), 178–193.

9 Upton, D. and Upton, P. (2006). ‘Knowledge and use of evidence-based practice by allied health and health science professionals in the
United Kingdom’. Journal of Allied Health, 35(3), 127–133; Pagato, S.L., Spring, B., Coups, E.J., Mulvaney, S., Coutu, M.F. and
Ozakinci, G. (2007). ‘Barriers and facilitators of evidence-based practice perceived by behavioural science professionals’. Journal of
Clinical Psychology, 63, 695–705.

10 President’s Commission on Excellence in Special Education (2002). A new era: Revitalizing special education for children and their families.
Jessup MD: U.S. Department of Education.

11 Lendrum, A. and Humphrey, N. (2012). ‘The importance of studying the implementation of interventions in school settings’. Oxford

29
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A 7
2 June
1723 McCart J
B 8
McDonald L M, 2 June
1960
S’t G 14
2 June
2050 Meyers Wm, S’t
H 16
7 June
2171 Matheney D C
D 19
2 June
2224 Melterberger M
G 20
2 June
2277 Morris J, Cor Cav
E 20
13 June
2475 Mitchiner H
H 25
7 June
2500 Mackin W Cav
K 26
2 June
2516 Moss J
A 26
4 July
3124 McAllister W H C
H 10
24 Mayes William 2 Apr
 E 15
2 April
38 Mee Thomas
F 29
2 May
46 Mergen H S
G 18
7 July
3243 McGee Wm Cav
B 3
13 July
3642 Maynard W J
A 20
8 Aug
4567 Miller J W Cav
G 2
3 Aug
4523 McLean A G
C 1
2 July
3897 McCoy W C
G 24
2 July
4236 McDover H
C 29
Montgomery 4 July
4237
Wm C 29
7 Aug
4751 McGwin M Cav
C 5
9 Aug
4905 Mussurgo M Cav
H 6
Mulanox A C, 2 Aug
4496
Cor B 1
13 Aug
5008 Myers A Cav
C 8
2 Aug
5064 Miles Samuel
A 8
13 Aug
5282 Morris H S Cav
C 11
7 Aug
5594 Mitchell Jas “
K 14
5782 Miflin Wm 13 Aug
B 15
2 Aug
6555 Maddro Jas
C 23
8 Sept
7435 Mefford J, Cor Cav
C 1
13 Sept
7574 Moore Jas
- 2
13 Sept
7764 McGee A
B 4
2 Sept
8059 Mayher J W
E 7
7 Sept
8174 Martin J S Cav
H 8
7 Sept
8954 Mackey S
D 16
8 Sept
9140 McKeese Sam’l Cav
G 17
7 Sept
9542 McDonald W
E 23
Montgomery C 1 Sept
9559 C
F L 29
13 Sept
9783 Metheney V V C
A 26
2 Sept
9861 Macart R
B 27
7 Oct
10795 Martin S Cav
G 12
7 Oct
10976 Meare J H “
I 15
9 Oct
11532 May S L “
A 26
11544 McCaslin M C 7 Oct
 D 27
7 Oct
11649 Myracle C
C 30
7 Oct
11667 Morris Wm Cav
I 30
11 Nov
11845 Moore Wm P
D 5
7 Dec
12277 McNearly W Cav
C 3
7 Dec
12338 Moore T “
I 26
10 Sept
7497 Norton J
K 1
2 Mar
160 Newman Jesse
K 25
2 May
828 Norris Thomas
D 1
13 May
1237 Norman J, Cor C
C 20
11 July
3191 Newport H Cav
E 12
8 June
50 Nicely A
H 2
7 Aug
6262 Nichols W T Cav
A 20
Newman T A, 4 Sept
7818
S’t - 4
7 Sept
9068 Norwood Wm Cav
I 17
7 Sept
9447 Norris P W Cav 64
B 21
13 Sept
9640 Needham F
C 24
9996 Neighbour M 7 Sept
E 29
2 Oct
10223 Norris W
D 2
7 Feb
12642 Neighbor A 65
B 13
8 Aug
4689 Odorn John, S’t 64
B 4
2 June
1753 Owen A
D 9
13 Oct
10743 Oliver L
C 11
2 May
923 Ollenger John
I 6
2 June
2697 Overton J S
C 30
2 April
689 Palmer Wm
K 23
7 April
806 Perkins G W, S’t
M 29
5 May
1141 Penix John
G 16
6 May
1363 Perry Jas Cav
L 25
13 May
1517 Proffett Jas
C 31
7 June
1638 Powers H, S’t Cav
A 5
11 June
2146 Parder E H
K 18
13 July
2748 Perry Thomas
B 1
2767 Pursley W B, S’t C 13 July
 C 2
13 July
3170 Pankey A J
B 11
2 April
506 Pilot Joseph
K 12
13 Aug
4592 Piscall J B
B 3
7 Aug
4572 Powell A N, S’t
K 2
7 Sept
8605 Pavies S Cav
C 12
2 Mar
1 Polivar Martin
E 12
2 April
10 Phillips N
H 5
3 April
32 Parker Wiley
B 25
7 July
4041 Parmer E
I 26
7 July
4380 Palmer D P Cav
I 31
7 Aug
6190 Parks R T “
I 19
7 Aug
6335 Prison E T
B 21
15 Aug
6485 Princes Nelson
B 22
2 Aug
6600 Phillips T
G 23
7 Aug
7290 Park Jas Cav
E 30
2 Sept
9020 Penn W H
E 17
9121 Paddock D W, C 2 Sept
Cor I 17
Pennington G 11 Sept
9606
W, Cor - 23
7 Oct
10304 Pegram W
A 4
Powers H M, 7 Oct
10318
Cor A 4
13 Oct
10364 Poster N P, S’t
E 4
7 Oct
10655 Pomeroy John
K 11
8 Oct
10852 Pierce Wm
A 13
7 Oct
10907 Parkham W
K 14
4 Oct
11285 Pickering E Cav
G 22
7 Oct
11406 Pinkley J
B 24
7 Oct
11501 Powers J Cav
A 26
7 Feb
12644 Powers R “ 65
H 13
2 April
675 Perry Wesley 64
I 22
7 June
1978 Pope F Cav
D 15
7 June
2232 Quiller T “
D 20
2 Mar
271 Ragan J
B 28
380 Ronden Wm 2 April
 A 5
11 April
382 Reynolds Henry C
L 5
2 April
454 Russell R
K 9
2 Aug
4644 Roberts John
F 3
1 Aug
5815 Ronser A, Cor
A 16
7 June
2519 Reed John C
A 26
3 April
523 Robinson Jas M
A 13
3 April
646 Robinson Isaac
A 20
1 May
951 Robinson Wm
G 8
1 May
1438 Rayle F Art
C 28
13 May
1450 Reice James
C 29
13 June
1783 Ralph J F
E 10
7 June
1924 Reed G W
A 14
2 June
2005 Ringoland W H
D 15
13 June
2006 Rabb G W
A 15
3 June
2093 Ryan Wm
K 17
2 June
2219 Robinson J C 64
B 20
2314 Roberts T 2 June
H 22
6 June
2691 Riley J M
G 30
2 July
2750 Ryan C P
G 1
2 April
17 Riddle Robert
F 12
3 July
3752 Ritter John
C 22
2 July
2755 Robbins T
D 22
4 July
3772 Reeves Geo W
F 22
2 July
4086 Robinson A
B 27
7 July
4254 Renshaw H G Cav
C 29
7 July
4368 Rainwater A
F 31
7 Aug
5974 Riter Henry Cav
E 17
7 Aug
4616 Roberts Chas
A 3
11 Aug
6267 Reeves A Cav
B 20
13 Aug
6409 Rider W R, S’t
C 22
7 Aug
6837 Rogers A G Cav
B 25
7 Aug
7082 Russell J S
E 28
7090 Ross John Cav 7 Aug
 B 28
7 Aug
7099 Roach J W “
K 28
7 Aug
7190 Riter John
E 29
3 Sept
7774 Reynolds W
G 4
3 Sept
7978 Reagan Geo W
G 6
2 Sept
8137 Rose M L East
A 8
- Sept
8523 Ramsay W A
- 12
13 Sept
9513 Renmeger Jeff Cav
E 22
13 Sept
10107 Richardson R “
E 30
7 Oct
10869 Rushing W R
B 13
7 Nov
11995 Roberts J G
I 18
6 Nov
12101 Risley J
E 20
7 Mar
12753 Robins W 65
B 12
Reeder C, 51 Sept
8968 64
Sutler - 16
2 April
298 Stinger A E
K 1
8 April
319 Sane Joseph
B 2
2 April
374 Sukirk J F
B 15
 390 Smith John Cav 2 April
I 16
2 April
776 Scott R S
- 28
11 May
985 Smithpater Eli
K 9
2 May
1140 Seals John
D 16
2 May
1191 Stepp Preston
D 18
13 May
1254 Stafford Wm Cav
C 21
2 May
1278 Sisson James
E 22
2 May
1284 Smith T A
C 22
7 May
1313 Short L H Cav
C 23
2 May
1353 Smith C
B 25
Simpkins 9 May
1408
Thomas A 27
2 May
1475 Smith Joel
A 30
8 May
1481 Stansberry A
A 30
2 May
1488 Sutton John
I 31
2 May
1526 Stover A
C 31
2 June
1670 Smith Wm
D 6
2280 Stevens R 2 June
 D 20
13 June
2284 Smith J Cav
E 21
20 July
2958 Smith J B
I 6
4 April
11 Stanton W
E 5
2 April
12 Sutton Thomas
I 8
2 April
39 Sandusky G
B 29
2 June
56 Stout D D
F 18
13 July
3035 Scarbrough S N
E 8
2 July
3276 Shrop J B East
E 14
2 July
3298 Sells W East
D 14
4 July
3322 Swappola O B
A 15
11 July
3520 Slaver A Cav
C 18
12 July
3865 Smith John M
M 24
8 July
4038 Sapper S
H 26
7 July
4170 Snow W Cav
M 28
13 Aug
5462 Smith L
L 13
13 Aug
5625 Sutton Andrew C
E 14
5859 Swan John 2 Aug 64
D 16
13 Aug
5962 Scott John
B 17
1 Aug
6643 Sutton D Cav
H 23
6 Aug
7056 Smith J
M 28
13 Aug
7296 Stewart J W Cav
B 30
1 Aug
7314 Smidney E “
E 30
13 Sept
7787 Scobey L A H “
B 2
- Sept
7923 Sarret Jas D StG
- 5
3 Sept
8637 Smith J Cav
E 13
13 Sept
9192 Smith T A
C 18
13 Sept
9381 Southerland J Cav
C 20
13 Sept
9395 Stewart E “
D 20
7 Sept
9555 Smith W H
B 23
8 Sept
9719 Swatzell W L Cav
E 25
7 Sept
9803 Stratten J L “
M 25
13 Oct
10409 Stafford S
A 6
10454 Shonall John 13 Oct
 C 7
11 Oct
11594 Shay D
E 28
2 Jan
12558 Smith H 65
E 30
2 Mch
12749 Stevens J F Cav
E 8
4 Mch
12756 Smith J D
C 12
7 Mch
12784 Stewart R H
C 15
7 Mch
12800 Shook N A
B 19
2 April
12836 Smith George
B 18
2 April
36 Stiner W H 64
E 28
2 July
3995 Slorer A W
C 26
2 Mch
211 Tompkins T B
F 28
2 Mch
258 Thompson W D
F 31
Thompson 2 April
793
Charles - 29
2 May
932 Thomas W H
K 7
7 June
1657 Tomlin A Cav
M 6
1 June
1704 Thanton S A Art
H 7
7 June
2229 Tice S J
B 20