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 An Introduction to
Radiation Protection
Seventh Edition
 An Introduction to
Radiation Protection
Seventh Edition

Alan Martin
Sam Harbison
Karen Beach
Peter Cole
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2019 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Printed on acid-free paper

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-138-33307-9 (Paperback)

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Dedicated to the memory of Marie Cole
 Contents

Preface xvii
Authors xix

1 The structure of matter 1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 The atom 1
1.3 The structure of the atom 1
1.4 Elements and atomic number 2
1.5 Isotopes and mass number 3
1.6 Ancient and modern theories 4
Summary of key points 5
Revision questions 5
2 Radioactivity and radiation 7
2.1 Introduction 7
2.2 Alpha, beta and gamma radiation 8
2.3 Electronvolt 8
2.4 The mechanism of radioactive decay 9
2.5 Natural radioactive series 10
2.6 Induced radioactivity 11
2.7 The unit of radioactivity 11
2.8 Nuclide chart 13
2.9 Interaction of radiation with matter 13
2.9.1 Charged particles 13
2.9.2 X and γ radiations 14
2.9.3 Neutrons 14
2.10 Penetrating powers of nuclear radiations 14
Summary of key points 15
Revision questions 16
3 Radiation units 17
3.1 Absorption of energy 17
3.2 Ionization 17
3.3 Absorbed dose 18
3.4 Equivalent dose 19
3.5 Effective dose 19
3.6 Submultiples 20
3.7 Dose rate 20
3.8 Flux 20
3.9 Relationship of units 21

vii
 Contents

3.10 International radiation symbols 21

Summary of key points 22
Revision questions 23
4 Biological effects of radiation 25
4.1 Introduction 25
4.2 Basic human physiology 27
4.2.1 Circulatory system 27
4.2.2 Respiratory system 28
4.2.3 Digestive system 28
4.3 Cell biology 28
4.4 Interaction of radiation with cells 29
4.5 Harmful tissue reactions 30
4.5.1 Acute radiation effects 30
4.5.2 Late tissue reactions 31
4.6 Stochastic effects: cancer induction 31
4.7 Stochastic effects: heritable 32
4.8 Detriment 33
Summary of key points 34
Revision questions 35
5 Natural and man-made radiation 37
5.1 Introduction 37
5.2 Cosmic radiation 37
5.3 Radiation from terrestrial sources 37
5.4 Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material (NORM) 38
5.5 Radioactivity in the body 38
5.5.1 Radon 38
5.6 Summary of doses from natural radiation 40
5.7 Man-made radiation exposure 40
5.7.1 Diagnostic radiology 40
5.7.2 Radiotherapy 41
5.7.3 Nuclear medicine 41
5.7.4 Radioactive waste 41
5.7.5 Atmospheric fallout 41
5.7.6 Occupational exposure 41
5.8 Summary of current sources of radiation 42
Summary of key points 42
Revision questions 42
6 The system of radiological protection 43
6.1 The role of the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) 43
6.2 The 2007 recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological
Protection (Publication 103) 43
6.3 Recommended dose limits 44
6.3.1 Basis of dose limits 44
6.3.2 Recommended dose limits for workers 45
6.3.3 Notes on the dose limits for workers 46
6.3.4 Recommended dose limits for individual members of the public 47
6.4 Planned exposure situations 47
viii
 Contents

6.5 Emergency exposure situations 48

6.6 Existing exposure situations 49
Summary of key points 49
Revision questions 50
7 Radiation detection and measurement 51
7.1 General principles 51
7.2 Ionization of a gas 51
7.2.1 Ionization chamber 51
7.2.2 Proportional counter 52
7.2.3 Geiger–Müller counter 52
7.3 Solid-state detectors 53
7.3.1 Mechanism 53
7.3.2 Semiconductor detectors 54
7.3.3 Scintillation detectors 54
7.3.4 Luminescence detectors 54
7.4 Activation effect 55
7.5 Pulse counting systems 55
7.5.1 Basic counting systems 55
7.5.2 Pulse Height Analyzer (PHA) 56
7.5.3 Ratemeter 57
7.6 Maintenance, testing and calibration of radiation-monitoring
instrumentation 57
7.6.1 Initial testing 57
7.6.2 Operator pre-use checks 57
7.6.3 Periodic examination and testing (including calibration) 58
Summary of key points 58
Revision questions 59
8 The external radiation hazard 61
8.1 Source of the hazard 61
8.2 Time 61
8.3 Distance 62
8.3.1 A point source 62
8.3.2 A line source 63
8.3.3 A disc source 64
8.4 Shielding 64
8.4.1 Half-value layer 65
8.5 Neutron sources 67
8.6 Personal dose control 67
8.7 Survey monitoring 68
8.7.1 Radiation survey monitoring 68
8.7.2 X and γ radiation monitors 68
8.7.3 Neutron monitors 69
8.8 Personnel monitoring equipment 70
8.8.1 Personal dosimetry 70
8.8.2 Thermoluminescent dosimeters 70
8.8.3 Optically stimulated luminescence dosimeters 71
8.8.4 Personal electronic dosimeter 71
ix
 Contents

8.8.5 Fast neutron dosimeter 72

8.8.6 Criticality locket 72
8.9 Radiation records 73
Summary of key points 73
Revision questions 74
9 The internal radiation hazard 75
9.1 Uncontained radioactivity 75
9.2 Routes of entry 75
9.3 Assessment of dose 77
9.3.1 Dose coefficient 77
9.3.2 Annual limit of intake 78
9.4 Control of the contamination hazard 78
9.4.1 Basic principles 78
9.4.2 Area classification 79
9.4.3 Protective clothing 80
9.4.4 House rules and training of personnel 80
9.5 Radiotoxicity and laboratory classifications 81
9.6 Design of areas for radioactive work 82
9.6.1 Walls, floors and ceilings 82
9.6.2 Working surfaces 83
9.6.3 Glove boxes 83
9.6.4 Fume cupboards 84
9.7 Treatment of contaminated personnel 84
9.8 Contamination monitoring 85
9.8.1 Sensitivity 85
9.8.2 Direct surface contamination monitoring 85
9.8.3 Smear surveys 85
9.8.4 Air monitoring 86
9.9 Personal monitoring 86
Summary of key points 87
Revision questions 88
10 The principles of risk assessment 89
10.1 Introduction 89
10.2 Hazards, scenarios and risk 89
10.2.1 Nomenclature 89
10.2.2 Risk scenarios 90
10.2.3 Likelihoods and consequences 90
10.2.4 Suitable and sufficient risk assessments 90
10.2.5 Types of risk assessments 90
10.3 The basic steps in risk assessment 91
10.4 Probabilistic risk assessments 94
10.5 Uncertainty, sensitivity and acceptability 95
10.5.1 Uncertainty and sensitivity 95
10.5.2 Acceptability of risk 96
10.6 Risk perception and communication 97
Summary of key points 98
Revision questions 99
x
 Contents

11 Practical health physics techniques 101

11.1 Basic techniques 101
11.2 Analysis techniques 101
11.2.1 Identification of unknown samples 101
11.2.2 Energy determination 101
11.2.3 Determination of half-life 103
11.2.4 Gross alpha and beta counting 104
11.2.5 Corrections for resolving time 105
11.2.6 Counting statistics 106
11.3 Leak testing of radioactive sealed sources 107
Summary of key points 108
Revision questions 108
12 Legislation and regulations related to radiation protection 111
12.1 Introduction 111
12.2 Recommendations of the International Commission on
Radiological Protection (ICRP) 111
12.3 The Euratom directive 111
12.4 Converting the EC directive into UK law 112
12.5 Regulatory framework under the Health and Safety at Work Act 112
12.5.1 Regulations 112
12.5.2 Approved code of practice and other guidance 113
12.5.3 Radiation risk assessment 114
12.6 Environmental regulatory framework in the United Kingdom 114
12.7 Transport of radioactive material 114
12.8 Summary of the UK regulatory framework 115
12.9 Brief summary of international guidance and regulations in other countries 115
12.9.1 France 116
12.9.2 Germany 116
12.9.3 Japan 116
12.9.4 United States 117
12.9.5 Australia 117
12.9.6 New Zealand 117
Summary of key points 118
Revision questions 118
13 Radiation protection in the nuclear industry 119
13.1 Introduction 119
13.2 Fission 119
13.2.1 The fission process 119
13.2.2 Chain reactions and criticality 120
13.2.3 Fission products 121
13.2.4 Transuranic elements 121
13.2.5 Activation products 122
13.3 Basic features of reactor systems 122
13.3.1 The core and control system 122
13.3.2 The cooling system 123
13.3.3 The biological shield 123

xi
 Contents

13.4 Different reactor systems 123

13.4.1 Power reactors 123
13.4.2 Small modular reactors 125
13.4.3 Research reactors 126
13.5 Refuelling reactors 126
13.6 Radiation hazards from reactors 127
13.6.1 General 127
13.6.2 Sources of radiation 127
13.6.2.1 Radiation from the core 127
13.6.2.2 Radiation from the coolant 128
13.6.3 Sources of radioactive contamination 128
13.6.3.1 Beta emitters 128
13.6.3.2 Coolant leaks 129
13.6.3.3 Containment 129
13.6.4 The shutdown reactor 129
13.6.4.1 Maintenance 129
13.6.4.2 External radiation 130
13.6.4.3 Contamination 130
13.7 Fuel storage ponds 130
13.7.1 Introduction 130
13.7.2 Criticality 131
13.7.3 Loss of shielding 131
13.7.4 Operational aspects 131
13.7.5 Pond instrumentation 131
13.8 The nuclear fuel cycle 132
13.8.1 Front-end operations 132
13.8.1.1 Uranium mining 132
13.8.1.2 Uranium enrichment 132
13.8.1.3 Fuel fabrication 133
13.8.2 Back-end operations 133
13.8.2.1 Fuel reprocessing 133
13.8.2.2 Long-term storage 134
13.8.2.3 Waste and decommissioning 134
13.9 Safety analysis of nuclear facilities 134
13.9.1 Deterministic safety analysis 134
13.9.2 Probabilistic safety analysis 135
13.9.3 Severe accident analysis 135
Summary of key points 135
Revision questions 136
14 Radioactive waste and the decommissioning of radioactive facilities 137
14.1 Introduction 137
14.2 Radioactive liquid waste 138
14.3 Radioactive gaseous waste 139
14.4 Radioactive solid waste 140
14.5 Radiological environmental impact of releases 142
14.5.1 Legal requirements 142
14.5.2 Methodology 142
xii
 Contents

14.5.2.1 Definition of source term 142

14.5.2.2 Mode of discharge 143
14.5.2.3 Characterization of receiving environment 143
14.5.2.4 Identification of exposure pathways 143
14.5.2.5 Assessment of doses and identification of reference person 145
14.5.2.6 Criteria 145
14.5.2.7 Operational surveys and reviews 146
14.5.3 Application to disposals of solid waste 146
14.5.4 Effects on non-human species 146
14.6 Decommissioning of radioactive facilities 146
14.6.1 Planning and preparation 147
14.6.2 Stages of decommissioning 147
14.6.2.1 Nuclear power plants 148
14.6.2.2 Research reactors 149
14.6.2.3 Other facilities in the nuclear fuel cycle 149
14.6.2.4 Minor facilities 149
14.6.3 Risk assessment for decommissioning 150
14.6.4 Radiological protection in decommissioning 150
14.6.5 Site release 150
14.7 Transport of radioactive material 151
14.8 Regulations 151
Summary of key points 152
Revision questions 153
15 Radiation protection in the non-nuclear industry 155
15.1 Introduction 155
15.2 X-rays 155
15.2.1 General 155
15.2.2 X-ray equipment 155
15.2.3 Quality and intensity of X-rays: the X-ray spectrum 156
15.2.4 Protection against X-rays: general principles 157
15.2.5 Monitoring of X-ray installations 158
15.2.6 Protection in industrial radiography 159
15.2.7 Protection in research applications 160
15.2.8 X-rays in other industrial applications 160
15.3 Sealed sources 161
15.3.1 General principles of protection 161
15.3.2 Portable moisture/density gauges 162
15.3.3 Industrial radiography equipment 163
15.3.4 Well-logging devices 163
15.3.5 Radiation risk assessment for work with a sealed source 163
15.4 Unsealed sources 164
15.5 Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials (NORM) 164
Summary of key points 167
Revision questions 168
16 Radiation protection in medicine 169
16.1 Applications 169
16.2 General principles and organization 170
xiii
 Contents

16.3 Diagnostic procedures 172

16.3.1 Diagnostic radiography 172
16.3.2 Diagnostic fluoroscopy 172
16.3.3 Computed tomography 174
16.3.4 Dose reduction techniques for diagnostic radiography 174
16.4 Radiotherapy 176
16.5 Nuclear medicine 177
16.5.1 Diagnostic radioisotope tests and nuclear medicine imaging 178
16.5.2 Radioisotope therapy 179
16.6 Control and disposal of radioactive materials 180
Summary of key points 181
Revision questions 182
17 Radiological incidents and emergencies 183
17.1 Introduction 183
17.2 International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale 183
17.3 Loss of shielding 184
17.3.1 Small sealed sources 184
17.3.2 Large sealed sources 184
17.3.3 Entry into shielded cells 185
17.3.4 Reactor fuel-handling accidents 185
17.4 Loss of containment 185
17.4.1 Minor spillage of radioactivity 185
17.4.2 Major spills of radioactivity 186
17.4.3 Major releases from nuclear facilities 186
17.4.3.1 Windscale 187
17.4.3.2 Three Mile Island 188
17.4.3.3 Chernobyl 188
17.4.3.4 Fukushima 189
17.4.3.5 Other potential sources 190
17.5 Uncontrolled criticality 190
17.5.1 General 190
17.5.2 Reactors 191
17.5.3 Reactor fuel plants 191
17.6 Pre-planning for emergencies 192
17.6.1 Background 192
17.6.2 Radiological factors 193
17.6.3 Training 193
17.6.4 Dissemination of information 194
17.7 The emergency organization 194
Summary of key points 195
Revision questions 196
18 The organization and administration of radiation protection services 197
18.1 The overall process 197
18.2 Standards and regulations 197
18.3 Design and operation 197
18.4 Review and audit 198
18.5 The health physics organization 198
xiv
 Contents

18.6 Documents and reports 199

18.7 Training 200
Summary of key points 201

Appendix A: List of elements 203

Appendix B: Relationship of units 205
Appendix C: Answers to numerical questions 207
Bibliography 209
Index 213

xv
 Preface
An Introduction to Radiation Protection is a compre-
hensive account of radiation hazards and their con-
trol. The book is intended to meet the requirements
of a wide range of readers who are involved, either
directly or indirectly, with ionizing radiation, includ-
ing nuclear plant designers and operators, medical
practitioners and technicians, dentists and research
workers. In particular, we believe that the work is
suitable for health physics surveyors and technicians
who are concerned with the day-to-day control of
radiation hazards in nuclear power stations, research
establishments, hospitals and in industry.
The book meets most of the requirements of
Chapter IV of the European Union’s Basic Safety
Standards Directive (BSSD) ‘Requirements for
Radiation Protection Education, Training and
Information’ and also covers the general topics on
which Radiation Protection Experts, Medical Physics
Experts and Radiation Protection Officers (as defined
in BSSD Articles 82 to 84) are required to provide
advice. In most practical situations, of course, there
are likely to be facility-specific issues that need to be
addressed by means of supplementary information
and training.
In the UK, the accepted standards and curricula
for formal training and qualification in radiation
protection are included at Level 2 in the system of
National and Scottish Vocational Qualifications
(N/SVQ) in Radiation Protection, including the
Level 2 Certificate in Health Physics Monitoring in
the Nuclear Industry (Theory), and the early chapters
in the book dealing with the scientific background
and the general principles of radiation protection are
aimed at this level. The later chapters dealing with
particular aspects of the subject are more detailed
so that, for example, health physics surveyors in a
nuclear power station or technicians in a hospital
can get a deeper understanding of the problems in
their own areas. Experience with previous editions
has shown that, as a result of this structure, the book
is also widely used for training at the more advanced
N/SVQ Levels 3 and 4, and in many post-graduate
courses.
In Chapter 12 on legislation and regulations relat-
ing to radiation protection, while we have concen-
trated mainly on the requirements of the BSSD and
their application in the UK, we have also included
brief summaries of the requirements in a number of
other countries. Otherwise, the principles and prac-
tice set out in the book are applicable internation-
ally. Although SI units are used throughout, a table
of conversion factors is provided for those still using
‘old’ units.
Every attempt has been made to avoid detailed
mathematical treatment, but it has been necessary,
in some areas, to use some simple mathematics.
This includes squares, square roots, exponentials,
logarithms and the plotting of graphs on logarith-
mic scales. Where a mathematical treatment is used,
we have tried to present it in such a way that, if the
mathematics is not fully understood, it does not pre-
clude an understanding of the chapter in general.
As far as possible, each chapter is self-contained
so that the reader can find all the information on a
particular aspect without having to search through
several chapters. The early chapters deal with basic
physical principles, the nature of the hazard aris-
ing from the interaction of ionizing radiations with
biological systems and the levels of radiation which
are regarded as acceptable. Later chapters deal with
the methods of measurement and control which are
applied to attain these levels. In the second half of
the book, there are individual chapters on the more
specialized topics of radiation protection in the
nuclear industry, radioactive waste and the decom-
missioning of radioactive facilities, radiation protec-
tion in the non-nuclear industry, radiation protection
in medicine and radiological emergencies. There are
also chapters on legislation, risk assessment and on
the organization of radiation protection services.
xvii
 Preface

Each chapter is followed by a summary in note form, of this and earlier editions, the opinions and conclu-
in which the key points are reiterated. In addition, sions expressed in the book are those of the authors.
revision questions, requiring both descriptive and
numerical answers, are provided for the majority of AM SH KB PC
chapters. London
Although we have benefited from many helpful
and constructive suggestions during the preparation

xviii
 Authors

Alan Martin formerly ran the consultancy Alan Martin Associates, United Kingdom.

Sam Harbison is a health and safety consultant based in Kent and was formerly Her Majesty’s Chief Inspector
of Nuclear Installations, Health and Safety Executive, United Kingdom.

Karen Beach is a Radiation Protection Adviser and a Senior Lecturer in Radiation Protection in the Nuclear
Department of the Defence Academy, United Kingdom.

Peter Cole is a Radiation Protection Adviser and Professor in the Department of Physics, University of
Liverpool and past president of the United Kingdom Society for Radiological Protection.

xix
 The structure of matter

More than 2000 years ago, Greek philosophers

1.1 INTRODUCTION considered this question. With none of our modern
instruments available to them, all they could do was
Matter is the name given to the materials of which
consider the problem in a logical manner. From this
the universe is composed. It exists in three physical
philosophical approach, some of them decided that
forms: solid, liquid or gas. All matter consists of a
eventually a limit must be reached. They called the
number of simple substances called elements.
individual particles of matter which could not be
An element is a substance that cannot be broken
further subdivided atoms. It was also postulated by
down by ordinary chemical processes into simpler
some of the philosophers that all substances consist
substances. There are 92 naturally occurring ele-
of these same atoms, different arrangements of the
ments, some examples of which are carbon, oxygen,
constituent atoms giving the different properties of
iron and lead. Another 25 or so have been produced
the substances and the density being determined by
artificially over the past 75 years, the best known of
how tightly the atoms are packed.
which is plutonium.
Early in the nineteenth century, an atomic theory
In nature, elements are usually chemically linked
with a scientific basis was advanced which confirmed
to other elements in the form of compounds. A com-
many of the views held by the ancient philosophers.
pound consists of two or more elements chemically
This was the atomic theory of Dalton, which was able
linked in definite proportions, for example water,
to explain the well-established but little-understood
H 2O, which consists of two atoms of hydrogen and
chemical laws. Modern theory has diverged some-
one atom of oxygen.
what from Dalton’s but he did establish the principle
that matter consists of atoms, each element having
its own characteristic atom.
1.2 THE ATOM
Consider an imaginary experiment in which a quan-
tity of some element is subjected to repeated subdi- 1.3 THE STRUCTURE OF THE
visions. Using ordinary optical instruments, a stage ATOM
would eventually be reached when the fragments
would cease to be visible. Supposing, however, that It is now known that atoms are not solid, indivisible
suitable tools and viewing apparatus were available, objects as the Greek philosophers believed but are
would it be possible to repeat the divisions of the orig- composed of even smaller particles. These particles,
inal element indefinitely, or would a stage be reached from which all atoms are constructed, are called
where the matter can no longer be subdivided? ­protons, neutrons and electrons.

1
 The structure of matter
Nucleus
Figure 1.1 The atomic system of zinc.
The proton (p) carries a positive electrical charge
of magnitude 1 unit on the nuclear scale, and a mass
of approximately 1 atomic mass unit (u).
The electron (e−) has a negative electrical charge
of the same magnitude as the proton’s positive
charge. It has a mass of 1/1840 u, which, for most
purposes, is neglected when considering the mass of
the atom.
The neutron (n) is electrically neutral and has a
mass of approximately 1 u. It can be helpful in under-
standing the processes of radioactive decay (see
Chapter 2) to regard the neutron as a close combina-
tion of a proton and an electron, with the positive
charge of the proton being cancelled by the negative
charge of the electron.
It should be realized that the charges and masses
on the nuclear scale are extremely small. The elec-
trical charge associated with a proton or electron is
about 1.6 × 10−19 coulombs (C). For comparison, the
charge stored in a typical AA-type battery is about
5000 C. Similarly, 1 u corresponds to a mass of about
1.7 × 10−27 kg.
The neutrons and protons of an atom form a
central core or nucleus, around which the elec-
trons occupy various orbits, normally referred to as
shells. The shell closest to the nucleus can contain
a maximum of two electrons, the second can have
2
K L M N
up to eight, and the outer shells have progressively
greater numbers. The inner shell is known as the
K shell, the second is called the L shell, the third
the M shell, the fourth the N shell and so on. The
maximum numbers of electrons in the K, L, M and N
shells are 2, 8, 18 and 32, respectively. For example,
the atomic system of zinc, illustrated in Figure 1.1,
has 30 electrons arranged in four shells.
Each atom normally has the same number of pro-
tons as electrons. This means that the total positive
charge on the nucleus is equal to the total negative
charge of the atomic electrons, and so the atom is
normally electrically neutral. Two simple atoms,
those of hydrogen and helium, are illustrated in
Figure 1.2. This particular hydrogen atom is the only
atom that does not contain neutrons. This is because
the repulsive positive charges do not allow more
than one proton to form a nucleus without the pres-
ence of one or more neutrons.
1.4 ELEMENTS AND ATOMIC
NUMBER
In the early stages of the evolution of the universe,
the two elements hydrogen and helium constituted
essentially 100% of matter (apart from a very small
 1.5 Isotopes and mass number

(a) (b)
e– e–
Ip In
Ip

In Ip
e–

Hydrogen Helium

Figure 1.2 The atomic systems of hydrogen and helium.

quantity of lithium). However, processes occurring
during the life cycles of early generations of stars
resulted in the production of heavier elements by
successive fusion reactions. This process, known as
nucleosynthesis, eventually led to the creation of all
the elements that are found on Earth today.
Each element is characterized by the number of
protons in the atomic nucleus and this is called the
atomic number, represented by the symbol Z:
Atomic number (Z) = Number of protons
For example, hydrogen has one proton, Z = 1,
and helium has two protons, Z = 2. It is the number
of electrons in an atom that determines its chemi-
cal properties. In an electrically neutral atom, the
number of protons equals the number of electrons,
and so, indirectly, it is the number of protons in
an atom that defines the element. Table 1.1 lists a
selection of elements with their symbols and atomic
numbers.
About 25 elements of a higher atomic number
have been artificially produced in small quantities
over the past 75 years or so. They are all unstable and
can only be created by processes that do not occur
naturally on Earth.
1.5 ISOTOPES AND MASS
NUMBER
Although all the atoms of a particular element con-
tain the same number of protons, they may occur
with different numbers of neutrons. This means
that an element can have several types of atoms. For
example, hydrogen can occur with zero, one or two
neutrons in its nucleus, and the three different types
of atoms are called isotopes of hydrogen.
The mass of an atom is determined by the num-
ber of protons and neutrons if the very small mass
of the atomic electrons is neglected. The sum of the
number of protons plus the number of neutrons is

Table 1.1 Selection of elements with symbols and atomic numbers

Atomic number Atomic number

Element Symbol Z Element Symbol Z
Hydrogen H 1 Oxygen O 8
Helium He 2 Aluminium Al 13
Lithium Li 3 Iron Fe 26
Beryllium Be 4 Silver Ag 47
Boron B 5 Lead Pb 82
Carbon C 6 Uranium U 92
Note: See Appendix A for full list.
3
 The structure of matter

called the mass number and is represented by the P-33 has 15 protons and 18 neutrons (Z = 15, A = 33)
symbol A: P-34 has 15 protons and 19 neutrons (Z = 15, A = 34)

It is important to note that all the isotopes of a

Mass number (A) = Number of
given element are chemically identical since the
protons + Number of neutrons
chemical properties are determined by the atomic
number of the element.
For example, the helium atom in Figure 1.2b con-
Most elements occur naturally as a mixture of iso-
tains two protons and two neutrons and so has a
topes, and other isotopes may be produced by bom-
mass number of 4. Helium can also occur with one or
barding a naturally occurring isotope with nuclear
three neutrons in the nucleus, as shown in Figure 1.3.
particles, for example by neutrons in a nuclear reac-
These three isotopes are normally referred to as
tor. These artificially produced isotopes are unstable
helium-3, helium-4 and helium-5, usually written as
and will eventually disintegrate with the emission of
He-3, He-4 and He-5.
a secondary particle (see Chapter 2).
An isotope can also be written in symbolic form
Apart from the few lightest elements, the number
as ZA X, where X is the symbol for the element. In this
of neutrons exceeds the number of protons in an atom.
format, helium-3 is written 32 He. Strictly, showing the
The difference becomes greater as the atomic number
atomic number is unnecessary because the name of
increases, as illustrated by the following examples:
the element defines the atomic number, so in most
cases it is sufficient to write this as 3He. Throughout He-4 has 2 protons and 2 neutrons
this text, the notation X-A is used (e.g. He-3) except P-31 has 15 protons and 16 neutrons
where inclusion of the atomic number assists an Zn-65 has 30 protons and 35 neutrons
understanding of the topic or where it is felt neces- U-238 has 92 protons and 146 neutrons
sary to give the full name of the element.
Data on the known isotopes of all the elements,
Considering another example, the element phos-
both naturally occurring and artificially produced,
phorus (P) has an atomic number of 15 (i.e. each atom
have been arranged systematically in a table known
contains 15 protons) and it occurs in its stable, natural
as the chart of the nuclides, which will be discussed
form as P-31, which means that the nucleus contains
in more detail in Chapter 2. The term nuclide means
16 neutrons. However, other isotopes can be produced
any isotope of any element.
by artificial means, though these are all unstable. They
include isotopes between P-28 and P-34, as listed next:

P-28 has 15 protons and 13 neutrons (Z = 15, A = 28)
P-29 has 15 protons and 14 neutrons (Z = 15, A = 29)
P-30 has 15 protons and 15 neutrons (Z = 15, A = 30)
P-31 has 15 protons and 16 neutrons (Z = 15, A = 31)
P-32 has 15 protons and 17 neutrons (Z = 15, A = 32)
1.6 ANCIENT AND MODERN
THEORIES
It can now be seen that the ancient Greek philoso-
phers were remarkably close to the truth in their

e– e– e–
Ip In Ip In
Ip Ip

In

In In Ip In Ip
e– e– e–
Helium-3 Helium-4 Helium-5

Figure 1.3 The three isotopes of helium.

4
 1.6 Ancient and modern theories

theory that all substances are constituted from the
same basic particles. However, instead of being dif-
ferent arrangements of only one type of particle,
different substances appear to result from various
combinations of protons, neutrons and electrons. It
is now known that protons and neutrons are made
up of even smaller particles called quarks, and there
is some evidence of apparently more fundamental
particles. Thus, the ancient Greeks may yet prove to
have been right in their conjecture that there is just
one fundamental particle that provides the basis for
all others.

SUMMARY OF KEY POINTS

▪▪ Element: Material whose atoms all have the same number of protons.
▪▪ u: Atomic mass unit.
▪▪ Proton: Atomic particle, mass 1 u, charge +1 unit.
▪▪ Electron: Atomic particle, mass 1/1840 u, charge −1 unit.
▪▪ Neutron: Close combination of proton and electron, mass 1 u, electrically neutral.
▪▪ Atom: Central nucleus of protons and neutrons, around which electrons occupy orbits.
▪▪ Atomic number (Z): Number of protons.
▪▪ Mass number (A): Number of protons plus number of neutrons.
▪▪ Isotope: One of several nuclides with the same atomic number.
▪▪ Notation: There are several ways of referring to an isotope, for example phosphorus-32, P-32, 15
32
P
and P. The convention P-32 is used in this text except where including the atomic number or the full
32

name is necessary or assists an understanding.

▪▪ Nuclide: A nuclear species.

REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Following the illustration in Figure 1.1, draw an atom of each of the following nuclides:
a. 42 He
b. 63 Li
c. 73 Li
d. 84 Be

2. For each of the following nuclides of helium, sodium and uranium, how many protons, electrons and
neutrons are there in their atoms: 42 He, 11
23
Na, 238
92 U?

3. What are the masses and charges on the atomic scale of protons, electrons and neutrons?

4. Which atomic property determines the chemical behaviour of an element?

5. Explain what is meant by the term isotope. Give some examples.

5
 Radioactivity and radiation

2.1 INTRODUCTION
It is found that a few naturally occurring substances
consist of atoms which are unstable, that is they
undergo spontaneous transformation into more
stable product atoms. Such substances are said to
be radioactive, and the transformation process is
known as radioactive decay. Radioactive decay
is usually accompanied by the emission of radia-
tion in the form of charged particles and gamma
(γ) rays.
The fact that some elements are naturally radio-
active was first realized by Becquerel in 1896. He
observed the blackening of photographic emulsions
in the vicinity of a uranium compound. This was sub-
sequently attributed to the effect of radiation being
emitted by the uranium. In the following 10 years,
the experimental work of Rutherford and Soddy,
Pierre and Marie Curie, and others established the
fact that some types of nuclei are unstable and decay
by emitting radiations of three main types, called
alpha, beta and gamma radiation.
During the same period, scientists in several
countries were experimenting with electrical dis-
charge tubes known as Crookes tubes and inves- Figure 2.1 The first medical X-ray.
tigating the fluorescence that occurred in the glass
walls of the tubes. In 1895, the German physicist within weeks investigators in many countries were
Wilhelm Conrad Rontgen discovered that the tubes developing equipment and techniques to exploit
were emitting invisible rays, which he named X-rays, the discovery. The first medical X-ray was taken by
that were capable of penetrating solid objects. The Rontgen himself and was of his wife’s hand (see
potential importance of this discovery, particularly Figure 2.1). When Frau Rontgen saw the photograph,
in the medical field, was quickly appreciated and she exclaimed ‘I have seen my death!’

7
 Radioactivity and radiation
2.2 ALPHA, BETA AND GAMMA
RADIATION
Alpha (α) radiation was shown by Rutherford and
Royds to consist of helium nuclei, which themselves
consist of two protons and two neutrons. These four
particles are bound together so tightly that the α par-
ticle behaves in many situations as if it were a funda-
mental particle. An α particle has a mass of four units
and carries two units of positive charge (Figure 2.2).
Beta (β) radiation consists of high-speed elec-
trons which originate in the nucleus. These ‘nuclear
electrons’ have identical properties to the atomic
electrons, that is they have a mass of 1/1840 u and
carry one unit of negative charge. Another type of β
radiation was discovered by C. D. Anderson in 1932.
This consists of particles of the same mass as the elec-
tron but with one unit of positive charge; it is known
as positron radiation. Although less important
from a radiation protection viewpoint than negative
β particles, a knowledge of positrons is necessary in
order to understand certain radioactive decay mech-
anisms. Beta radiation is signified β− (electrons) or
β+ (positrons). In everyday use, the term β radiation
normally refers to the negative type, β−.
α particle
2 protons and 2 neutrons
Mass of 4 units
Charge of +2 units
β particle
Mass of 1/1840 units
Charge of –1 unit
γ ray
Electromagnetic
radiation of very short
wavelength
Zero mass and charge
Figure 2.2 α, β and γ radiation.
8
Gamma (γ) radiation is electromagnetic in
nature, like light and radio waves, but nevertheless
can be described as consisting of ‘particles’ called
photons. These photons do not have any mass or
electrical charge but consist of packets (or ‘quanta’)
of energy transmitted in the form of a wave motion
(wave packets). The amount of energy in each quan-
tum is related to the wavelength of the radiation. The
energy is inversely proportional to the wavelength,
which means that the shorter the wavelength the
higher the energy. Mathematically, this is written
as E ∝ 1/λ, where E is the energy of the quantum
or photon of electromagnetic radiation and λ is its
wavelength. The X-rays discovered by Rontgen are
in most respects identical to γ radiation, the essen-
tial difference between the two types of radiation
being only in their origin. Whereas γ rays result from
changes in the nucleus, X-rays are emitted when
atomic electrons undergo a change in orbit.
The wavelength of electromagnetic radiation var-
ies over a very wide range, as illustrated in Figure 2.3.
All electromagnetic radiations travel through
free space with the same velocity of 3 × 108 metres
per second – called ‘the speed of light in a vacuum’.
Their velocity decreases in dense media, but in air
the decrease is negligible.
2.3 ELECTRONVOLT
Radiation energy is expressed in electronvolts (eV).
One electronvolt is the energy gained by an elec-
tron in passing through an electrical potential of
1 volt (V). For example, in an X-ray tube, electrons
are accelerated from a heated tungsten filament
through an electrical potential of typically 100,000 V
to the anode. The electrons therefore have an energy
of 100,000 eV when they strike the anode.
The electronvolt is a very small unit, so radia-
tion energies are usually expressed in kilo (1000) or
mega (1,000,000) electronvolts:
One kiloelectronvolt = 1 keV = 1000 eV
One megaelectronvolt = 1 MeV = 1000 keV
= 1,000,000 eV
The radiation energies of interest in radiation
protection are generally in the range of 100 keV to
10 MeV. It is important to appreciate that even if the
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 See (in this volume)
SOUTH AFRICA (THE TRANSVAAL): A. D. 1896 (JANUARY).

JAMESON, Dr. Leander S.:

Investigation of the Raid by the Cape Colony Assembly.

See (in this volume)

SOUTH AFRICA (CAPE COLONY): A. D. 1896 (JULY).

JAMESON, Dr. Leander S.:

Indemnity for the Raid claimed by South African Republic.

See (in this volume)

SOUTH AFRICA (THE TRANSVAAL): A. D.1897 (FEBRUARY).

JAMESON, Dr. Leander S.:

British Parliamentary investigation of the Raid.

See (in this volume)

SOUTH AFRICA (THE TRANSVAAL): A. D. 1897 (FEBRUARY-
JULY).

----------JAMESON, Dr. Leander S.: End--------

----------JAPAN: Start--------

JAPAN: A. D. 1890-1898.
Rise of Parliamentary parties.
Working of Constitutional Government.

"When the Emperor's nominal authority was converted into a

reality by the overthrow of the Shogun in 1868, the work was
largely due to the four clans of Satsuma, Choshu, Hizen, and
Tosa. Their aim was to destroy the Shogunate and to create an
Imperial Government, and though many other motives actuated
them, these were the two main ideas of the revolution which
grew in importance and left political results. No sooner,
 however, was the Imperial Government established than it was
found that the Satsuma clan was strongly divided. There were
within it a party in favour of reform, and another party, led
by Shimazu Saburo and Saigo Takamori, who clung to old
traditions. The sword had not yet given place to the
ballot-box, and the result of a bloody contest was the
annihilation of the reactionaries. There remained, therefore,
the Satsuma men loyal to the Emperor and to the absolute
government of 1868, and with them the Choshu, Hizen, Tosa, and
other clans. Some of these clans had not always been friendly
in the past. They found it difficult to work together now.
Marquis Ito has observed that Japanese politicians are more
prone to destroy than to construct, and an opportunity to
indulge this proclivity soon presented itself.
{278}
Although the four clans were equally pledged to secure
representative government eventually, jealousy of one another
drove two of them to take up this cry as a pretext for
dissolving the alliance. The Tosa clan, now represented by
Count Itagaki, seceded accordingly in 1873, and the Hizen
clan, represented by Count Okuma, followed its example eight
years afterwards. The former organised a party called the
Fuyu-to, or Liberals, and the latter the Kaishin-to, or
Progressives. The two remaining clans of Satsuma and Choshu
were called for shortness the Sat-Cho. Such was the origin of
parliamentary parties in Japan. There was no political issue
at stake; the moving cause was simply clan jealousy, and hence
it was that Hizen and Tosa did not join hands, though both
strenuously opposed the Sat-Cho Government and each posed as
the friend of the people. Consequently, when the first Diet
met, in November, 1890, the Sat-Cho Ministry, with Marquis
Yamagata as Premier, found itself face to face with a bitter
and, it must be added, an unscrupulous opposition."

H. N. G. Bushby,
Parliamentary Government in Japan
(Nineteenth Century, July, 1899).
"The history of the Japanese Parliament [see CONSTITUTION OF
JAPAN, in volume 1], briefly told, is as follows: The first
Diet was opened in November, 1890, and the twelfth session in
May, 1898. In this brief space of time there have been four
dissolutions and five Parliaments. From the very first the
collision between the Government and the Diet has been short
and violent. In the case of the first dissolution, in
December, 1891, the question turned on the Budget estimate,
the Diet insisting on the bold curtailment of items of
expenditure. In the second dissolution, in December, 1893, the
question turned on the memorial to be presented to the Throne,
the Opposition insisting in very strong terms on the necessity
of strictly enforcing the terms of treaties with Western
Powers, the Diet regarding the Cabinet as too weak-handed in
foreign politics. The third dissolution, in June, 1894, was
also on the same question. The Cabinet, in these two latter
cases, was under the presidency of Marquis Ito (then Count),
and was vigorously pushing forward negotiations for treaty
revision, through the brilliant diplomacy of Count Mutsu, the
Foreign Minister. This strict-enforcement agitation was looked
upon by the Government as a piece of anti-foreign agitation—a
Jingo movement—and as endangering the success of the
treaty-revision negotiations. In fact, the revised treaty with
Great Britain was on the latter date well-nigh completed, it
being signed in July following by Lord Kimberley and Viscount
Aoki. It was at this stage that the scepticism of foreign
observers as to the final success of representative
institutions in Japan seemed to reach its height. … Marquis
Ito and some of the most tried statesmen of the time were out
of office, forming a sort of reserve force, to be called out
at any grave emergency. But great was the disappointment when
it was seen that after Marquis Ito, with some of the most
trusted statesmen as his colleagues, had been in office but
little over a year, dissolution followed dissolution, and it
seemed that even the Father of the Constitution was unable to
manage its successful working. … There is no question that the
Constitutional situation was at that time exceedingly critical.

"But when the war broke out the situation was "But when the
war broke out the situation was completely changed. In the
August following the whole nation spoke and acted as if they
were one man and had but one mind. In the two sessions of the
Diet held during the war the Government was most ably
supported by the Diet, and everybody hoped that after the war
was over the same good-feeling would continue to rule the
Diet. On the other hand, it was well known that the Opposition
members in the Diet had clearly intimated that their support
of the Government was merely temporary, and that after the
emergency was over they might be expected to continue their
opposition policy. Sure enough, many months before the opening
of the ninth session, mutterings of deep discontent,
especially with reference to the retrocession of the Liaotung
peninsula, began to be widely heard, and it was much feared
that the former scenes of fierce opposition and blind
obstruction would be renewed. However, as the session
approached (December, 1896), rumours were heard of a certain
'entente' between the Government and the Liberal party, at
that time the largest and the best organised in the country.
And in the coming session the Government secured a majority,
through the support of the Liberals, for most of its important
Bills.

"Now this 'entente' between Marquis Ito and the Liberals was a
great step in advance in the constitutional history of the
country, and a very bold departure in a new direction on the
part of the Marquis. He was known to be an admirer of the
German system, and a chief upholder of the policy of Chozen
Naikaku, or the Transcendental Cabinet policy, which meant a
Ministry responsible to the Emperor alone. Marquis Ito saw
evidently at this stage the impossibility of carrying on the
Government without a secure parliamentary support, and Count
Itagaki, the Liberal leader, saw in the Marquis a faithful
ally, whose character as a great constructive statesman, and
 whose history as the author of the Constitution, both forbade
his ever proving disloyal to the Constitution. The 'entente'
was cemented in May following by the entrance of Count Itagaki
into the Cabinet as the Home Minister. On the other hand, this
entente' led to the formation of the Progressist party by the
union of the six Opposition parties, as well as to the union
of Count Okuma, the Progressist leader, and Count Matsugata,
leader of the Kagoshima statesmen. Their united opposition was
now quite effective in harassing the administration. At this
stage certain neutral men, particularly Count Inouye,
suggested compromise, offering a scheme of a Coalition
Cabinet. … But Count Itagaki was firm in opposing such a
compromise, saying it was tantamount to the ignoring of party
distinction, and as such was a retrogression instead of being
a forward step in the constitutional history of the country.
He finally tendered his resignation. When Marquis Ito saw that
the Count was firm in his determination, he, too, resigned,
saying that he felt so deeply obliged to the Liberals for
their late parliamentary support that he would not let the
Count go out of office alone. Thus fell the Ito Ministry after
five years' brilliant service.

{279}

"The new Cabinet, formed in September, 1896, had Count

Matsukata for Premier and Treasury Minister; Count Okuma for
Foreign Minister; and Admiral Kabayama, the hero of the Yaloo
battle, for Home Minister. There were at this time three
things that the nation desired. It wanted to be saved from the
impending business depression. It wished to see Japanese
Chauvinism installed at the Foreign Office, and the shame of
the retrocession of the Liaotung peninsula wiped off. It
hoped, lastly, to see a Parliamentary Government inaugurated
and all the evils of irresponsible bureaucracy removed. The
statesmen now installed in office aspired to satisfy all these
desires, and they were expected to work wonders. But,
unfortunately, the Cabinet lacked unity. … Early in the fall
 [of 1897] Count Okuma resigned office, saying that he felt
like a European physician in consultation over a case with
Chinese doctors. … Count Okuma led away the majority of the
Progressist party, and the Government was left with but an
insignificant number of supporters. As soon as the Diet met,
the spirit of opposition manifested was so strong that the
Ministers asked the Emperor to issue an edict for dissolution.
It was expected that the government would at once appeal to
the country with some strong programme. But to the
astonishment of everybody the Ministry resigned the very next
day. In the midst of the general confusion which followed,
Marquis Ito's name was in the mouth of everybody. He was
unanimously hailed as the only man to bring order into the
political situation. In January following [1898] the new
Cabinet was announced with Ito for Premier, Count Inouye for
the Treasury, and Marquis Saionji, one of the best cultured,
most progressive, and, perhaps, also most daring of the
younger statesmen, for Education Minister."

Tokiwo Yokoi,
New Japan and her Constitutional Outlook
(Contemporary Review, September, 1898).

JAPAN: A. D. 1895.
The war with China.
Treaty of Shimonoseki.
Korean independence secured.
Part of Feng-tien, Formosa and the Pescadores ceded by China.
Relinquishment of Feng-tien by Japan.

See (in this volume)

CHINA: A. D. 1894-1895.

JAPAN: A. D. 1896.
Affairs in Formosa.
Retirement of Marquis Ito.
Progressists in power.
 Destructive sea-wave.

Serious risings of the Chinese in Formosa against the newly

established Japanese rule in that island were said to have
been caused by insolent and atrocious conduct on the part of
the Japanese soldiery. Possibly a decree which prohibited the
importation of opium into Formosa, and which placed the
medicinal sale of the drug under close restrictions, had
something to do with the discontent. In Japan, the able
statesman, Marquis Ito, was made unpopular by his yielding of
the Liao Tung peninsula (in the Fêng-tien province of
China,—see, in this volume, CHINA: A. D. 1894-1895), under
pressure from Russia, Germany and France. He retired from the
government, and Count Matsukata became Premier in September,
with a cabinet of the Progressist (Kaishinto) party, which
advocated resistance to Russia, and opposition generally to
the encouragement of foreign enterprises in Japan. A frightful
calamity was suffered in June, when a prodigious wave, probably
raised by some submarine volcano, overwhelmed a long stretch
of northeastern coast, destroying some 30,000 people, and
sweeping out of existence a number of considerable towns.

Annual Register, 1896.

JAPAN: A. D. 1897.
New tariff.

A new tariff, regulating the customs duties levied in all

cases wherein Japan is not bound by treaty stipulations, was
adopted in March, 1897. The duties imposed range from 5 to 40
per cent., ad valorem, the higher being laid upon liquors and
tobacco. The "Japan Gazette" is quoted as saying in
explanation: "The statutory tariff fixes the duties to be
collected on every article imported into Japan from countries
that have not concluded tariff conventions with her, or that
are not entitled to the most-favored-nation treatment in
regard to the tariff. Spain, Portugal, Greece, and many other
 countries have no tariff conventions with Japan and no
favored-nation clause, in regard to tariff, in their new
treaties with this country. The United States, Belgium,
Holland, Russia, and others have the favored-nation clause and
will get the benefit of the lesser duties on items named in
the different mentioned tariffs. There will, therefore, be two
columns of figures in the printed general tariff list, showing in
the first column the duties on the articles named in the
conventional tariffs, and in the second column the duties on
the same articles imported from countries that have no tariff
convention with Japan, and that are not entitled to
favored-nation treatment. For instance, most textile articles
are subject to a duty of 10 per cent in the conventional
tariff column and to a duty of 15 per cent in the statutory
column."

United States Consular Reports,

July and September, 1897,
pages 475 and 91.

JAPAN: A. D. 1897 (October).

Introduction of the gold standard.

See (in this volume)

MONETARY QUESTIONS: A. D. 1897 (MARCH).

JAPAN: A. D. 1897 (November).

Treaty with the United States and Russia to suspend pelagic
sealing.

See (in this volume)

BERING SEA QUESTIONS.

JAPAN: A. D. 1897-1898.
Contentions with Russia in Korea.

See (in this volume)

 KOREA: A. D. 1895-1898.

JAPAN: A. D. 1898-1899.
The struggle between clan government and party government.

"When, in January 1898, Marquis Ito made an attempt to win the

country back to non-party government and efficiency by forming
an independent Ministry in defiance of the Liberal demands, he
was acting no doubt from no mere clan instinct, but, as he
conceived, in the highest interests of the realm. His
experiment was not destined to succeed. In the general
election of March 1898, 109 Progressives and 94 Liberals were
returned as Representatives in a House of 300. A common hunger
for office and a common sense of humiliation at their
treatment by the greater statesmen of the clans united the two
parties under one banner as they had not been united since 1873.
At last they took up in earnest the crusade against clan
government, which, logically, they should have commenced
together exactly a quarter of a century before. They called
their coalition the 'Kensei-to,' or Constitutional Party.
Japan is a country of rapid progress, but she is lucky that
for twenty-five years the formation of the Kensei-to was
deferred while she was content to be guided through difficult
times by clansmen more skilled in statecraft than the usurient
nobodies who were kicking at the heels of Counts Okuma and
Itagaki.

{280}

"Meanwhile Marquis Ito had to decide how he would act. He had

tried to govern with the help of a party and had partially
succeeded. He had tried to govern without one, and had
discovered that it was impossible. The two parties could no
longer be played off one against the other. They were united,
and with fifty new recruits formed the Kensei-to, 253 strong.
There remained only nineteen clan government sympathisers,
calling themselves National Unionists, and twenty-eight
Independents. In these difficult circumstances Marquis Ito's
decision was a bold one, and in its consequences far-reaching.
He advised that Count Okuma, the Progressive leader of the
Kensei-to should be summoned to form a Cabinet in conjunction
with his Liberal colleague, Count Itagaki. His advice was
followed by the Emperor, but with the significant condition
that the Ministries of War and the Navy were to be retained by
clansmen. The Emperor was not disposed to allow constitutional
experiments in these departments. On the 28th of June 1898,
Marquis Ito resigned, and on the 30th the Okuma-Itagaki
Cabinet was formed.

"It now seemed to many that the death-blow had been given to
clan government, and that at last the era of government by
party had commenced. … The elements of which the Kensei-to was
composed were the two great ones of the Progressives, led by
Count Okuma, and the Liberals, led by Count Itagaki. These two
parties acted together in a condition of veiled hostility.
There was coalition without any approach to amalgamation. A
common hunger for office, a common dislike for clan
government, obscured for a little while a mutual jealousy and
distrust. Meanwhile the Kensei-to as a whole, and both wings
of it, were divided into endless clubs, cliques, and
associations. Our own Temperance, Colonial, Church, and China
parties are affable and self-effacing in comparison. Thus, to
name only a few of the political divisions of the Kensei-to,
there were the territorial associations of the Kwanto-kai (led
by Mr. Hoshi), the Hokuriku-kai (led by Mr. Sugita), the
Kyushu Kurabu (led by Mr. Matsuda), the Tohoku-dantai, the
Chugoku-kai, and the Shigoku-kai; there were the Satsuma
section, the Tosa section, the Kakushinto, the Young
Constitutionalists, the Senior Politicians (such as Baron
Kusumoto, Mr. Hiraoka, the chief organiser of the coalition,
and others), the Central Constitutionalist Club, and so forth.
Each clique had its private organisation and animosities; each
aspired to dictate to the Cabinet and secure portfolios for
its members in the House. They combined and recombined among
themselves. … Clearly, however loyally the two leaders wished
to work together, each must find it impossible in such
circumstances to preserve discipline among his own followers.
Indeed, the leaders scarcely tried to lead. … It was
impossible to carry on the Government under such conditions.
The Okuma-Itagaki Cabinet fell, and Field Marshal the Marquis
Yamagata, Premier of the first Japanese Ministry, was summoned
by the Emperor. Once more a clan Ministry, independent of
party, was formed; once more it seemed as though party
government was to be indefinitely postponed. … Marquis
Yamagata formed his Ministry in November 1898, on strictly
clan lines. … Being an old soldier, he wisely determined to
profit by experience and seek an ally. No one knew better than
himself the need of passing the Land Tax Bill, on which the
efficiency of the national defence and the future of Japan
depended. … It was natural, therefore, for him to approach the
Liberals, who had shown themselves favourable to an increase
of the Land Tax. … On the 27th of November the support of the
Liberals was assured, an event which prompted the 'Jiji' to
express its joy that Marquis Yamagata had become a party man,
leaving 'the mouldy, effete cause of the non-partisan
Ministry.' The Government party consisted now of the National
Unionists (in favour of clan government' and loyal followers
of Marquis Yamagata), the Liberals, and a few so-called
Independents (who, of course, speedily formed themselves into
a club), giving the Government a majority of about fifteen or
twenty votes in the House. …

"The first session of Marquis Yamagata's second Ministry will

always be remembered in Japan because the Land Tax Bill was
successfully passed through both Houses. … But the most
important episode of the session, from a parliamentary point
of view, was a remarkable act of self-denial on the part of
the Liberals. In March of this year [1899] they agreed not to
demand office from Marquis Yamagata for any of their number,
though they were to be free to accept such offices as he might
of his own bounty from time to time be able to offer them. If
 this unprecedented pledge be loyally adhered to, it marks a
very great stride towards effective party government in the
future. … The hope of the Liberals now lies, not in the
immediate enjoyment of the sweets of office, but in winning
over Marquis Ito to their party. If he were to show the way,
it is probable that many more of the leading clan statesmen
would take sides, in which case, to adopt Mr. Bodley's phrase,
political society would be divided vertically as in England, not
horizontally as in France, and either party on obtaining a
majority in the House would be able to find material in its
own ranks for an efficient Cabinet. At present neither is in
that happy position."

H. N. G. Bushby,
Parliamentary Government in Japan
(Nineteenth Century, July, 1899).

JAPAN: A. D. 1899 (May-July).

Representation in the Peace Conference at The Hague.

See (in this volume)

PEACE CONFERENCE.

JAPAN: A. D. 1899 (July).

Release from the treaties with Western Powers
which gave them exterritorial rights.
Consular jurisdictions abolished.

"Japan has been promoted. The great sign that Europe regards a
Power as only semi-civilised is the demand that all who visit
it, or trade in it, should be exempted from the jurisdiction
of the local Courts, the Consuls acting when necessary as
Judges. This rule is maintained even when the Powers thus
stigmatised send Ambassadors, and is, no doubt, very keenly
resented. It seems specially offensive to the Japanese, who
have a high opinion of their own merits, and they have for
seventeen years demanded the treatment accorded to fully
 civilised States. As the alliance of Japan is now earnestly
sought by all Europe this has been conceded, and on Monday,
July 17th, the Consular jurisdiction ceased. (Owing to some
blunder, the powers of the French and Austrian Consuls last a
fortnight longer, but the difference is only formal.) The
Japanese are highly delighted, and the European traders are
not displeased, as with the Consular jurisdictions all
restrictions on trading with the interior disappear."

The Spectator
(London), July 22, 1899.

{281}

The early treaties of Japan with Western Powers, which gave

the latter what are called rights of extra-territoriality, or
exterritoriality, for all their subjects (the right, that is,
to administer their own laws, by their own consular or other
courts, upon their own subjects, within a foreign country),
were modified in 1894. Japan then became free to extinguish
the foreign courts on her soil at the end of five years, upon
giving a year's notice, which she did as stated above. Her
government has thus attained a recognized peerage in
sovereignty with the governments of the Western world. At the
same time, the whole country has been thrown open to foreign
trade—restricted previously to certain ports.

In careful preparation of the Japanese people for this

important change in their relations with the foreign world,
the following imperial rescript was issued at the end of June,
1899: "The revision of the treaties, our long cherished aim,
is to-day on the eve of becoming an accomplished fact; a
result which, while it adds materially to the responsibilities
of our Empire, will greatly strengthen the basis of our
friendship with foreign countries. It is our earnest wish that
our subjects, whose devoted loyalty in the discharge of their
duties is conspicuous, should enter earnestly into our
sentiments in this matter, and, in compliance with the great
policy of opening the country, should all unite with one heart
to associate cordially with the peoples from afar, thus
maintaining the character of the nation and enhancing the
prestige of the Empire. In view of the responsibilities that
devolve upon us in giving effect to the new treaties, it is
our will that our ministers of state, acting on our behalf,
should instruct our officials of all classes to observe the
utmost circumspection in the management of affairs, to the end
that subjects and strangers alike may enjoy equal privileges
and advantages, and that, every source of dissatisfaction
being avoided, relations of peace and amity with all nations
may be strengthened and consolidated in perpetuity."

Obedient to this command, the Minister President of State,

Marquis Yamagata, published the following instruction on the
1st of July: "The work of revising the treaties has caused
deep solicitude to His August Majesty since the centralization
of the Government, and has long been an object of earnest desire
to the people. More than twenty years have elapsed since the
question was opened by the dispatch of a special embassy to
the West in 1871. Throughout the whole of that interval,
numerous negotiations were conducted with foreign countries
and numerous plans discussed, until finally, in 1884, Great
Britain took the lead in concluding a revised treaty, and the
other powers all followed in succession, so that now the
operation of the new treaties is about to take place on the
17th of July and the 4th of August.

"The revision of the treaties in the sense of placing on a

footing of equality the intercourse of this country with
foreign states was the basis of the great liberal policy
adopted at the time of the restoration, and that such a course
conduces to enhance the prestige of the Empire and to promote
the prosperity of the people is a proposition not requiring
demonstration. But if there should be anything defective in
the methods adopted for giving effect to the treaties, not
merely will the object of revision be sacrificed, but also the
country's relations with friendly powers will be impaired and its
prestige may be lowered. It is, of course, beyond question
that any rights and privileges accruing to us as a result of
treaty revision should be duly asserted. But there devolves
upon the Government of this Empire the responsibility, and
upon the people of this Realm the duty, of protecting the
rights and privileges of foreigners, and of sparing no effort
that they may one and all be enabled to reside in the country
confidently and contentedly. It behooves all officials to
clearly apprehend the august intentions and to pay profound
attention to these points."

With still finer care for the honor and good name of Japan,
the following instruction to schools was published on the same
day by Count Kabayma, the Minister of State for Education:
"The schools under the direct control of the Government serve
as models to all the public and private educational
institutions throughout the country. It is therefore my
earnest desire that the behavior of the students at such
schools should be regulated with notably strict regard to the
canons of propriety, so that they may show themselves worthy
of the station they occupy. The date of the operation of the
revised treaties is now imminent, and His Imperial Majesty has
issued a gracious rescript. It may be expected that the coming
and going of foreigners in the interior of the country will
henceforth grow more frequent, and if at such a time students
be left without proper control, and suffered to neglect the
dictates of propriety by cherishing sentiments of petty
arrogance and behaving in a violent, outrageous, or vulgar
manner, not only will the educational systems be brought into
discredit, but also the prestige of the country will be
impaired and its reputation may even be destroyed. For that
reason I have addressed an instruction to the local governors
urging them to guard against any defects in educational
methods, and I am now constrained to appeal to the Government
schools which serve for models. I trust that those upon whom
 the functions of direction and teaching devolve, paying
respectful attention to the august intention, will discharge
their duties carefully towards the students, and, by securing
the latter's strict adherence to rules, will contrive that
they shall serve as a worthy example to the schools throughout
the country."

United States Consular Reports,

October, 1899, page 285.

JAPAN: A. D. 1899 (August).

Prohibition of religious instruction in the government schools.

Some important regulations for the national schools were

promulgated in August by the Minister of Education, having the
effect, probably intended, of discouraging attendance at the
Christian mission schools, and stimulating a preference for
the schools of the national system. They forbade religious
exercises or instruction in any schools that adopt the
curriculum of the national schools, while, at the same time,
they allow admission from no others to the higher schools of
the national system without examination. Students in the
middle schools of the national system are exempted from
conscription, while others are not. That the aim in this
policy is to strengthen the national schools, rather than to
interfere with religious freedom, seems probable.

{282}

JAPAN: A. D. 1899 (December).

Adhesion to the arrangement of an "open door" commercial
policy in China.

See (in this volume)

CHINA: A. D. 1899-1000 (SEPTEMBER-FEBRUARY).

JAPAN: A. D. 1900.
 Naval strength.

See (in this volume)

NAVIES OF THE SEA POWERS.

JAPAN: A. D. 1900 (June-December).

Co-operation with the Powers in China.

See (in this volume)

CHINA.

JAPAN: A. D. 1900 (July)

Failure of attempts to entrust the Japanese government
with the rescue of the foreign Legations at Peking.

See (in this volume)

CHINA: A. D. 1900 (JUNE-JULY).

JAPAN: A. D. 1900 (August-October).

The new party of Marquis Ito.

The letters of the Tokio correspondent of the London "Times"

describe interestingly the genesis of a new party of which
Marquis Ito has taken the lead, and which took control of the
government in October, 1900. Various parties, the career of
which the writer reviews, had been formed in opposition to the
veteran statesmen who continued to hold the reins of government
after constitutional forms were introduced in 1880. But very
few of the party politicians who constructed these parties,
says the writer, had held high office. "They were without the
prestige of experience. To put such men on the administrative
stage while the gallery was occupied by the greybeards—the
'Meiji statesmen,' as they are called—who had managed the
country's affairs since the Restoration, would have seemed a
strange spectacle in the eyes of the nation. The Meiji
statesmen, however, persistently declined to be drawn into the
ranks of the political parties. They gave the latter plenty of
rope; they even allowed them to administer the State, which
essay ended in a fiasco; and they took them into alliances
which served chiefly to demonstrate the eagerness of these
politicians for office and emoluments. But there was no
amalgamation. The line of demarcation remained indelible. …

"The political parties, discovering the impossibility of

becoming a real power in the State without the coöperation of
the Meiji statesmen, asked Marquis Ito to assume their
leadership. Marquis Ito may be said to possess everything that
his country can give him. He has the unbounded confidence of
his Sovereign and his countrymen; he is loaded with titles and
honours, and a word from him can make or mar a Ministry. It
seems strange that such a man should step down from his
pedestal to become a party leader; to occupy a position which
can bring no honour and must at once create enemies. Yet
Marquis Ito has consented. He issued his manifesto. It is in
two respects a very remarkable document. First, it tells the
politicians that their great fault has been self-seeking; that
they have set party higher than country; office and emolument
above public duty and political responsibility. Secondly, it
informs them in emphatic terms that Parliamentary Cabinets are
unconstitutional in Japan; that "Ministers and officials must
be appointed by the Sovereign without any reference to their
party connexions. The politicians who place themselves under
Marquis Ito's leadership must eschew the former failing and
abandon the latter heresy. It would be impossible to imagine a
more complete reversal of the tables. The men who, ten years
ago, asked the nation to condemn the Meiji statesmen on a
charge of political self-seeking are now publicly censured by
the chief of these statesmen for committing the very same sin
in their own persons; and the men who for ten years have made
Parliamentary Cabinets the text of their agitation now enrol
themselves in a party which openly declares such Cabinets to
be unconstitutional."

The new party calls itself the "Association of Friends of the

 Constitution" (Rikken Seiyukai). "In its ranks are found the
whole of the Liberals, and many members of the Diet who had
hitherto maintained an independent attitude, so that it can
count on 152 supporters among the 300 members of the Lower
House. … The Opposition, the Progressists, command only 90
votes, and the remainder of the House is composed mainly of
men upon whose support the Cabinet can always reckon. In fact,
now for the first time since the Diet opened, does the
direction of State affairs come into the hands of Ministers
who may rest assured of Parliamentary cooperation."

Marquis Yamagata, who had conducted the administration for

nearly two years, resigned in October, and Marquis Ito brought
his new party into power. His Cabinet "does not include one of
the elder statesmen—the 'clan statesmen'—except the marquis
himself. Among the seven portfolios that have changed
hands—those of War and of the Navy are still held as before—
three have been given to unequivocal party politicians,
leaders of the Liberals, and four to men who may be regarded
as Marquis Ito's disciples. … The Yamagata Cabinet consisted
entirely of clan statesmen and their followers. The Ito
Cabinet has a clan statesman for leader and his nominees for
members. It may be called essentially a one man Ministry, so
far does the Premier tower above the heads of his colleagues."

JAPAN: A. D. 1900-1901.
Strategic importance of Korea.
Interest in the designs of Russia.

See (in this volume)

KOREA: A. D. 1900.

JAPAN: A. D. 1901.
Movement to erect a monument to commemorate the
visit of Commodore Perry.

A movement in Japan to erect a monument at Kurihama, the

 landing place of the American expedition, commanded by
Commodore Matthew C. Perry, which visited Japan in 1853 and
brought about the opening of that country to intercourse with
the western world (see, in volume 3, JAPAN: A. D. 1852-1888),
was announced to the State Department at Washington by the U.
S. Consul-General at Yokohama, in March, 1901. The undertaking
is directed by the "American Association of Japan," of which
the Japanese Minister of Justice is President, and its purpose
is to commemorate an event which the Association, in a
published circular, declares to be "the most memorable" in the
annals of Japan. The language of the circular, in part, is as
follows: "This visit of Commodore Perry was in a word the
turning of the key which opened the doors of the Japanese
Empire to friendly intercourse with the United States, and
subsequently to the rest of the nations of Europe on similar
terms, and may in truth be regarded as the most memorable
event in our annals—an event which paved the way for and
accelerated the introduction of a new order of things, an
event that enabled the country to enter upon the unprecedented
era of National ascendancy in which we are now living.
{283}
Japan has not forgotten—nor will she ever forget—that next to
her reigning and most beloved sovereign, whose high virtues
and great wisdom are above all praise, she owes, in no small
degree, her present prosperity to the United States of
America, in that the latter rendered her a great and lasting
service already referred to. After the lapse of these
forty-eight years, her people, however, have come to entertain
but an uncertain memory of Kurihama, and yet it was there that
Commodore Perry first trod on the soil of Japan and for the
first time awoke the country from a slumberous seclusion of
three centuries—there it was where first gleamed the light
that has ever since illumined Japan's way in her new career of
progress."

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