Practical No.

1 Lab Equipments

· Maintaining Optimal pH of solutions

The pH of solution is maintained at optimal ranges so that it enhances biochemical reactions in the
solution .

· Optimum pH and Optimum Temperature

Optimum pH refers to pH of solution at which it works the best .Normally for cellular
metabolism it is 7 . While Optimum temperature is the temperature at which enzymes work at
their peak range , a slight change may reduce the yield of final products .

· Magnification and Resolution Power

Magnification refers to the ability of a microscope to enlarge the apparent size of an object.
Resolution, also known as resolving power, is the ability of a microscope to distinguish between
two closely spaced objects.
· Viruses cannot be seen by compound Microscope.
The maximum range of compound microscope is 1000 x while viruses are much smaller so thats why
they cannot be seen by compound microscope . Due to extreme small size of viruses they are unable to be
seen through compound microscope .

Practical No. 2 Preparation Of Solutions

· Preparation Of 2 % NaCl in 25 ml distilled water

Weight 0.5 g of NaCl

Add 15ml water in beaker and add this NaCl and mix it

Raise the solution upto 25 ml

· Molarity of 40 g of NaOH in 250 ml of water
Molarity = Number of moles of solute / volume of solution in liters
number of moles = grams / molar mass
= 40 / 40 = 1
M = 1/ 0.25
M=4

Practical No. 3 Fermentation Of Carbohydrates

· Less ATP is produced in fermentation

During fermentation, energy (ATP) production from sugar is limited. Unlike aerobic respiration,
which yields a substantial amount of ATP, fermentation relies on glycolysis alone. Glycolysis
breaks down glucose into pyruvate, generating a modest 2 ATP molecules. Without the
subsequent stages of aerobic respiration, such as the electron transport chain, fermentation lacks
the efficiency of ATP synthesis observed in oxygen-dependent processes, resulting in a
comparatively lower energy yield from sugar during fermentation.

· Application of Fermentation in the pharmaceutical Industries.

Antibiotics Production
Fermentation is used to produce antibiotics such as penicillin, streptomycin, and erythromycin.
Microorganisms like bacteria and fungi are employed to synthesize these antimicrobial agents on a large
scale.
Vaccines Manufacturing
Certain vaccines, including those for hepatitis B and some influenza vaccines, are produced using
fermentation techniques. Microorganisms or mammalian cells are engineered to express viral antigens,
and the fermentation process helps in their large-scale production.

· Lactic Acid Cycle .

Lactic acid production involves glycolysis, where glucose is converted to pyruvate. In the
absence of oxygen, pyruvate is then converted to lactic acid through lactic acid fermentation.
This process, catalyzed by lactate dehydrogenase, regenerates NAD+ from NADH, allowing
glycolysis to continue. While yielding less ATP compared to aerobic respiration, lactic acid
fermentation serves as a rapid means of energy production, particularly in situations of low
oxygen availability, such as during intense exercise.
· Optimization of fermentation to increase lactic acid production

To optimize lactic acid fermentation, select a high-yield lactic acid bacteria strain and use a suitable
carbohydrate substrate. Maintain optimal pH and temperature, ensuring a slightly acidic environment.
Provide proper aeration and agitation for efficient mixing and oxygen supply. Fine-tune nutrient levels,
including nitrogen sources, vitamins, and minerals. These factors collectively enhance the overall
fermentation process, leading to increased lactic acid production.

Practical No. 4 Iodine Tests on Carbohydrates

· Amylopectin do not react with iodine

Amylopectin does not react with iodine because it has a branched structure with frequent α-1,6-
glycosidic linkages, preventing the formation of a stable starch-iodine complex. Unlike
amylose, which forms a blue-black color complex with iodine due to its linear structure,
amylopectin's branched nature inhibits the iodine binding, resulting in little to no observable
color change.
· Purple color of Amylose with Iodine

Iodine gives a purple-blue color with amylose due to the formation of a starch-iodine complex.
This complex is formed when iodine molecules fit into the helical structure of amylose through
a process known as molecular inclusion, resulting in the characteristic color change.
Practical No. 5 Isolation of Amylose and Amylopectin
1. Structural Composition and Isolation Processes

Amylose
i - Linear structure with α-1,4 linkages.
ii - Relatively straightforward isolation through precipitation methods.

Amylopectin
i - Branched structure with additional α-1,6 linkages.
ii - Isolation is more complex due to branching and requires specific techniques.

2. Functional Properties

Amylose
i - Higher viscosity when gelatinized.
ii - Contributes to thickening properties in various applications.

Amylopectin
i - Branched structure facilitates rapid enzymatic digestion.
ii - Provides a quick source of energy due to efficient breakdown.

3. Implications in Biological Systems

Amylose
i - Influences digestion, impacting the release of glucose.
ii - Contributes to sustained energy release.

Amylopectin
i - Rapidly digested, providing a quick energy source.
ii - Plays a role in glycogen storage in living organisms.

Practical No. 6 Extraction of Glycogen from Liver

Relation pathway of CNS, insulin, glucagon and glycogen for the maintaining the blood glucose in the
biosystem.
The central nervous system (CNS) monitors blood glucose levels and signals the pancreas to release
insulin or glucagon. In response to elevated blood glucose, the pancreas releases insulin, promoting
glucose uptake by cells and glycogen synthesis in the liver and muscles. This lowers blood glucose levels.
Conversely, low blood glucose triggers glucagon release, stimulating glycogen breakdown and glucose
release into the bloodstream. Glycogen serves as a vital buffer, releasing glucose when needed and storing
it when in excess. This regulatory system ensures blood glucose homeostasis, crucial for the energy
demands of the central nervous system and overall physiological balance.

Practical No. 7 Extraction of Lipids from Plants

The structural diversity of lipids, including triglycerides, phospholipids, and sterols, underlies their varied
roles. Phospholipids and sterols shape cell membranes, ensuring functionality and fluidity. Triglycerides
serve as an efficient energy storage form. Lipids participate in signaling pathways, with phospholipids
acting as messengers. Changes in lipid composition can disrupt membrane properties, influencing cellular
transport and signaling. Imbalances in triglyceride storage may contribute to metabolic disorders,
emphasizing the critical role of lipid diversity in maintaining cellular function and overall health.

Practical No. 8 Thin Layer Chromatography

The choice of stationary and mobile phases in thin-layer chromatography (TLC) significantly influences
compound separation and identification. The stationary phase's composition and polarity interact with the
mobile phase to determine a compound's migration rate. Factors like molecular weight, polarity, and
interactions with the stationary phase contribute to unique migration patterns. Understanding these
dynamics aids in optimizing conditions for specific compounds but requires careful consideration to avoid
limitations such as incomplete separation and difficulty in quantification.

Practical No. 9 Macroscopic Analysis of Urine

Macroscopic analysis of urine, including color, odor, and turbidity, provides valuable insights into an
individual's health. Normal urine is pale yellow to amber; dark color may indicate dehydration or
liver/kidney issues. Normal odor is mild; sweet odor may suggest diabetes, while foul smells may indicate
infection. Normal turbidity is clear or slightly cloudy; cloudiness may indicate infection or the presence
of crystals. Variations in these macroscopic characteristics can signal underlying physiological or
pathological conditions, facilitating early detection and appropriate intervention for maintaining health.

Practical No. 10 Glucose Estimation From Urine Sample

Fehling's test works on a molecular level by utilizing redox reactions. Glucose reduces copper(II) ions in
Fehling's solution, leading to the formation of a red precipitate of copper(I) oxide. Factors influencing
accuracy include reaction conditions, sample type, and pH control. Accurate results depend on controlling
temperature and reaction time, while interference from other reducing substances can affect outcomes.
The test finds applications in glucose detection in various fields but has limitations such as susceptibility
to interference and sensitivity to reaction conditions. Understanding these factors is essential for reliable
and appropriate application in diverse experimental conditions and sample types.