displacement current and modified Ampere’s law by replacing J
G L BAJAJ ITM, GR NOIDA
ATOM – 2021-22
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
(KAS-101T)
B TECH: 1st Year, 1st SEM
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS
UNIT-1: RELATIVISTIC MECHANICS
1. What is inertial and non-inertial frame of reference? Is earth
an inertial frame?
[ANSWER: A frame in which Newton’s laws hold good is
called inertial frame and if not hold good then is called non
inertial.
Earth is an non-inertial frame due to its rotational and axial
motion.
2. Two photons are approaching to each other. What is their
relative velocity? OR
Show that no signal can travel faster than light. OR
Show that the velocity addition theorem is consistent with
Einstein’s postulates of special theory of relativity.
[ANSWER: From velocity addition theorem: If two particles
came forward towards each other than the relative speed
′ initial amplitude at the surface. It is denoted by ? and for good
= ` + /1 +
If the two particles are photons then u`= c and v = c,
After giving these values in the above formula, we obtain,
u = c. So speed of light is constant
3. What was the objective of Michelson- Morley experiment?
[ANSWER: Object: To prove the existence of ether, a
hypothetical medium present in the space.
Conclusion: There is no ether in space.
4. What are the postulates of Special theory of relativity?
[ANSWER: (i) All fundamental laws of physics remain same in
all inertial frames. (ii) The speed of light is constant.
5. Show that time dilation is a real effect.
[ANSWER: The real effect of time dilation can be given by the
decay μ-mesons at the height of about 10km from the surface of
the earth. They have a typical speed of 0.998c with life time of 13. Explain Bohr’s quantization rule on the basis of
2×10-8second. Therefore in this life time they can travel a
distance of only 600m. Then how do μ-mesons travel a distance
of 10km to reach the earth?
The answer of this problem is by relativity. The μ-mesons has a
life time of 2×10-8second in its own frame. In observer frame on
earth this time is lengthened by the relation
= / 1 − = 3.17×10 second, -5
which enhance the traveled distance to be 9.5km.
What are the mass less particles?
6.
[ANSWER: The particles which has zero rest mass ( = 0)
are known as the massless particles like Photon and Graviton et.
UNIT-2: ELECTROMAGNTIC FIELD THEORY
7. Why Maxwell modify Ampere's law?
OR
14. What are the matter waves or de Broglie waves? OR Write
Why Maxwell proposed that Ampere's law require
modification?
ANSWER: Maxwell found that the Ampere’s circuital law is
logically inconsistent with time varying fields. To make this law
valid for both type of fields, Maxwell introduce a new concept of
by (Jc + Jd). i.e.
Curl H = J Original Ampere’s Law
Curl H = J + J Ampere’s law after Maxwell modification
8. What is the Poynting vector? Write its magnitude and
dimension.
ANSWER: The pointing vector represents the em energy flow per
unit area per unit time along the propagation of the wave. It is
given by the cross product of the field vectors i.e. = × !
The unit of S is Watt/m2 or Joule/sec- m2 and the dimension
is"MT %& '.
9. What is the Poynting Theorem?
ANSWER: John Henry Poynting, the famous British physicist
stated thatThe time rate of em-energy within a certain volume
plus the time rate of em-energy flowing out through the boundary
surface, is equal to the power transferred into the em field.i.e.
∂
− ( ∇. S dV = ( E. JdV + 2( U45 6 dV
∂t
. . .
10. What is the displacement current?
ANSWER: The displacement current is that current which comes
into play in the region in which the electric field and hence the
electric flux is changing with time. It is represented by i and is
;<
given by i = ℇA : >
;=
11. What is the skin depth or penetration depth?
ANSWER: The skin depth or the penetration depth is the
distance over which a plane em wave is attenuated by 1/e of its
@
conductor it is given by ? = =
A BCD
UNIT-3: QUANTUM MECHANICS
12. What is black body?
[ANS: A black body is a body which absorbs radiations of all
wavelengths incident upon it. It neither reflects nor transmits
Any of the incident radiations and therefore appears black
whatever be the colour of incident radiation. Its coefficient of
absorption and coefficient of emission both are 1.
It is an ideal conception. There is no known surface which can
act as perfect black body. Lamp black and platinum black is
nearest approach to a black body as the coefficient of
absorptions for these two are 96% and 98% respectively.
de’Broglie hypothesis.
[ANS: According to Bohr’s quantization
rule, only those orbits are allowed as the
stationary orbits in which the angular
momentum of electron is an integral
multiple of h/2π.
GH
i.e. E= F = , Here n =
I
1,2,3,4……
But according to de’Broglie for the existence of stationary orbits
2KF = LM
O O H
But N= = Therefore 2KF = LM = L : >
PQ R S
GH
This equation may be written as E = F= ,
I
Here n = 1,2,3,4……
some properties/ characteristics of matter waves.
[ANS: de Broglie matter waves have the following properties: 1-
Lighter particles have greater wavelength than heavier particles.
2- The smaller the velocity of the particle, the greater is the
wavelength associated with it.
15. What is wave function? Give its properties.
OR
What are properties of an acceptable wave function?/What
condition must it fulfilled?
[ANS: The quantity whose variations make up the matter waves
is called the wave function.
Properties:
• It should be normalized
• It should be single valued
• It should be continuous and finite]
16. Why is the physical significance of the wave function ( ψ )?
[ANS: The wave function ψ itself, has no direct physical
significance but the square of its modulus gives the probability
of finding the particle.
Probability = |UU ∗ |
UNIT-4:INTERFERENCE & DIFFRACTION
17. Explain why two independent sources could not produce
coherent sources?
[ANSWER: Since the light from two independent sources is not
in phase due to atomic transitions.
18. Explain the necessity of broad source in interference due to
division of amplitude?
[ANSWER: The whole interference pattern of a film by a broad
source can be seen by placing the eye at a suitable position.
On the other hand the whole pattern due to point source can’t be
seen by placing eye at one place but one has to move the eye
from one point to other.
19. Why an excessively thin film appears black in reflected light.
[ANSWER: The path difference in reflected light is
M
Δ = 2X cos F +
2 31.
\
For thin film t = 0, then Δ = ,Which is the condition of dark.
20. Explain the following effects in Newton’s ring experiment:
(1) Introduction of liquid: Diameters of dark and bright rings
are reduces and so whole pattern become more congested.
(2) Removal of glass plate with mirror: The reflected and
transmitted patterns are complementary to each other so
uniform illumination is observed.
21. Why Newton’s rings are circular?
[ANSWER: As the locus of equal film thickness is circle so the
pattern is in the form of rings.
22. What is the condition for missing spectra in grating?
[ANSWER: The condition for missing order is given by
L (^ + _)
=
^
Here (e+d) = Grating element, e is the slit width and d is the slit
separation.
23. Define resolving power of an optical instrument.
[ANSWER: The ability of any optical instrument to resolve any
closely spaced objects id called resolving power.
24. Write the Rayleigh criterion for the resolving power.
[ANSWER: According to the Rayleigh two objects are said to
be jus resolved if the principal maxima of diffraction pattern due
to one object falls exactly at the first minima adjacent to the
principal maxima of the other object and vice versa.
UNIT-V: FIBER OPTICS & LASER
25. What is the stimulated emission of radiation in a LASER?
[ANSWER: In certain material the upper stage has longer life
time of the order of 10-3 sec, known as metastable state and a
material having metastable state is called as active material. If
atom in excited state are compelled or forced to jump down to
ground state by photon of energy hv = E2 – E1, then it jumps to
ground state along with the emission of photon having energy hv
= E2 – E1,this process is called stimulated emission.
26. Why He-Ne is superior than ruby LASER?
[ANSWER: (1) He-Ne has low power consumption (2) The
efficiency of He-Ne is more than ruby laser.
27. What is population inversion, pumping and meta stable
state?
[ANSWER: Population Inversion: It is the situation in which
there are more atom in the excited state and less no of atoms in
ground state i.e. N1< N2.Pumping: It is the process to obtain
and maintain the population inversion. .Metastable State: It is
an exited state of an atom which has longer life time.
28. Distinguish between spontaneous and stimulated emission?
[ANSWER: The stimulated emission provide highly coherent
beam while the radiation from spontaneous emission process is
incoherent.
29. What is function of Cr+3 ions in ruby laser?
[ANSWER: Cr+3 provide the active centers for lasing action. It
has mata stable energy level and the electronic transitions
between different energy levels gives laser output.
30. What is the principle of optical fiber?
[ANSWER: The principle of optical fiber is based on the
phenomenon of total internal refraction (TIR).
The overall performance of step index -single mode fiber is
best. Why?
[ANSWER: For overall performance in terms of data rate and
attenuation, the single mode step index fiber has the best
characteristics because of:
• In step index -single mode ncore-ncladding ≈ 0 and this
causes a large critical angle (almost 90 degree).
• The size of core is greatly reduced so all light paths
through core are practically of same length.
The net effect of these two changes is that all light rays traveling
through core travel the same distance, thereby reducing the
modal dispersion.
32. What is acceptance angle and acceptance cone?
[ANSWER: The acceptance angle is defined as the maximum
angle that a light ray can have relative to the axis of the fiber and
propagate down the fiber.
NA= Sin α5bc = dn@ − n = n@ √2∆
33. What is fiber loss or fiber attenuation?
[ANSWER: The loss of intensity of light signal is called the
@ k
attenuation. It is given by: Fiber Loss = − log l
g(hi) km
34. What is dispersion?
[ANSWER: The term dispersion describes the pulse broadening
effect and produced by the properties of core material and the
line width of light signal passing through the fiber.
The light pulse width produced by an input pulse of zero line
width.”
Dispersion is measured in the unit of time (nano second or pico
second.]
****************************************************
 LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS x = α (x’+ vt’) ………… (2)
From equation (1) and (2) we can write
UNIT-1: RELATIVISTIC MECHANICS x = α [α (x-vt) +vt’]
•c @
1. What is Length contraction and Time Dilation in special OR t s = αt s − :1 − > ……..(3)
n n
theory of relativity? Deduce expression for both .prove that Now let a light pulse produces at time t = t’ = 0 at common
time dilation is real effect. origin O and O’. After some time the position of pulse and the
frame S’ is shown in figure.
[ANSWER: EXPRESSION FOR Time Dilation:
x = ct and x’ = ct’
A moving clock always appears to be going slow for the
therefore equation (1) and (2) becomes,
n
stationary observer by the factor 1 − ct = α t’(c+v) and t’ = α t(c-v)
@
Multiplying eqs c tt′ = α tt′(c + v)(c − v) or α = (4)
Suppose a clock is situated in the system S’ and read the time p
@%
interval of an event t0, r

where t0 = t’2 – t’1 Substituting value of equation 4 in equation 1 and 3, we may

………(1) Here is to the proper time.
„% … …% „/
When this event is noted by the observer from S the obtain, ƒ s = , † s = †, ‡ s = ‡ ˆL_ s
=
v2 v2
1− 2 1−
t = t2 – t1 …………(2) c c2
Using Inverse Lorentz Equations are known as Lorentz’s transformation equations
transformations: obtained by Dutch physicist Henderik Antoon Lorentz in
pqo
=o % 1905.
.t = r
(3) 3. Derive formula for the variation of mass with velocity
p
@%
r with example. OR
Using equation (3) in Show how the relativistic invariance of the law of the
equation (2) conservation of momentum leads to the concepts of variation
nco nco
ts − t@s − t s − t@s tt tt of mass with velocity and the equivalence of mass and
t= − = = OR t= energy.
n n n n n
1− 1− 1− 1− 1−
EXPRESSION FOR LENGTH CONTRACTION: [ANSWER
A moving rod always appears to be contracted for the
Let S and S’ are
n
stationary observer by the factor 1 − two inertial
Let a rod AB is placed in S’ frames S and
whose coordinates S’, where S’ is
are (x@ , y@ , z@ ) and (x s , y s ,
moving with
z s ) w.r.t. S and S’
velocity v in positive x direction. Let two identical particle A
and B of equal mass m moving towards each other in the same
respectively.
line with equal velocity u’ and –u’ and collide inelasticity in
The proper length i.e. the
frame S’. Then velocity of particle as seen from frame S will be
length in S’ frame is
Lt = x s − x@s .(1) …… (1)
However the length from S frame is L = x − x@ ……(2)
Using Lorentz transformations: …… (2)

Applying conservation of momentum before collision and after

}c %n= ~ }c• %n= ~
the collision from frame S is
Eq (1) Lt = x s − x@s = − m1u1 + m2u2 = (m1 + m2) v ……………….(3)
p p
@% @% Substituting the value of u1 and u2 from equation (1) and (2) in
r r
n € n equation (3) we get
= (x − x@ )/ 1 − = OR L = Lt 1 −
p
@%
r
Therefore a moving object is always shortened to a rest observer.
2. Deduce Lorentz transformation equation.
[ANSWER: Lorentz’ Transformation:
Let S and S’ are two inertial frames, where S’ is moving with
velocity Now from equation 1 we have
v in  u ′2   v2 
positive 2 1 − 2  1 − 2  Similarly we can write
c  c 
= 
u
1− 1
x c 2
 u ′v 
directio 1 + 2 
 c 
n w. r.  u ′2   v2 
t. S. 2 1 − 2  1 − 2 
= 
u c  c 
1− 2

Let x’ = α (x – vt) ……….. (1) c 2

 u ′v 
1 − 2 
Where α is proportionality constant depends on v only. Also y’ =  c 
y and z’ = z Thus equation 3 becomes
The inverse relation may be written as
 Where Q is the total electric charge given by the sum of free
…4 charge and the bound charge. In terms of charge density ρ ,
Q = ›. ρ dV
Now if particle B is at rest in frame S we have u2 = 0 and rest From Eqs. 1 & 2, we get
mass of particle B m2 = mo ›œ ∈ E. dS = Q OR ›œ D. dS = ›. ρ dV
Then Converting the surface integral into volume integral on the LHS,
›. ∇.D dV = ›. ρ dV
Generalizing the above equation we get
we obtain
Since the volume is arbitrary here so we can compare the integrand
of both side: ∇ . D = ρ
2nd Maxwell’s Equation: –—˜ ¡ = ¢
Statement: The net outward flux of magnetic induction vector
4. Deduce the relativistic velocity addition theorem. through any surface enclosing a volume is equal to zero.
OR Proof: Let us consider any arbitrary surface within em-field. The
Obtain the expression for velocity transformation. no. of magnetic lines of force entering in this surface will exactly
[ANSWER: Let S and S’ are two inertial frames, where S’ is equal to the no. of magnetic force lines leaving out. Therefore the
moving with velocity v in positive x direction w. r. t. S. net flux will be zero.
Let a particle P is moving with velocity u’ in S’ frame under any Therefore ϕ=0 OR ›¥ B. ds = 0
external force. An observer read this velocity of the particle u Where B is the magnetic flux density which is magnetic flux per
from S frame. unit area. Converting the surface integral to volume integral
Here u = uc ı̂ + u‹ ŒJ + u• k• and us = usc ı̂ + us‹ ȷ̂ + us• k• ›. ∇.B dV = 0 Or ∇.B = 0
c ‹ • co ‹o •o
uc = , u‹ = , u• = , and usc = o , u‹ =
s
, us• = ¦¡
=o =o
rd
= = = = 3 Maxwell’s Equation: Curl E = -
¦§
From Lorentz transformation equation Statement: The electromotive force around any closed loop
through any surface enclosing a volume is equal to the negative
, y’ = y, z’ = z and rate of change of magnetic flux linked with that loop.
Proof: According to faraday’s induction law of electromagnetic,
Differentiating these equations we get the negative time rate of change of magnetic flux linked with a
circuit is equal to the emf induced in the circuit. i.e. e=
:›« ª. œ >
, dy’ =
©
− =−
= =
dy, dz’ = dz and ∮- E. dl = - ∂/∂t ›œ B. dS
Where E is the electric field strength and B is the magnetic flux
density. Converting the line integral to surface integral using
stokes theorem,
›œ (∇ ×E).dS = - ›œ − ∂B/ ∂t. dS OR ∇. E = − ∂B/ ∂t
th ¦™
4 Maxwell’s Equation: Curl H = J +
¦§
Statement: The magnetomotive force around any closed loop
through any surface enclosing a volume is equal to the conduction
c
dx s dx − vdt −v current density plus the time rate of displacement vector linked
usc = s = = = =
dt dt −
n c
1−
n
.
c with that loop.
= Proof: According to Ampere’s circuital law, the magneto motive
force around a closed path is equal to current enclosed by the path.
Mathematically, we obtain
‘q %n “%
= p OR ’′ = ” ›- H. dl = i
@% .‘q @% “
------------- ( 1)
r •
This equation is called velocity transformations.
UNIT-2: ELECTROMAGNTIC FIELD THEORY
Where H is the magnetic field strength and I is the current enclosed
1. Write down Maxwell’s equations in integral form and convert by the path. If J is the current density, then
i = ›œ J. dS
them into differential forms. Give physical significance of each
equation. ------------- ( 2)
ANSWER: From equations (1) & (2), we get
1st Maxwell’s Equation: –—˜ ™ = š ›- H. dl = ›œ J. dS
Statement: The net outward flux of electric displacement vector Converting the line integral to surface integral
›œ ∇ ×H.dS = ›œ J. dS
through any surface enclosing a volume is equal to the net charge
density contained within that volume.
Proof: According to Gauss’s law in electrostatics: Curl H = J ……..(3)
@
›œ E. dS =
Taking div of this equation div (Curl H) = div J = 0
Q
∈ž Therefore according to Ampere’s law div J = 0 always, however
;®
continuity equation states that div J = 0 only if = 0, or ρ =
;=
constant. Hence Ampere’s law is valid only for static field. In
 order to make Ampere’s law logically consistent with time varying ANSWER: Maxwell’s equations are given by:
field, Maxwell replaced J by (Jc + Jd) in equation (3). Therefore div E = 0, div H = 0,
Ampere’s law after Maxwell modification becomes: Curl H = Jc ;¿
Curl E = -X ,
;=
+ Jd ……(4) ;¯ ;<
Curl H =J+ = σE+∈ …….(1) a,b,c,d
Here Jd is known as displacement current density. Again taking ;= ;=
;¯ Taking the curl of eq.(1c), we get,
div of eq.(4), we obtain Jd =
;= ;¿ ; ‘Â- ¿ Ã ;<
FÁ( FÁ ) = FÁ :−X > = −X = −X :σE+∈ >
Therefore, the modified Ampere’s law becomes ;= ;= Ã… ;=
;¯ ÃÇ Ã Ç
Curl H = Jc + Jd = Jc +
;= OR ÄFˆ_(_Å )−∇ = XÆ + ÈX = −∇
Ã… Ã…
Ã Ç ÃÇ
OR ∇ − XÈ − XÆ =0
2. Explain the concept of displacement current and show that it
…………….. (2)
led to the modification of Ampere’s law. (4th Maxwell Eq) Ã… Ã…
Ã É ÃÉ
OR Ll'ly we can obtain ∇ ! − XÈ − XÆ = 0 ..(3)
Discuss the modification made by Maxwell in Ampere’s law Ã… Ã…
Equations (2) and (3) are the wave equations in the conducting
taking the displacement current into consideration. Explain
medium.
In a region of free space: ∈=∈ , µ = μ , σ = 0,
the displacement law and its implications. (4th Maxwell Eq)
ANSWER: The magnetomotive force around any closed loop
Equations (2) and (3) becomes:
∇2 E = µo ∈o Ë /Ët2 ……..(4)
through any surface enclosing a volume is equal to the conduction
∇2 B = µo ∈o Ë Ì /Ët2 …….(5)
current density plus the time rate of displacement vector linked
with that loop.
Proof: According to Ampere’s circuital law, the magneto motive These are the wave equations for the E and H in free space.
These equations may be compare with the general wave equation
with a velocity , ∇ y – 1/ Ë y/Ët2 = 0
force around a closed path is equal to current enclosed by the path.
Mathematically, we obtain
›- H. dl = i
Comparing equation 4 & 5, we get,
@
=
------------- ( 1)
……(6)
dBž ∈ž
Putting ∈o = 8.86× ½¢ %½²
Í/P and X = 4K × 10%Ï , we obtain
@
= = 3 × 10Ö =
Where H is the magnetic field strength and I is the current enclosed dÐ.ÐÑ×½¢Ò½² × ÓI×@ ÒÔ
by the path. If J is the current density, then Therefore, in free space the em-wave travels with light speed.
i = ›œ J. dS ------------- ( 2) In a region of Non-conducting medium: ∈=∈ , µ = μ , ρ = 0
Equations (2) and (3) becomes:
From equations (1) & (2), we get ›- H. dl = ›œ J. dS ∇2 E = µ ∈ Ë /Ët2 ……..(7)
Converting the line integral to surface integral ∇2 B = µ ∈ Ë Ì /Ët2 …….(8)
›œ ∇ ×H.dS = ›œ J. dS These are the wave equations for the E and H in non-conducting
medium.
Curl H = J ……..(3)
These equations may be compare with the general wave equation
with a velocity , ∇ y– 1/ Ë y/Ët2 = 0
Taking div of this equation div (Curl H) = div J = 0
Therefore according to Ampere’s law div J = 0 always, however @
;® =
= 0, or ρ =
Comparing equation 4 & 5, we get, ……(9)
continuity equation states that div J = 0 only if √×B
;=
constant. Hence Ampere’s law is valid only for static field. In Putting ∈=∈ Ø ∈ Ù and X = X Ø X Ù
@ @ @ @
we obtain = = = × =
√×B d∈l ∈Ú Bl BÚ dBž ∈ž √∈ÚBÚ √∈Ú BÚ
order to make Ampere’s law logically consistent with time varying
Hence =
field, Maxwell replaced J by (Jc + Jd) in equation (3). Therefore
Ampere’s law after Maxwell modification becomes: √∈ÚBÚ
@
Curl H = Jc + Jd …………(4) And the refractive index of the medium L = =
√∈Ú BÚ
Here Jd is known as displacement current density. Again taking Therefore, in free space the em-wave travels with light speed.
;¯
div of eq.(4), we obtain Jd =
;=
Therefore, the modified Ampere’s law becomes UNIT-3: QUANTUM MECHANICS
;¯ 5. Obtain time independent and time dependent Schrodinger’s
Curl H = Jc + Jd = Jc +
;= wave equation. Explain ‘ψ’
3. Show that in free space the wave equations for the field vectors OR
E and B of an em-field are given by:
°2 E = µo ∈o ¦² ³/¦t2 and °2 B = µo ∈o ¦² ¡ /¦t2
Obtain the equation of motion of the matter wave associated
with the material particle of mass m and moving with the
Prove that the velocity of plane electromagnetic wave in speed of v under the potential energy field V.
vacuum is given by: v = 1/d´¢ ∈¢ = µ [ANSWER: Schrödinger’s time independent equation: Let us
OR consider a particle of mass m moving with velocity v. Let the
@ Ã Û
Show that in good conducting medium the wave equations for equation of matter waves in 1-D is: ∇ U =
the field vectors E and B of an em-field are given by: ° ² ¶ −
….(1)
Ü…
¹² ¶ ¹¶ ¹² ¼ ¹¼ Solution of equation (1) is U = U ÝÅLÞ = U ÝÅL2Kß …(2)
·¸ ² − ·» = ¢ and ° ² ¼ − ·¸ ² − ·» = ¢ .
¹º ¹º ¹º ¹º Differentiating eq. (2), we get
ÃÛ Ã Û
OR = U 2Kß àÝ2Kß and = −U (2Kß) ÝÅL2Kß
Obtain the plane wave equations in non-conducting medium Ã… Ü…
à Û
(lossless dielectric) and show that Q =
½ = −4K ß U =−4K U = −4K á U
Ü… \
√·¾ }
â”
~
S ã S ã
= −4K U=− U
i.e the speed of em wave is less than speed of light in vacuum in
..(3)
dielectric medium. Also find the expression for refractive H ℏ
index.
 g g GI„
Putting the value from equation (3) in equation (1), we get i.e. › UU ∗ _ƒ = 1 g
_ƒ = 1
or, › õ ÝÅL
or,
@ Ã Û S
∇ U= U û g GI„ û
› }1 − cos g ~ _ƒ = 1 or E = 1
=- ………..(4)
Ã… ℏ
Now we know that the total energy E = Kinetic energy +
@
Potential energy = + åà or = 2 ( − åà) ⇒ õ= Therefor the normalized eigen function of the
g
Therefore, equation (4) may be modified as, ∇ U = − GI„
S(Ç%æØ) ²P(¶%èé) particle is U = ÝÅL
U or ° ² ç + ² ç = ¢ ……..(5) g g
ℏ ℏ
Equation (5) is known as Schrödinger’s time independent
equation. UNIT-4: INTERFERENCE & DIFFRACTION
Schrödinger’s time dependent equation: 7. Describe and examine the formation of Newton’s rings in
Let us start with Schrödinger’s time independent equation giving reflected monochromatic light. Obtain the expression for the
by equation (5) diameters of bright and dark rings.
S(Ç%æØ) ℏ
∇ U+ U = 0 or ∇ U + ( − åà) U = 0 [ANSWER: Newton’s rings are the special case of wedge shape
ℏ S thin film interference. When a plano-convex lens is paced on a
ℏ
or ê− ∇ U + åàë U = U or H ç = ¶ ç ….(6)
S
plane glass plate in such that the convex surface is in contact
ℏ
Here ! = − ∇ U + åà
with the plate the a wedge shape film is produced between the
S gap.
Equation (6) is known as Schrödinger’s time dependent
equation.
6. A particle is in motion along a line between x = 0 and x = a
with zero potential energy. At points for which x < 0 and x >
a, the potential energy is infinite. Solving Schrödinger’s
equation, obtain energy eigen values and normalized wave
function for the particle.
OR
A particle of mass m is moving in a 1-D potential of sides L
¢ , îOïðï ¢ ≤ ì > E
è(ì) = í
∞ , îOïðï ¢ ≤ ì < E0
defined as:
Solve the Schrödinger’s equation, obtain energy eigen values Theory of Interference:
and normalized wave function for the particle. From wedge shaped interference we have that the path
SOLUTION: 1-D Potential Well Problem: difference between interfering reflected waves is ∆=
\
Let us consider a particle moving inside a box along positive X- 2X üàÝ (F + ý) +
axis between x = 0 and x = L
For normal incidence i = r = 0 and for small wedge angle
ý ≅ 0 Ýà üàÝ (F + ý) = 1
The potential V of the particle in 1-D box is
\
V(x) = 0 for 0<x<L
= ∞ for x ≤ 0 and x ≥ L Therefore ∆= 2X +
As particle cannot move outside the box, so its wave function Condition for Maxima:
ψ = 0 for x ≤ 0 and x ≥ L We know that the maximum intensity is obtained at those
So wave equation for free particle within the box ( V = 0) is points at which the path difference is an even multiple of
Ã Û SÇ G\
+ U =0 ………………. (1) λ/2. i.e.Δ = Here n = 1,2,3,4…..
Ä ℏ
\ G\
The general solution of this differential equation is Therefore ∆= 2X + = ⇒ 2X = (2L − 1)M/2
SÇ SÇ
U = õ ÝÅL ƒ + Ì àÝ ƒ …………. (2) Condition for Minima:
ℏ ℏ
We know that the maximum intensity is obtained at those
Where A & B are constant points at which the path difference is an odd multiple of λ/2.
Applying boundary condition U = 0 at x = 0 in equation (2) we ( G @)\
get 0 = 0 + B implies that B = 0 i.e.Δ =
\ ( G @)\ G\
SÇ Therefore ∆= 2X + = 2X =
Thus equation (2) becomes U = õ ÝÅL ƒ …… (3)
ℏ
Applying second boundary condition i.e. U = 0 at x = L in
Expression For Diameters:
Let us consider a plano-convex lens of radius of curvature R
SÇ
equation (3) we get 0 = õ ÝÅL ƒ placed on a plane glass plate at O. Let any nth order ring from
ℏ the X and Y at which the
Implies that either A = 0 which is not acceptable as total wave thickness of film is tn.
function becomes zero
SÇ SÇ
ÝÅL E=0 ⇒ E = LK
Ì×Ì =
Or OR
ℏ ℏ From Geometry
³ =
÷² ø² ℏ² õÌ × Ì
²ùú² FG × FG = (2 − G) × G
FG = 2 G − G ≅ 2 G
known as energy eigen value for nth state
⟹ G
Thus the wave function ( or eigen function ) becomes
GI„
U = õ ÝÅL FG
g
=
2
To find the value of A we apply normalization condition
Let us now obtain the diameters of Bright rings and darks rings:
Diameter of Bright Rings
 ( G%@)\
We know that the condition for bright rings is2X G = If d = 2e, n = 3m = 3,6,9…….. orders are missing
FG (2L − 1)M
10. What do you mean by the dispersive power of plane
⟹ G = (2L − 1) × 2M /X
G
2X =X = transmission grating? Derive an expression for it.
2 4 2 OR
G = √2L − 1 × d2M /X Two spectral lines have wavelengths λ and λ + dλ,
Clearly the diameter of bright rings are proportional to the respectively. Show that if dλ < λ, their angular separation dθ
\
in grating spectra is given by: _ý = ( )
square root of odd natural numbers.
Diameter of Dark Rings
G\ %\
We know that the condition for dark rings is2X G =
FG 2LM
[ANSWER: The dispersive power of the grating is defined as
⟹ G = L × 4M /X
G
2X =X = the rate of change angle of diffraction with the change in
2 4 2
G = √L × d4M /X
wavelength used.
Clearly the diameter of dark rings are proportional to the square
root of natural numbers. If the wavelength changes from λ to ( λ + dλ) and the
8. Define resolving power. Derive an expression for the corresponding change in the angle of diffraction is from θ to θ +
resolving power of a plane transmission grating. dθ, then the dispersive power is defined as dθ/dλ.
[ANSWER: Resolving Power: The ability of any optical Expression for Dispersive Power: The grating equation
instrument to distinguish the images of two very close objects is (e + d) Sin θ = nλ
called the resolving power.
Differentiating this equation w.r.t. λ, we obtain
It is defined as ratio of the wavelength of any spectral lines to G G G @
the smallest wavelength difference between very close lines for =( ) = = = ( )
\ Ø ( )d@% G
\ ( ) @% %\
which the spectral can just be resolved. Mathematically RP = ( )
\
Expression for resolving power of grating: 11. Discuss the thin film interference in transmitted and
Let us consider there are two closely spaced object represented reflected light and show that the two interference patterns
by λ and λ + are complementary to each other.
dλ are [ANSWER: Let us consider a thin parallel film PQRS of
placed in thickness t and of medium index µ. Let a light ray from S made
front of fall on this
grating, film. After
whose multiple
diffraction reflection and
patterns are refraction, the
obtained on rays 1 and 2 are
the screen. obtained as
Therefore reflected and
let nth transmitted
principal maxima due to λ + dλ fall in θ direction, then (e +d) component. As
Sin θ = n (λ+ dλ) …….(1) the rays 1 and 2
Also the first minima adjacent to the nth order principal maxima satisfy the
N(e + d) Sin θ = m λ = (nN+1) λ ……(2) conditions for
Equating equation 1 and 2, nN (λ+ dλ) = (nN+1) λ superposition
\
OR = L = ^ÝàÁ ÅLÄ à ^F so interference
\
9. What do you understand by missing spectra? Obtain a pattern is obtained on the both sides.
condition for the missing spectra in N- slit diffraction (A) Interference in reflected light:
pattern. What particular spectra would be absent if the The path difference between ray 1 and 2 in reflected light is
width of the transparencies and opacities of the grating are ∆= (õÌ + Ìü) gi − õ û = µ(õÌ + Ìü)û − õ û
equal. = µ(õÌ + Ìü) − õ ……….(1)
[ANSWER: In grating spectra for normal for certain value of θ, Calculation of AB and BC:
if the maxima of the interference due to N-slits falls exactly at In right triangle ∆, Cos r = BE/AB ⇒ AB = BE /Cos r = t/ Cos r
Also AB = BC ⇒ BC = t /Cos r ⇒
the minima due to single slit diffraction pattern, then the maxima
will disappear from the resultant pattern. This phenomenon is AB+ BC = 2 t/ Cos r
called Missing Spectra OR Absent Spectra. Calculation of AM:
The condition for the principal maxima is given by Using the right triangle AMC, Sin i = AM/AC⇒AM = AC Sin i
(e + d) Sin θ1 = n λ = (AE + EC) Sin i = (AE + EC) µ Sin r
The condition for the minima due to single slit diffraction is AM = (t Tan r + t Tan r ) µ Sin r
given by: e Sin θ2 = m λ = 2µt Tan r Sin r = 2µtSin2r/Cos r
At a certain point on screen, if the two conditions are = G Â
θ1 = θ2 i.e (e + d) Sin θ = n λ Therefore Δ = 2µ − 2µt r = 2X Cos F
simultaneously satisfied then t¥ Â t¥
( ) G
and e Sin θ = m λ OR = Using Stokes approach for path difference in reflected light, the
S \
This is the condition for the spectrum of order n to be final result is Δ = 2X Cos F +
missing/absent. For example Condition for Maxima:
If d = e, n = 2m = 2,4,6,……………. orders are missing
 G\
We know for maximum intensity: Δ = by Theodore H. "Ted" Maiman at Hughes Research
\ G\
Laboratories on May 16, 1960. .
Therefore Δ = 2X Cos F + = Construction of Ruby Laser;
⇒ 2X üàÝ F = (2L − 1)M/2 Here n = 1,2,3……. The ruby laser consists of a ruby rod, which is made of
Condition for Minima: chromium doped ruby material. At the opposite ends of this rod
( G @)\ there are two silver polished mirrors. Whose one is fully
We know that for minimum intensityΔ = Therefore polished and other is partially polished.
\ ( G @)\
Δ = 2X Cos F + = Operation of Ruby Laser

⇒ 2X üàÝ F = 2LM/2
The optical pump raises the electrons from ground state E1 to E3.
Here n = 1,2,3……. At E3 these excited levels are highly unstable and so the
(B) Interference in transmitted light:
the path difference in transmitted light is Δ = 2X üàÝ F
electrons decays
rapidly to the level
Now we are able to right the condition for maxima and minima: of E2. This transition
Condition for Maxima: occurs with energy
G\
Therefore Δ = 2X Cos F =
difference (E1– E2)
Here n = 1,2,3…….
given up as heat
Condition for Minima: (radiation less
( G @)\
Therefore Δ = 2X Cos F = Here n = 1,2,3……. transmission). The
level E2 is very
From these results it is obvious that the two patterns thus important for stimulated emission process and is known as Meta
obtained are complementary to each other. stable state. Electrons in this level have an average life time of
about 5m.s before they fall to ground state. After this the
UNIT-4: OPTICAL FIBER & LASERS population inversion can be established between E2 and E1. The
12. Derive relation between Einstein’s coefficients and discuss population inversion is obtained by optical pumping of the ruby
the results. rod with a flash lamp. When the flash lamp intensity becomes
[ANSWER: If N1be the number of atoms per unit volume in the large enough to create population inversion, then stimulated
collection of energyE1 then the absorption rate of transition shall emission from the Meta stable level to the ground level occurs
be proportional to both N1 and the number of photons available which result in the laser output.
per unit volume Uv at correct frequency v . The absorption rate
is given by @ = @ Ì@ ’ … … . . (1)
He-Ne LASER
The He-Ne laser

P21 = N !A @ + B @ u" #………2

And the total emission rate is given by was the first gas
laser to be
Constants B12, A21 and B21are called Einstein’s transition invented by Ali
coefficients. Javan, William
When atomic system is in thermal equilibrium with the radiation Bennet Jr. and

transition, that is, @ Ì@ ’ = N !A @ + B @ u" #

field, then rate of upward transition is equal to rate of downward Donal Herriot at
Bell Laboratory,
û
Solving for uv : ’ = $• • USA in 1962.
: > • %
$ • Construction: The active/gain medium of the laser is a mixture
The population density N in a given state depends on the of helium and neon gases, approximately in the ratio of 5 : 1.,
energy E of the state and temperature T given by Boltzmann’s contained at low pressure (typically – 300 Pa) in a glass
'
equation: = ^ %Ç/%& so • = ^ H(/h&
envelope. The energy of pump source of the laser is provided by
' an electrical discharge of around 1000 V through an anode and
û • û • @
Hence ’ = á)/*+ = . Ò,/-+ (
cathode at each end of the glass tube.
• % • • • / • )%@
Working: The laser process in a He-Ne laser starts with
From Planck’s radiation law we know that radiation field
collision of
density: number of photons per unit volume in the frequency
ÖIH(. @
electrons
range v and v + dv is given by ’( = . . á) from the
-+ %@
ÖIH(.
û •
electrical
On Comparing = . ˆL_ Ì@ = Ì @ discharge
•
From these results with helium
1. Stimulated emission and absorption are competing processes. atoms in the
2. The rate of spontaneous emission is far larger than stimulated gas. Collision
emission. of the excited
3. The ratio of A21 and B21 is proportional to cube of helium atoms
frequency of the transition. with the
13. Describe construction and working of He-Ne/Ruby Laser. ground state
[ANSWER: A ruby neon atoms
laser is a solid-state results in transfer of energy to the neon atoms, exciting neon
laser that uses a electrons into the 5s level.
synthetic ruby crystal The number of neon atoms entering the excited states builds up
as its gain medium. The as further collision between helium and neon atoms occur
first working laser was causing a population inversion between the neon 5s, 3p and
a ruby laser made other electronic levels. Spontaneous and stimulated emission
between the 5s (2P1/2) and 3p (2P1/2) states results in emission of
 10
Attenuation (Loss) = − log Po/Pi
632.991 nm wavelength light, the typical operating wavelength
of a He-Ne laser. L(km)
14. What are the types of optical fiber? For an ideal fiber Pi = Po, so loss = 10 log 1 = 0 dB
OR The major contributor of loss of light in fiber during
What are light propagation modes of OF? transmission are-
[ANSWER: OF can be classified into three groups according to (A) Material Loss: It is due to absorption of light by the fiber
the way of light propagation mode in core and index profile. material. It includes absorption due to light interacting with the
These are molecular structure of material as well as loss due to material
(1) Multimode-step index fiber: it is known as step index fiber. A impurities.
multimode step index fiber is shown in figure, the core diameter The loss due to atomic structure itself is relatively small.
of which is around 50µm. Some physical parameters like relative However losses due to impurities can be reduced by better
refractive index, index difference, core radius etc determines the manufacturi
maximum number of guided modes possible in a multimode ng
fiber. A single mode fiber has a core diameter of the order of 2 techniques.
to 10µm and the propagation of light wave is shown in figure. It (B) Scattering
has the distinct advantage of low intermodal dispersion over Loss: Light
multimode step index fiber. is scattered
(2) A single mode step index fiber has a very thin core of uniform by the
refractive index of a higher value which is surrounded by a molecules of
cladding of lower refractive index. The refractive index changes the material
abruptly at the core cladding boundary as shown in the figure: ] due to structural imperfection and impurities. The scattered light
does not propagate through the fiber and therefore lost out.
When light is scattered by an obstruction, it produces power
loss. In OF, obstruction refers to the density variation which
produces change in refractive index. Scattering can also be due
to macro bends i.e. fiber deformation. This type of fiber loss can
be made negligible by better manufacturing techniques. In
Scattering loss ∝ ã
@
2
general
Where λ is the
wavelength of
light.
(C) Wave guide and
Bending Loss:
This type of light
signal loss are due
to imperfections and
deformations (micro and macro
bends) in fiber structure which
cause radiation of light away
from the fiber.
The figure shows the light loss
caused by a change in diameter.
Clearly in the
(3) Multimode- graded index fiber: A graded index fiber is a absence of
multimode fiber with a core consisting of concentric layers of deformation, the light
different refractive indices. Therefore, the refractive index of the would have been
core varies with distance from the fiber axis. It has a high value confined in the fiber.
at the center and falls off with increasing radial distance from the A very small change
axis as shown in the figure above. in core size (i.e.
For overall performance in terms of data rate and attenuation, the micro bends) also cause radiation loss as well as back scattering.
single mode step index fiber has the best characteristics. All of the above losses are dependent on wavelength of light
1- Explain different types of signal loss in optical fiber. used. Combining all of loss phenomenon, we find only a small
[ANSWER: The reduction in amplitude, intensity and power of loss in the following regions for glass fiber:
the light signal during its propagation through thee optical fiber (a) 0.80-0.90 micro meters range is known as “First loss window”.
is known as the fiber loss or signal loss or attenuation. (b) 1.26-1.34 micro meters range is known as “Second loss
window”.
If Pi be the power input and Po be the output power, then the (c) 01.50-1.63 micro meters range is known as “Third loss
signal loss or attenuation is given by: window”.
Attenuation (Loss) = -10 log Po/Pi (Decibels) Obviously, by care full selection of operating wavelength, the
The loss increases with the length of fiber so it is in general above losses can be minimized.
expressed as dB/km as 15. Derive the expression for Numerical aperture, Acceptance
angle, acceptance cone for an optical fiber.
 •/
‘q o n ‘> o?@%n / @
uc = =q op =2.4 x 10 m/s u‹ =
[ANSWER:
=q op
8
= 2.4 m/s
The acceptance @ @
r r
•/
‘A o ?@%n / @
angle is defined
as the maximum u• = = op = 7.2 m/s
@ q
angle that a light r

ray can have Therefore, u= ux i+ uy j+ uz OR u= 2.4 x 108 i + 2.4 j + 7.2 k

relative to the 4. The mass of a moving body is 11 times its rest mass. Find its

[ANSWER: It is given that m= 11 m , Hence

kinetic energy and momentum.
axis of the fiber 5ž
and propagate = 11m
p
@%

⟹ v = 2.99 × 10Ö m/sec

down the fiber. It r

Now that kinetic energy K = (m − m )c = (11m − m )c =

is denoted by α max as shown in the figure.
In the figure the light AB is entering in fiber core from air at 10mt c = 8.2 × 10%@& joule
angle α. At point B, applying Snell’s law, And momentum p=mv= 11m v = 11 × 9.1 × 10%&@ × 2.99 ×
nt × Sin α = n@ × Sin(90 − θ) 10Ö = 2.99 × 10% @ Kg
θ ≥ θ , where θ is the critical angle.
In order to fulfill the total internal reflection, we must have, 5. Calculate amount of work done to increase speed of an

Let the maximum value of α which makes θ ≥ θ is denoted by

electron from 0.6C to 0.8C. Rest energy of electron =

α5bc . Nt × Sin α5bc = n@ × Sin(90 − θ )

0.5MeV.

= n@ × cosθ = n@ × d1 − Sin θ
[ANSWER: The kinetic energy K1 at v1 = 0.6c:
1
K1 = (m − m )c = ( − 1)m c = 2 × 10%@Ó joule
6
=n@ × 1 − = dn@ − n 1− •
6•

Here θ = Sin%@ } ~ = critical angle.

6
And the kinetic energy K2 at v2 = 0.8c:
6• 1
The quantity Sin α5bc is known as the numerical aperture (NA). K2 = ( − 1)m c = 5.35 × 10%@Ó joule
Therefore, NA= Sin α5bc = dn@ − n 1−
****************************************************
= K2- K1 ≅ 3.35 × 10%@Ó joule = 2.1 × 10E eV
Therefore the amount of work done = Change in kinetic energy
NUMERICAL TYPE QUESTIONS
6. At what speed should a clock be moved so that it may appear
NUMERICALS ON RELATIVITY to lose 1 min. in each hour.
1. Calculate the length and orientation of a rod of length 2 =F
[ANSWER: From time dilation formulae, t =
@%G H
meter in a frame of reference which is moving with 0.6 c p
r
velocity in a direction making an angle of 30 0 with the rod.
Here to=1 hour = 60 min and t = 60 min + 1 = 61min
[ANSWER: The length and orientation of a rod along the
= 7
direction of the moving frame of reference = LOcos 300. v = c 1 − F = 3.0 x 108 x 1 − } ~ = 5.4× 105ms-1
The apparent length in a direction perpendicular to the direction = 7@

of motion(x-axis) NUMERICAL ON ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY

1. If earth receives 2cal/min/cm2 solar energy, what are the
n √& ( .7 )
Lx =Locos30 }1 − ~ =
0
1− = 1.73x 0.8 = 1.38m amplitudes of electric and magnetic field vectors?
OR
Apparent length in a direction perpendicular to the direction of
If earth receives 1400 W/m2 solar energy, what are the
motion (y-axis)- No contraction
@ amplitudes of electric and magnetic field vectors?
LY = L0sin 300 = 2 x = 1 m OR
Therefore the length of the rod in a moving frame in a direction If earth receives 1.4K W/m2 solar energy, what are the
making an angle of 300 with rod amplitudes of electric and magnetic field vectors?
LY = dL8 + L9 = d(1.38) + (1) = 1.704 m SOLUTION: The energy flux per unit area per second is
If the rod makes an angle θ with X-axis in the moving frame, S = 2cal min-1 cm-2 = 2×4.2×104/60joule m-2 sec-1
then S = EH = 2×4.2×104/60 = 1400 ------- (1)
-‹ @
Tan θ = = = 0.72 OR ý = tan-1(0.72) = 35.80 But E/H = dµà/È = 376.72 ----- (2)
-q @.&Ö
On solving E = 726.2 Vm-1 and H = 1.928 A/ m
2. How fast would o rocket have to go relative to an observer
Therefore the amplitudes of electric and magnetic fields of
for its length contracted to 99% of its length at rest?
€ << radiation are
[ANSWER: Here L = 99 LO /100, That is , =
€; @ Eo = E√2 = 726.2√2 = 1026.8 V/m and
According to the Lorentz length contraction formula L= Ho = H√2 = 1.928√2 = 2.726 A/m
n << .
Lt 1 − i.e. = }1 − ~ 2. A 1000 watt sodium lamp radiating its power. Calculate the
@ electric field and magnetic field strength at a distance of 2 from
<< n
OR } ~ = 1 - OR v = 0.141 c = 42.3 x 10 ms 6 -1 the lamp.
k @
@
3. A particle has velocity, u’ = 3i+4j+12k m/sec in a coordinate
SOLUTION: Poynting vector S = ÓIÙ = ÓI = 19.9044
system moving with velocity 0.8c relative to laboratory along But, we know that S = EH = 19.9044 ……..(1)
+ve direction of x-axis. Find u in laboratory frame. Also E/H = dµà/È = 376.6--------- (2)
[ANSWER: Given u’ = 3i+4j+12k, ux’= 3, uy’ = 4, uz’= 12 and v= On solving E = 86.59 V/m and H = 0.23 A/ m
0.8c Therefore the amplitudes of electric and magnetic fields of
Therefore according to law of addition of velocity, the x, y and z radiation are
component of u frame are:
 M 5893
= = = 2075 Å
Eo = E√2 = 86.59√2 = 122.456 V/m
And Ho = H√2 = 0.23√2 = 0.325 A/m 2X 2 × 1.42
(ii) Condition for bright film: 2X üàÝ F = (2L − 1)M/2
5893
3. Show that for frequencies < 109Hz, a sample of silicon will act
(2L − 1)M
= = = 1037.5 Å
as good conductor. For silicon, one may assume ε/εo = 12 and σ
= 2 mhos/cm. Also calculate the penetration depth for this 4X 4 × 1.42
sample at frequency 106Hz. 6. Two plane glass surfaces in contact along one edge are
SOLUTION: separated at the opposite edge by a thin wire. If 20
To prove Good Conductor: interference fringes are observed between these edges in
≫> 1
Æ
We know that for good conductor sodium light of λ=5890Ǻ of normal incidence, find the
ÞÈ
2×102
diameter of the wire.
Æ Æ
= = ≅ 300 [ANSWER: = = 20 × 5890 × = 5.89 × 10%Ó
G\ @ ÒT
2×3.14×109 ×8.85×10−12 ×12
Hence
ÞÈ 2KJ×È0 ÈF
Hence the silicon sample is a good conductor. 7. Light of wavelength 6000 Å falls normally on a thin wedge
Calculation of Skin depth: shaped film of refractive index 1.4 forming fringes that are 2
The skin depth or penetration depth for good conductor is given mm apart. Find the angle of wedge in seconds.
\
(Let X = X ) ? =
@
= = [ANSWER: The fringe width is given by: ý = OR
A BCD BA
U=
\
d2/2 × 3.14 × 106 × 4 × 3.14 × 10−7 × 2 × 102 B
= 0.0356 ^ ^F Given: λ2 = 6000 x 10-8 cm, μ= 1.4, β= 2 mm = 0.20 cm
NUMERICALS ON INTERFERENCE θ= 10.71 x 10-5 rad = 10.71 x 10 -5 x 180/K
th
1. In Newton’s ring experiment diameter of 4 and 12 darkth θ= 0.0061o OR θ= 0.0061 x 60 x 60 sec = 21.96 sec.
rings are 0.400 cm and 0.700 cm .Deduce the diameter of 20th NUMERICALS ON DIFFRCTION
dark ring. 1. Light of wavelength 5500Ǻ falls normally on a slit of width
[ANSWER: G M − G = 4NM ……(1) 22 × 10 −5 cm . Calculate the angular position of the first two

8M
n=4, n+p=12, minima on either side of the central maximum.
Ó = 0.4 ˆL_ @ = 0.7 @ − Ó = 4 × [ANSWER: Given that e = 22 × 10%E = 22 × 10%Ï
and − Ó = 4 × 16M and λ = 5500Å In single slit for minima ï VWPX = PN
n solving, D20 = 0.0906cm sin θ = nλ / e
\ EE ×@ ÒT
2. Newton’s rings are observed normally in reflected light of For first order n=1 ÅLý@ = = = 0.25 ý@ =
×@ ÒY
14.3
th
wavelength λ=6000Ǻ. The diameter of the 10 dark ring is Second order n=2
0.50 cm. Find the radius of curvature of the lens and the θ 2 = sin −1 ( 2λ / e) = 30°
thickness of the film.
2. A single slit is illuminated by light composed of two
[ANSWER: G = 4LM = = (0.50) /4 × 10 × wavelengths N½ andN² . One observes that due to Fraunhofer
ÓG\
6 × 10 =106cm and
%E
= = 3 × 10%Ó
diffraction, the first minima obtained forN½ coincides with the
Ö second diffraction minima of N² . What is the relation
3. Newton’s rings are observed by keeping a spherical surface between N½ andN² .
of 100cm radius on a plane glass plate. If the diameter of the [ANSWER: For single slit the minima occurs
15 th bright ring is 0.590 cm and the diameter of the 5 th ring e sin θ = ± nλ
N = (O²P R − O²P )/QRR
is 0.336 cm, what is the wavelength of light used?
e sin θ1 = λ 1 ………(1) and e sin θ 2 = 2λ 2 ….(2)
ANSWER:
D15 = 0.590cm, D 5 = 0.336cm, p = 10, R = 100cm θ1 = θ 2 = θ So e sin θ1 = λ 1 = 2λ 2 So λ2 = λ1 / 2
−5
3. Find the minimum number of lines in a plane diffraction
λ= 5.88 × 10 cm = 5880Ǻ grating required to just resolve the sodium doublet (5890 Å
4. White light falls normally on a film of soapy water whose and 5896 Å) in the (i) first order, (ii) second order.
thickness is 1.5×10 -5 cm and refractive index 1.33. Which [ANSWER: R= λ/dλ=Nm, N=1/n(λ/dλ)
wavelength in the visible region will be reflected strongly? For first order: n=1, Mean wavelength λ=(λ1+λ2) / 2= 5893 Å;
[ANSWER: When light falls normally r = 0o on a film, the dλ=6 Å, N=982.
( G @)\
condition of maxima is: Δ = 2X Cos F = For second order: n=2, N=491.
4µt
4. What must minimum number of lines per cm in a half inch
λ = = 7.98 x 10 - 5 / (2n + 1) width grating to resolve the wavelength 5890 Å and 5896 Å.
2n + 1
[ANSWER: R= λ/dλ=Nm, N=1/n(λ/dλ)
For n=0, λ= 7.98 x 10 -5 cm For first order: n=1, Mean wavelength λ=(λ1+λ2) / 2= 5893 Å;
For n=1, λ= 2.66 x 10 -5 cm For n=2, λ=1.598 x 10 -5 cm dλ=6 Å, N=982
For n=0, λ= 1.14 x 10 -5 cm Since the grating is half inch wide, therefore the number o lines
per inch= 982 ×2
Hence λ= 7.98 x 10 -5 is most strongly reflected.
Minimum number of lines per cm=982 × 2/ 2.54 =773
5. Light of wavelength 5893A0 is reflected at nearly normal
NUMERICALS ON LASER
incidence from a soap film of refractive index 1.42. What is
1. In a ruby laser , total number of Cr+3 ions is 2.8 ×1019. If the
the least thickness of the film that will appear (1)- dark and
laser emits radiation of wavelength 7000Ao, calculate the
(2)bright
G\ energy of laser pulse.
[ANSWER: (i) For Minima: 2µ cos F = [ANSWER: Given n= 2.8 ×1019. And λ = 7000Ao So Energy
When light falls normally r=0o, cos r = 1, n=1 for least thickness, of laser pulse = n(hν) = n(hc/λ) = 7.94J
 Oµ
2. Calculate the population ratio of two states in He-Ne laser After solving, we may obtain N=
that produces light of wavelength 6000Ao at 300K e?e ²Pé µ² @

If e ≪ P¢ µ² , then we obtain N =
[ANSWER: Given λ= 6000Aoand T = 300K. Population ratio of O
["^ [ ^
= eÖ = 5.54 × 10&Ó
Z•
= e \] = e 2\] √²Pg
Z
two states is
In the case of a charged particle, we put K = qe, and therefore
NUMERICALS ON OPTICAL FIBER the above equation transform to
hR
Oµ Oµ
1. An optical fiber has NA of 0.2 and a cladding refractive N= N=
index of 1.59. Determine the acceptance angle for the fiber in cè?cè ²Pé µ² @ ²Pé cè?½ cè/²Pé µ² @
water which has refractive index of 1.33. NUMERICALS ON SCHRODINGER’s EQUATIONS:
[ANSWER: Given that NA= 0.2, n2 = 1.59, no =1.33,
function ç = iì between ì = ¢ and ì = ½ and ç = ¢
1. A particle confined to move along X – axis has the wave
Acceptance angle- αmax = ?
NA= dL@ − L then, NA= dL@ − L =0.2 , n1 = √ (NA)2+(n2)2,
betweenì = ¢. Qj iPk ì = ¢. aj.
elsewhere. Find the probability that particle can be found
n1 = √ (0.2)2+ (1.59)2 = 1.6025. When fiber is in water n0= 1.33
then NA= dL@ − L / n0 Solution:-P = › çç∗ kì = ›¢.aj i² ì² kì
¢.Qj

i² a ¢.Qj i²
NNA= √(1.6025)2-(1.59)2/1.33 = 0.15. Now αmax = sin-1NA ,
= "ì '¢.aj = "!¢. Qj#a − !¢. aj#a ' = ¢. ¢½Ñi²
a a
Sin-1(0.15) = 8.60.
2. An optical fiber has core and cladding indices 1.466 and
2. Find the minimum energy (ground state energy) and the first
1.460 respectively and is operating at 1.3µm wavelength.
excited state energy of an electron moving in one dimension
Calculate:
in an infinitely high potential box of width 1Å.
Solution:- We know that P =
P ² O²
(1) NA (2) Acceptance angle (3) critical angle (4) Fractional
ÐPl²
refractive index difference (5) V-number/Normalized
frequency/Cut-off parameter (6) No of modes (7) maximum
P² O²
For minimum energy taking n = 1,
= Ñ. ¢a × ½¢%½Ð ménoï
acceptable radius for single mode operation. Given the
¶½ =
ÐPl²
diameter of core is 50µm.
[ANSWER: For Ist excited state n = 2, = P² ¶½ = ². Q½² × ½¢%½b m
(1) NA= dL@ − L = [ (1.466)2- (1.460)2 ]1/2 = 0.1324, 3. A particle is in motion along a line between x = 0 and x = a
(2) Acceptance Angle: αmax= Sin-1NA = Sin-1(0.1324) = 7.6140 with zero potential energy. At points for which x < 0 and x >

Pqì
(3) The Critical Angle: The critical angle is given by Sinθc = a, the potential energy is infinite. The wave function is
ç = pVWP
n2/n1 , OR θc = Sin-1(n2/n1) , Sin-1(1.460/1.466)= 84.8140
l
G %G
(4) Fractional Refractive Index Difference: ∆= • =
G
0.00410
Normalized the wave function for the particle.
Solution: we apply normalization condition :
g g GI„
i.e.› UU ∗ _ƒ = 1or, › õ ÝÅL _ƒ = 1
(5) V-Number/Normalized frequency/ Cut-off Parameter
I_ ×&.@Ó× E×@ Ò` or,
(V):å = õ= × 0.1324 = 15.9898 g
\ @.&×@ Ò` û g GI„ û
æ (@E.<Ö<Ö) › }1 − cos ~ _ƒ = 1 or E = 1 ⇒ õ=
(6) No of Modes: S = = = 127.83 ≅ 127 g g

(7) Maximum Radius for Single Mode: We know that for single Therefor the normalized eigen function of the particle is
mode operation V < 2.405 OR 2 LKƒ
I_
õ=
×&.@Ó×_
× 0.1324 < 2.405 OR a = 3.76×10-6m U= ÝÅL
\ @.&×@ Ò` E E
NUMERICALS ON de’Broglie: ************************END***************************
1. Calculate the de-Broglie wavelength associated with a
proton moving with a velocity equal to (1/20)th velocity of
light.
O Ñ.Ѳ׽¢ÒaQ ײ¢
Solution:-N = = = ². ÑQ × ½¢%½Q P
PQ ½.Ñb×½¢Ò²b ×a×½¢Ð
2. Find the expression for de'Broglie wavelength of a particle in
the terms of kinetic energy relativistically. What will be the
value of λ if Show that the de-Broglie wavelength for a
material particle of rest mass m 0 and charge q accelerated
from rest through a potential difference of V volts
Oµ
relativistically is given by N =
²Pé cè?½ cè/²Pé µ² @

Solution:- We know that the total energy of a particle is the sum

of kinetic energy and rest mass energy. Therefore
E = Kinetic energy + Rest mass energy = k + moc2
………(1)

=N
Also from relativistic mechanics, the total energy of the particle
+ Ø Ó ………(2)
=N
is given by
Comparing equation (1) and (2), + Ø Ó=
(d + Ø )
H
Or : > + Ø
Ó
= (d + Ø )
\