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MARX, ENGELS, AND MARXISMS

A New Introduction
to Karl Marx
New Materialism, Critique of
Political Economy, and
the Concept of Metabolism

Ryuji Sasaki
Marx, Engels, and Marxisms

Series Editors
Marcello Musto
York University
Toronto, ON, Canada

Terrell Carver
University of Bristol
Bristol, UK
The Marx renaissance is underway on a global scale. Wherever the critique
of capitalism re-emerges, there is an intellectual and political demand for
new, critical engagements with Marxism. The peer-reviewed series Marx,
Engels and Marxisms (edited by Marcello Musto & Terrell Carver, with
Babak Amini, Francesca Antonini, Paula Rauhala & Kohei Saito as
Assistant Editors) publishes monographs, edited volumes, critical editions,
reprints of old texts, as well as translations of books already published in
other languages. Our volumes come from a wide range of political per-
spectives, subject matters, academic disciplines and geographical areas,
producing an eclectic and informative collection that appeals to a diverse
and international audience. Our main areas of focus include: the oeuvre of
Marx and Engels, Marxist authors and traditions of the 19th and 20th
centuries, labour and social movements, Marxist analyses of contemporary
issues, and reception of Marxism in the world.

More information about this series at

http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/14812
 Ryuji Sasaki

A New Introduction
to Karl Marx
New Materialism, Critique of Political Economy,
and the Concept of Metabolism

Translated by Michael Schauerte and Edited by Ryuji Sasaki

Ryuji Sasaki
Department of Economics
Rikkyo University
Tokyo, Japan

Translated by
Michael Schauerte
University of Miyazaki
Miyazaki, Japan

ISSN 2524-7123     ISSN 2524-7131 (electronic)

Marx, Engels, and Marxisms
ISBN 978-3-030-52949-9    ISBN 978-3-030-52950-5 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52950-5

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer
Nature Switzerland AG 2021
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This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Switzerland AG.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
 Titles Published

1. Terrell Carver & Daniel Blank, A Political History of the Editions of

Marx and Engels’s “German Ideology” Manuscripts, 2014.
2. Terrell Carver & Daniel Blank, Marx and Engels’s “German Ideology”
Manuscripts: Presentation and Analysis of the “Feuerbach chap-
ter,” 2014.
3. Alfonso Maurizio Iacono, The History and Theory of Fetishism, 2015.
4. Paresh Chattopadhyay, Marx’s Associated Mode of Production: A
Critique of Marxism, 2016.
5. Domenico Losurdo, Class Struggle: A Political and Philosophical
History, 2016.
6. Frederick Harry Pitts, Critiquing Capitalism Today: New Ways to
Read Marx, 2017.
7. Ranabir Samaddar, Karl Marx and the Postcolonial Age, 2017.
8. George Comninel, Alienation and Emancipation in the Work of Karl
Marx, 2018.
9. Jean-Numa Ducange & Razmig Keucheyan (Eds.), The End of the
Democratic State: Nicos Poulantzas, a Marxism for the 21st
Century, 2018.
10. Robert X. Ware, Marx on Emancipation and Socialist Goals: Retrieving
Marx for the Future, 2018.
11. Xavier LaFrance & Charles Post (Eds.), Case Studies in the Origins of
Capitalism, 2018.
12. John Gregson, Marxism, Ethics, and Politics: The Work of Alasdair
MacIntyre, 2018.

v
vi TITLES PUBLISHED

13. Vladimir Puzone & Luis Felipe Miguel (Eds.), The Brazilian

Left in the 21st Century: Conflict and Conciliation in Peripheral
Capitalism, 2019.
14. James Muldoon & Gaard Kets (Eds.), The German Revolution and
Political Theory, 2019.
15. Michael Brie, Rediscovering Lenin: Dialectics of Revolution and
Metaphysics of Domination, 2019.
16. August H. Nimtz, Marxism versus Liberalism: Comparative Real-­
Time Political Analysis, 2019.
17. Gustavo Moura de Cavalcanti Mello and Mauricio de Souza Sabadini
(Eds.), Financial Speculation and Fictitious Profits: A Marxist
Analysis, 2019.
18. Shaibal Gupta, Marcello Musto & Babak Amini (Eds), Karl Marx’s
Life, Ideas, and Influences: A Critical Examination on the
Bicentenary, 2019.
19. Igor Shoikhedbrod, Revisiting Marx’s Critique of Liberalism:
Rethinking Justice, Legality, and Rights, 2019.
20. Juan Pablo Rodríguez, Resisting Neoliberal Capitalism in Chile: The
Possibility of Social Critique, 2019.
21. Kaan Kangal, Friedrich Engels and the Dialectics of Nature, 2020.
22. Victor Wallis, Socialist Practice: Histories and Theories, 2020.
23. Alfonso Maurizio Iacono, The Bourgeois and the Savage: A Marxian
Critique of the Image of the Isolated Individual in Defoe, Turgot and
Smith, 2020.
24. Terrell Carver, Engels before Marx, 2020.
25. Jean-Numa Ducange, Jules Guesde: The Birth of Socialism and
Marxism in France, 2020.
26. Antonio Oliva, Ivan Novara & Angel Oliva (Eds.), Marx and
Contemporary Critical Theory: The Philosophy of Real Abstraction.
27. Francesco Biagi, Henri Lefebvre’s Critical Theory of Space.
28. Stefano Petrucciani, The Ideas of Karl Marx: A Critical Introduction.
29. Terrell Carver, The Life and Thought of Friedrich Engels, 30th
Anniversary Edition.
 Titles Forthcoming

Giuseppe Vacca, Alternative Modernities: Antonio Gramsci’s Twentieth

Century.
Kevin B. Anderson, Kieran Durkin & Heather Brown (Eds.), Raya
Dunayevskaya’s Intersectional Marxism: Race, Gender, and the Dialectics
of Liberation.
Paresh Chattopadhyay, Socialism in Marx’s Capital: Towards a
De-alienated World.
Gianfranco Ragona & Monica Quirico, Frontier Socialism: Self-­organisation
and Anti-capitalism.
Vesa Oittinen, Marx’s Russian Moment.
Kohei Saito (Ed.), Reexamining Engels’s Legacy in the 21st Century.
Kolja Lindner, Marx, Marxism and the Question of Eurocentrism.
Jean-Numa Ducange & Elisa Marcobelli (Eds.), Selected Writings of Jean
Jaures: On Socialism, Pacifism and Marxism.
Adriana Petra, Intellectuals and Communist Culture: Itineraries, Problems
and Debates in Post-war Argentina.
Marco Di Maggio, The Rise and Fall of Communist Parties in France
and Italy.
George C. Comninel, The Feudal Foundations of Modern Europe.
James Steinhoff, Critiquing the New Autonomy of Immaterial Labour: A
Marxist Study of Work in the Artificial Intelligence Industry.
Spencer A. Leonard, Marx, the India Question, and the Crisis of
Cosmopolitanism.
Joe Collins, Applying Marx’s Capital to the 21st century.

vii
viii TITLES FORTHCOMING

Levy del Aguila Marchena, Communism, Political Power and Personal

Freedom in Marx.
Jeong Seongjin, Korean Capitalism in the 21st Century: Marxist Analysis
and Alternatives.
Marcello Mustè, Marxism and Philosophy of Praxis: An Italian Perspective
from Labriola to Gramsci.
Satoshi Matsui, Normative Theories of Liberalism and Socialism: Marxist
Analysis of Values.
Shannon Brincat, Dialectical Dialogues in Contemporary World Politics: A
Meeting of Traditions in Global Comparative Philosophy.
Stefano Petrucciani, Theodor W. Adorno’s Philosophy, Society, and Aesthetics.
Francesca Antonini, Reassessing Marx’s Eighteenth Brumaire: Dictatorship,
State, and Revolution.
Thomas Kemple, Capital after Classical Sociology: The Faustian Lives of
Social Theory.
Tsuyoshi Yuki, Socialism, Markets and the Critique of Money: The Theory of
“Labour Note”.
V Geetha, Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar and the Question of Socialism
in India.
Xavier Vigna, A Political History of Factories in France: The Workers’
Insubordination of 1968.
Atila Melegh, Anti-Migrant Populism in Eastern Europe and Hungary: A
Marxist Analysis.
Marie-Cecile Bouju, A Political History of the Publishing Houses of the
French Communist Party.
Gustavo Moura de Cavalcanti Mello & Henrique Pereira Braga (Eds.),
Wealth and Poverty in Contemporary Brazilian Capitalism.
Peter McMylor, Graeme Kirkpatrick & Simin Fadaee (Eds.), Marxism,
Religion, and Emancipatory Politics.
Mauro Buccheri, Radical Humanism for the Left: The Quest for Meaning
in Late Capitalism.
Rémy Herrera, Confronting Mainstream Economics to Overcome
Capitalism.
Tamás Krausz, Eszter Bartha (Eds.), Socialist Experiences in Eastern
Europe: A Hungarian Perspective.
Martin Cortés, Marxism, Time and Politics: On the Autonomy of the
Political.
 Titles Forthcoming  ix

João Antonio de Paula, Huga da Gama Cerqueira, Eduardo da Motta e

Albuquer & Leonardo de Deus, Marxian Economics for the 21st
Century: Revaluating Marx’s Critique of Political Economy.
Zhi Li, The Concept of the Individual in the Thought of Karl Marx.
Lelio Demichelis, Marx, Alienation and Techno-capitalism.
Michael Brie & Jörn Schütrumpf, Rosa Luxemburg: A Revolutionary
Marxist at the Limits of Marxism.
Dong-Min Rieu, A Mathematical Approach to Marxian Value Theory:
Time, Money, and Labor Productivity.
Salvatore Prinzi, Representation, Expression, and Institution: The Philosophy
of Merleau-Ponty and Castoriadis.
Agon Hamza, Slavoj Žižek and the Reconstruction of Marxism.
Kei Ehara, Japanese Discourse on the Marxian Theory of Finance.
Miguel Vedda, Siegfried Kracauer, or, The Allegories of Improvisation.
Marcello Musto, Karl Marx’s Writings on Alienation.
 Preface to the English Edition

It seems appropriate in this preface to provide an overview of some of the

features and underlying positions of this apparently straightforward intro-
duction to Marx. This may be more information than some readers would
desire or require, however, so they can of course proceed straight to the
beginning of the book.
As many scholars of Marx already know, Marxism has long been influ-
ential in Japan, not only in the socialist and labor movements but also
within academia. That influence declined rapidly after the collapse of
Soviet-style “socialism,” to the point where the fields of Marxist philoso-
phy and Marxist historiography have nearly disappeared, but researchers
specializing in Marxian economics continue to secure tenure positions in
the economics departments of many universities.
Thanks to this tradition, Japan is said to have accumulated an unparal-
leled variety of works of Marxian scholarship. This is indeed true to some
extent, and this book benefits from that tradition. In particular, the inter-
pretation of the early Marx’s work in Chapter 1 and of Capital in Chapter 2
relies in large part on past research by Japanese scholars. Therefore, one
primary contribution this book can make is to provide English-speaking
readers with a glimpse of how Marx has been interpreted in Japan.
Nevertheless, the image of Marx developed in this book is not consis-
tent with the mainstream of Marxian scholarship in Japan. One character-
istic of Japan, as the influential political scientist Masao Maruyama pointed
out, is that “Marxism” was the vehicle for introducing modern forms of
thought such as rationalism and positivism. As a result, the so-called
Stalinist interpretation of Marx was far more powerful than in the West. In

xi
xii PREFACE TO THE ENGLISH EDITION

Japan, as in Russia and China, Marxism functioned as a sort of moderniza-

tion ideology. Not only intellectuals close to the Japanese Communist
Party (JCP), but also representative Marxists like Wataru Hiromatsu and
Kozo Uno, who were critical of the JCP, continued to be heavily con-
strained by Stalinism and modernism. This book is a clear departure from
the Marxian interpretation that was so dominant in Japan.
What this book inherits from the tradition that has existed in Japan is
careful textual analysis. Some of the arguments in the book that might
seem, at first glance, to be general statements are in fact based on a close
examination of the writings of Marx. A closer look can reveal that some of
the seemingly straightforward descriptions differ in subtle ways from other
introductory works. And those subtle differences can lead toward a quite
different overall image of Marx. Here I would like to point out a few of
the most significant differences from other works.
The first difference concerns the understanding of the early Marx.
There have already been critiques of the interpretation of Marx by
Stalinists, who understood his theoretical basis as “dialectic materialism,”
a combination of the philosophical worldview of “materialism” with “dia-
lectics” as a universal law of motion, but most of those critiques presented
a sort of “philosophical” interpretation of Marx rather than a theory of his
actual ideas. Typical examples of this are the attempts to reinterpret Marx
on the basis of Hegelian dialectics. Even after such reinterpretations
became outdated, various “philosophical” interpretations of Marx
appeared, such as Althusser’s structuralism and the phenomenology of
Hiromatsu in Japan. A humanist interpretation that combined existential-
ism and the ideas of Freud was also highly influential. However, it must be
said that all of those critiques remained within the sphere of Stalinist
“Marxism” in the sense that they presupposed some kind of philosophical
thought or supra-historical universal theory. Marx himself totally opposed
the “all-purpose formula of a general historico-philosophical theory whose
supreme virtue consists in being supra-historical.”1 What concerned him
was not a “general historico-philosophical” law, but particular historical
laws. Underlying this theoretical outlook is Marx’s critique of philosophy,
as described in Chap. 1, which clarifies the significance of this critique by
further developing ideas from previous research in Japan on the early Marx.

1
K. Marx, “Letter to Otechestvenniye Zapiski,” in Marx and Engels Collected Works, vol.
24 (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1989), p. 201. Hereinafter quotes from Marx and Engels
Collected Works will be abbreviated as “MECW.”
 PREFACE TO THE ENGLISH EDITION xiii

The second main difference of this book is that its understanding of

Capital focuses on “economic determination of form.” As Michael
Heinrich, a leading German scholar of Capital, has emphasized, Marx’s
critique of political economy is fundamentally distinct from all other eco-
nomics in that it critically analyzes economic determinations of form, as is
clearly expressed in the following passage from Capital:

Political economy has indeed analyzed value and its magnitude, however
incompletely, and has uncovered the content concealed within these forms.
But it has never once asked the question why this content has assumed that
particular form, that is to say, why labor is expressed in value, and why the
measurement of labor by its duration is expressed in the magnitude of the
value of the product.2

Most works of “Marxist economics” to date have either ignored or mini-

mized the importance of this decisive factor for Marx’s critique of political
economy. One reason for the disregard of economic determinations of form
is that “Marxist economists” have tended toward property-based theories
and exploitation reductionism, which locate the foundation of capitalism in
the private ownership of the means of production and in the resulting
exploitation of workers. As a result, they have not been able to grasp that the
source of the power of the capitalist mode of production lies in economic
determinations of form continually generated by a specific form of labor.
Hence, in practice, overcoming the capitalist mode of production has been
reduced to the mere act of the expropriation of private property by state
power. From this perspective, it becomes impossible to grasp the signifi-
cance of Association as an essential element of Marx’s revolutionary theory.
Interpretations of Capital that focus on economic determinations of
form had been developed by the Russian scholars Isaak Illich Rubin and
Evgeny Pashukanis, “Western Marxists” like György Lukács, and mem-
bers of the Frankfurt School (most notably Theodor Adorno); the issue
was also raised in the 1970s in West Germany and elsewhere within the
context of the debates over the value form and derivation of the state. In
Japan as well, Samezo Kuruma, his younger colleague Teinosuke Otani,
and others extensively analyzed economic determinations of form. Within
debates over the value form in West Germany, the analysis of value form
was insufficient due to the tendency to understand the concept of value
based on the value form rather than the value form based on the concept
of value, but Kuruma’s meticulous analysis of what Marx had written

2
K. Marx, Capital, vol. 1 (London: Penguin Books, 1990), pp. 173–74.
xiv PREFACE TO THE ENGLISH EDITION

resulted in perhaps the first coherent interpretation of theory of value

form. Kuruma did not systematically present his interpretation of
Capital, but it is outlined in the multi-volume Marx-Lexicon zur
Politischen Ökonomie that he edited. Chapter 2 of this book basically
inherits Kuruma’s interpretation and develops it to be more coherent.
The third, and perhaps most significant, difference of this book from
other introductory works is its emphasis on the importance of the theory
of metabolism to Marx’s later theoretical work. Great progress has been
made in recent years regarding the study of Marx’s “excerpt notes” thanks
to recent volumes of the new Marx Engels Gesamtausgabe (New MEGA).
Representative works of such scholarship include Kevin Anderson’s Marx
at the Margins, which deals with premodern community and non-Western
society; Kohei Saito’s Karl Marx’s Ecosocialism, which introduces Marx’s
ecological views; and Heather A. Brown’s Marx on Gender and the Family,
which focuses on gender. Chapter 3 draws on the results of such scholar-
ship to trace the development Marx’s thought later in life centered on the
concept of metabolism.
Western Marxism has tended to focus on economic determinations of
form within the capitalist mode of production in order to criticize the
“Marxist” interpretations that neglected the unique character of the capital-
ist mode of production as a result of viewing the private ownership of the
means of production as the basis for exploitation and class struggle. What
was at stake, in other words, was to separate the form (Form) from the mate-
rial (Stoff) by criticizing the fetishism that takes the adhesion of material and
form for granted. Of course, Marx brilliantly accomplished the separation of
material and form, but that is not the only point that is important with
regard to his critique of political economy. The fundamental problem for
Marx was to grasp the various contradictions within the capitalist mode of
production as conflicts and contradictions between its determination of
form (Formbestimmung) and metabolism (Stoffwechsel), thereby clarifying
the prospect for transformation of this mode of production. His view of
communism is not merely a society that consciously controls production
and distribution, and that realizes human freedom, but also (as he wrote) a
society in which the “associated producers” will “govern the human metab-
olism with nature in a rational way, […] accomplishing this metabolism with
the least expenditure of energy and in conditions most worthy and appro-
priate for their human nature.”3 From this perspective, it becomes clear that

3
K. Marx, Marx’s Economic Manuscript of 1864–1865 (Leiden and Boston: Brill,
2016), p. 885.
 PREFACE TO THE ENGLISH EDITION xv

the “new social movements,” such as the feminist and ecological move-
ments, are by their very nature an integral part of the class struggle.
The concept of metabolism has been attracting increasing attention in
recent years, as humanity faces a climate crisis, pandemics, and risks related
to biotechnology. As we try to envisage a new society beyond capitalism,
Marx’s critique of political economy remains our most valuable theoretical
tool. My hope is that this introductory book will lead many readers to
examine (or re-examine) Capital and other works by Marx.

* * *

This book is an English translation of Karl Marx: “Shihonshugi” to

tatakatta shakaishisoka (Karl Marx: The Social Thinker Who Fought
“Capitalism”), published by Chikuma Shobo in 2016. The English edi-
tion is an expanded version of that earlier Japanese edition. Footnotes,
which were not included in the Japanese edition, have been added, and
the text was enlarged. In particular, the description of relative surplus
value and capital accumulation in Chap. 2 has been substantially enhanced.
The English edition also includes two appendices (not included in the
original book) to provide additional discussions that may be of interest to
scholars of Marx or to Marxists. Appendix A deals with Marx’s theoretical
methodology, while Appendix B looks at the theoretical structure of Book
One of Capital. The appendices are an opportunity to explain in more
theoretical terms some points that could not be treated in detail within the
book’s main text, given its introductory nature. Ideally, this edition would
have also included an appendix on the theory of value, but that would
have required too much space. Readers interested in that subject can con-
sult a German article I co-wrote with Kohei Saito titled, “Abstrakte Arbeit
und Stoffwechsel zwischen Mensch und Natur,” Beiträge zur Marx-­
Engels-­Forschung. Neue Folge 2013, 2015.
Finally, let me mention that this English edition has been prepared
through my collaboration with the translator, Michael Schauerte. I became
aware of Michael through his previous translations of works by
Samezo Kuruma and Teinosuke Otani. Michael and I were able to work
closely throughout the several rounds of revising his draft translation. In
this sense, I also bear responsibility for the end result. We both hope that
this English edition conveys the book’s intended meaning in a form that
is as accessible and “readable” as possible.

Tokyo, Japan Ryuji Sasaki

 Preface

What this book aims to convey, above all, is that Marx’s ideas remain our
greatest theoretical weapon today for transforming the society in which
we live.
Marx’s theories have been subject to all sorts of abuse, both in aca-
demia and in the realm of public opinion. Quite a few people imagine that
his ideas form a hardened ideology that is outdated and irrelevant or that
they were the cause of the despotic political systems in the Soviet Union
and elsewhere. But consider for a moment what has occurred under capi-
talist globalization since the collapse of the Soviet Union. Has capitalism
in the years since then overcome crisis to rejoice in prosperity? Haven’t we
seen instead the advanced capitalist nations suffering from prolonged eco-
nomic stagnation and swelling national debt? Hasn’t the “financializa-
tion” of the economy created one bubble after another, each with its
painful aftermath? Consider also what has become of the policies based on
market fundamentalism introduced around the world to break through
economic stagnation. Have those policies reignited competitiveness to
generate prosperity, narrowed economic disparities, or lowered poverty?
That fact is, as Marx so powerfully demonstrated in Capital, such phe-
nomena in the real world are historical tendencies of the capitalist mode of
production.
Some may point out, in response, the failure of all the communist
movements that raised the banner of Marxism. Indeed, the political par-
ties and groups composed of self-styled “Marxists” have been in steady
decline or in many cases have completely dissolved. But there is a

xvii
6 R. SASAKI

From Literature to Philosophy

Even after moving to Berlin, Marx’s zealous composition of poetry con-
tinued. His poetic enthusiasm reflected more than just a literary interest.
During a trip back to Trier, after leaving Bonn, he had entered a secret
engagement with Jenny von Westphalen. Winning the heart of the bril-
liant young Jenny brought Marx great joy but also tremendous pressure,
since he was just an 18-year-old university student, four years younger
than his fiancé, who was, moreover, born into a family of aristocrats. Marx
informed his father Heinrich of the engagement, but the young couple
kept it a closely guarded secret from Jenny’s parents. Another year went by
before Marx made a formal request for their daughter’s hand. Living so far
from his fiancé Jenny brought Marx great anguish at times. In letters to his
parents, Marx often expressed his jealousy and impatience.
His emotional outlets seem to have been writing poetry and ardently
studying the law. Unlike his days in Bonn, Marx was no longer prone to
drinking bouts with friends and quarrels. “After my arrival in Berlin,” he
informed his father in a 10 November 1837 letter, “I broke off all hitherto
existing connections, made visits rarely and unwillingly, and tried to
immerse myself in science and art.”6 But the impatient efforts of the young
Marx did not turn out well, as he explained in the same letter: “Busy with
these various occupations, during my first term I spent many a sleepless
night, fought many a battle, and endured much internal and external
excitement. Yet at the end I emerged not much enriched.”7
During this period in Berlin, Marx wrote a vast amount of romantic
lyrical poetry as well as some stories, but none satisfied him in the least, as
he explained to his father: “I caught sight of the glittering realm of true
poetry like a distant fairy palace, and all my creations crumbled into
nothing.”8 Marx had to conclude that he lacked any great literary talent.
His legal studies also were not proceeding as hoped. Several times he
undertook the challenge of constructing his own legal system, but “was
once more compelled to recognize that it was wrong, like all my previous
efforts.”9

6
K. Marx, “Letter From Marx to His Father in Trier: Berlin, November 10 [11, 1837],”
in MECW, vol. 1, p. 11.
7
Ibid., pp. 17–18.
8
Ibid., p. 17.
9
Ibid.
 1 THE PATH TOWARD QUESTIONING CAPITALISM (1818–1848): THE YOUNG… 7

Encounter with the Young Hegelians

In the summer of 1837, Marx fell ill as the outcome of mental and physical
exhaustion. Upon the advice of his doctor, he went to the resort town of
Stralow to recuperate. This marked an important turning point, since it
was there that Marx, who had been something of a recluse in Berlin,
formed friendships with some Berlin University students and private lec-
turers. He then encountered members of the so-called Young Hegelian
group. Marx joined the Doctor’s Club, which was the locus of the youth-
ful group, and stimulated by this milieu quickly absorbed Hegelian phi-
losophy. This was a way for Marx to escape the narrow confines of the
romanticism and idealism in which he had been trapped and regain the
bearings he had lost when his poetic pursuits and legal studies came to
naught. His new resolutions are expressed in a letter he wrote to his father
in November 1837:

From the idealism, which, by the way, I had compared and nourished with
the idealism of Kantian and Fichte, I arrived at the point of seeking the idea
in reality itself. If previously the gods had dwelt above the earth, they
became its center.
I had read fragments of Hegel’s philosophy, the grotesque craggy mel-
ody of which did not appeal to me. Once more I wanted to dive into the sea,
but with the definite intention of establishing that the nature of the mind is
just as necessary, concrete and firmly based as the nature of the body. My
aim was no longer to practice tricks of swordsmanship, but to bring genuine
pearls into the light of day.10

Marx, who had once been too romantic and idealistic to grapple with
Hegel or bend his ear to that “grotesque craggy melody,” now sought to
go beyond his previous standpoint. Dissatisfied with the pursuit of ideals
separate from reality, he wanted to seek the idea (Idee) within reality itself.
The great significance of Hegel’s philosophy for Marx was its grasp of the
idea penetrating reality, rather than a separation of the two. This turning
point was far more than just an intellectual change: it meant that, instead
of pursuing artistic or scholarly ideals detached from reality, ideals must be
sought within reality itself. For Marx, this was a completely new way of
looking at the world, wherein the confrontation with reality becomes the
vital task.

10
Ibid., p. 18.
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 APPENDIX

Form A.—Household record, used in Boston influenza census.

(See page 127.)

Form A.—(Continued.)
Form B.—Individual Record obtained for each person in every
family canvassed, whether the individual gave a history of
influenza (1918 or 1920) or not. (See page 127.)

Form B.—(Continued.)
 TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES
1. Silently corrected obvious typographical errors and
variations in spelling.
2. Retained archaic, non-standard, and uncertain spellings
as printed.
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