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Quantum Information Processing, Quantum Computing, and Quantum Error Correction: An Engineering Approach 2nd Edition Ivan B. Djordjevic
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Quantum Information
Processing, Quantum
Computing, and Quantum
Error Correction
An Engineering Approach
Second Edition
Ivan B. Djordjevic
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
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Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by
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Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website:
www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright
by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and
experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional
practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described
herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety
and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional
responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or
editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a
matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any
methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
xvii
xviii Preface
5. It does not require any background knowledge, except for understanding the
basic concepts of vector algebra at an undergraduate level. An appendix is
provided with basic descriptions of abstract algebra at a level sufficient to
follow the book easily.
6. It offers in-depth exposition on the design and realization of QIP and quantum
error correction circuits.
7. For readers not familiar with the concepts of information theory and channel
coding, Chapter 6 provides basic concepts and definitions from coding theory.
Only the concepts from coding theory of importance in quantum error
correction are covered in this chapter.
8. Readers not interested in quantum error correction can approach the chapters
related to QIP and quantum computing.
9. Readers interested only in quantum error correction do not need to read the
chapters on quantum computing, except Chapters 3 and 4. An effort has been
made to create self-independent chapters, while ensuring a proper flow
between the chapters.
10. Various concepts are gradually introduced starting from intuitive and basic
concepts, through medium difficulty topics, to highly mathematically involved
topics.
11. At the end of each chapter, a set of problems is provided so that readers can have
a deeper understanding of underlying concepts and be able to perform inde-
pendent research in quantum computing and/or quantum error correction.
12. Several different courses can be offered by using this book: (1) quantum error
correction, (2) quantum information processing, (3) quantum computing, and
(4) integrating the concepts of quantum information processing, quantum
computing, and quantum error correction.
This book is a self-contained introduction to quantum information, quantum
computation, and quantum error correction. After completion of the book readers
will be ready for further study in this area and be prepared to perform independent
research. They will also be able to design QIP circuits, stabilizer codes,
CalderbankeShoreSteane (CSS) codes, subsystem codes, topological codes, sur-
face codes, and entanglement-assisted quantum error correction codes, as well as
propose corresponding physical implementation, and be proficient in fault-tolerant
design.
The book starts with basic principles of quantum mechanics, including state vec-
tors, operators, density operators, measurements, and dynamics of a quantum sys-
tem. It continues with fundamental principles of quantum computation, quantum
gates, quantum algorithms, quantum teleportation, and quantum information theory
fundamentals. Significant space is given to quantum error correction codes, in
particular stabilizer codes, CSS codes, quantum low-density parity-check codes,
subsystem codes (also known as operator-quantum error correction codes), topolog-
ical codes, surface codes, and entanglement-assisted quantum error correction
codes. Other topics covered are fault-tolerant quantum error correction coding,
Preface xix
fault-tolerant quantum computing, and the cluster states concept, which is applied to
one-way quantum computation. Relevant space is devoted in investigating physical
realizations of quantum computers, encoders, and decoders, including nuclear mag-
netic resonance, ion traps, photonic quantum realization, cavity quantum electrody-
namics, and quantum dots. Focus is also given to quantum machine learning
algorithms. The final chapter in the book is devoted to QKD.
The following are some unique opportunities available to readers of the book:
1. They will be prepared for further study in these areas and will be qualified to
perform independent research.
2. They will be able design the information processing circuits, stabilizer codes,
CSS codes, topological codes, surface codes, subsystem codes, quantum LDPC
codes, and entanglement-assisted quantum error correction codes, and will be
proficient in fault-tolerant design.
3. They will be able to propose the physical implementation of QIP, quantum
computing, and quantum error correction circuits.
4. They will be proficient in quantum machine learning.
5. They will be proficient in QKD too.
6. They will have access to extra material to support the book on an accompanying
website.
The author would like to acknowledge the support of the National Science
Foundation.
Finally, special thanks are extended to Rachel Pomery and Tim Pitts of Elsevier
for their tremendous effort in organizing the logistics of the book, including editing
and promotion, which has been indispensible in making this book a reality.
About the Author
xxi
CHAPTER
Introduction
1
CHAPTER OUTLINE
1.1 Photon Polarization .............................................................................................. 4
1.2 The Concept of Qubit .......................................................................................... 11
1.3 The Spin-1/2 Systems......................................................................................... 12
1.4 Quantum Gates and QIP....................................................................................... 13
1.5 Quantum Teleportation........................................................................................ 16
1.6 Quantum Error Correction Concepts ..................................................................... 17
1.7 Quantum Key Distribution.................................................................................... 19
1.8 Organization of the Book..................................................................................... 21
References ............................................................................................................... 28
Further reading ......................................................................................................... 29
recently, it was widely believed that quantum computation would never become a
reality. However, recent advances in various quantum gate implementations, as
well as proof of the accuracy threshold theorem, have given rise to the optimism
that quantum computers will soon become a reality.
Fundamental features of QIP are different from that of classical computing and
can be summarized as: (1) linear superposition, (2) entanglement, and (3) quantum
parallelism. The following are basic details of these features:
1. Linear superposition. Contrary to the classical bit, a quantum bit or qubit can
take not only two discrete values 0 and 1 but also all possible linear combi-
nations of them. This is a consequence of a fundamental property of quantum
states: it is possible to construct a linear superposition of quantum state j0i and
quantum state j1i.
2. Entanglement. At a quantum level it appears that two quantum objects can form a
single entity, even when they are well separated from each other. Any attempt to
consider this entity as a combination of two independent quantum objects, given
by a tensor product of quantum states, fails unless the possibility of signal
propagation at superluminal speed is allowed. These quantum objects, which
cannot be decomposed into a tensor product of individual independent quantum
objects, are called entangled quantum objects. Given the fact that arbitrary
quantum states cannot be copied, which is the consequence of no-cloning
theorem, communication at superluminal speed is not possible, and as a
consequence the entangled quantum states cannot be written as the tensor
product of independent quantum states. Moreover, it can be shown that the
amount of information contained in an entangled state of N qubits grows
exponentially instead of linearly, which is the case for classical bits.
3. Quantum parallelism. Quantum parallelism is the possibility of performing a
large number of operations in parallel, which represents the key difference
from classical computing. Namely, in classical computing it is possible to
know what is the internal status of a computer. On the other hand, because of
no-cloning theorem, it is not possible to know the current state of a quantum
computer. This property has led to the development of Shor’s factorization
algorithm, which can be used to crack the RivesteShamireAdleman (RSA)
encryption protocol. Some other important quantum algorithms include
Grover’s search algorithm, which is used to perform a search for an entry in an
unstructured database; quantum Fourier transform, which is a basis for a
number of different algorithms; and Simon’s algorithm. These algorithms are
the subject of Chapter 5. The quantum computer is able to encode all input
strings of length N simultaneously into a single computation step. In other
words, the quantum computer is able simultaneously to pursue 2N classical
paths, indicating that the quantum computer is significantly more powerful
than the classical one.
Although QIP has opened up some fascinating perspectives, as indicated earlier,
there are certain limitations that should be overcome before QIP becomes a
Introduction 3
commercial reality. The first is related to existing quantum algorithms, whose num-
ber is significantly lower than that of classical algorithms. The second problem is
related to physical implementation issues. There are many potential technologies
such as nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), ion traps, cavity quantum electrody-
namics, photonics, quantum dots, and superconducting technologies, just to mention
a few. Nevertheless, it is not clear which technology will prevail. Regarding quantum
teleportation, most probably the photonic implementation will prevail. On the other
hand, for quantum computing applications there are many potential technologies
that compete with each other. Moreover, presently, the number of qubits that can
be efficiently manipulated is in the order of tens, which is well below that needed
for meaningful quantum computation, which is in the order of thousands. Another
problem, which can be considered as problem number one, is related to decoher-
ence. Decoherence is related to the interaction of qubits with the environment that
blurs the fragile superposition states. Decoherence also introduces errors, indicating
that the quantum register should be sufficiently isolated from the environment so that
only a few random errors occur occasionally, which can be corrected by QECC
techniques. One of the most powerful applications of quantum error correction is
the protection of quantum information as it dynamically undergoes quantum compu-
tation. Imperfect quantum gates affect the quantum computation by introducing
errors in computed data. Moreover, the imperfect control gates introduce the errors
in a processed sequence since wrong operations can be applied. The QECC scheme
now needs to deal not only with errors introduced by the quantum channel by also
with errors introduced by imperfect quantum gates during the encoding/decoding
process. Because of this, the reliability of data processed by a quantum computer
is not a priori guaranteed by QECC. The reason is threefold: (1) the gates used
for encoders and decoders are composed of imperfect gates, including controlled
imperfect gates; (2) syndrome extraction applies unitary operators to entangle
ancilla qubits with code blocks; and (3) error recovery action requires the use of a
controlled operation to correct for the errors. Nevertheless, it can be shown that arbi-
trary good quantum error protection can be achieved even with imperfect gates,
providing that the error probability per gate is below a certain threshold; this claim
is known as accuracy threshold theorem and will be discussed later in Chapter 11,
together with various fault-tolerant concepts.
This introductory chapter is organized as follows. In Section 1.1, photon polar-
ization is described as it represents a simple and most natural connection to QIP. In
the same section, we introduce some basic concepts of quantum mechanics, such as
the concept of state. We also introduce Dirac notation, which will be used
throughout the book. In Section 1.2, we formally introduce the concept of qubit
and provide its geometric interpretation. In Section 1.3, another interesting example
of the representation of qubits, the spin-1/2 system, is provided. Section 1.4 is
devoted to basic quantum gates and QIP fundamentals. The basic concepts of quan-
tum teleportation are introduced in Section 1.5. Section 1.6 is devoted to basic
QECC concepts. Section 1.7 is devoted to QKD, also known as quantum cryptog-
raphy. The organization of the book is described in Section 1.8.
4 CHAPTER 1 Introduction
E0y
Ey Ey
E E
E
q f Ex
E0x Ex
Ex
which is shown in Fig. 1.1B. By setting d ¼ p/2, 3p/2, ... the equation of ellipse
becomes:
2 2
Ex Ey
þ ¼ 1: (1.7)
E0x E0y
By setting further E0x ¼ E0y ¼ E0 ; d ¼ p/2, 3p/2, ... the equation of ellipse
becomes the circle:
Ex2 þ Ey2 ¼ 1; (1.8)
and corresponding polarization is known as circular polarization (Fig. 1.1C). The
right circularly polarized wave is obtained for d ¼ p/2 þ 2mp:
E ¼ E0 ½ex cosðut kzÞ ey sinðut kzÞ: (1.9)
Otherwise, for d ¼ p/2 þ 2mp, the polarization is known as left circularly
polarized.
Very often, the Jones vector representation of the polarization wave is used:
" pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi #
Ex ðtÞ 1k
EðtÞ ¼ ¼ E pffiffiffi jd ejðutkzÞ ; (1.10)
Ey ðtÞ ke
where k is the power-splitting ratio between states of polarizations (SOPs), with the
complex phasor term being typically omitted in practice.
Another interesting representation is Stokes vector representation:
2 3
S0 ðtÞ
6 7
6 S1 ðtÞ 7
SðtÞ ¼ 66 7; (1.11)
7
4 S2 ðtÞ 5
S3 ðtÞ
where the parameter S0 is related to the optical intensity by:
s3
The right-elliptical polarization points
are located in the northern hemisphere
s1
FIGURE 1.2
Representation of polarization state as a point on a Poincaré sphere.
1.1 Photon Polarization 7
FIGURE 1.3
The ellipticity and azimuth of the polarization ellipse.
The parameters of the polarization ellipse can be related to the Jones vector pa-
rameters by:
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 2 kð1 kÞsin d
sin 2 ε ¼ 2 kð1 kÞsin d; tan 2 h ¼ . (1.17)
1 2k
Finally, the parameters of the polarization ellipse can be related to the Stokes
vector parameters by:
s1 ¼ cos 2h cos 2ε; s2 ¼ sin 2h cos 2ε; s3 ¼ sin 2ε; (1.18)
and corresponding geometrical interpretation is provided in Fig. 1.2.
Let us now observe the polarizereanalyzer ensemble, shown in Fig. 1.4. When
an electromagnetic wave passes through the polarizer, it can be represented as a vec-
tor in the xey plane, transversal to the propagation direction, as given by Eq. (1.5),
where the angle q depends on the filter orientation. By introducing the unit vector
pb ¼ ðcos q; sin qÞ; Eq. (1.5) can be rewritten as:
E ¼ E0 pbcosðut kzÞ. (1.19)
If q ¼ 0 rad, the light is polarized along the x-axis, while for q ¼ p/2 rad it is
polarized along the y-axis. The natural light is unpolarized as it represents
x
Ex
pˆ cos T ,sin T
T
x
Ex
nˆ cos I ,sin I
Ey I Analyzer
y
Polarizer z
Ey
y
Ex E0 cos Zt kz
E E0 cos Zt kz pˆ
E ' = E × nˆ nˆ = E0 cos Zt - kz pˆ × nˆ nˆ
Ey E0 cos Zt kz
FIGURE 1.4
The polarizereanalyzer ensemble for the study of photon polarization.
8 CHAPTER 1 Introduction
incoherent superposition of 50% of light polarized along the x-axis and 50% of light
polarized along the y-axis. After the analyzer, whose axis makes an angle f with
respect to the x-axis, which can be represented by the unit vector
nb ¼ ðcos f; sin fÞ, the output electric field is given by:
E0 ¼ ðE$b
n Þb
n ¼ E0 cosðut kzÞðbp $b
n Þb
n
¼ E0 cosðut kzÞ½ðcos q; sin qÞ$ðcos f; sin fÞb
n
¼ E0 cosðut kzÞ½cos q cos f þ sin q sin fbn
¼ E0 cosðut kzÞ cosðq fÞb n. (1.20)
The intensity of the analyzer output field is given by:
2
I 0 ¼ jE0 j ¼ I cos2 ðq fÞ; (1.21)
which is commonly referred to as Malus’ law.
The polarization decomposition by a birefringent plate is now studied (Fig. 1.5).
Experiment shows that photodetectors PDx and PDy are never triggered simulta-
neously, which indicates that an entire photon reaches either PDx or PDy (a photon
never splits). Therefore the corresponding probabilities that a photon is detected by
photodetector PDx and PDx can be determined by:
px ¼ PrðPDx Þ ¼ cos2 q; py ¼ PrðPDy Þ ¼ sin2 q. (1.22)
If the total number of photons is N, the number of detected photons in x-polar-
ization will be Nx y Ncos2 q, and the number of detected photons in y-polarization
will be Ny y Nsin2 q. In the limit, as N / ∞ we would expect Malus’ law to be
obtained.
Let us now study polarization decomposition and recombination by means of
birefringent plates, as illustrated in Fig. 1.6. Classical physics prediction of total
probability of a photon passing the polarizereanalyzer ensemble is given by:
ptot ¼ cos2 q cos2 f þ sin2 q sin2 f s cos2 ðq fÞ; (1.23)
PDy
Ordinary
y ray Iy=I sin2q
Birefringent
plate
FIGURE 1.5
Polarization decomposition by a birefringent plate. PD, Photodetector.
1.1 Photon Polarization 9
x x
Extraordinary ray
q f
Ordinary
y ray y
Polarizer Analyzer
FIGURE 1.6
Polarization decomposition and recombination by a birefringent plate.
which is inconsistent with Malus’ law, given by Eq. (1.21). To reconstruct the results
from wave optics, it is necessary to introduce into quantum mechanics a concept of
probability amplitude that a is detected as b, which is denoted as aða /bÞ; and is a
complex number. The probability is obtained as the squared magnitude of probabil-
ity amplitude: